The above engraving represents a view of the rings and moons of Saturn, as they would
appear to a spectator from the surface of Saturn, at a point about 15 or 20 degrees north of
its equator. The shadow of the body of the planet appears about the middle of the rings at
midnight. At sunset this shadow will appear on the eastern side of the rings, and will ap.
pear to move gradually onward from east to west until sunrise, when it will disappear from
the western side of the rings. See pages 86, 87.
CINCINNATI
Applegate 4. Co.'s Steam Press.




COMPLETE WORKS
OF
THOMAS DICK, LL.D.:
ELEVEN VOLUMES IN TWO.
VOLUME ONE, CONTAINING:
1. AN ESSAY ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF   IV. THE MENTAL ILLUMINATION AND MO.
SOCIETY.                            RAL IMPROVEMENT OF MANKIND.
I. THE PHILOSOPHY OF A FUTURE STATE.    V. AN ESSAY ON THE SIN AND EVILS OF
ll. THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION.         COVETOUSNESS.
VOLUME TWO, CONTAINING:
I1 THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER; OR, SCI.  IV. THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
ENCE AND RELIGION.              V. THE SOLAR SYSTEM-ITS WONDERS.
II. CELESTIAL SCENERY-ILLUSTRATED.  VI. THE ATMOSPHERE, AND ATMOSPHERICAL
LI SIDEREAL HEAVENS, PLANETS, ETC.      PHENOMENA.
ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRAVINGS,
AND A PORTRAIT OF THE  AUTHOR.
VOL. II.
CINCINNATI:
APPLEGATE & CO., PUBLISHERS,
NO. 43 MAIN STREET.
1856.








THB
CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER;
O R,
THE CONNECTION OF SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY WITH
RELIGION,
FROM THE LAST LONDON EDITION.








P R E F A C E.
THE following pages were written under the impression, that the visible manifestations of the attributes of the Deity are too frequently overlooked by Christians in
their views of the great objects of Religion, and in the worship they offer to the
Father of their spirits; and are intended to show, that the teachers of Religion, in
imparting instruction either to the old or to the young, ought to embrace a wider
range of illustration, in reference to divine subjects, than that to which they are
usually confined.
Throughout the whole of the discussions contained in this work, the Author has
pursued his own train of thought; and in so doing, he trusts that he has been enabled
to render some of his illustrations more interesting to the young and untutored mind,
than if he had adhered rigidly to the sentiments of others, and to the technical language of science. The sketches of the different sciences are not mere extracts or
compilations, but are, for the most part, original composition-in which it has been
his main object to embody as many facts as his limits would permit-in order
to excite the inquiring mind to further investigations into the different departments
of physical science.
It is presumed, that no Christian reader will for once imagine, that the views
illustrated in this work are intended to be substituted in place of the peculiar revelations of the Bible. The object of the volume is to illustrate the harmony which
subsists between the system of Nature and the system of Revelation; and to show,
that the manifestations of God in the material universe ought to be blended with our
views of the facts and doctrines recorded in the volume of Inspiration.,:
It is taken for granted, throughout the whole range of the following illustrations,
that the Scriptures contain a Revelation from Heaven; and under a firm belief of this
important truth, the Author. has embellished his work with frequent quotations from
the energetic and sublime language of this Sacred book. It would, therefore, be
unfair in any critic, who entertains doubts on this point, to find fault with such quotations, or with the allusions to Bible-phraseology which occur, unless they can be
shown to be introduced without judgment or discrimination..In consequence of the progress of the Arts and Sciences since the Last Edition
of the following work was published-the Author has deemed it expedient to make
a thorough revision of the whole, so as to embrace the latest improvements and discoveries in the different departments to which its diversified subjects refer.  He has
accordingly carefully revised every portion of the volume, and made very considerable
additions to its several departments.  The article GEOLOGY has been almost entirely
re-written, and enlarged to more than double its former extent.  The article
(v)




Vi              ~4tPREFACE.
GEOGRAPHY has been enlarged by an addition of several pages.  The articles
ASTRONOMY, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY, PHYSIOLOGY, HISTORY, PRINTING,
MARINER'S COMPASS, TELESCOPE, AIR BALLOONS, STEAM NAVIGATION, etc., have likewise been considerably enlarged. To the former subjects are now added comprehensive sketches of the following recently-discovered departments of Science and ArtThe DAGUERREOTYPE, ELECTROTYPE, ELECTRO-MAGNETISM, ELECTrIC  TELEGRAPHS,
RAILROADS, etc., beside a variety of paragraphs inserted in numerous places throughout the body of the work. Between twenty and thirty additional engravings have
been inserted, and to the whole is now added a copious INDEX. These additions
amount to more than thirty pages.
This work, in its originhl form, has had an extensive sale, not only in Great Britain,
but also in the United States of America. It is therefore hoped that the improvements and additions which have now been made will render it still more acceptable to
the public.
BrOUGHITY FERRY, NEAR DUNDJE.




CONTENTS,
INT ROD U CT I ON.
PAGE
Necessity of revelation.  Folly of discarding the science of nature from religion.  Beneficial
effects which flow from the study of the works of God.................................  11
CHAPTER I.
OF THE NATURAL ATTRIBUTES OF THE DEITY.
SECTION 1.
ON THE RELATION OF THE NATURAL ATTRIBUTES OF THE DEITY TO RELIGION.
The Christian Religion founded on the natural attributes of God. His power as interesting a
subject as his mercy, illustrated in two instances.  Evils which arise from  imperfect
conceptions of Divine power. Defects in religious instructions on this subject. Sources of
illustration......................................................................... 14
SECTION II.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY.
The material world exhibits a more striking display of this perfection than the supernatural
facts recorded in Scripture. Immense quantity of matter in the universe. Mode of acquiring
the most comprehensive conception of the bulk of the earth —its variety of scenery —its mass
of solid matter. Magnitude of the bodies which compose the solar system. Magnitude and
number of the stars. Procedure of the mind in acquiring the most impressive conceptions
of -such august objects. Reflections. Rapid motions of the celestial bodies. How we acquire the
ideas of relative velocities. Weight of the earth. Immense physical forces. Grandeur of
the motion of Saturn. Immense number of bodies impelled through the heavens. Reflections. Immense spaces which surround the heavenly bodies. Reflections. Popular illustration
of the motions of the earth and heavens. Extract from Dr. Ridgeley, with remarks.
Universe intended to adumbrate the attributes of God, and to make a sublime impression
on created beings. Similar trains of thought suggested in the Scriptures. Moral effects of
such contemplations. Humility —folly of pride-low rank of man in the scale of being.
Reverence and veneration. Reason why mankind feel so little veneration of God-how it may
be increased. The Deity unsearchable. Hope and confidence in the prospect of futurityresurrection. Scenes of eternity................................................... 16
SECTION III.
ON THE WISDOMAND INTELLIGENCE OF THE DEITY.
Wisdom defined-displayed in the structure of the solar system. Distance of the sun. Rotation of the planets-principal reason why such a motion exists. Wisdom displayed in other
systems. Minute displays of this attribute cannot be traced in the heavens. Wisdom
as displayed in the constitution of our globe-adjustment of its solid parts to the necessities
of the beings which inhabit it. Mountains-their uses exist in other worlds. Diversity of
color-argument for a plurality of worlds-general color which prevails in the scene of nature.
Water-its use in the system of nature —its composition-evaporation-motion of the liquid
element-its beneficial effects. The atmosphere-its weight and pressure-its component parts
-its various properties-necessary to animal life, flame, sound, twilight-wisdom displayed in
its constitution. Expansion of water in the act of freezing............................  27!
VARIETY OF NATURE.
Vegetables-their number and variety.  Animals-variety in their organization.  Eyes of
insects-their exquisite mechanism. Subterraneous regions. Atmosphere. The variety of
(vii)




-Yjl'CwONTENTS.
nature affords a faint idea of the infinity of. the Creator-illustrated in the number of animal
parts and functions. Reflection. Variety of the foundation of our judgments. Beauty and
sublimity of nature. Primeval state of our globe. Other worlds........................    3
MECHANISM OF ANIMATED BEINGS. STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN EYE.
Its coats, humors, muscles, orbit, and motions. Wisdom displayed in its construction. Lightits velocity, minuteness, colors, and adaptation to the eye. Manner in which vision is
performed-explained by a figure, and an experiment-illustrated by the view from Salisbury
Crags. Multitude of rays which flow from every object-smallness of the image on the
retina, illustrated by calculation-what proportion of the solar'light falls on our globe.
Reflections. Mechanism for viewing near and distant objects-contraction and dilatation of
the pupil-distance at which we see distinctly. Summary view of adaptations in the structure
of theeye.  Eyesof superior-intelligences.'Visual organs of the-inferioranimals. Mechanism of the bones illustrated —exemplified in the joints of the fingers, the wrist, and -the
movements of which the head is susceptible. Illustration of the horizontal motion of the
wrists and the utility of the human hand, with figures. Moral reflections on the impropriety
of overlooking the Divine wisdom in'the system of nature.............................. 37
SECTION IV.
ON THE GOODNESS OR BENEVOLENCE OF THE DEITY.
Benevolence of God in relation to Man. What would be the constitution of the world were its
Creator a malevolent Being., Benevolence displayed to mall, though a depraved intelligence.
Mercy displayed in the system of nature. Benevolence as displayed toward the lower animals.
Extract from Dr. Paley.  General reflections.........................................   46
CHAPTER II.
A CURSORY VIEW OF SOME OF THE SCIENCES WHICH ARE RELATED TO RELIGION AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY.
Introduction —extensive range of theology.  Bad effects of setting Religion in opposition to
Science.  Harmony of the operations of God in nature and revelation............... 49
NATURAL HISTORY.
Its extensive range. Outline -of its principal objects-on the surface and in the interior -recesses
of -the earth-in the- atmosphere —the vegetable, mineral, and animal kingdoms —and in the
region of the -heavens. Description of the Banian tree.;Reflections. Monkey bread -tree.
Splendor and felicity of insect life. Invisible worlds.  Infinity of the universe. Religious
tendency of this science-it affords a manifestation of the Deity, and expands our conceptions
of his operations —-ennobles the human mind —recommended -by the sacred w riters..........  50
oEQGORaPHY.
Its object. Figure of the earth —proofs of its spherical form. Relation which the discovery of
the figure of the earth bears to the plan of Providence. How the diameter of the earth
enables us to calculate the distances of the heavenly bodies —illustrated with figures.  Magnitude and natural divisions of the earth —general features of its surface. Mountains-their
general ranges, and the sublime scenes they exhibit. The' Ocean-its extent, depth, bottom,
and motions. Rivers-their number, -size, and the:quantity of water they pour into the
ocean. How they are supplied-their use in,the system of nature.:Artificial division of the
earth.  Europe-description of its extent, commerce, population, &c.   Asia-its extent,
population, and productions. Africa-its divisions, extent, and characteristics. A-merica-its
dimensions, lales, rivers,,&c.   United States - their extent, population, literature, &c.
Australasia-the countries it comprehends. New South Wales, South Australija, &c. Van
Dieman's Land, New Zealand, New Guinea, Neow Britain, &.c. Polynesian Islands. Tahiti —
its characteristics, and the moral improvement of its inhabitants. SSaidwich Islands —their
improvement.  Frien dly Islands, Navigator's, Marrquesas, New  Hebrides,   Murder of
Williams the Missionary. Number and variety of the earth's inhabitants-itumber which
has existed since the Creation —number at the Resurrection, and.the space they -would occupynumber which the earth would contain-strictures on Malthus. Utility of the study of
geography to religion-to directors of Missionary Societies-to private Christians. Works on
the subject of Christian Missions characterized and recommended-grandaur of its physical
objects —utility of its moral:fact   s.......................................  56




CONTENTS.                                        ix
GEOLOGY.
Its object and connection with religion-an interesting subject of inquiry. Materials which
compose the crust of our globe. Primary rocks-their constituent materials and general
aspect. Transition rocks-their formation, &c. Secondary rocks, coal formations, &c. Upper
secondary rocks, and their organic remains. Tertiary rocks-their deposits and fossil shells.
Diluvial deposits. Alluvial, and the deltas formed by. Volcanic rocks, trap, basalt, Fingal's
cave, Giant's causeway, &c. General remarks on organic remains. Various geological
phenomena. Periods of organic remains. Description of the Mammoth, Megatherium, &c.,
with a figure. Conclusions deduced from the facts of geology-their accordance with Sacred
History. Genesis, i, 1, explained. High antiquity of the earth not inconsistent with Scripture.
Discoveries of astronomy illustrative of geology. Progression a characteristic of the Divine
plans, both in the physical and moral world.  Date of the present system of our globe.
Genesis, i, 2, illustrated.  Sublime objects which this science exhibits.................... 6
ASTRONOMY.
[ts sublime objects. Apparent motions of the sun-of the moon. Eclipses of the sun and
moon. Apparent motion of the starry heavens.  Position of the Pole-star and Ursa Major,
described and represented. Stars and planets seen in the day-time, and with what powers of
the telescope they may be distinguished. Apparent revolution of the celestial vault indicates
Almighty power. Stars never shift their relative positions. Solar system. The Sun-his
size and probable destination illustrated —his spots and atmosphere-different kinds of rays
emitted from  his body-his distance illustrated. Mercury —his size, rotation, quantity of
light and heat, &c. Proportion of caloric on the different planets.  Venus-her size, phases,
mountains, transits, and general phenomena. Original observations on, and mode by which
her diurnal rotation may be determined. Earth-proofs of its annual and diurnal motions.
The Moon-description of her majestic mountain scenery, luminous spots, celestial appearances, illuminating power, superficial contents, &c.  Mars-his distance, atmosphere,
luminous zone, &c.   Noew p-lnets-Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and  Vesta-their anomalies,
singularities, and probable origin. Meteoric stones.  Jupiter-his bulk, rotation, belts, and
the appearances of his moons. Telescopic view of his belts and satellites. Satrzn —his
figure, belts, moons, and quantity of light. His Rings-their dimensions, motion, and
phenomena-illustrated by a figure. Supposed division of his exterior ring. Splendor of the
firmament, as viewed from this planet (see the Frontispiece). Herschel —his distance, size, and
quantity of light. Comets —their tails,:velocity, orbits, size and number. Encke's, Gambart's,
and HIalley's comets.  Motion of the solar system  in absolute spa.ce —its destination.
Plurality of worlds intimated in Scripture. -The fixed stars-their distance illustrated —
arrangement-changes. Moral reflections. Parallax and distance of 61 Cygni. Figure and
description of Orion. Relation of Astronomy to Religion-moral effects which its objects
have a tendency to produce-criminality of overlooking the works of God, &c........ 78
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
Its object.and different departments. Mechanics-subjects it embraces, and its importance to
the improvement of mankind. Hydrostatics-its leading principles and uses, illustrated by
figures,   Pneumatics-its principles, and the experiments by which they are illustrated.
Acoustics-various facts in relation to sound. Optics-leading facts and principles of this
science. Burning glasses, &c. The Daguerreotype-description of its nature, processes, and:
effects. Electricity —its nature, phenomena, effects, and agency in the system  of nature.
Electrotyp.e-its invention and practical applications.  Galvanism-its singular effects on
metals, &c., and on the animal system-applied to the blasting of rocks-various facts which
it explains.  Magnetism-its various phenomena and effects.  Electro-Magnetism-its phenomena and effects. Relation of Natural Philosophy to Religion-its inventions meliorate
the condition of mankind-illustrated in the case of the electric fluid-it undermines the
influence of superstition-unfolds the incessant agency of God-indifference to this subject
unreasonable............................................................... 92: CHEMISTRY.
Its objects, and present dignified station. General forms of matter-simple and compound
substances. Caloric —its sources and properties. Oxygen-its properties and combinations.
Nitrous Oxide-its singular effects. Nitrogen-its effects on flame and animal life. Hydroyen
-its properties and uses.   Carbon —its nature, combinations, and antiseptic properties.
Clorine —its properties.  Iodine-its discovery.  Sulphur-its origin, combinations, and
properties. Phosphorus-history of its discovery-how prepared-curious experiments with
this substance-phosphoric phenomena in the system of nature,-connection of this science
with religion-it displays the wisdom and benevolence of God, and the mode, of his present
-and future operations improves the condition of man, and carries forward'our views to a
more glorious and auspicious era..los........................... -:  e 1 




no                                     CONTENTS.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
Their general object. Human body —its different parts and divisions. Bones-their number,
form, and positions. Muscles-their nature, use, and extraordinary strength. Heart and
blood-vessels, and the-circulation of, the blood. Respiration,-curious structure of the lungs.
Digestion. Perspiration. Sensation, and the system of nerves. Summary. Moral reflections
-this- branch of study teaches us our dependence on a Superior Power, and excites to
gratitude....................................................... 108
HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN.
Its objects, advantages, and- connection with religion. Connection of the sciences and of the
Divine dispensations with each'other. Concluding remarks............................  112
CHAPTER III.
THE RELATION WHICH THE INVENTIONS OF ART -BEAR TO THE OBJECTS OF RELIGION.
Art of Printing-its-origin, and beneficial effects —stereotype and steam; printing............. 114
Art of Navigation-mariner's compass-its discovery and use............ 115
The Telescope-its invention, and the discoveries made by it-serves instead of a celestial
vehicle. Magnifying powers of Sir W. Herschel's telescopes. Earl. of Rosse's speculum.... 117
The Microscope, and views it exhibits of the wisdom of God......................'118
Steam Navigation-its utility in promoting the intercourse of mankind —voyages across the
Atlantic-its relation to the objects of religion...................................   118
Air Balloons-utility of-when arrived at perfection-proposed improvement in. History of
their invention.' Lunardi's ascent. The Parachute. Late improvements in, &c........ 119
Acoustic Tunnels. Experiments on the conveyance of sound.  M. Biot's remarkable experiments-Don Gautier's experiment and suggestion. Conclusions in reference to the extensive
conveyance of'sound........................   122
Electric Telegraphs-their nature anid applications.....................................  123
Railways —their history, number, utility, and arrangements......... 124
Practical remarks-utility of the arts in relation to the Millennial era....................... 127
CHAPTER IV.
SCRIPTURAL FACTS ILLUSTRATED FROM THE SYSTEM OF NATURE.
I. Science may frequently serve as a guide to the true interpretation of Scripture. Canon or
rule for Scripture interpretation —illustrated...................................... 128
II. The Depravity of Man, illustrated, from a consideration of the state of the interior strata of
the earth.  Volcanoes, and the terrible ravages they produce.  Earthquakes, and their
dreadful. effects. Thunder-storms, tempests, and hurricanes.'General reflections on this
subject...............................................29
III. The Resurrection illustrated. Transformations of insects. Indestructibility of matterconclusions from it......................................... 133
IV  General Conflagration. Concluding reflections.  Topics omitted in this volume.        134
C H A P T E R V.
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS WHICH WOULD RESULT FROM CONNECTING SCIENCE WITH RELIGION.
I. The variety of topics would allure the. attention of intelligent minds to religious subjects.
Principle of novelty intended by the Creator to be gratified-illustrated in the variety which
appears in the earth, the heavens, and the Volume of Revelation...................  13gI
II. Science enables us to take an extensive survey of the empire of God-illustrates many sublime
passages of the Bible-qualifies us for complying with several Divine injunctions-danger of
selfishness and indifference in this respect.. Our conceptions of God depend on our views of
the extent of his dominions............................................... 136
III. Science enlarges our' views of' the operations of Providence, in relation to the past and
present scenes of the world.  The economy of the inferior animals.  The physical and moral
economy of the -celestial' worlds................................................. 141
IV. Science, blended with religion, would produce a general expansion of mind, and liberality
of views, in reference to the opinions and actions of men, and, to the works and the ways of
God, illustrated at lage........................... 144
V, It would induce a spirit of piety, and profound humility. Sources'of piety, illustrated by
example.'Humility-illustrated by the examples of Mr. Boyle, of Sir Isaac Newton, and' of
superior intelligences. General conclusions.......................................... 146
APPENDIX.
NOTE I. Illustration of the rate of motion in the heavenly bodies, on the supposition that the
earth is at rest, 148.-NOTE' II. Experimental illustrations of the pressure and compressibility of
the atmosphere, the diving-bell, &c.,'149.-NOTE III. On the ideas of magnitude, motion, and
duration, as expressed by numbers, 150.-NOTE IV. On the means by which it may probably be ascertained whether the moon be a habitable world, 150.-NOTE V. Remarks on the late pretended
discovery of a lunar fortification, 151.-NOTEs VI. On a plurality of worlds, 151.-NOTE VII. The
Daguerreotype, 152.-NOTE VIII. Electro-Magnetic Machines, 152. —-NoTE IX. On the first inventor of Printing, 153.-NOTE X. On Telescopes, with a brief notice of aNeW Reflecting Telescope,
constructed by the author, 153.-NOTE XI. On Steam Navigation, &c., 154. —NOTE XII. Strictures
on a certain sentiment respecting:the work of human redemption, 156.-NOTE XIII. Extract from
Dr. Dwight's Theology, 157.-NOTE XIV. List of popular works on the different sciences treated of
in this volume, with occasional remarks, 157.




THE
CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
INTRODUCTION.
ON the subject of RELIGION, mankind have, in tional homage to that Supreme Intelligence who
all ages, been prone to run into extremes.  While made, and who governs the universe.  Even their
some have been disposed to attach too much im- priests and philosophers indulged in the most deportance to the mere exertions of the human grading and abominable practices, and entertained
intellect, and to imagine that man, by the light of the most irrational notions in regard to the origin
unassisted reason, is able to explore the path of of the universe, and the moral government of the
true wisdom and happiness,-the greater part of world. Most of them denied a future state'of
religionists, on the other hand, have been disposed retribution, and all of them had their doubts reto treat scientific knowledge, in its relation to specting the reality of an immortal existence; and
religion, with a degree of indifference bordering as to the doctrine of a resurrection from the dead,
upon  contempt.  Both these dispositions are they never dreamed of such an event, and scouted
equally foolish and preposterous. For he who the idea, when proposed to them, as the climax of
exalts human reason, as the only sure guide to absurdity. The glory to which their princes and
wisdom and felicity, forgets that man, in his pre- generals aspired, was, to spread death and destrucsent state, is a depraved intelligence, and conse- tion among their fellow-men-to carry fire and
quently liable to err; and that all those who have sword, terror and dismay, and all the engines of
been left solely to its dictates, have uniformly destruction, through surrounding nations-to fill
failed in attaining these desirable objects. During their fields with heaps of slain-to plunder the
a period of more than 5800 years, the greater part survivors of every earthly comfort, and to drag
of the human race have been left solely to the captive kings at their chariot-wheels-that they
guidance of their rational powers, in order to might enjoy the splendor and the honors of a trigrope their way to the Temple of Knowledge, umph. What has been now stated with regard to
and the Portals of Immortality; but what has the most enlightened nations of antiquity, will
been the result of all their anxious researches? equally apply to the present inhabitants of China,
Instead of acquiring correct notions of the Great of Hind.stan, of the Japanese Islands, of the BirAuthor of their existence, and of the nature of man empire, and of every other civilized nation
that homage which is due to his perfections, on which the light of Revelation has never shone
" they have become vain in their imaginations, - with this additional consideration, that they
and their foolish hearts have been darkened. have enjoyed an additional period of 1800 years
Professing themselves to be wise, they have be- for making further investigations;, and are, at this
come fools; and have changed the glory of the moment, as far from the object of their pursuit as
Incorruptible God into an image made like to when they first commenced their researches, and
corruptible man, and to four-footed beasts, and not only so, but some of these nations, in modern
creeping things."  Instead of acquiring correct times, have mingled with their abominable superviews of the principles of moral action, and con- stitions and idolatries many absurdities and horrid
ducting themselves according to the eternal rules cruelties, which were altogether unknown among
of rectitude, they have displayed the operation of the Greek and Roman population.
the most diabolical passions, indulged in continual   Such are the melancholy results to which men
warfare, and desolated the earth with rapine and have been led, when left to the guidance of unashorrid carnage; so that the history of;the world sisted reason, in the most interesting and imporpresents to our view little more than a series of tant of all investigations. They have wandered
revolting details of the depravity of our species, in the mazes of error and delusion; and their reand of the wrongs which one tribe of human be- searches, instead of directing and expanding our
ings has willfully inflicted upon another.     religious views, have tended only to bewilder the
This has- been the case, not only among a few  human mind, and to throw a deeper shade of inuncultivated hordes on the coast of Africa, in the tellectual gloom over our apostate world. After
plains of Tartary, and the wilds of America, but a period of six thousand years has been spent in
even among those nations which stood highest in anxious inquiries after the path to true knowledge
the ranks of civilization and of science.-The an- and happiness-Ignorance, Superstition, Idolatry
cient Greeks and Romans, who boasted of their Vice, and Misery, still continue to sway the scepattainments in philosophy, and their progress in ter over the great majority of the human race;
the arts, entertained the most foolish, contradic- and if we be allowed to reason from the past to
tory, and unworthy notions of the Object of Di- the future, we may rest assured that, while manvine worship, of the requirements of religion, and kind are destitute of a Guide superior to the
of the eternal destiny of man. They adored a glimmerings of depraved reason, they would be no
host of divinities characterized by impiety, fraud, nearer the object of their pursuit, after the lapse
inrjustice, falsehood, lewdness, treachery, revenge, of sixty thousand years, than at the present momurder, and every other vice which can debase the ment. It is only in connection with the discove —
human mind, instead of offering a tribute of ra- ries of Revelation that we can expect that the( 11 )




12                                 INTRODUCTION.
efforts of human reason and activity will be suc- contemplation. In their view, to be a bad philocessful ill abolishing the reign of Ignorance and sopher, is the surest way to become a good Chrisdegrading Superstition —in illuminating the be- tian, and to expand the views of the human mind
niighted tribes of the Pagan world-and In caus- is to endanger Christianity, and to render the deing "Righteousness, and Order, and Peace, to sign of religion abortive. They seem to consider
spri ug forth before all the nations."  Though the it as a most noble triumph to the Christian cause,
Christian Religion has never yet been fully under- to degrade the material world, and to trample
stood and recognized, in all its aspes a nd bear- under foot not only the earth, but the visible heaings, nor its requirements been cordially complied vens, as an old, shattered, and corrupted fabric,
with, by the great body of those who profess to which no longer demands our study or admirabelieve in its divine origin, yet it is only in those tion. Their expressions, in a variety of instances,
nations who have acknowledged its authority, and would lead us almost to conclude, that they conin some measure submitted to its dictates, that sidered the economy of Nature as set in opposianything approximating to just conceptions of tion to the economy of Redemption, and that it
the Supreme Intelligence, and of its moral gov- is not the same God that contrived the system of
ernment, is found to prevail.                Nature who is also the "Author of eternal salBut, on the other hand, though the light of na- vation to all them that obey him."
ture is of itself a feeble and insufficient guide to  It is, unquestionably, both foolish and impious
direct us in our views of the Supreme Intelli- to overlook or to undervalue any of the modes by
gence, and of our eternal destination, yet it is which the Divine Being has been pleased to make
a most dangerous and delusive error to imagine, known his nature and perfections to mankind.
that reason, and the study of the material world, Since he has given a display of his " Eternal
ought to be discarded from the science of reli- power and Godhead" in the grand theater of nagiont  The man who would discard the efforts of ture, which forms the subject of scientific investhe human intellect, and the science of Nature; tigation, it was surely never intended, and would
from Religion, forgets-that He. who. is the Au- ill comport with reverence for its adorable Author of human redemption is also the Creator and thor, that such magnificent displays of his Power,
Governor of the whole system of the material Wisdom, and Benificence, as the material uniuniverse —that it is one end of that moral renova- verse exhibits, should be treated, by his intellition which the Gospel effects, to qualify us for gent offspring,with indifference or neglect. It becontemplating aright the displays of Divine Per- comes us to contemplate, with adoring gratitude,
fection which the works of creation exhibit-that every ray of our Creator's glory, whether as emathbe visible works of God are the principal medium  nating from the light of Revelation, or as reflectby which he displays the attributes of his nature ed from the scenery of nature around us, or as deto intelligent beings-that the study and contem- scending from those regions where stars unnumplation of these works employ the faculties of in- bered shine, and planets and comets,run their
telligences of a superior order* -that man, had solemn rounds. Instead of contrasting the one
he remained in primeval innocence, would have department of knowledge with the other, with
been chiefly employed in such contemplations- a view of depreciating the science of nature, our
that it is one main design of Divine Revelation to duty is to derive from both as much information
illustrate the operations of Providence, and the and instruction as they  are calculated to afford,
agency of God, in the formation and preservation to mark the harmony of the revelations they reof all things-and that the Scriptures are full of spectively unfold; and to use the revelations of
sublime descriptions of the visible creation, and nature for the purpose of confirming, and ampliof interesting references to the various, objects fying, and carrying forward our views of the
which adorn the scenery of Nature, Without revelation contained in the Sacred Scriptures.
the cultivation of our reasoning powers, and an   With regard to the revelation derived from the
investigation of the laws and economy of Nature, Sacred Records, it has been imagined by some,
we could not appreciate many of the excellent that it has litttle or no reference to the operations
characters, the interesting aspects, and the sublime of the material system, and that, therefore, the
references of Revealed religion; we should lose study of the visible works of God can be of little
the full evidence of those arguments by which importance in promoting religious knowledge
the existence of God, and his attributes of Wis- and holy affections. In the sequel of this volume,
dom and Omnipotence, are most powerfully de- I shall endeavor to show that this sentiment is exmonstrated; we should remain destitute of these tremely fallacious, and destitute of a foundation.
sublime conceptions of the perfections and agency But, in the meantime, although it were taken for
of Jehovah, which the grandeur and immensity granted, it would form no argument against the
of his works are calculated to inspire; we should combination of science with religion.  For it
never perceive, in its full force, the evidence of ought to be carefully remarked, that Divine
those proofs on which the Divine authority of Revelation is chiefly intended to instruct us in
Revelation is founded: we could not give a ra- the knowledge of those truths which interest us
tional interpretation of the spirit and meaning of as subjects of the moral administration of the Govmany parts of the Sacred Oracles; nor could we ernor of the world,-or, in other words, as aposcomply with those positive commands of God, tate creatures, and as moral agents. Its grand
which enjoin us to'contemplate- the wonders of object is to develop the openings and bearings
hispower, " to meditate on all his works, and to of the plan of Divine Mercy; to counteract those
talk of all his doings."                     evil propensities and passions which sin has inNotwithstanding these and many other conside- troduced; to inculcate those holy principles and
rations, which show the folly of overlooking the moral laws which tend to unite mankind in harvisible manifestations of Deity in the exercises of mony and love; and to produce those amiable
Religion, it has long been the practice of certain tempers and dispositions of mindwhichalone can
theologians to depreciate the wonderful; works of fit us for enjoying happiness, either in this world
Jehovah, and to attempt to throw them into the or in the worrd to come. For this reason doubtless
Shade, as if they were unworthy of our serious it is, that the moral attributes of Deity are brought
more prominently into view,. in the Sacred Vol* Rev. iv. 11; xv. 3, etc.       ume, than his natural perfections; and thatthdse




INTRODUCTION.                                         13
special arrangements of his Providence, which re- desires after that state of enlarged vision, where
gard the moral renovation of our species, are par- the plans and operations of Deity will be more
ticularly detailed; while the immense extent of clearly unfolded-and to prepare us for bearing a
his universal kingdom, the existence of other part in the immortal hymn of the Church triumworlds, and their moral economy, are but slightly phant:-"' Great and marvelous are thy works,
hinted at, or vailed in obscurity. Of such a Reve- Lord God Almighty; just and true are thy ways,
lation we stood in need; and had it chiefly em- thou King of saints."  The most illustrious charbraced subjects of a very different nature, it hacters that have adorned our race in all ages, have
would have failed in supplying the remedies re- been struck with the beauty and magnificence of
quisite for correcting the disorders which sin has the visible creation, and have devoted a certain
introduced among mankind.-But surely it was portion of their time and attention in investiganever intended, even in a religious point of view, ting its admirable economy and arrangement; and
that the powers of the humaii-mind, in their con- there, can be no: question, that a portion of our
templations and researches, should be bounded by thoughts devoted to the study of the wondrous
the range of subjects comprised in that revelation works of the Most High, must ultimately be conwhich is purely or chiefly of a moral nature; ducive to the improvement of our intellectual
since the Almighty has exhibited so magnificent powers, to our advancement in the Christian life,
a spectacle in the universe around us, and endow- and to our preparation for the exalted employed us with faculties adequate to' the survey of a ments of the eternal world.
considerable portion of its'structure, and capable   In fine, since the researches of modern times
of deducing from it the most noble and sublime have greatly enlarged our views of the System of
results. To walk in the midst of this "'wide- Universal Nature, and of the vast extent to which
extended theater," and to overlook, or to gaze the operations of the Creator are carried on in the
with indifference on those striking marks- of Di- distant regions of space,-since the late disc.ovetine Omnipotence and skill which everywhere ries of Naturalists and Experimental Philosoappear, is to overlook the Creator himself, and to phers, with' respect to the constitution of the
contemn the most illustrious displays he has given atmosphere, water, light, heat, the gases, the elecof his eternal power and glory. That man's re- tric, galvanic, and magnetic fluids, and the econoligious devotions are much to be suspected, what- my and instincts of animated beings, have opened
ever show of piety he may affect, who derives no to our view a bright display of Divine Wisdom,
assistance, in attempting to form some adequate' in the contrivance and arrangement of the differconceptions of the object of his worship, from the ent parts of our terrestrial habitation,-since imsublime discoveries of astronomical science; from  provements in the useful arts have kept pace with
those myriads of suns and systems which form  the progress of science, and have been applied to
but a small portion of the Creator's immense em- many beneficial purposes, which have ultimately
pire!'~  The professing Christian, whose devo- a bearing on the interests and the progress of retional exercises'are not invigorated, and whose ligion,-since a general desire to propagate the
conceptions of Deity are not expanded, by a con- truths of Christianity in heathen lands now anitemplation of the magnitude and variety of his mates the mass of the religious world,-since the
works, may be considered as equally a stranger to nations of both Continents are now aroused to
the more elevated strains of piety, and to the no- burst asunder the shackles of despotism, and' to
ble emotions excited by a perception of the beau- inquire after rational liberty and mental improvetiful and the sublime.                           ment,-and since all these discoveries, inventions,
"The works of the Lord," says an inspired and movements, and the energies of the human
writer, "are great, and are sought out by all mind, from which they spring, are under the conthose who have pleasure therein."  They all bear trol and direction of -that Omnipotent Being who
the stamp of Infinite Perfection, and serve as so made and who governs the world,-they ought to
many sensible mediums- to exalt and expand our be considered as parts of those providential arconceptions of Him whose invisible glories they rangements, in the progress of which He will
represent and adumbrate. When contemplated ultimately accomplish the illumination of our beil connection with the prospects opened by Divine nighted race, and make the cause of righteousness
Revelation, they tend to excite the most ardent and truth to triumph among all nations.  And,
-.  -.. therefore, the enlightened Christian ought thank*As some readers seem to have mistaken the Author's fully to appreciate every exhibition, and every
meaning in this and similar passages, it may be proper to discovery, by which his conceptions of the attristate, that his meaning is not-that a knowledge of natural, and of the gra
science is essential to genuine piety; but, that the person
who has an opportunity of making himself acquainted wityo  may be directed and enlarged, in order that he
the science of nature, and of contemplating the wonders of may be qualified to " speak of the honor of his
the heavens in their true light, and who does not find his majesty, and talk
views of the Creator expanded, and his religious emotions to the sons of   his mighy ats an   e glk ielevated, by such studies, has reason to call in question the to the sons of men his mightyacts, and the glorinature and the sincerity of his devotional feelings.  ous majesty of his kingdom."




C HA' PTE R I.
OF THE NATURAL ATTRIBUTES OF THE DEITY, WITHI PARTICULAR ILLUSTRATIONS OF HIS OMNIPOTENCE AND WISDOM.
S EC T ION  I.                   hence- the zealous outcry against every discussion
from.the pulpit, that has not a direct relation to
ON THE RELATION OF THE NATURAL ATTRIBUTES what are termed the doctrines of grace. But noOF DEITY TO IRELIGION.           thing surely can be more absurd than to carry
out such a principle to all its legitimate conseA FIRM conviction of. the existence of God, and quences. Can God ever cease to be Omnipotent,
a competent knowledge of-his.natural perfections, or can man ever cease to be dependent for existlie at the foundation of all religion, both natural ence on his-infinite power?  Can the Divine Beand revealed. In proportion as our views of the ing ever cease to be Omnipresent and Omniscient,
perfections of Deity are limited and obscure, in a or can man ever cease to be the object of his
similar proportion-will be our conceptions of all knowledge and superintendence?  Can Infinite
the relations in which he stands to his creatures, Wisdom ever be detached from the Almighty, or
of every part of his providential procedure, and can man ever be in a situation where he will not
of all -the doctrines and requirements of revealed' experience the effects of his wise arrangements?
religion.                                      Can Goodness ever fail of being an attribute of
By the natural or essential attributes of God, Jehovah, or can any sentient or intelligent beings
we understand such perfections as the following: exist that do not experience the effects of his
-His Eternity, Omnipresence, Infinite K-now- bounty? Can Divine Benevolence ever cease in its
ledge, Infinite Wisdom, Omnipotence, and Bound- operations, throughout any period of future duraless Beneficence. These are the characters and tion, or can ally intelligent beings exist, throughattributes of Deity, which, we must suppose, form  out any department of creation, who shall not, in a
the chief subjects of contemplation to angels, and greater or less degree, experience its effects?  In
to all other pure intelligences-and, in investigat-'short, can the relation of Greature and Creator
ing the displays of which, the sons of Adam would ever cease between the human race in whatever
have been chiefly employed, had they continued moral or physical situation they may be placed,
in primeval innocence.  These attributes form  and that Almighty Being "who giveth to all life
the groundwork of all those gracious relations in and breath' and all things!"  If none of these
which the God of salvation stands to his redeemed things can possibly happen, then the relations' to
people in the economy "of redemption-they lie which we refer must be eternal and unchangeable,
at the foundation of the whole. Christian super- and must form the basis of all the other relations
structure-and. were they not recognized as the in which we can-possibly stand to the Divine Becorner stones of that sacred edifice, the whole ing, either as apostate or as redeemed creatures;
system of the Scripture- Revelation would remain and, therefore they ought to be exhibited as suba baseless fabric. The full display of these per- jects for our frequent and'serious contemplation,
fectlons will be exhibited in the future world —' as religious and moral agents. But, unless we
the contemplation of this display will form  one make such topics a distinct subject of attention,
of the sublime employments "of the saints in and endeavor to acquire clear and comprehensive
light"-and to prepare us for engaging in such conceptions of our natural relations to God, we
noble exercises, is one of the chief designs of thb can never form a clear conception of those new
salvation proclaimed in the Gospel.            and interesting relations into which we have been
The Christian Revelation ought not to be con- brought by the mediation of Jesus Christ.
sidered as superseding the Religion of Nature,   If man had continued in his primitive state ofbut as carrying it forward. to perfection. It in- integrity, he would have been forever exercised
troduces the Deity to us under new relations cor- in tracing the Power, the Beneficence, and other
responding to the degraded state into which we attributes of Deity, in the visible creation alone.
have fallen. It is superadded to our natural re- Now that his fallen state has rendered additional
lations to God, and takes it for granted that these revelations necessary, in order to secure his hapnatural relations must forever subsist.  It is true, piness,-is he completely to throw  aside those
indeed, that the essential a4ributes of God, and contemplations and exercises which constituted
the principles- of Natural Religion, cannot be his chief employment while he remained a pure
fully discovered without the light of Revelation, moral intelligence?  Surely not. One great end
as appears from the past experience of mankind of his moral renovation, by means of the (:ospel,
in every generation; but it is equally true, that, must be to enable him to resume his primitive exerwhen discovered by the aid of this celestial light, cises, and to qualify him  for more enlarged views
they are of the utmost importance in the Chris- and contemplations of a similar nature, in that
tian system, and are as essentially connected with future world, where the physical and moral imit as the foundation of a building is with the su- pediments which now obstruct his progress will be
perstructure.  Many professed Christians, how- completely removed.
ever, seem  to think and to act as if the Chris-   It appears highly unreasonable, and indicates a
tian Revelation had annulled the natural relations selfish disposition of mind, to magnify one class
which subsist between man and the Deity; and of the Divine attributes at the expense of another;
14 




NATURAL ATTRIBUTES OF THE DEITY.                                    15
to extol, for example, the Mercy of God, and neg- ment of such grand events will be produced. He
lect to celebrate his Power and Wisdom-those must be made to see with his own eyes what the
glorious perfections, the display of which, at the Almighty has already done, and what he is now
formation of our globe, excited the rapture and doing, in all the regions of universal nature which
admiration of angels, and of innocent man. All lie open to our inspection; and this cannot be
the attributes of God are equal, because all of effected without directing his contemplations to
them are infinite; and therefore to talk of darling those displays of intelligence and power which
attributes in the Divine Nature, as some have are exhibited in the structure, the economy, and
done, is inconsistent with reason, unwarranted by the revolutions of the material world.
Scripture, and tends to exhibit a distorted view of   If the propriety of these sentiments be admitted,
the Divine character. The Divine Mercy ought it will follow, that the more we are accustomed
to be celebrated with rapture by every individual to contemplate the wonders of Divine intelligence
of our fallen race; but with no less rapture should and power, in the objects with which we are surwe extol the Divine Omnipotence; for the designs rounded, the more deeply shall we be impressed
of Mercy cannot be accomplished without the in- with a conviction and a confident hope, that all
tervention of infinite Power. Even the attribute the purposes of Divine mercy will ultimately be
of Justice-which is frequently viewed with emo- accomplished in our eternal felicity. It will also
tions of terror-is nothing else than a branch of follow, that, in proportion as the mind acquires a
the Divine Benevolence, for preventing *the in- clear, an extensive, and a reverential view of the
roads of anarchy and confusion and for securing essential attributes of the Deity, and of those
the order and happiness of the intelligent creation. truths in connection with them which are objects
All that we hope for, in consequence of the pro- of contemplation common to all holy beings, in a
mises of God, and of the redemption accomplished similar proportion will it be impressed, and its
by Jesus Christ, must be founded on the concep- attention arrested, by every other Divine subject
tion we form of the operations of Omnipotence. connected with them. And it is, doubtless, owing
An example or two may not be unnecessary for to the want of such clear and impressive concepillustrating this position.                    tions of the essential character of Jehovah, and of
We are warranted by the Sacred Oracles, to en- the first truths of religion, that the bulk of mantertain the hope that these mortal bodies of ours, kind are so little impressed and influenced by the
after they have moldered in the dust, been dis- leading doctrines and duties connected with the
solved into their primary elementary parts, and plan of the Gospel salvation, and that they enterbecome the prey of devouring reptiles, during a r tain so many vague and untenable notions respectlapse of generations or centuries-shall spring kig the character and the objects of a superintendforth from the tomb to new life and beauty, and ing Providence. How often, for example, have
be arrayed in more glorious forms than they now  we witnessed expressions of the foolish and limited
wear; yea, that all the inhabitants of our globe, notions which are frequently entertained respectfrom Adam to the end of time, though the bodies ing the operations of Omnipotence!  When it has
of thousands of them  have been devoured by been asserted that the earth, with its load of concannibals, have become the food of fishes and of tinents and oceans, is in rapid motion through
beasts of prey, and have been burned to cinders, the voids of space-that the sun is ten hundred
and their ashes scattered by the winds, over the thousand times larger than the terraqueous globe,
different regions of sea and land-shall be reani- -and that millions of such globes are dispersedi
mated by the voice of the Son of God, and shall throughout the immensity of nature,-some who,
appear, each in his own proper person and identi- have viewed themselves as enlightened Christians,,
cal body, before God the Judge of all. Now, the have exclaimed at the impossibility of such facts,,
firmness of our hope of so astonishing an event, as if they were beyond the limits of Divine Power,.
which seems to contradict all experience, and ap- and as if such representations were intended to,
pears involved in such a mass of difficulties and turn away the mind from God and religion; while9.
apparent contradictions, must be in proportion to at the same time, they have yielded a firm assent,!
the sentiments we entertain of the Divine Intelli- to all the vulgar notions respecting omens, ap,gence, Wisdom, and Omnipotence. And where paritions, and hobgoblins, and to the supposed.
are we to find the most striking visible displays extraordinary powers of the professors of divinaof these perfections, except in the actual opera- tion and witchcraft. How can such persons astious of the Creator, within the range of our view  sent, with intelligence and rational conviction, to,
in the material world?                         the dictates of Revelation respecting the energibes
Again, we are informed in the same Divine of Omnipotence which will be e' erted at "the
records, that, at some future period, the earth on consummation of all things," and in those arrangewhich we now dwell shall be wrapt up in devour- ments which are to succeed the dissolution of ounr
ing flames, and its present form and constitution sublunary system! A firm belief in the Almighty
forever destroyed; that its redeemed inhabitants, Power and unsearchable Wisdom of God, as disafter being released from the grave, shall be trans- played in the constitution and movements of' the
ported to a more glorious region; and that " new  material world, is of the utmost importance,, to.
heavens and a new earth shall appear, wherein confirm our faith and enliven our hopes of such'Iwelleth righteousness."  The Divine mercy hav- grand and interesting events.
ing given to the faithful the promise of these   Notwithstanding the considerations now stated,
astonishing  revolutions, and most magnificent which plainly evince the connection of the naevents, our hopes of their being fully realized tural perfections of God with the objects of the
must rest on the infinite wisdom  and omnipo- Christian Revelation, it appears somewhat strange
tence of Jehovah; and consequently, if our views that, when certain religious instructors happen to
of these perfections be limited and obscure, our come in contact with this topic, they seem as if
hope, in relation to our future destiny, will be they were beginning  to tread upon forbidden
proportionably feeble and languid; and will scarce- ground; and as if it were unsuitable- to- their ofly perform  its office "as an anchor to'the soul, fice as Christian teachers, to bring: forward the
both sure and steadfast."  It is not merely by stupendous works of the Almighty to illustrate
telling a person that God is all-wise and all- his nature and attributes. Instead of expatiating
powerful, that a full conviction of the accomplish- on the numerous sources of Illustration. of~ which
VOL. I.-2,




16                          THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
the subject admits, until the minds of their hearers stupendous displays which have been given of
are thoroughly affected with a view of the essential these perfections, in the works of his hands; and
glory of Jehovah —they.dispatch the subject with that their religion (if it may be so called) consists
two or three vague propositions, which, though merely in a farrago of abstract opinions, or in an
logically true, make no impression upon the heart; empty name.
as if they believed that such contemplations were   If, then, it be admitted, that it is essentially
suited only to carnal men and mere philosophers; requisite, as the foundation of religion, to have
and as if they were afraid lest the sanctity of the the mind deeply impressed with a clear and coinpulpit should be polluted by particular descrip- prehensive view of the natural perfections of the
tions of those operations of the Deity which are Deity, it will follow that the ministers of religion,
perceived through the medium  of the corporeal and all others whose province it is to commnunisenses. We do not mean to insinuate that the cate religious instruction, ought frequently to
essential attributes of God, and the illustrations dwell with particularity on those proofs and illusof them derived from the material world, should trations which tend to convey the most definite
form the sole or' the chief topics of discussion in and impressive conceptions of the glory of that
the business of religious instruction; but, if the Being whom we profess to adore.  But from what
Scriptures frequently direct our attention to these sources are such illustrations to be derived?  Is
subjects-if they lie at the foundation of all ac- it from abstract reasonings and metaphysical discurate and extensive views of the Christian Reve- tinctions and definitions, or from a survey of those
lation-if they be the chief subjects of contempla- objects and movements'which lie open to the intion to angels and all other pure intelligences, in spection of every. observer?  There can be no
every region of the universe-and if they have a difficulty in coming to a decision on this point.
tendency to expand the minds of professed Chris- We might affirm, with the schoolmen, that " God
tians, to correct their vague and erroneous con- is a Being whose center is everywhere, and his
cepti.ons, and to promote their conformity to the circumference nowhere;" that "he comprehends
moral character of God-we cannot find out the infinite duration in every moment;" and that
shadow of a reason why such topics should be "infinite space may be considered as the sensoalmost, if not altogether overlooked, in the writ- rium of the Godhead;" but such fanciful illustraings and the discourses of those who profess to tions, when strictly analyzed, will be found to
instruct mankind in the knowledge of God and consist. merely of words without ideas.  We
the duties of his worship.                     might also affirm, with truth, that God is a Being
We are informed by our Saviour himself, that of infinite perfection, glory, and blessedness-that
"this is life eternal, to know thee the living and he is without all bounds or limits, either actual or
true God," as well as "Jesus Christ whom  he possible-that he is possessed of power sufficient
hath sent."  The knowledge of God in the sense to perform all things which do not imply a conhere intended, must include in it the knowledge tradiction-that he is independent and self-suffiof the natural and essential attributes of the cient-that his wisdom is:- unerring, and that he
Deity, or those properties of his nature by which infinitely exceeds all other beings.  But these,
he is distinguished from " all the idols of the na- and other expressions of a similar kind, are mere
tions."  Such are, his Self-existence, his All-per- technical terms, which convey no adequate, nor
fect Knowledge, his Omnipresence, his Infinite even tolerable notion of what they import. BeWisdom, his Boundless Goodness and Almighty ings, constituted like man, whose rational spirits
Power-attributes which, as we have just now  are connected with an organical structure, and
seen, lie at the foundation of all the other charac- who derive all their knowledge through the meters and relations of Deity revealed in the Scrip- dium of corporeal organs, can derive their clearest
tures. The acquisition of just and comprehensive and most affecting notions of the Divinity chiefly
conceptions of those perfections must therefore through the same medium; namely, by contemlie at the foundation of all profound veneration plating the effects of his perfections, as displayed
of the Divine Being, and of all that is valuable in through the ample range of the visible creation
religion. Destitute of such conceptions, we can And to this source of illustration, the inspired
neither feel that habitual humility, and that reve- writers uniformly direct our views —" Lift up
fence of the majesty of Jehovah, which his essen- your eyes on high, and behold! who hath created
tial glory is calculated to inspire, nor pay him  these orbs? who bringeth forth their host by
that tribute of adoration and gratitude which is number, and calleth them  all by their names?
due to his name. Devoid of such views, we can- The everlasting God, the Lord, by the greatness
not exercise that cordial acquiescence in the plan of his might, for that he is strong in power,"of his redemption, in the arrangements of his " He hath'made the earth by his power; he hath
providence, and in the requirements of his law, established the world by his wisdoln; he hath
which the Scriptures enjoin. Yet, how often do stretched out tile heavens by his understanding."
we find persons who pretend to speculate about -These writers do not perplex our minds by a
the mysteries of the Gospel-displaying by their multitude of technical terms and subtile reasonflippancy of speech respecting the eternal coun- ings; but lead us directly to the source whence
sels of the Majesty of heaven-by their dogmati- our most ample conceptions of Deity are to be
cal assertions respecting the Divine character, and derived, that, firom a steady and enlightened conthe'dispensations of providence - and by their templation of the effects, we may learn the greatpertinacious opinions respecting the laws by ness of the Cause; and their example in this
which God must regulate his own actions —that respect ought, doubtless, to be a pattern for every
they have never felt impressive emotions of the religious instructor.
grandeur of that Being whose "operations are
unsearchable, and his ways past finding' out!"
Though they do not call in question his immen-S E CT I O   N  II.
sity and power, his wisdom and goodness, as so
many abstract properties of his nature, yet, the ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY.
unbecoming familiarity with which they approach
this August Being, and talk about him, shows that   IN order to elucidate more distinctly what h11i
they have never associated in their minds the been now stated, I shall select a few illustrations




OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY.                                     17
of' some of the natural attributes. of the Deity. train of thought commencing with those magniAnd, in the first place, I shall offer a few consi- tudes which the mind can easily grasp, proceeding
aderations which have a tendency to direct and to through all the higher gradations of magnitude,
amplify our conceptions- of'Divine Power.     and fixing the attention on every portion of the
Omnipotence is that attribute of the Divine chain, until we arrive at the object or magnitude
Being, by which he can accomplish everything of which we wish to form  a conception. We
that does not imply-a contradiction-however -far must endeavor, in the first place, to form a conit may transcend the comprehension of finite ception of the bulk of the world in which we
minds.   By his power the vast system  of dwell, which, though only a point in comparison
universal nature was called from nothing into of the whole material universe, is in reality, a
existence, and is continually supported in all its most astonishing magnitude, which the mind cans
movements, from age to age.-In elucidating this not grasp without a laborious effort.  We call
perfection of God, we might derive some striking form  some definite idea of those protuberant
illustrations from the records of his dispensations masses we denominate hills, which rise above the
toward man, in the early ages of the world- surface of our plains; but were we transported to
When he overwhelmed the earth with a deluge, the mountainous scenery of Switzerland, to the
which covered the tops of the highest mountains, stupendous range of the Andes in South America,
and swept the crowded population of the ancient or to the Himalayan mountains in India, where
world into a watery grave-when he demolished masses of earth and rocks, in every variety of
Sodom  and Gomorrah, and the cities around shape, extend several hundreds of miles in differthem, with fire from heaven-when he slew all ent directions, and rear their projecting summits
the first-born of Egypt, and turned their rivers; beyond the region of the clouds-we should find
into blood-when he divided the Red sea and the some difficulty in forming an adequate concepwaters of Jordan, before the tribes of Israel- tion of the objects of our contemplation.  For
when he made the earth open its jaws and swal- (to use the words of one who had been a spectalow up Korah and all his company-and when tor of such scenes), "Amidst those trackless rehe caused mount Sinai to smoke and tremble at gions of intense silence and solitude, we cannot
his presence. But these and similar events, how- contemplate, but with feelings of awe and admiever awful, astonishing, and worthy of'remem- ration, the enormous masses of variegated matter
brance, were only transitory exertions of Divine which lie around, beneath, and above us. The
power, and are not calculated, and were never mind labors, as it were, to form  a definite idea of
intended, to impress the mind in so powerful a those objects of oppressive grandeur, and feels
manner as those displays of Omnipotence which unable to grasp the august objects which compose
are, exhibited in the ordinary movements of the the surrounding scene."  But what are all these
material universe.  We have no hesitation in mountainous masses, however variegated and subasserting, that, with regard to this attribute of the lime, when compared with the bulk of the whole
Divinity, there is a more grand and impressive earth?  Were they hurled from  their bases, and
display in the Works of Nature than in all the precipitated  into the vast Pacific ocean, they
events recorded in the Sacred History.  Nor would all disappear in a moment, except perhaps
alght this remark to be considered as throwing a few projecting tops, which, like a number of
the least reflection on the fullness and sufficiency small islands, might be seen rising a few fathoms
of the Scripture Revelation; for that revelation, above the surface of the waters.
as having a special reference to a moral economy,    The earth is a globe, whose diameter is
has for its object, to give a more particular dis- nearly 8000 miles, and its circumference about
play of the moral than of the natural perfections 25,000, and  consequently, its surface contains
of God. The miracles to which we have now  nearly two hundred millions of square miles-a
referred, and every other supernatural fact re- magnitude too great for the mind to take in
corded in the Bible, were not intended so much to at one conception.  In order to form  a toleradisplay the plenitude of the power of the Deity, as ble conception of the whole, we must endeato-bear testimony to the Divine mission of parti- vor to take a leisurely survey of its different
cular messengers, and to confirm the truths they parts. Were we to take our station on the top
declared.  It was not, for example, merely to dis- of a mountain, of a moderate size, and survey
play the energies of Almighty power, that the the surrounding landscape, we should perceive an
waters of the Red sea were dried up before the extent of view stretching 40 miles in every directhousands of Israel, but to give a solemn and tion, forming a circle 80 miles in diameter, and
striking attestation to all concerned, that the Most 250 in circumference, and comprehending an area
High- God hadtaken this people under his pece- of 5000 square miles. In such a situation, the
liar protection-that he had appointed Moses as terrestrial scene around and beneath us-consist-'their leader and legislator-and that they were ing of hills and plains, towns and villages, rivers
bound te receive and obey the statutes he deli- and lakes-would form one of the largest objects
vered.   The most appropriate and impressive which the eye, or even the imagination, call steaillustrations of Omnipotence are those which are'dily grasp at one time.  But such an object,
taken from the permanent operations,of Deity, grand and extensive as it is, forms no more than
which'are visible every moment in the universe the forty thousandth  part of the terraqueous
around us; or, in other words, those which are globe; so that, before we can acquire an adequate
derived from the facts which have been observed conception of the magnitude of our own world, we
in the material world,, respecting magnitude and must conceive 40,000 landscapes, of a similar exmotion.                                        tent, to pass in review before us; and, were a
In the first place, the immense quantity of matter scene, of the magnitude now stated, to pass before
contained in the universe, presents a most striking  us every hour, until all the diversified scenery of
display of Almighty power.                     the earth were brought under our view, and were
In endeavoring to form a definite notion on t-welve hours a-day allotted for the observation, it
this subject,'the mind is bewildered in its concep- would require nine years and forty-eight days
tions, and is at a loss where to begin or to end its before the whole surface of the globe could be
excursions. In order to form -something approxi- contemplated,'even in this general and rapid manmating to a well-defined idea, we must pursue a ner. But, such a variety of successive landscapes




18                          THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
passing before the eye, even although it were surface to the center, excepting, perhaps, a few
possible to be realized, would convey only a very caverns scattered here and there amidst its subvague and imperfect conception of the scenery terranean recesses; and that its density gradually
of our world; for objects at the distance of forty increases from its surface to its central regions.
miles cannot be 4istinctly perceived; the only What an enormous mass of materials, then, is
view which would be satisfactory would be that comprehended within the limits of the globe on
which is comprehended within the range of three which we tread!  The mind labors, as it were, to
or four miles from the spectator.'           comprehend the mighty idea, and, after all its exAgain, I have already stated, that the surface ertion, feels itself unable to take ill such an astonof the earth contains nearly 200,000,000 of square ishing magnitude at one comprehensive graspmiles.-Now, were a person to set out on a mi- How great must be the power of that Being who
nute survey of the terraqueous globe, and to travel commanded it to spring from nothing into existluntil he passed along every square mile on its ence, who " measures the ocean in the hollow of
surface, and to continue his route without inter- his hand, who weigheth the mountains in scales,
mission, at the rate of 30 miles every day, it and hangeth the earth upon nothing!"
would, require 18,264 years before he could finish   It is essentially requisite, before proceeding to
his tour, and complete the survey of "this huge the survey of objects and magnitudes of a superotundity on which we tread:" so that, had he rior order, that we should endeavor, by such a
commenced his excursion on the day on which train of thought as the preceding, to form some
Adam was created, and continued it to the present tolerable and clear conception of the bulk of -he
-ho1ur, he would not have accomplished one-third globe we inhabit; for it is the only body we can
part of this vast tour.                        use as a standard of comparison to guide the mind
In estimating the size and extent of the earth, in its conceptions, when it roams abroad to other
we ought also to take into -consideration, the vast regions of material existence. And from what
variety of objects with which it is diversified, and has been now stated, it appears, that we have no
the numerous animated beings with which it is adequate conception of a magnitude of so vast an
stored;-the great. divisions of land and water, extent; or at least, that the mind cannot, in any
the continents, seas, and islands, into which it is one instant, form to itself a distinct and compredistributed; the lofty ranges of mountains which hensive idea of it, in any measure corresponding
rear their heads to the clouds; the unfathomable to the reality.
abysses of the ocean; its vast subterraneous   Hitherto, then, we have fixed only on a detercaverns and burning mountains; and the lakes, r minate magnitude-on a scale of a few inches, as
rivers, and stately forests, with which it is so  it were, in order to assist us in our measurement
magnificently adorned;-the many millions of and conception of magnitudes still more august
animals, of every size and form, from the elephant and astonishing. When we contemplate by the
to the mite, which traverse its surface; the nume- light of science, those magnificent globes which
rous tribes of fishes, from the enormous whale to float around us in the concave of the sky, the
the diminutive shrimp, which "Rplay" in the earth, with all its sublime scenery, stupendous as
mighty ocean; the aerial tribes which sport in the it is, dwindles into an inconsiderable ball. If we
regions above us, and the vast mass of the sur- pass from our globe to some of the other bodies
rounding atmosphere, which encloses the earth of the planetary system, we shall find that one
and all its inhabitants, as " with a swaddling band." of these stupendous orbs is more than 900 times
The immense variety of beings with which our the size of our world, and encircled with a ring
terrestrial habitation is furnished, conspires, with 200,000 miles in diameter, which would nearly
every other consideration, to exalt our concep- reach from the earth to the moon, and would entiOns of that Power by which our globe, and all close within its vast circumference several hunthat it contains, were brought into existence.  dreds of worlds' as large as ours. Another of
The preceding illustrations, however, exhibit these planetary bodies, which appears to the vulthe vast extent of the earth, considered only as a gar eye only as a brilliant speck on the vault of
mere superficies. But we know that the earth is heavenis  s found to be of such a size, that it would
a solid globe, whose specific gravity is nearly five require 1400 globes of the bulk of the earth to
times denser than water, or about twice as dense form one equal to it -in dimensions.  The whole
as the mass of earth and rocks which compose its of the bodies which compose the solar system
surface. Though we cannot dig into its bowels (without taking the sun and the comets into acbeyond a mile in perpendicular depth, to explore count) contain a mass of matter 2500 timnes greatits hidden wonders, yet we may easily conceive er than that of the earth. The sun itself is 520
what a vast and indescribable mass of matter times larger than all the planetary globes taken
must be contained between the two opposite por- together; and one million three hundred thousand
tions of its external circumference, reaching 8000 times larger than the terraqueous globe. This is
miles in every direction. The solid contents of one of the most glorious and magnificent visible
this ponderous ball is no less than 263,858,149,120  objects which either the eye or the imagination
cubical miles-a mass of material substance of can contemplate; especially wlen we consider,
which we can form but a very faint and imperfect what perpetual, and incomprehensible, and powconception: in proportion to which, all the lofty erful influence it exerts-what warmth, and beaumountains which rise above its:surface, are less ty, and activity it diffuses, not only on the globe
than a few grains of sand, when compared with we inhabit, but over the more extensive regions
the largest artificial globe. Were the earth a hol- of surrounding worlds. Its energy extends to the
low sphere, surrounded merely with an external utmost limits of the planetary system-to the
shell of earth and water ten miles thick, its inter- planet Herschel which revolves at the distance of
nal cavity would be sufficient to contain a quan- 1800 millions of miles from its surface, and there
tity of materials one hundred and thirty-three times it dispenses light, and color, and comfort, to all
greater than the whole mass of continents, islands, the beings connected with that far distant orb, and
and oceans, on its surface, and the foundations on to all the moons which roll around it.
which they are supported. We have the strongest   Here the imagination begins to be overpowered
reasons, however, to conclude, that the earth, in and bewildered in its conceptions of magnitude,
its general structure, is one solid mass, from the when it has advanced scarcely a single step in its




OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY.                                    19
excursions through the material world. For it is surface of a small planet, should be able to descry
highly probable, that all the matter contained  the utmost boundaries of the empire of Him who
within the limits of the solar system, incompre- fills immensity, and dwells in "light inapproachhensible as its magnitude appears, bears a smaller able."  That portion of his dominions, however,
proportion to the whole mass of the material uni- which lies within the range of our view, presents
verse, than a single grain of sand to all the'parti- such a scene of magnificence and grandeur, as
cles of matter contained in the body of the sun must fill the mind of every reflecting person with
and his attending planets.                     astonishment and reverence, and constrain him to
If we extend our views from the solar system  exclaim, " Great is our Lord, and of great power,
to the starry heavens, we have to penetrate, in our his understanding is infinite." " When I consider
imagination, a space which the swiftest ball that thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon
was ever projected, though in perpetual motion, and the stars, which thou hast ordained; what is
would not traverse in ten hundred thousand  man, that thou art mindful of him?"  " I have
years. In those trackless regions of immensity, heard of thee by the hearing of the ear;" I have
we behold an assemblage of resplendent globes, listened to subtile disquisitions on thy character
similar to the sun in size and in glory, and doubtless and perfections, and have been but little affected;
accompanied with a retinue of worlds, revolving " but now mine eve seeth thee: wherefore I humlike our own around their attractive influence. ble myself, and repent in dust and ashes."
The immense distance at which the nearest stars   In order to feel the full force of the impression
are known to be placed proves that they are bodies made by such contemplations, the mind must
of a prodigious size, not inferior to our own sun, pause at every step in its excursions through the
and that they shine not by reflected rays, but by boundless regions of material existence; for it is
their own native light. But bodies encircled with not by a mere attention to the figures and numsuch refulgent splendor would be of little use in bers by which the magnitudes of the great bodies
the economy of Jehovah's empire, unless sur- of the universe are expressed, that we arrive at
rounding worlds were cheered by their benign  the most distinct and ample conceptions of objects
influence, and enlightened by their beams. Every so grand and overwhelming. The mind, in its
star is, therefore, with good reason, concluded to intellectual range, must dwell on every individual
be a sun, no less spacious than ours, surrounded scene it contemplates, and on the various objects
by a host of planetary globes, which revolve of which it is composed. It must add scene to
around it as a center, and derive from it light and scene, magnitude to magnitude, and compare
heat and comfort. Nearly a thousand of these smaller objects with greater-a range of mounluminaries may be seen in a clear winter night by tains with the whole earth, the earth with the
the naked eye;- so that a mass of matter equal to planet Jupiter, Jupiter with the sun, the sun with
a thousand solar systems, or to thirteen hundred a thousand stars, a thousand stars with eighty miland twenty millions of globes of the size of the earth, lions, and eighty millions with all the boundless
may be perceived by every common observer in extent which lies beyond the limits of mortal
the canopy of heaven. But all the celestial orbs vision; and, at every step of this mental process,
which are perceived by the unassisted sight do not sufficient time must be allowed for the imaginaform the eighty thousandth part of those which  tion to expatiate on the objects before it, until the
may be descried by the help of optical instru- ideas approximate, as near as possible, to the rements. The telescope has enabled us to descry in ality. In order to form a comprehensive concepcertain spaces in the heavens, thousands of stars tion of the extent of the terraqueous globe, the
where the naked eye could scarcely discern twenty. mind must dwell on an extensive landscape, and
The late celebrated astronomer, Dr. Herschel, has the objects with which it is adorned: it must eninformed us, that in the most crowded parts of the deavor to survey the many thousands of diversiMilky-way, when exploring that region with his fled landscapes which the earth exhibits-the hills
best glasses, he has had fields of view which con- and plains, the lakes and rivers and mountains,
tained no less than 588 stars, and these were con- which stretch in endless variety over its surface:
tinued for many minutes; so that " in one quarter it must dive into the vast caverns of the oceanof an hour's time there passed no less than one penetrate into the subterraneous regions of the
hundred and sixteen thousand stars'through the globe, and wing its way, amidst clouds and temfield of view of his telescope."               pests, through the surrounding atmosphere. It
It has been computed, that nearly one hundred must next extend its flight through the more exmillions of stars might be perceived by the most pansive regions of the solar system-realizing, in
perfect instruments, were all the regions of the imagination, those magnificent scenes which can
sky thoroughly explored; and yet, all this vast as- be descried neither by the naked eye nor by the
semblage of suns and worlds, when compared telescope; and comparing the extent of our subwith what lies beyond the utmost boundaries of lunary world with the more magnificent globes
human vision, in the immeasurable spaces of cre- that roll around us. Leaving the sun and all his atation, may be no more than as the smallest par- tendant planets behind, until they have diminished
ticle of vapor to the immense ocean. Immeasu- to the size of a small twinkling star, it must next
rable regions of space lie beyond the utmost limits wing its way to the starry regions, and pass from
of mortal view, into which even imagination itself one system of worlds to another, from one Neean scarcely penetrate, and which are, doubtless, bula* to another, from one region of Nebulae to
replenished with the operations of Divine Wisdom  another, until it arrive at the utmost boundaries
and Omnipotence. For it cannot be supposed'of creation which human genius has explored. It
that a being so diminutive as man, whose stature must also endeavor to extend its flight beyond all
scarcely exceeds six feet-who vanishes from the that is visible by the best telescopes, and expatiate
sight at the distance of a league-whose whole at large in that boundless expanse into which no
habitation is invisible from  the nearest star-  human eye has yet penetrated, and which is doubtwhose powers of vision are so imperfect, and less replenished with other worlds, and systems,
whose mental faculties are so limited-it cannot and firmaments, where the operations of infinite
be supposed that man, who " dwells in tabernacles power and beneficence are displayed, in endless
of clay, who is crushed before the moth," and
ehained down, by the force of gravitation, to the  " For an account of the JVebule, see oh. ii, Art..stronomy.




20                           THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
variety, throughout the illimitable regions of a less accurate idea; because, its rapidity being se
space.                                         great, we cannot trace it distinctly by the eye
Here, then, with reverence, let us pause and through its whole range, from the mouth of the
wonder!  Over all this vast assemblage of mate- cannon to the object against whic] it is impelled
rial existence, God presides. Amidst the diversi- By experiments, it has been found that its rate of
fled objects and intelligences it contains, he is motion is from 480 to 800 miles in an hour, but it
eternally and essentially present. By his unerring is retarded every moment by the resistance of the
wisdom, all its complicated'movements are direct- air and the attraction of the earth. This velocity,
ed. By his Almighty fiat, it emerged from nothing however, great as it is, bears no sensible proporinto existence, and is continually supported from  tion to the rate of motion which is found among
age to age. " HE SPAKE, AND IT WAS DONE; HE the celestial orbs. That such enormous masses
cOMMANDED, AND IT STOOD FAST."  "By the word  of matter should move at all is wonderful: butl
of the Lord were the heavens made, and all the when we consider the amazing velocity with
host of them by the spirit of his mouth."  What which they are impelled, we are lost in astonishan astonishing display of Divine power is here melnt. The planet Jupiter, in describing its cirexhibited to our view! How far transcending all cuit round the sun, moves at the rate of 29,000
finite comprehension must be lte energies of Him  miles an hour. The planet Venus, one of tie
who only "spake, and it was done;" who only nearest and most brilliant of the celestial bodies,
gave the command, and this mighty system of the and about the same size as the earth, is found to
universe, with all its magnificence, started into move through the spaces of the firmament at the
being!  The infinite; ease with which this vast rate of 76,000 miles an hour; and the planet Merfabric was reared, leads us irresistibly to conclude cury, with a velocity of no less than 105,OUO
that there are powers and energies in the Divine miles an hour, or 1750 miles in a minute-a momind which have never yet been exerted, and tion two hundred times swifter than that of a canwhich may unfold themselves to intelligent be- non ball.
ings, in the production of still more astonishing    These velocities will appear still more astonishand magnificent effects, during an endless succes- ing, if we consider the magnitude of the bodies
sion of existence. That man who is not impress- which are thus impelled, and the immense forces
ed with a venerable and overwhelming sense of which are requisite to carry them along in their
the power and majesty of Jehovah by such con- courses.. However rapidly a ball flies from  the
templations, must have a mind incapable of ardent mouth of a cannon, it is the flight of a body of
religious emotions, and unqualified for appreciating only afiw inches in diameter; but one of the bothe grandeur of that Being " whose kingdom ruleth dies, whose motion has been just now stated, is
over all."  And shall such ennobling views be eighty-nine thousand miles in diameter, and would
completely withheld from a Christian audience? comprehend within its vast circumference more
Shall it be considered as a matter of mere indif- than a thousand globes as large as the earth.ference whether their views of the Creator's Could we contemplate such motions from a fixed
works be limited to the sphere of a few miles point, at the distance of only a few hundreds of
around them, or extended to ten thousand worlds? miles from  the bodies thus impelled-it would
-whether they shall be left to view the operations raise our admiration to its highest pitch, it would
of the Almighty throughout eternity past and to overwhelm  all our faculties, and, in our present
come, as confined to a small globe, placed in the state would produce an impression of awe, and
immensity of space, with a number of brilliant even of terror, beyond the power of language to
studs fixed in the arch of heaven, at a few miles' express. The earth contains a mass of matter
distance, or, as extending through the boundless equal in weight to at least 2,200,000,000,000,000,dimensions of space?-whether they shall be left 000,000, or more than two thousand trillions of
to entertain no higher idea of the Divine Majesty tons, supposing its mean density to be only aLoiyt
than what may be due to one of the superior or- 21/ times greater than water. To move this ponders of the seraphim or cherubim; or, whether derous mass, a single inch beyond its position,
they shall be directed to form the most august were it fixed in a quiescent state, would require a
conceptions of the King eternal, immortal, and mechanical force almost beyond the power of
invisible, corresponding to the displays he has numbers to express. The physical force of all
given of his glory in his visible works?  If it be the myriads of intelligences within the bounds
not, both reason and piety require that such illus- of the planetary system, though their powers were
trations of the Divine perfections should occa- far superior to those of man, would be altogether
sionally be exhibited to their view.           inadequate to the production of such a motion.
In the next place, the rapid motions of the great How much more must be the force requisite to
bodies of the universe, no less than their magni- impel it with a velocity one hundred and forty
tudes, display the infinite power of the Creator.  times swifter than a cannon ball, or 68,000 miles
We can acquire accurate ideas of the relative an hour, the actual rate of its motion, in its course
velocities of moving bodies, only by comparing round the sun! But what6ver degree of mechanithe motions with which we are -familiar with one cal power would be requisite to produce such a
another, and with those which lie beyond the ge- stupendous effect, it would require a force one
neral range of our minute inspection. We can hundred and fifty times greater to impel the planet
acquire a pretty accurate conception of the ve- Jupiter, in its actual course, through the heavens!
locity of a ship impelled by thewind-of a steam- Even the planet Saturn, one of the slowest movboat-of a race-horse —of a bird darting through ing bodies of our system, a globe 900 times larger
the air —of an arrow flying from a bow-and of than the earth, is impelled through the regions of
the clouds when impelled by a stormy wind. The space, at the rate of 22,000 miles an hour, carryvelocity of a ship is from 8 to 12 miles an hour,-  ing along with it two stupendous rings, and seven
of a race-horse, from 20 to 30 miles, —of a bird, moons larger than ours, through its whole course
say-from  50 to 60 miles, and of the clouds, in a round the central luminary. Were we placed
violent, hurricane, from 80 to 100 miles an hour. within a thousand miles of this stupendous globe
The motion of a ball from a loaded cannon is in- (a station which superior beings may occasionally
comparably swifter than any of the motions now  occupy), where its hemisphere, encompassed by
Stated: but of the velocity of such a body we have its magnificent rings, would fill the whole extent




OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY.                                       21
of our vision-the view of such a ponderous and idea of grandeur irresistibly bursts upon the
glorious object, flying with such amazing velocity mind; and if empty space can, in any sense, be
before us, would infinitely exceed every idea of considered as an object of sublimity, nothing can
grandeur we can derive from  terrestrial scenes, fill the mind with a grander idea of magnitude
and overwhelm our powers with astonishment and and extension than the amplitude of the scale on
awe. Under such an emotion, we could only ex- which planetary systems are constructed. Around
clainm, " GREAT AND MARVELOUS ARE THY WORKS, the body of the sun there is allotted a cubical
LoRi GoD ALMIGHTY!" The ideas of strength and space, 3600 millions of miles in diameter, in
poewer implied in the impulsion of such enormous which eleven planetary globes revolve-every one
masses of matter, through the illimitable tracts of being separated from another, by intervals of many
space, are forced upon the mind with irresistible millions of miles.  The space which surrounds
energy, far surpassing what any abstract propo- the utmost limits of our system, extending, in
sitions or reasonings call convey; and, constrain every direction, to the nearest fixed stars, is at
us to exclaim, " Who is a strong Lord like unto least 40,000,000,000,000, or forty billions of miles
thee! Thy right hand has become glorious in in diameter; and, it is highly probable, that every
power! The Lord God omnipotent relgneth!"'   star is surrounded by a space of equal or even
If we consider the immense number of bodies of g'rreater exteit. A  body impelled with the
thus impelled through the vast spaces of the uni- greatest velocity which art can produce-a can-.verse-the rapidity with which the comets, when non ball, for instance-would  require twenty
near the sun, are carried through the regions they years to pass through the space that intervenes
traverse,-if we consider the high probability, if between the earth and the sun, and four millions
not absolute certainty, that the sun, with all its seven hundred thousand years ere it could reach
attendant planets and comets, is impelled with a the nearest star. Though the stars seem to be
still greater degree of velocity toward some dis- crowded together in clusters, and some of them
tant region of space, or around some wide cir- almost to touch one another, yet the distance becumnference-that all the thousands of systems of tween any two stars which seem  to make the
that nebula to which the sun belongs are moving nearest approach, is such as neither words can
in a similar manner-that all the nebulae in the express, nor imagination fathom. These immense
heavens are moving around some magnificent spaces are as unfathomable, on the one hand,,as
central body,-in short, that all the suns and the magnitude of the bodies which move in them,
worlds in the universe are in rapid and perpetual and their prodigious velocities are incomprehenmotion, as constituent portions of one grand and sible, on the other; and they form a part of those
boundless empire, of which Jehovah is the Sove- magnificent proportions according to which the
reign-and if we consider still further, that all fabric of universal nature was arranged-all corthese mighty movements have been going on, responding to the majesty of that infinite and ilnwithout intermission, during the course of many comprehensible Being, " who measures the ocean
centuries, and some of them, perhaps, for myriads in the hollow  of his hand, and meteth out the
of ages before the foundation of our world was heavens with a span."  How wonderful that bolaid-it is impossible for the human mind to form  dies at such prodigious distances should exert a
any adequate idea of the stupendous forces which mutual influence on one another! that the moon,
are in incessant operation throughout the unlim- at the distance of 240,000 miles, should raise tides
ited empire of the Almighty. To estimate such in the ocean, and currents in the atmosphere! that
mechanical force, even in a single instance, com- the sun, at the distance of ninety-five millions of
pletely baffles the mathematician's skill, and sets miles, should raise the vapors, move the ocean,
the power of numbers at defiance. "Language," direct the course of the winds, fructify the earth,
and figures, and comparisons, are "lost in won- and distribute light, and heat, and color, through
ders so sublime," and the mind, overpowered with every region of the globe! yea, that its attractive
such reflections, is irresistibly led upward to search influence and fructifying energy should extend
for the cause in that OMNIPOTENT BEING who up- even to the planet Herschel, at the distance of
holds the pillars of the universe-the thunder of eighteen hundred millions of miles! So that, in
whose power none can comprehend.               every point of view in which the universe is conWhile contemplating such august objects, how  templated, we perceive the same grand scale of
emphatic and impressive appears the language of operation by which the Almighty has arranged
the Sacred Oracles: " Canst thou by searching the provinces of his universal kingdom.
find out God?  Canst thou find out the Almighty    We would now ask, in the name of all that is
unto perfection?  Great things doth he which we sacred, whether such magnificent manifestations
cannot comprehend. Thine, 0 Lord, is the great- of Deity ought to be considered as irrelevant in
ness, and the glory, and the majesty; for all that the business of religion, and whether they ought
is in heaven and earth is thine.  Among the gods to be thrown completely into the shade, in the
there is none like unto thee, O Lord; neither are discussions which take place on religious topics,
there any works like unto thy works. Thou art in "the assemblies of the saints!"  If religion
great, and dost wondrous things: thou art God consist in the intellectual apprehension of the peralone. Hast thou not known, hast; thou  not fections of God, and in the moral effects proheard, that the everlasting God, the Lord, the duced by such an apprehension-if all the rays
Creator of all things, fainteth not, neither is of glory emitted by the luminaries -of heaven are
weary? there is no searching of his understand- only so many reflections of the grandeur of Him
ing. Let all the earth fear the Lord, let all the who dwells in light inapproachable-if they have
inhabitants of the world stand in awe of him; a tendency to assist the mind in forming its confor he spalke, and it was done; he commanded, and ceptions of that ineffable Being, whose uncreated
it stood fast."                                glory cannot be directly contemplated-and if
Again, the immense spaces which surround the they are calculated to produce a sublime and awheavenly bodies, and in which they perform their ful impression on all created intelligences,-shall
revolutions, tend to expand our conceptions on we rest contented with a less glorious iadea of God
this subject, and to illustrate the magnificence of than his works are calculated to afford?  Shall
the Divine operations. In whatever point of view  we disregard the works of the Lord, and contemn
we contenplate. the scenery of the heavens, an the operations of his hands, and that too in the




22                          THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
face of all the invitations on this subject address- august and impressive conception of the greatness
ed to us from heaven?  For thus saith Jehovah- of that Power which first set it, ill motion, and
"Lift up your eyes on high, and behold, who hath continues the rapid whirl from  age to age! —
created these things-who bringeth forth their Though the huge masses of the Alpine mounhost by number?-I the Lord, who, maketh all tains were in a moment detached from their founthings, who stretched forth the heavens alone, and dations, carried aloft through the regions of the
spread abroad the earth by myself; all their host air, and tossed into the Mediterranean sea, it
have I commanded."  And if, at the command would convey no idea of a force equal to that
of God, we lift our eyes to the "firmament of his which is every moment exerted, if the earth repower," surely we ought to do it not with a " brute volve on its axis. But should the motion of the
unconscious gaze," not with the vacant stare of a earth be called in question, or denied, the idea of
savage, not as if we were still enveloped with the force, or power, will be indefinitely increased.mists and prejudices of the dark ages —-but as sur- For, in this case, it must necessarily be admitted
rounded by that blaze of light whichmodein science that the heavens, with all the innumerable hosts
has thrown upon the scenery of -the sky, in order of stars, have a diurnal motion around our globe;
that we may contemplate, with fixed attention, all which motion must be inconceivably more rapid
that enlightened reason, aided-.?by the nicest ob- than that of the earth,'on the supposition of its
servations, has ascertained respecting the magni- motion. For, in proportion as the celestial bodies
ficence of the celestial orbs. -To'overlook the are distant from the earth, in the same proportion
sublime discoveries of modern times, to despise would'be the rapidity of their movements. The
them, or to call in question their reality as some sun, on this supposition, would move at the rate
religionists have done, because they bring' to our of 414,000 miles in a minute; the nearest stars at
ears such astonishing reports of " the eternal pow- the rate of; fourteen' hundred millions of miles in
er" and majesty of Jehovah-is to act.as if we were a second; and the most distant luminaries, with a
afraid lest the Deity should be'represented as more degree of swiftness which no numbers could exgrand and magnificent than he really is, and as-if  press.*  Such velocities, too, would be the rate
we would be better pleased to pay him  a less of motion, not merely of a single globe like the
share of homage and adoration than is due to his earth, but of all the ten thousand times tell thouname.                                            sand spacious globes that exist within the boundaPerhaps some may be disposed to insinuate, that ries of creation. This view conveys an idea of
the views now stated are above the level- of ordi- power still more august and overwhelming than
nary comprehension, and founded too much on any of the views already stated, and.we dare not
scientific considerations, to be stated in detail to a presume to assert that such a degree of physical
common audience. To any insinuations of this force is beyond the limits of Infinite perfection:
kind it may be replied, that such illustrations as but on the supposition it existed, it would conthose to which we have referred, are more easily found all our ideas of the wisdom and intelligence
comprehended than many of those abstract:dis- of the Divine mind, and would appear altogether
cussions to which they are frequently accustomed; inconsistent with the character which the Scrip.
since they are definite and tangible, being derived tures give us of the Deity as " the only-wise
from those objects which strike the senses and the God."  For it would exhibit a stupendous sysimagination.  Any person of common under- tem  of means altogether disproportioned to the
standing may be made to comprehend the leading end intended; namely, to produce the alternate
ideas of extended'space, magnitude, and motion, succession of day and night to the inhabitants of
which have been stated above, provided the de- our globe, which is more beautifully and harmoniscriptions be sufficiently simple, clear, and well- ously effected by a single rotation on its axis, as
defined; and should they be at a loss to compre- is the case with the other globes which compose
hend the principles on which the conclusions rest, the planetary system. Such considerations, howor the mode by which the magnificence of the ever, show us that, on whatever hypothesis, wheworks of God has been ascertained, an occasional ther on the vulgar or the scientific, or in whatever
reference to such topics would excite them to in- other point'of view the frame of nature may be
quiry and investigation, and -to the exercise of contemplated, the mind is irresistibly impressed
their powers of observation and reasoning on such with ideas of power, grandeur, and magnificence.
subjects-which are too frequently directed to far And, therefore, when an inquiring mind is di.
less important objects.                          rected to contemplate the works of God, on any
The following illustration, however, stands clear hypothesis it may' choose, it has a tendency to
of every objection of this kind, and is level to the rouse reflection, and to stimulate the exercise of
comprehension of every man of common sense:-  the moral and intellectual faculties, on objects
Either the earth moves round its axis once in which are worthy of the dignity of immortal
twenty-four hours-or the sun, moon, planets, co- minds.
mets, stars, or the whole frame of the universe,   We may now be, in some measure, prepared to
move around the earth in the same time.  There decide, whether illustrations of the Omnipotence
is no alternative, or third opinion, that can be of the Deity, derived from the system of the maformed on this point. If the earth revolve on its terial world, or those vague and metaphysical dis
axis every twenty-four hours, to produce the al- quisitions which are generally given in theologiternate succession of day and night, the portions cal systems, be most calculated to impress the
of its surface about the equator must move at the mind, and to inspire it with reverence and adorarate of more than a thousand miles an hour, since tion. The following is a description given of this
the earth is more than twenty-four thousand miles attribute of God, by a well-known systematic
in circumference. This view of the fact, when writer, who has generally been considered as a
attentively considered, furnishes a most sublime  judicious and orthodox divine:and astonishing idea.  That a globe of so vast   "God is Almighty.t  This will evidently apdimensions, with all its load of mountains, conti- pear, in that, if he be:iinfinite in all his other pernents, and oceans, comprising within its circum- fections, he must be so in power; thus, if he be
ference a mass of two hundred and sixty-four
thousand millions of cubical miles, should whirl
round with so amazing a velocity, gives us a most   * See Appendix, Note l.     t Rev. i. 18; iv. &




OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY                                       23
omniscient, he knows what is possible or expe- aspects; and this object must always'lave a rela.
dienL to be done; and if he be an infinite sove- tion to the material world, whether it be viewed
reign, heo-wills whatever shall come to pass. Now  ill connection with religion or with any other
this knowledge would.be insignificant, and his subject.
power inefficacious, were he not infinite in power,   Thus, I have endeavored,- in the preceding
or almighity.. Again, this might' be argued from  sketches, to present a few detached illustrations
his justice, either in rewarding or punishing; for, of the Omnipotence and grandeur of the. Deity,
if he were not infinite in power, he could do- as displayed in the vast magnitude of the material
neither of these, at least so far as to render him  universe-the stupendous velocities of the celesthe object of that desire or fear, which' is agreea- tial bodies-and in the immeasurable regions of
ble to the nature of these perfections; neither space which surround them, and in which their
could infinite faithfulness accomplish all the pro- motions are performed. Such a magnificent specmises which he hath made, so as to excite that tacle as the fabric of the universe presents-so
trust and dependence, which is a part of religious'majestic, godlike, and overwhelming, to beings
worship; nor could he say without limitation, as who dwell "in tabernacles of clay "-was surely
he does, I have spoken it, I will also bring it topass: never intended to be overlooked, or to be gazed at
I have purposed it, I will also do it.*  But since with indifference, by creatures endowed with reapower is visible in, and demonstrated by its effects, son and intelligence, and destined to an immortal
and infinite power by those effects which cannot existence. In forming a universe composed of
be produced by a creature, we may observe the so many immense systems and worlds, and realmighty power of God in all his works, both of plenished with such a variety of sensitive and
nature and grace; thus his eternal power is un- intelligent existences, the Creator, doubtless, inderstood,- as the apostle says, by the things that are tended that it should make a sublime and reverenmade;t not that there was an eternal production tial impression on the minds of all the intellectual
of things, but the exerting this power in time, beings to whom it might be displayed, and that it
proves it to be infinite and truly divine; for no should convey some palpable idea of the infinite
creature can produce'the smallest particle of mat- glories of his nature, in so far as material objects
ter out of -nothing, much less furnish the various can be supposed to -adumbrate the perfections of a
species of creatures with those endowments in spiritual and uncreated Essence.  Dwelling in
which they excel one another, and set forth their light "inaccessible " to mortals, and forever vailed
Creator's glory. And the glory of his power is from the highest created being, by the pure spino less visible in the works of providence, where- rituality and immensity of his nature, there is no
by he upholds all things, disposes of them accord- conceivable mode by which the infinite gran.
tag to his pleasure, and brings about events which deur of Deity could be exhibited to finite intelli.
only he who has an almighty arm can effect."t   gences, but through the medium  of those magThis is the whole that Dr. Ridgely. judges it nificent operations which are incessantly going
necessary to state in illustration of the attribute forward throughout the boundless regions of space.
of' Omnipotence, except what he says in relation Concealed from the gaze of all the "principalities
to its operation' in "the work of grace," in "the and powers" in heaven, in the unfathomable
propagation and success of the Gospel," etc.; sub- depths of his Essence, he displays his presence in
jects to which the idea of power, or physical en- the universe he has created, and the glory of his
ergy, does not properly apply. Such, however, power, by launching magnificent worlds into exare the meager and abstract disquisitions general- istence, by adorning them with diversified splenly given by most systematic writers. There is a dors, by peopling them with various ranks of incontinual play on the term " Infinite," which, to telligent existence', and by impelling them in their
most minds conveys no idea at all, unless it be movements through the illimitable tracts of creaassociated with ample conceptions of motion, tion.
magnitude, and extension; and it is constantly   It will readily be admitted by every enlightened
applied to subjects to wl.ich it was never intended Christian, that it must be a highly desirable at-to apply, such as "infinite faithfulness, infinite tainment, to acquire the most glorious idea of the
justice, infinite truth," etc,; an application of the Divine Being, which the limited capacity of our
term which is never sanctioned by Scripture, and minds is capable of receiving. This is one of the
which has a tendency to introduce confusion into grand difficulties in religion. The idea of a Being
our conceptions of the perfections of God.- purely IMMATERIAL, yet pervading infinite space,
Granting that the statements and reasonings in and possessed of no sensible qualities, confounds
such an extract as the above were unquestionable' and bewilders the human intellect, so that its conyet what impression can they make upon the ceptions, on the one hand, are apt to verge toward
mind?  Would an ignorant:person feel his con- extravagancy, while, on the other, they are apt to
ception of the Divinity, much enlarged, or his degenerate into something approaching to inanity.
moral powers aroused by such vague and general Mere abstract ideas and reasonings respecting instatements?'And, if not, it appears somewhat finity, eternity, and absolute perfection, however
unaccountable, that those sources of illustration sublime we"tmay conceive them to be, completely
which would, convey the most ample and definite fail in arresting the understanding, and affecting
views of the "eternal power" and glory of God, the heart; our conceptions become vague, empty,
should be. studiously concealed from the view.- and confused, for want of a mate'rial vehicle to
Vague descriptions and' general views of any ob'- give them order, stability, and expansion. Someject will never be effectual in awakening the at- thing of the nature of vast extension, of splendid
tentiosn and arresting the faculties of the mind. and variegated objects, and of mighty movements,
The heart will always remain unimpressed, and is absolutely necessary, in order to convev to
the understanding will never be thoroughly ex-. spirits dwelling in bodies of clay, a definite. concited in its exercise, unless the intellect have pre- ception of the invisible glories of the Eternal
sented before it a well-defined and interesting ob- Mind; and, therefore, in the immense variety of
ject, and be enabled to survey it in its various material existence with which the universe is
~-  -.      -. -adorned, we find every requisite assistance of this
Isaiah xlvi. 11.            -t Romans i. 20.  kind to direct and expand our views of the Great
$ Ridgely's Body of Divinity, p. 39.          Object of our adoration. When the mind is per



24                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
plexed and overwhelmed with its conceptions, derived his origin from the dust, he is allied to the
-when it labors, as it were, to -form some well de- beasts that perish, and he is fast hastening to the
fiiied conceptions of an Infinite Being, it here grave, where his carcass will become the food of
finds some tangible'objects on which to fix, some noisome reptiles. He is every moment dependent
sensible substratum for its thoughts to rest upon on a Superior Being for every pulse that beats,
for a little, while it attempts to penetrate,-in its and every breath he draws, and for all that he
excursions, into those distant regions which eye possesses; he is dependent even on the mneanest
hath not seen, -and to connect the whole of its of his species for his accommodations and commental survey with the energies of the "King forts.  He holds every enjoyment on the most
Eternal, Immortal, and Invisible."               precarious tenure,-his friends may be snatched
To such a train of thought we are uniformly  in a moment from his embrace; his riches may
directed in the Sacred Oracles, where Jehovah is take to themselves wings and fly away; and his
represented as describing himself by the effects health and beauty may be blasted in all hour, by
which his power and wisdom  have produced:-   a breath of wind. Hunger and thirst, cold and
" Israel shall be saved in the Lord with an ever- heat, poverty and disgrace, sorrow and disappoint-.
lasting salvation. For thus saith Jehovah that ment, pain and disease, mingle themselves with
created the heavens; God himself that formed the all his pursuits and enljoyments.  His knowledge
earth and made it; he hath established it, he crea- is circumscribed within the narrowest linlits, his
ted it iot hin vain, he formed it to be inhabited; I errors and follies are glaring and innumerable;
am the Lord, and thereis none else."." I have and he stands as an almost undistinguishable
made the earth and created manlupon it, my hands atom, amidst the immensity of God's works.
have stretched out the heavens, and all their hosts Still, with all these powerful inducements to the
have I commanded. Hearken unto me, O Israel: exercise of humility, man dares to be proud and
I am  the first, I also am  the last.  Mine hand arrogant:
also hath laid thefoundation of the earth, and my                   Man, prond man,
right hand hath spanned the heavens; when I call      1)ress'd in a little brief authority,
unto them, they stand up together. Who hath           Plays such fantastic tricks before high heaven,
measured the waters in the hollow of his hand,        As male the angels weep.
and meted out heaven with a span, and weighed HIow affecting to contemplate the warrior, flushed
the mountains in scales? - He who sitteth upon the with  diabolical pride, pursuing his conquests
circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are through heaps of slain, in order to obtain possesas grasshoppers; that stretcheth out the heavens sion of " a poor pitiable speck of perishing earth;"
as a curtain, that fainteth not, neither is weary." exclaiming in his rage, "I will pursue, I will
"The Lord made. the heavens, the heaven of hen- overtake, I will divide the spoil, my lust shall be
vens, with all their hosts; honor and majesty are satisfied upon them, I will draw the sword, my
before him, and his kingdom ruleth over all." *   hand shall destroy them"-to behold the mnan of
Such sublime descriptions of Jehovah, and refer- rank glorying in his wealth, and his empty titles,
ences to his material works, are reiterated in every and looking around upon the inferior orders of his
portion of the sacred volume: and the import' and fellow-mortals as the worms of the dust-to besublimity of such expressions cannot be fully ap- hold the man of ambition pushing his way through
preciated, unless we take into view all the mag- bribery, and treachery, and slaughter, to gain posnificent objects which science has unvailed in the' session of a throne, that he may look down with
distant regions of creation.                     proud pre-eminence upon his fellows-to behold
This subject is calculated, not merely to over- the haughty airs of the noble dame, inflated with
power the intellect with an idea of sublimity and the idea of her beauty, and her high birth, as she
grandeur, but also to produce deep mo'ral im- struts along, surveying the ignoble crowd, as if
pressions upon the heart; and a Christian philoso- they were the dust beneath her feet-to behold the
pher would be deficient in his duty were he to smatterer in learning, puffed up with a vain conoverlook this tendency of the objects of his con- ceit of his superficial acquirements, when he has
templation.                                      scarcely entered the porch of knowledge,-in
One important moral effect which this subject fine, to behold all ranks, from  the highest to the
has a natural tendency to produce, is, profound lowest, big with an idea of their own importance,
HUMILITY. What an insignificant being does man and fired with pride and revenge at the least proappear, when he compares himself with the mag- vocation, whether imaginary or real! How innificence of creation, and with the myriads of consistent the manifestations of such tempers,
exalted  intelligences with which it is peopled! with the many humiliating circumstances of our
What are all' the honors and splendors of this present condition, and with the low rank which
earthly ball, of which mortals are so proud, when we hold in the scale of Universal Being.
placed in competition with the resplendent glories   It is not improbable, that there are in the uniof the skies!  Such a display as the Almighty verse, intelligences of a superior order, in whose
has given of himself, in the magnitude and variety breasts pride never found a place-to whom this
of his works, was evidently intended 4' to stain the globe of ours, and all its inhabitants, appear as
pride" of all human grandeur,' that "no flesh inconsiderable as a drop of water, filled with mishould glory in his presence."  Yet there is no croscopic animalcules, does to the proud lords of
disposition that appears so prominent among puny this earthly region. There is at least one Being
mortals as pride, ambition, and vain-glory —the to whom  this sentiment is applicable, in its utvery opposite of humility, and of all those term- most extent:-" Before HIM all nations are as a
pers which become those- "who dwell in taber- drop of a bucket, and the inhabitants of the earth
nacles of clay, and whose foundation is in the as grasshoppers; yea, they are as nothing, and are
dust."  Even without taking into account the counted to him  less than nothing and vanity"
state of man as a depraved intelligence, what is Could we wing our way with the swiftness of a
there in his situation that should inspire him with seraph, from sun to sun, and from world to world,
"lofty looks," and induce him to look down on until we had surveyed all the systems visible to
his fellow-men with supercilious contempt?  He the naked eye, which are only as a mere speck in
the map of the universe- could we, at the same
Isaiah xlv. 17, 18. 12; xlviii. 12, 13; xl. 12, 22, etc.    time, contemplate the glorious landscapes and




OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY.                                          25
scenes of grandeur they exhibit-could we also  the grouna-all proclaim the Majesty of Him, by
mingle with tile pure and exalted intelligences whom  the elements of nature are arranged and
which people those resplendent abodes, and be- directed, and seem to address the sons of men in
hold their humble and ardent adorations of their language like this: " The Lord reigneth, he is
Almnighty Makrei, their benign and condescending  clothed withI majesty; at his wrath the earth
deportment toward one another; "each esteem- trembles; a fire goeth before him, and burneth up
ing another better than himself," and all united  his enemies." —" Let all the earth fear the Lord,
in the bonds of the purest affection, without one let all the inhabitants of the world stand in awe
haughty or discordant feeling-what indignation  of him."
and astonishment would seize us on our return to    There is one reason, among others, why the
this obscure corner of creation, to behold beings  bulk of mankind feel so little veneration of God,
enveloped in the minists of ignorance, iinmersed in and that is, that they seldom  contemplate, with
depravity and wickedness, liable to a thousand ac- fixed attention, "the operations of his hands."
cidents, exposed to the ravages of the earthquake, If we wislh to cherish this sublime sentiment in
the volcano, and the storm; yet proud as Lucifer, our hearts, we must familiarize our minds to freand glorying in their shame!  We should be apt quent excursions over all those scenes of Creation
to view  them, as we now do those bedlamites, and Providence, which the volume of nature, and
who fancy themselves to be kings, surrounded by  tihe volume of inspiration, unfold to view.  We
their nobles, while they are chained to the walls must endeavor to assist our conceptions of the
of a noisome dungeon.  "Sure pride was never grandeur of these objects, by every discovery
made for mani."  How  abhorrent, then, must it which has been, or may yet be made, and by every
appear in the eyes of superior beings, who have mode of illustration by which a sublime and compretaken an expansive range through the field of hensive idea of the particular object of contemplacreation!  How abhorrent it is in the sight of the tion may be obtained.-If we would wish to acquire
Almighty, and how amiable is the opposite virtue, somine definite, though imperfect conception of the'we learn from  his word:-" Every one that is physical extent of the universe, our minds might
proud in heart is an abomination to the Lord."    be assisted by such illustrations as the following:
"God resisteth the proud, but he giveth grace to — Light flies from the sun with a velocity of nearthe humble."-" Thus saith the High and Lofty  ly two hundred thousand miles in a mnoment of
One, who inhabiteth eternity, I dwell in the high  time, or about 1,400,000 times swifter than the
and holy place; with him also that is of an hum- motion of a cannon ball.  Suppose that one of
ble and contrite spirit; to revive the spirit of the the highest order of iiitelligences is endowed witlh
humble, and the heart of the contrite ones."'-   a power of rapid motion superior to that of light,
While, therefore, we contemplate the Omnipo- and with a corresponding degree of intellectual
tenco of God in the immensity of creation, let us energy; that lie has been flying, witihout interlearn to cultivate humility and self-abasement. mission, fro m one province of creation to another,
This was one of the lessons which the pious for six thousand years, and will continue the same
Psalmist deduced friom his survey of the noctur- rapid course for a thousand minillions of years to
nal heavens. When hlie beheld the moon walking  come; it is highly probable, if not absolutely cerin brightness, and the innumerable host of stars-  tain, that at the end of this vast tour, he would
overpowered with a sense of his owii insignifi- have advanced no farther than "the suburbs of
cance, and the greatness of Divine condescension, creation "-and that all the magnificent systems
he exclaimed, " 0 Lord! what is mani, that thou of material and intellectual beings he had surveyart'mindful of him, or the son of man, tliat thou  ed during lhis rapid flight, and for such a length
shouldst visit him! "                              of ages, bear no more proportion to the whole
Again, this subject is also calculated to inspire Empire of Omnipotence, than the smiallest graia
us with REvERENCE aiid VENERATION of God. Pro- of sand does to all the particles of matter of the
found veneration of tihe Divine Being lies at the same size contained in ten thousand worlds.  Nor
foundation of all religious worship and obedience. need we entertain the least fear, that the idea of
But, inii order to reverence God ariglht, we must the extent of the Creator's power, conveyed by
know  him; and, in order to acquire the true  such a representation, exceeds the bounds of
knowledge of him, we must coiitemplate him  reality.  Onil the other hand, it must fall almost
through the medium  of those works and dispen- infinitely short of it.  For, as the poet has justly
sations, by which he displays the glories of his observednature to the inhabitants of ohr world. I have           Ca  a  ccee beyond wat God can?,, Canl man conceivie beyond wrhat God canl do? "
already exhibited a few specimens of the stupendous operations of his power, in that portion of    Were a seraph, in prosecuting the tour of creatihe system of the universe which lies open to our tion in the mainer now stated, ever to arrive at
inspection; and there is, surely, no mind in which  a limit beyond which no further displays of the
thile least spark of piety exists, but must feel Divinity could be perceived, the thought would
strong emotions of reverence and awe, at thile overwhelm  his faculties with unutterable aniguish
thought of that Almighty and Incomprehensible  and horror; he would feel, that lie had now, ini
Being, who impels the huge masses of the plane- some measure,  comprehended all the plans and
tary globes withi so amazing a rapidity through  operations of Omnipotence, and that no further
thile sky, and who has diversified the voids of space manifestations of the Divine glory remained to be
with so vast an assemblage of magnificent worlds, explored.  But we may rest assured, that this can
Even those manifestations of Deity which are never happen in the case of any created intelliconfined to the globe we inhabit, when attentively  gence. WVe have every reason to believe, both
considered, are calculated to rouse, even tIhe uni- from  the nature of an  Infinite Being, and fromin
thinking mind, to astonishment and awe. The the vast extent of creation already explored, that
lofty mountatins, and expaniisive plains, the mass the immense mass of material existence, and the
of waters in the mighty ocean, the thunders roll- endless variety of sensitive and intellectual beinigs
lng along the sky, tihe lighltnings flashing from  with which the universe is replenished, are incloud to cloud, tIhe hurricane and the tenmpest, the tended  by Jehovah, to present to his rational offvolcano vomiting rivers of fire, and the earth- spring, a shadow, an emblen, or a represeltation
quake shaking kingdoms, and leveling cities with  (in so far as finite  extended existence can be a




26                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
representation) of the Infinite Perfections of his though that meteor is splendid, and resembles the
nature, which would otherwise have remained sun, yet it resides in a cloud, and is not only
forever impalpable to-all subordinate intelligences. much beneath the sun in distance, but inferior in
In this manner, then, might we occasionally bigness and splendor."
exercise our minds on the grand and diversified    In short, were we habitually to cherish that
objects which the universe, exhibits; and, in pro- profound veneration of God which his works are
portion as we enlarge the sphere of our contem- calculated to inspire, with what humility would
plations, in a similar proportion will our views of we approach the presence of this August Being!
God himself be extended, and a corresponding with what emotions of awe would we present our
sentiment of veneration impressed upon the mind. adorations! and with what reverence would we
For the soul of man cannot reverence a mere talk of his inscrutable purposes and incompreabstract being, that was never manifested through  hensible operations!  We would not talk about
a sensible medium, however many lofty terms him as some writers have done, with the same
may be used to describe his perfections.  It reve- ease and indifference as a mathematician would
rences that Ineffable being, who conceals himself talk about the properties of a triangle, or a philobehind the scenes of Creation, through the me- sopher about the effects of a mechanical engine;
dium  of the visible display he exhibits of his nor would we treat with a spirit of levity any of
Power, Wisdom, and Beneficence, in the economy the solemn declarations of his word, or the mighty
of Nature, and in the Records of Revelation.- movements of his providence. We would be ever
Before the universe was formed, Jehovah existed ready to join with ardor in the sublime devotions
alone, possessed of every attribute which he now  of the inspired writers, "Great and marvelous
displays. But, had only one solitary intelligence are thy works, Lord God Almighty, just and true
been created, and placed in the infinite void, with- are thy ways, thou King of saints! Who would
out a material substratum  beneath and around not fear thee, O Lord, and glorify thy name?  Let
him, he could never have been animated with a all the earth fear the Lord, let all the inhabitants
sentiment of profound veneration for his Creator; of the world stand in awe of him."
because no objects existed to excite it, or to show    Lastly, The views we have taken of the omnithat his Invisible Maker was invested with those potence and grandeur of the Deity are calculated
attributes which he is now known to possess. to inspire us with HOPE and CONFIDENCE in the
Accordingly, we find in the sacred writings, that, prospect of that eternal existence which lies bewhen a sentiment of reverence is demanded from  fore us. The period of our existence in this
the sons of men, those sensible objects which are terrestrial scene will soon terminate, and those
calculated to excite the emotion are uniformly bodies, through which we now hold a corresponexhibited.  "Fear ve not me, saith the Lord? dence with the visible creation, crumble into dust.
Will ye not tremble at my presence, who have The gradual decay, and the ultimate dissolution
placed the sand for the bound of the sea, by a per- of human bodies, present a scene at which reason
petual decree, that it cannot pass it; and though stands aghast; and, on a cursory survey of the
the waves thereof toss themselves, yet they can- chambers of the dead, it is apt to exclaim, in the
not prevail; though they roar, yet can they not language of despair, "Can these dry bones live?"
pass over it?"  "Who would not fear thee, 0  A  thousand  difficulties crowd upon the mind
King of nations!  Thou art the true God, and which appear repugnant to the idea, that beauty
an everlasting King. Thou hast made the earth shall again spring out of ashes, and life out of the
by thy power, thou hast established the world by dust. But, when we look abroad to the displays
thy Wisdom, thou hast stretched out the heavens of Divine power and intelligence, in the wide exby thy discretion. When thou utterest thy voice panse of Creation, we perceive that
there is a noise of waters in the heavens, thou                     ", Almighty God
causest the vapors to ascend from the ends of the   Has done much more; nor is his arm impair'd
earth, thou makest lightnings with rain, and   Through length of days.-And what he can, he will;
bringest forth the winds out of thy treasuries."   His faithfulness stands bound to see it done.'"-BLAIR.
But however enlarged and venerable concep-   We perceive that he has created systems in such
tions of God we may derive from  the manifesta- vast profusion that no man can number therm
tions of his power, they must fall infinitely short The worlds every moment under his superintenof what is due to a being of boundless perfection. deuce and direction are unquestionably far more
For there may be attributes in the Divine Essence numerous than all the human beings who have
of which we cannot possibly form the least concep- hitherto existed, or will yet exist until the close
tion-attributes which cannot be shadowed forth  of time. And if he has not only arrahged the
or represented by any portion of the material or in- general features of each of these worlds, and estellectual world yet discovered by us, or by all the tablished the physical laws by which its economy
mighty achievements by which human redemp- is regulated, but has also arranged the diversified
tion was effected-attributes which have not yet circumstances, and directs the minutest movebeen displayed, in their effects, to the highest ments of the myriads of sensitive and intellectual
orders of intelligent existence.  And therefore, as existences it contains, we ought never for a mothat excellent philosopher and divine, the honora- ment to doubt that the minutest particles of every
ble Mr. Boyle, has well observed, " Our ideas of human body, however widely separated from each
God, however great, will rather express the great- other, and mingled with other extraneous subness of our veneration than the immensity of his stances, are known to Him whose presence perperfections; and the notions worthy the most in- vades all space; and that all the atoms requisite
telligent men are far short of being worthy the for the construction of the Resurrection-body
incomprehensible God-the brightest idea we can will be reassembled for this purpose "by the
fiame of God being infinitely inferior, and no energy of that mighty power whereby he is able
more than a Parhelion t in respect of the sun; for
phenomenon is supposed to be produced by the refraction
* Jeremiah x. 7-13.                            and reflection of the sun's rays from a watery cloud. Same
t A Parhelion, or.Mock-Sucn, is a.meteor in the form of a times three or four of these parhelia, all of them bearing a
very bright light appearing on one side of the sun, and some- certain resemblance to the real sun, have been seen at on*
what resembling the appearance of that luminary. This time.




WISDOM OF THE DEITY.                                          27
to subdue all things to himself."  If we suppose  sidered in different points of view.  It may be
that a number of human beings, amounting to  viewed either as displaying the power and magnithree hundred thousand millions, shall start from  ficence of the Deity in the immense quantity of
the grave into new life at the general resurrection, materials of which it is composed, and in the
and that the atoms of each of these bodies are  august machinery  and  movements by which
just now under the special superintendence of its economy is directed; —or, as manifesting
the Almighty-and that, at least, an equal num- his Wisdom  in  the nice adaptation  of every
ber of worlds are under his particular care and  minute circumstance to the end it was intended
direction-the exertion of power and intelligence, to accomplish;-or, as illustrating his unbounded
in the former case, cannot be supposed to be  beneficence in the provision which is made for
greater than what is requisite in the latter.  To  the accommodation and happiness of the nuniea Being possessed of Infinite Power, conjoined  rous tribes of sentient and intelligent beings it
with Boundless Intelligence, the superintendence  contains.  Having, in the preceding section, enof countless atoms, and of countless worlds, is deavored to exhibit some of those objects which
equally easy, where no contradiction is implied. evince the Omnipotence of Deity, and the pious
For, as the poet has well observed,-              emotions they are calculated to excite, I shall now
"He summons into being with like ease     offer a few popular illustrations of Divine WVisA whole creation and a single grain."    dom, as displayed in the arrangements of the materi;al world-which shall chiefly be confined to
And since this subject tends to strengthen our those objects which are most prominent and obvihope of a resurrection from  the dead, it is also  ous to the vulgar eye.
calculated to inspire us with confidence in the    Wisdom  is that perfection of an intelligent
prospect of those eternal scenes which will burst agent, by which he is enabled to select and ernupon the view, at the dissolution of all terrestrial ploy the most proper means in order to accomplish
things.  Beyond the period fixed for the confla- a good and important end. It includes tile idea
gration of this world, "a wide and unbounded  of knowledge or intelligence, but may be distinprospect lies before us:" and though, at present, guished fiomn it.  Knowledge is opposed to igllo-'shadows, clouds, and darkness rest upon it," yet rance, Wisdom is opposed to folly or error is conthe boundless magnificence of the Divine empire  duct.  As applied to God, it may be considered  as
which science has unfolded, throws a radiance over comprehlending the operations of his Omniscieince
the scenes of futurity, which is fraught with con- and Benevolence; or, in other words, his knowsolation, in the view of "the wreck of matter and  ledge to discern, and his disposition to chioose
the crash of worlds."  It opens to us a prospect those means and ends which are calculated to
of perpetual improvement in knowledge and feli- promote the order and the happiness of the unicity; it presents a field in which the hmnan facoul- verse.
ties may be forever expallding, forever conterm-    The Wisdom of God is, doubtless, displayed in
plating new scenes of grandeur rising to the view, every arrangement he has made throughout al,
in boundless perspective, through an interminable  the provinces of his immense and eternal kingsuccession of existence. It convinces us, that the  dom, however far they may be removed from tihe
happiness of the eternal state will not consist in  sphere of human observation.  But it is only in
an unvaried repetition of the same perceptions  those parts of the system of nature which lie open
and enjoyments, but that new  displays of the  to our particular investigation, that the traces of
Creator's glory will be continually bursting on  this perfection can be distinctly perceived.  The
the astonished mind, world without end. And as heavens declare the glory of God's Wisdom, as
we know  that the same beneficence and care  well as of his Power.  The planetary systemwhich are displayed in the arrangements of sys- that portion of the heavens with which we are
tems of worlds, are also displayed in supporting  best acquainted-displays both the msagnificence
and providing for the smallest microscopic ani- and the skill of its Divine Author,-in the Imagmalcule, we have no reason to harbor the least nitudes, distances, revolutions, proportions, and
fear lest we should be overlooked in the immensity  uses of the various globes of which it is composed,
of creation, or lost amidst the multiplicity of  and ill the diversified apparatus by which light
those works among which the Deity is incessant- and darkness are alternately distributed.'Ihe
ly employed: For, as he is Omnsipresent, his es- sun, an imnmense luminous world, by far thle
sence pervades, actuates, and supports the whole largest body in the system, is placed in the center.
frame of universal nature, and all the beings it No other position would have suited for all equacontains, so that he is as intimately present with  ble distribution of illumination and heat through
every created being, whether sensitive or intellec- the different parts of the system.  Aroumnd him,
tual, as that being is to itself. And as he is at different distances, eleven primary planets reOmniscient, he is conscious of every movement volve, accompanied with eighteen secondaries or
that can arise in the material' system, and of  moons,-all in majestic order and harmonly, no
every thought and purpose that can pervade the  one interrupting the movements of another, but
world of intellectual existence, —and consequently  invariably keeping the paths prescribed them, anld
his superintendence  and  care must extend to  performing their revolutions in their appointed
every creature he has formed.  Therefore, though  times. To all these revolving globes, the sun disthe " elements shall melt with fervent heat, andl  penses motion, light, heat, fertility, and other
the earth and all the works therein be dissolved, unceasing energies, for the comfort and happiness
yet we, according to his promise, look for new  of their respective inhabitants-without whlich,
heavens and a new earth, wherein dwelleth right- perpetual sterility, eternal winter, and eternal
eousnless."                                        night, would reign over every region of our globe,
and throughout surrounding worlds.
S E C T IO N  II I.                   The distance at which the heavenly bodies, particularly the sun, are placed from  the earth, is a
ON THE WISDOM AND INTELLIGENCE OF THE DEITY. manifest evidence of Divine Wisdom. If the stius
were much nearer us than he is at present, the
IN  surveying  the system  of nature with a  earth, as now constituted, would be wasted and
Christian and a philosophic eye, it may be coa- parched with excessive heat; the waters would ble




28                          PTHE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
turned into vapor, and the rivers, seas, and oceans, some of those bodies which are' surrounded with
would soon disappear, leaving nothing  behind an assemblage of rings and moons, as the planet
them  but frightful barren  dells and  gloomy Saturn, the diversified grandeur of their celestial
caverns; vegetation would completely cease, and phenomena, in the absence of the sun, may prethe tribes of animated nature. languish and die. sent a scene of contemplation and enjoyment
On the other' hand, were the sun much farther far more interesting than all the-splendors of their
distant, than he -now  is, or were his bulk, or noon-day.  Beside, had the planets no motion
the influence of his. rays diminished one half of round their axes, and were both their hemispheres
what they now are, the land and the ocean would supposed to be peopled with inhabitants, their
soon become' one'frozen mass, and universal deso- physical state and enjoyments would be as oppolation-and sterility would overspread the fair face site to each other, as if they lived under the
of nature; and instead of a pleasant and comfort- government of two distinct'independent beings.
able abode, our globe would become a frightful While the one class was basking under the splondesert, a state of misery and perpetual punish- dors of perpetual day, the other would be involved
ment.*   But herein'is the wisdom  of God dis- in all the horrors of an everlasting night. Whilo
played, that he has formed the sun of such a de- the one hemisphere would be parched with excesterminate; size, and placed it at such a convenient sive heat, the other would be bound in the fetters
distance, as not to annoy, but to refresh and cheer of eternal ice; and in such a globe as ours, the
us, and to enliven the soil with its genial influ- motion of the tides, the ascent of the vapors, the
ence; so that we plainly p6rceivie, to'use the lan- currents of the atmosphere, the course of the
guage of the prophet, that "He hath established winds, the benign influences of the rains and
the world by his wisdom, and stretched out the dews, and a thousand other movements, which
heavens by his understanding."                   produce so many salutary and. beneficial effects,
The rotation of,the several planetary' globes would be completely deranged.  Hence we find,
around their axes, to produce the alternate suc- that in all the planetary bodies on which spots
cession of day and night, strikingly demonstrates -have been discovered, a rotatory motion actually
the  wisdom  and  benevolence of their great exists,* in the secondary as well as in the primary
Author.  Were the earth and the. other planetary planets, and even in the sun itself, the center and
worlds destitute of a diurnal motion, only one- the mover of the whole: in which arrangement
half of their surfaces could be inhabited, and the of the Almighty Creator, the evidences of wisdom
other half would remain a dark and cheerless de- and design are strikingly apparent.
sert.  The sun would be the only heavenly orb    This amazing scene of Divine workmanship
-which would be recognized by the inhabitants and skill which the planetary system exhibits, we
of each respective world, as existing in the uni- have'reason to believe is multiplied and diversified
verse,, and that scene of grandeur which night to an-indefinite extent, throughout all the other
unfolds in the boundless expanse of the sky would systems of creation, displaying to the intelligenbe forever vailed from their view. For, it appears ces of every region "the manifold wisdom  of
to be one grand design of the Creator, in giving God."  For there can be no question, that every
these bodies a diurnal motion, not only to cheer star we now behold, either by the naked eye or
their inhabitants with light and warmth, and the by the help of a telescope, is the center of a syegay coloring produced by the solar rays; but also tem  of planetary worlds, where the agency of
to open to them a prospect of other portions of God, and his unsearchable wisdom, may be endhis vast dominions, whidh are dispersed in endless lessly varied, and perhaps more strikingly disvariety' throughout the  illimitable regions of played than even in the system  to which we
space, in order that they may acquire a more sub- belong. These vast globes of light could never
lime impression of the glory of his kingdom, and have been designed merely to shed a few glimof his eternal Power and Godhead.  But were mering rays on our far distant world: for the ten
perpetual dayto irradiate the planets,. it would thousandth part of them  has never yet been seen
throw an eternal and impenetrable vail over the by the inhabitants of the earth since the Mosaic
glories of the sky, behind which -the magnificent creation, except by a few astronomers of the past
operations' of Jehovah's power would be in a and the present age; and the light of many of
great measure concealed. It is this circumstance them, in all probability, has never yet reached us,
which we should consider as the principal reason and perhaps never will until the period of "the
why a rotatory motion has been impressed on the consummation of all terrestrial things.". They
planetary globes; and not' merely that a curtain  were not made in vain; for such a supposition
of darkness might be thrown around their inhabi- would be'inconsistent with every idea we can
tants during the repose of sleep, as in the world form of the attributes of a Being of infinite.perin which we' dwell.' For, in some of the other fection.  They were not intended merely to diverplanetary worlds belonging to our system, the in- sify the voids of infinite space with a useless
telligent beings with which they are peopled may splendor which has no relation to intellectual nastand in no need of that nocturnal repose'which tures: for this would give us a most distorted and
is necessary for man; their physical powers may inconsistent idea of the character of Him who is
be incapable of being impaired, and their mental "the only-wise God;" and we are told by an
energies may be in perpetual exercise. And in authority which cannot be questioned, that "by
his wisdom  he made the heavens, and stretched
*It forms no objection to these remarks, that caloric, or them  out by his understanding."' The only rathe matter of heat, does not altogether depend upon the di-which can be deduced
rect influence of the solar rays. The substance of caloric
may be chiefly connected with the constitution of the globe is, that they are destined to distribute illumination
we inhabit. But still it is quite certain, that the earth, and splendor, vivifying influence and happiness,
as presently constituted, would sutffer effects most disastrous
to sentient beings, were it removed much nearer to, or much   * On the planet Uranits, or Herschel, no spots or inequali.
farther fiom the central luminary. Those planets which are ties of surface have been discovered, on account of its great
removed several hundreds of millions of miles farther from  distance from the earth; but spots have been discovered on
the sun than our globe, may possibly experience a degree of the planets Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, and Venus, by  ohlich
heat much greater than ours; but, in this case' the constitu- their diurnal rotations have been ascertained. There can
tion of the solid parts of these globes, and of their surround- be no doubtkhowever, that Uranus rotates on an axis as
ing atmospheres, must be very different from what obtains well as the other planets, although its distance prevents us
in the physical arrangements of our globe.       from determining this point by actual observation.




-: MOUNTAINS  29
among incalculable numbers of intelligent beings, tion, and vegetables could not be produced from
of. various degrees of physical, moral, and intel- its surface. Were it softer it would be insufficient
lcctual excellence. And wherever the Creator to support us, and we should sink at eveqy step,
has exerted his Almighty energies in the produc- like a person walking in a quagmire. No buildtion of sensitive and intellectual natures we may ings, such as those we now construct could.have
rest: assured, that there also his infinite wisdom  been supported, and no conveyances such. as
and intelligertce, in an endless variety of arrange- coaches and steam-carriages could have moved
ments, contrivances, and adaptations, are unceas- along its surface..Had this circumstance not
ingly displayed.                                been attended to in its formation, the earth would
But, after all, whatever evidences of contri- have been rendered useless as a habitable world for
vance- and design the celestial globes may exhibit, all those animated beings which now traverse its
it is not in the heavens that the most striking dis- different regions. The exact adjustments of the
plays of Divine wisdom can be traced by the in- solid parts of the globe to the nature and necessihabitants of our world. It is only a few general ties of the beings which inhabit it, is therefore an
relations and adaptations' that can be distinctly instance and an evidence of wisdom.
perceived among~ the orbs of the firmament;   The diversity of surface which it everywhere
though, in so far as we are able to trace the pur- presents, in the mountains and vales with which
poses which they' subserve, the marks of beauty, it is variegated, indicates the same benevolent conorder, and, design, are uniformly apparent. But trivance and design. If the earth were divested
we are placed at too great a distance from the of its mountains, and its surface were everywhere
orbs of heaven, to be able to investigate the par- uniformly smooth, there would  be no rivers,
ticular arrangements which enter into the physical springs, or fountains; for water can flow  only
and moral: economy of the celestial worlds. Were -from  a higher to a lower place; the vegetable
we transported to the surface of the planet Jupi- tribes would droop and languish; man and other
ter, and had an'opportunity of surveying, at lei- animals would be deprived of what is necessary
sure, the regions of that vast globe, and the tr bes for their existence and comfort; we should be
of sensitive and intellectual existence which cornm- destitute of many useful stones, minerals, plants,
pose its population -of contemplating the rela- and trees, which are now produced on the surface
tions of its moons to the pleasure and comfort of; and in the interior of mountains; the sea itself
its inhabitants — the "constitution of its'atmo- would become a stagnant marsh,' or, overflow the
sphere as to its reflective and refractive powers, in, land; and the whole surface of nature in our ter-.
producing a degree of illumination to compensate restrial sphere would present an unvaried scene
for the, great distance of that planet'from the sun of dull uniformity.  Those picturesque and sub-its adaptation to the functions of animal' life-  lime scenes which fire the imagination of the
the construction of the visual organs of its inhab- poet, and which render mountainous districts so
itants, and the degree of sensibility they possess, pleasing to the philosophic traveler, would be
corresponding to the quantity of light received completely withdrawn; and  all around, when
from the sun-the temperature of the surface and compared with such diversified landscapes, would
atmosphere of this globe, corresponding to its dis- appear as fatiguing to the eye as the vast solitudes
sance from the central source of heat, and to the of the Arabian deserts, or the dull monotony of
physical constitution  of sensitive beings - in'the ocean. But, in consequence of the admirable
short, could we investigate the relations which distribution of hills and mountains over the surinanimate nature, in all its varieties and sublimi- face of our globe, a variety of useful and ornaties, bears to the necessities and the happiness of mental effects is produced. Their lofty summits
the animated existences that traverse its different are destined by Providence to arrest the vapors
regions, we should, doubtless, behold a scene of which float in the regions of the air; their interDivine wisdom and intelligence, far more admira- nal cavities form so many spacious basins for the
ble and astonishing than even that which is exhi- reception of water distilled from'the clouds; they
bited in our sublunary world.-But since it is im- are the original sources of springs and rivers,
possible for us to investigate the economy of other which water and fertilize the earth; they form im
worlds, while we are chained down to this terres- mense magazines, in which are deposited stones,
trial sphere, we must direct our attention to-those metals) and minerals, which are of so essential
arrangements and contrivances in the constitution  service in the arts that promote the comfort of
of' our own globe, which lie open to our particu-' human life; they serve for the production of a vast
lar inspection, in order to perceive more distinctly variety of herbs and trees; they arrest the pro'the benevolent designs of Him "in whom we' live, gress of storms and tempests; they afford shelter
and move, and have our being."  And here an  and entertainment to various animals which minattentive observer will find, in almost every ob- ister to the wants of mankind: in a word, they
ject, when minutely examined, a display of good- adorn and embellish the face of nature-they form
ness and intelligence, which will constrain him to thousands of sublime and beautiful lanidscapes,
exclaim, "0  the depth.of the riches, both of the and afford from their summits the most delightful
wisdom and the knowledge of God!"               prospects of the plains below. All these circumWisdom, considered as consisting in contriv-,stances demonstrate the consummate wisdom of
ance, or the selection of the- most proper means in the GreatArchitect of nature, and lead us to conorder to accomplish an important end,'may be ex- clude, that mountains, so far from  being rude
amplified and illustrated in a variety of familiar excrescences of nature, as some have asserted,
objects in the scene of nature.                 form  an essential part of the constitution, not
The earth on which we tread was evidently''in- only of our'globe, but of all habitable worlds.tended by the Creator to support man and other And this conclusion is confirmed, so far as our
animals, along with their habitations, and to fur- observation extends, with regard to the moon, and,nisl those vegetable productions which are neces- several of the planetary bodies which belong to
sary -forr their subsistence; and, accordingly, he our system, whose surfaces are found to be dihas given it that exact degree of consistency which versified by sublime ramifications of mountain
is' requisite for these purposes.  Were it much scenery; which circumstance forms one collateral
harder than it now is- -were it, for example, as proof, among many others, that they are the
dense as a.rock,'it would be incapable of cultiva- abodes of sentient and intellectual beings.




830 iTHE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
Again, the coloring which is spread over the ing separated into the prismatic colors, similar to
face of nature indicates the wisdom of the Deity. those which are produced by the solar ravs; which
It is essential to the present mode of our exist;. furnishes a presumptive proof, that they are 11nence, and it was /evidently intended by the'Crea-  tended to:accomplish designs, in their respective
tor, that we should be enabled easily to recognizea spheres, analogous to those which light subserves
the forms-and' properties of the various objects' in our terrestrial habitation,-or, in other words,
with which we are surrounded. But were the'I that they are destined to convey to the minds of
Objects of nature destitute of color, or were sentieit beings, impressions of light and color;
the same unvaried huie spread over, the:'face 6of and consequently, beings susceptible of such
creation, we should be destitute'of all the'enter- impressions must reside  within the sphere or
tainments'f vision, and be at a loss to distinguish  more immediate influence of these far distant
one object- from  another. We should be unable  orbs.
to distinguish rugged precipices from fiiuitful hills   The same benevolent design is apparent in the
-naked rocks-from human habitations-the: trees general color which prevails throtughout the scene of
from the hills that bear -them-"andthe tilled'from  sublunary nature. Had the fields been clothed
the'untilled lands.  "We -shuld' hesitate -to" pro- with hu'es of -a deep red, or a brilliant white, the
nouliee whether an adjacent inclosure contains a eye would have been dazzled with the splendor of
piece' of pasturage, a plot of arable land, or-a field  their aspect. Had a dark blue or a black color
of corn; and it would require a little journey, and' genierall'y prevailed, it would have cast a universal
a minute invrestigation, to determine such  a point. gloom over the face of nature.. But an agreeable
We could not determine whether the first person green holds the medium between these two exwe met were a soldier iln his -regimentals, or a tremes, equally remote from. a dismal gloom and
swain in his Suiinday suit; a bride in her orna- excessive splendor, and bears such a relation to
ments,'or a widow in her weeds." S- ti'.would the structure of the eve, that it refreshes instead
have been the aspect of nature, and such the'in- of  firing it, and supports instead of diminishing
conveniences to which we should have been sub- its force.  At the same time, though one general:ected, had God allowed us light, without the. dis- color prevails over the laiidscape of the earth, it
tinction of colors. We could have distinguished  is diversified by an admirable variety of shades,objects only by intricate trains of reasoning, and so that every individual object in the vegetable
by circumstances of time, place, and relative po- world can be accurately distinguished from  an.
sition.:  And to what delays' and  perplexities  other; thus producing a beautiful and variegated
should we have been reduced, had we been ob- appearance over the whole scenery of nature.liged every moment to distinguish one -thing from  " Who sees not, in all these things, that the hand
another by'reasoning?  Our whole life must then  of the Lord hath wrought this?"' 
have been employed rather —in study than in ac-   If from the earth we turn our attention to'the
tion; and -after all, we, must have remained in waters, we shall perceive sirnilar traces of the exeternal uncertainty as to many things which': are quisite wisdom and'skill of the Author of nature.
now quite obvious. to every' one as soon as he Water is one of' the most essential elementary
opeins his eyes. We' could neither have com- pa'ts in the constitution of our globe, without
munlcated our thoughts by'writing, nor have' de- which the various tribes of beings which now
rived instruction fromn others through the-medium  people it could not exist. It supplies a necessary
of books; for it is the' contrast of different colors beverage to man, and to all the animals that peowhich enables us to distinguish'the letters, words, pie the earth and the air.  It forms a solvent for
and sentences, in a written or printed book —so  a great variety'of solid bodies; it is the element
that we should now have been almost as ignorant in which an infinitude of organized beings pass
of th,e transactions, of past ages, as we are of  their existence; it acts an important part in conthe events which are passing in the planetary veying life and nourishment to all the tribes of
worlds; and, consequently, we could never have the vegetable kingdom, and gives salubrity to tlie
enjoyed a written revelation from  Heaven, nor atmospherical regions.  Collected  in immense
any other infallible guide to direct us in the path  masses in the basins of'the sea, it serves as a veto happiness, if the Almighty had not distinguish- hicle for ships, and as a medium  of communicaed the rays of light, and painted the objects tion between people of the most distant lands.around us with a diversity of colors, —so essen- Carried along with a progressive motion over the
tially connected are the minutest'and the most beds of streams and of rivers, it gives a brisk immagnificent works of Deity.  But now, in the pulse to the air, and prevents the unwholesome
present constitution'of things, color characterizes stagnation of vapors; it receives the filth of popathe class to which every individual belongs, and  lous cities, and rids them of'a thousand nuisances.
indicates, upon the first inspection, its respective By its impulsion, it becomes the mover of a mulquality. Every object wears its peculiar livery, titude of machines;' and, when rarified into steam,
and has a distinguishing mark by which it -it cha- it is transformed into one of the most powerful
racterized.                                      and useful agents under the dominion of man.The different hues which are spread over the All which beneficial effects entirely depend on the
scenery of the world are also highly ornamental- exact degree of. density, or specifis gravity, which
to the face of. nature, and afford a variety of plea- the Creator has given to its constituent parts.
sures to the eye and the imagination.  It is this Had it been much more rarified than it is, it
circumstance which adds a charm to the fields, would have been altogether unfit to answer the
the valleys, and the hill,, the lofty mountain, the purposes now  specified; the whole face of the
winding river, and. the expansiVe lake; and which'earth would have been a dry and barren waste;
givezs a splendor and sublimity to, the capacious vegetable nature'could not have been nourished;
vault of heaven. Color, is therefore.'an essential our floating edifices could not have been supportrequisite to every world inhabited by sensitive be, ed; the lightest bodies would have sunk, and. all
ings;; and we know, that provision'has.been made regular intercourse with distant nations would
for diffusing it. throughout all the globes which have been prevented. On tile other hand, had
nay exist in the, distant regions which our tele-. its parts been much denser than they are,-for
scopes have penetrated; for the light which radi- example, had they been of the, consistency of a
ates from the most distant stars is capable of be- thin jelly, similar disastrous effects would have'




ATMOSPHERE.                                           31
inevitably followed; no ships could have plowed comfort, could never be carried on. But the inthe ocean — no refreshing beverage would have finite wisdom  of the Creator, foreseeing all the
been supplied to the animal tribes-the absorbent effects which can possibly arise from  these prilvessels of trees, herbs, and flowers, would have ciples of nature, has effectually provided against
been unable to imbibe the moisture requisite for such disasters, by arranging all things in number,
their nourishment, and we should thus have been weight, and measure, to subserve the beneficial
deprived of all the beneficial effects we now de- ends for which they were ordained.  " He causeth
rive from the use of that liquid element, and of the vapors to ascend from the ends of the earth;"
all the diversified scenery of the vegetable world. "he sendeth the springs into the valleys,;rhich
But the configuration and consistency of its parts run among the hills.  They give drink to every
are so nicely adjusted to. the constitution of the beast of the field; the wild asses quench their
other elements, and to the wants of the sensitive thirst. By them  the fowls of heaven L-ave their
and vegetable tribes, as exactly to subserve the habitation, which sing among the branches.  He
ends intended in the system of nature.            watereth the hills from his chambers: the earth is
Water has been ascertained to be a compound satisfied with the fruit of his works.'
body, formed by the union of two different kinds    Let us now attend to the atmosphere,;n the conof air-oxygen and hydrogen. It has the property stitution of which the wisdom  of God is no less
of becoming, in certain cases, much lighter than conspicuous than in the other departments of
air; though, in its natural liquid state, it is 800 nature.
times heavier than that fluid; and has also the    The atmosphere is one of the most essential approperty of afterward resuming its natural weight. pendages of the globe we inhabit, and exhibits a
Were it not for this property, evaporation could most striking scene of Divine skill and omniponot be produced; and, consequently, no clouds, tence. The term  atmosphere is applied to the
rain, nor dew could be formed, to water and ferti- whole mass of fluids, consisting of air, vapors,
lize the different regions of the earth. But in electric fluid, and other matters, which surround
consequence of this wonderful property, the ocean the earth to a certain hight.  This mass of fluid
becomes an inexhaustible cistern to our world. matter gravitates to the earth, revolves with it in its
From its expansive surface are exhaled those va- diurnal rotation, and is carried along with it illn its
pors which supply the rivers and nourish the course round the sun every year.  It has been
vegetable productions of every land.  "The air computed to extend about 45 miles above the
and the sun," says an elegant writer, " constitute earth's surface, and it presses on the earth with
the mighty engine which works without inter- a force proportioned to its hight and density.
mission to raise the liquid treasure; while the From experiments made by the barometer, it has
clouds serve as so many aqueducts to convey been ascertained that it presses with a weight of
them  along the atmosphere, and distribute them  about 15 pounds on every square inch of the
at seasonable periods, and in regular proportions, earth's surface; and, therefore, its pressure on the
through all the regions of the globe."            body of a middle-sized man is equal to about
Notwithstanding the properties now stated, mo- 32,000 pounds, or 14 tons avoirdupois, a pressure
tion was still requisite, to insure all the advantages which would be insupportable, and even fatal,,
we now derive from the liquid element. Had the were it not equal in every part, and counterba-.
whole mass of waters been in a stagnant state, a lanced by the spring of the air within us. Thee
thousand inconveniences and disastrous conse- pressure of the whole atmosphere upon the earthL
quences would have inevitably ensued. But the is computed to be equivalent to that of a globe of.
All-wise Creator has impressed upon its various lead 60 miles in diameter, or about 5,000,000,000,-.
masses a circulating motion, which preserves its 000,000 tons; that is, the whole mass of air which,
purity and widely extends its beneficial influence. surrounds the globe compresses the earth with a.
The rills pour their liquid stores into the rivers; force or power equal to that of five thousand nilthe rivers roll their watery treasures into the lions of millions of tons.*  This amazing pressure,
ocean; the waters of the ocean, by a libratory  is, however, essentially necessary for the preserva —
motion, roll backward and forward every twelve tion of the present constitution of our globe, andi
hours, and by means of currents and the force of of the animated beings which dwell on its sur —
winds, are kept in constant agitation. By the face. It prevents the heat of the sun from conssolar heat, a portion of these waters is carried verting water, and all other fluids on the face oft
up into the atmosphere, and, in the form of clouds, the earth, into vapor; and preserves the vessels
is conveyed by the winds over various regions; of all organized beings in due tone and vigor:
until at last it descends in rain and dew, to supply Were the atmospherical pressure entitely re —
the springs "which run among the hills."  So moved, the elastic fluids contained in the finer
that there is a constant motion and circulation of vessels of men and other animals, would ilevitathe watery element, that it may serve as an agent bly burst them, and life would become extinct; +t
for carrying forward the various processes of nature, and for ministering to the wants of man and   *See Appendix, Note Ii.
beast.                                             t The necessity of the atmospherical pressure), for. the
In fine, were the waters in a state of perpetual  comfort and preservation of animal life, migtl be- illustrated
by the effects experienced by those who h/ave ascended'to
stagnation, the filth of populous cities wouid be the summits of very high mountains, or wlio have been car.
accumulated to a most unwholesome degree; the ried to a great hight above the surfaceof the earth in bal.
air would be filled with putrid exhalations,  and loons. Acosta, in his relation of a journey among the
thie vegetable  tribes would langluish  and  die. mountains of Peru, states that "he and his companions
were surprised with such extreme pangs of straining and
Were they deprived of the property of being eva- vomiting, not without casting up of blood too, and with so
porated (in which state they occupy a space 1600 violent a distemper, that they would undoubtedly have died
times greater than in their liquid state), rain and had they remained two or three hourslbnger it that elevateo
dew colrevter  bi pro ad sathe) earh wod situation." Count Zambeccari andi: his comp;anions, who
dew could never be produced, and the earth would ascended in a balloon on the 7tlh of November, 1783, to a
be turned into " a dry and parched wilderness;" great height, found their hands. anid feet so swelled, that it
neither grass nor corn could be sufficiently dried  was necessary for a surgeon to,make incisions in the skin.
to lay up for use; our clothes, when washed, could In both the cases now stated,.the persons ascended tooso
ereat a height that the pressure of the atmosphere. ea. not
never be dried;  and a variety of common opela-  sufficient to counterbalance.hte-pressure of the flu id- eltthe
tions which now conduce to our convenience and body.
VOL. II.-3




32                            THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
and most of the substances on- the face of the promoting. the  comfort and preservation. "of
earth, particularly liquids, would be dissipated everything. that lives." *
iuto vapor.                                          Further, were the air colored, or were its partiThe'atmosphere is now ascertained to be a com- cles much larger than' they are, we could never
pound' substance, formed of two very different in-'obtain a distinct view of any other object.  The
gredients, termed oxygen gas -and nitrogen gas. exhalations which rise from the earth, being renOf 100 measures of. atmospheric air, 21 are oxy- dered visible, would disfigure the rich landscape
genr, and 79, nitrogen.  The one, namely, oxygen, of the universe, and render life disagreeable. - Bul
is the principle of combustion and the vehicle of the'Almighty by rendering the air invisible, has
heat, and is absolutely necessary for the support enabled us not only to take a.delightful and dis.
of animal life, and is the most powerful and ener- tinctsurvey of the objects that surround us, but
getic agent in nature; the.other is altogether in- has vailed from our view the gross humors inces.
capable of supporting either flame' or animal life. santly perspired from  animal bodies, the filth
Were we to breathe'oxygen air, without any exhaled from. kitchens, streets, and sewers, and
mixture or alloy, our animal spirits would'be every- other object that would  excite disgust.
raised, and the fluids in our bodies would circu- Again, were the different portions of the atmosphere
late with greater rapidity; but we'would soon completely stationary, and not susceptible of agitainfallibly perish  by the rapid and unnatural accu- tion, all nature would soon be thrown into confumulation of heat in the animal frame. If the sion.  The vapors which are exhaled from the sea
nitrogen were extracted from  the air, and -the by the heat of the sun, would be suspended, and
whole atmosphere contained: nothing but. oxygen  remain  forever fixed  over those places from
or vital air, combustion would not proceed in that whence they arose. For want of this agitation
gradual manner which it now does, but with the of -the air, which now scatters and disperses the
most dreadful and irresistible rapidity: not only  clouds' over every region, the sun would conwood and coals, and other substances now used stantly scorch some districts, and be forever hid
for fuel, but even stones, iron, and- other metallic from others; the balance of nature would be de.
substances, would blaze with a rapidity which stroyed; navigation, as it has hitherto been carrie.
would carry destruction through the whole ex- on by the agency of winds, would be useless, aun
panse of nature.  If even the proportions of the we could no longer enjoy the productions of dif.
two airs were materially altered, a variety of per- ferelt climates.  In fine, were the atmosphere
nicious effects would instantly be produced.' If capable of being frozen, or converted into a solid
the oxygen were less in quantity than it now is, mass, as all other fluids are (and.we know  no
fire would lose its strength, candles would not reason why it should not be subject to conceladiffuse a sufficient light, and animals would per- tion but the will of the Creator), the lives of 
form  their vital functions with the utmost -diffi- every animal in the air, the waters, andthe earth,
culty and pain. -On the other hand, were the would, in a few moments, be completely extinnitrogen diminished and the oxygen increased, the guished. But the admirable adjustment of every
air-taken in by respiration would be more stirnu- circumstance, in relation to this useful element,
lant, and the circulation of the animal fluids produces all the beneficial effects which we now
would become accelerated-; but the tone of the experience, and strikingly demonstrates, that the
vessels thus stimulated to increased action, would  Intelligent Contriver of all things is "wonderful
be destroyed by too great an excitement, and the in counsel, and excellent in working."
body would inevitably waste and decay.  Again,   From the instances now stated, we may plainly
were the oxygen completely extracted from  the perceive, that if the Almighty had not a particuatmosphere, and nothing but nitrogen to remain, lar regard'to the happiness of his intelligent offfire and-flame would be extinguished, and in- spring, and to the comfort of every animated
stant destruction would be carried throughout existence, or, if he wished to inflict summary
all thle -departments of Vegetable and animtated punishment on a wicked world, he could easily
nature.  For a lighted taper will not burn for effect, by a very slight change in the constitution
a single moment in nitrogen  gas, and if an  of the atmosphere, the entire destruction of the
animal be plunged into it, it' is instantly suf- human race, and the entire conflagration of the
focated..                                         great globe they inhabit,-throughout all its eleAgain, not only the extraction of any one of mentary regions.  He has only to extract one of
the component parts of the atmosphere, or the its constituent parts,-the nitrogen from the oxyalteration of their respective proportions, but even gen gas, —and the grand catastrophe is at once
the slightest' increase or diminution of their spe- accomplished.  With what a striking propriety
cific gravity, would be attended with the most dis- and emphasis, then, do the inspired writers  deastrous effects. The nitrogen is found to be a clare, that "in Him we live, and move, and have
little lighter than common air, which enables it our being;" and that "in His hand is the soul
to rise toward the higher regions of the atmosphere.  In breathing, the air Which is evolved   * The necessity of atmospherical air for the support of life
from  the lungs, at every expiration, consists awas strikingly exemplified in the fate of the unhappy men
who died in the Black-hole of Calcutta. On the 20th of
chiefly of nitrogen,- which is entirely unfit to be June, 1756, about eight o'clock in the evening, 146 men were
breathed again, and'  therefore rises above our'forced, at the point of the bayonet, into a dungeon only 18
heads before the next inspiration.  Now, had feet square. They had been but a few minutes confined in
nitrogen,- instead of being a little li-ghter, been a this infernal prison, before every one fell into a perspiration
slight degree heavier than cotnnson air, or of the so protuse, that no idea can be formed of it. This brought
slight degree   ehe avi er   t han common air, or of the on a raging thirst, the most difficult respiration, and an outsame specific, gravity, it would have accumulated  rageous delirium. " Such was the horror of their situation,
on the surface of the earth, and particularly in that every insult that could be devised against the guard
ur apartmentsto such adegree as to have pro- without, and all the opprobrious names that the Viceroy and
our.apartments,                    his officers could be loaded with, were repeated, to provoke
duced- diseases, pestilence, and death, in rapid the,nuard to fire upon them, and terminate their'sufferings.
succession.  But being a little lighter than the Before eleven o'clock the same evening, one-third of the
surrounding air, it flies upward, and we never men were dead: and before six next morning, only 23 came
breathe it again until itnters into new and salu-out alive, but most of them in a high putrid fever. All these
breathe it again, until it enters into new and salu-casioned y the want of atmosphri
dreadful effects were occasioned by the want of atniospiliria
tary combinations.  Such is' the benevolent skill air, and by their breathing a superabundant quantity of the
which the Author'of Nature'has displayed, for nitrogen emitted from their lungs.




ATMOSPHERE.                                         S33
of every living thing, and the breath of all man- into ice, is increased- in bulk, and becomes of a
kiind.".less specific gravity than the surrounding water
A great variety of other admirable properties is and, therefore, swims upon its surface. Now
possessed by the atmosphere, of. which I shall had the case been otherwise; had water, when
briefly notice only the following:-It is the vehi- deprived of a portion of its heat, followed the
cle of smells, by which we become acquainted  general law of nature, and, like all other bodies,
with the qualities of the food which is set before become specifically heavier than it was before, the
us, and learn to avoid those places which are present constitution of nature would have been madamp, unwholesome, and dangerous. It is, the terially deranged, and many of our present commedium of sounds, by means of which knowledge forts and even our very existence, would have
is conveyed to our minds. Its undulations, like'been endangered.  At whatever time the temperaso many couriers, run forever'backward and for- ture ofthe' atmosphere became reduced to 320 of
ward, to convey our thoughts to others, and theirs the common thermometer, or to what is called
to us; and to bring news of transactions which  the freezing point, the water on the surface of
frequently occur at a considerable distance.. A  our rivers and lakes would have been converted
few strokes on-a large bell, through the ministra- into a layer of ice; this layer would have sunk to
tion of the air, will convey signals of distress, or the bottom as it froze; another layer of ice would
of joy, in a' quarter of a minute, to the popula- have been immediately' produced, which would
tion of a city containing a hundred thousand also have sunk to the former layer, and so on in
inhabitants. So that the air may be considered as succession, until in the course of time all our
the conveyer of the thoughts of mankind, which rivers from  the surface to the bottom, and every
are the cement of society. It transmits to our other: portion of water capable of, being frozen,
ears all the harmonies of music, and expresses would have been converted into solid masses of
every-passion of the soul; it swells the notes of ice, which all the heat of summer could never
the nightingale, and distributes alike to every ear have melted. We-should have been deprived of
the pleasures which arise from  the harmonious most of the advantages we now derive from  the
sounds of a concert.  It produces the blue color liquid element, and in a short time, the face of
of the sky, and is the cause of the morning and nature would have been transformed into a frozen
evening twilight, by its property of bending the. chaos.: But in the existing constitution of things,
rays of light, and reflecting them'in all direc- a.ll such dismal effects are prevented, -in consetions. " It forms an essential requisite for carrying quence of the Creator having subjected the waters
on all the processes of the vegetable kingdom, to a law contrary to that of other fluids, by means
and serves for-the production of clouds, rain, and of which the frozen water swims upon the surdew, which nourish and fertilize the earth.  In face, and' preserves the cold from penetrating to
short, it would be impossible to enumerate all the any great depth in the subjacent fluid; and when
advantages we derive from  this noble appendage the heat of the atmosphere is increased, it is
to our world.: Were the earth divested of its exposed to its genial influence, and is quickly
atmosphere, or were only two or three of its pro- changed into its former liquid state. How adperties changed or destroyed, it would be left mirably, then, does this exception to the general
altogether unfit for the habitation of sentient law of nature display the infinite intelligence of
beings. Were it divested of its undulating quali- the Great Contriver of all things, and his provity, we should be deprived of all the advantages dential care for the comfort of his creatures, when
of speech and conversation-of all the melody of he arranged and established the economy of nature.
the feathered songsters, and of all the pleasures of
music: and, like the deaf and dumb, we could                   VARIETY OF NATURE.
have no -power of communicating our thoughts
but by Visible signl. Were it deprived of its re-    As a striking evidence of Divine Intelligence,
flective powers, the sun would appear in one part we may next consider" the immense variety which
of the sky in dazzling brightness, while all around the Creator has introduced into every departnent q
would appear as dark as midnight, and the stars the material world.
would be visible at noon-day. Were it deprived    In every region on the surface of the globe, an
of its refractive powers, instead of the gradual endless multiplicity of objects, all differing from
approach of the day and the night, which we now -one another in shape, color, and motion, present
experience-at sunrise, we should be transported  themselves to the view of the beholder. Mounall at once from midnight darkness to the splendor tains covered with forests, hills clothed with
of noon-day: and, at sunset, should make as sud- verdure, spacious plains adorned with vineyards,
den a transition from the splendors of day to all orchards, and waving grain; naked rocks, abrupt
the horrors of midnight, which would bewilder precipices, extended vales, deep dells, meandering
the traveler in his journey, and strike the creation  rivers, roaring cataracts, brooks and rills, lakes
with amazement. In fine, were the oxygen of and gulfs, bays and promontories, seas and oceans,
the atmosphere completely extracted, destruction caverns and grottoes-meet the eye of the student
would seize on all the tribes of the living world of Nature, in every country, with a variety which
throughout every region of earth, air, and sea.   is at once beautiful and majestic. Nothing can
Omitting, at present,'the consideration of an  exceed the variety of the vegetable kingdom, which
indefinite variety of other particulars, which sug- pervades all climates, and almost every portion of
gest themselves on this subject, I shall just notice the dry land, and of the bed of the ocean. The
one circumstance more, which has a relation both immense collections of Natural History which
to the waters and to the atmosphere.  It is a well are to be seen in the Museum at Paris show, that
known law of nature, that all bodies are expanded botanists are already acquainted with nearly fiftyby heat, and contracted by cold.  There is only six thousand different species of plants.t  And
one exception to this law which exists ini the yet, it is probable, that these form but a very
economy of our globe, and that is, the expansion small portion of what actually exists, and that
of water in the act offreezing. While the parts several hundreds of thousands of species remain
of every other body are reduced in bulk, and their to be explored by the industry of future ages: for
specific. gravity increased by the application of
cold; water, on the contrary,. when,congealed       Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, July, 1822, p. 48.




84                            THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
-by far the greater part of the vegetable world still ture and necessities of animated beings.  As tIhe
remains to be surveyed by the scientific botanist. earth teems with animated existence, and as tr.e
Of the numerous tribesof vegetable natuie which' different tribes of animals depend chiefly on the
flourish in the interior'of Africa and America, productions of the vegetable kingdom  for their
in the immense islands of. New'Holland, New  subsistence, so there is an abundance and a vaGuinea, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Ceylon, Mada- riety of plants adapted to the peculiar constitugascar, and Japan: in the vast regions of Tartary, tion of every individual species.  This circumThibet, Siberia, and the Birman empire, in the stance demonstrates, that there is a precontrived
Philippines, the Moluccas, the. Ladrones, the Ca- relation and fitness-between the internal constiturolinas, the Marquesas, the Society, the -Geor- tion of the animal, and the nature of the plants
gian, and in thousands of other islands which are which afford it nourishment; and shows us that
scattered over'the, Indian and Pacific oceans- the animal and the vegetable kingdoms are the
little or nothing is known by the Naturalists of  Workmanship of one and the same Almighty BeEurope; and yet it is- a fact which admits.of no  ing, and that, in his arrangements with regard to
dispute, that every country hitherto explored pro- the one, he had in view the necessities of the other.
duces:a variety of species of plants peculiar to    When we direct our attention to the tribes of
itself; and those districts in Euiope which have animated nature, we behold a scene no less variebeen frequently surveyed, present to every suc- gated and astonishing.  Above fifty thousand speceeding explorer a new field of investigation, and  cies of animals have been detected and described
reward his industry with new discoveries of the  by Naturalists, beside several thousands of spebeauties -and varieties of the vegetable kingdom. cies which the naked eye cannot discern, and
It has been conjectured by some Naturalists, on  which people the invisible regions of the waters
the ground of a-multitude of observations, that and the air.  And as the greater part of the globe
"there is ~not a square league of earth, but what -has never yet been'thoroughly explored, several
presents some one plant. peculiar to itself, or, at hundreds, if not thousands, of species unknown
least, which thrives there better, or appears more  to the scientific world, may exist in the depths of
*beautiful, than in any other part of the world."  the ocean, and in the unexplored regions of the
This would make the number of species of vege- land.  All these species differ from  one another
tables to amount to as many millions as there'are  in color, size, and shape; in the internal structure
of square leagues on the surface of the earth — of their bodies, in the number of their sensitive
that is, to more than twenty-one millions.           organs, limbs, feet, joints, claws, wings, and fins;
Now every one of these species of plants differs in'their dispositions, faculties, movements, and
from..another, in its size, structure, form, flowers, modes of subsistence.  They are of all sizes, from
leaves, fruits, mode of propagation, color, medici- the mite and the gnat up to the elephant and the
nal virtues, nutritious qualities, internal vessels, whale, and from  the mite downward to those inand the odors it exhales.  They are of all sizes, visible animalcules, a' hundred thousand of which
from  the microscopic mushroom, invisible to the would not equal a grain  of sand.  Some fly
naked eye, to the sturdy oak and the cedar of Le- through the atmosphere, some glide through the
banon, and from the slender willow to the Banian  waters, others  traverse the solid  land.  Some
tree, under whose shade 7000 persons may find  walk on two, some on four, some on twenty, and
ample room. to repose.  A  thousand different some on a hundred feet.  Some have eyes furnishshades of color distinguish the different species. ed with two, some with eight, some with a hunEvery one wears its peculiar livery, and is dis- dred, and some with eight thousand distinct tranitinguished by its own native hues; and many of sparent globes, for the purposes of vision.*
their inherent beauties can be distinguished only    Our astonishment at the variety which appears
by the help of the microscope.  Some grow up- in the animal kingdom is still further increased,
right, others -creep along in a serpentine form. when we consider not only the diversities which.Some flourish for ages, others wither and decay
in a few months;. some spring, up in moist. others   * The eyes of beetles, silk-worms, flies, and several other
in dry soils; sorne turn toward the sun, others kinds of insects, are among the most curious and wonderful
shrink and~ contract wheni -we approach-to touch  productions of the God of nature. On the head of a fly are
them.  Notonyrethedifeensecisfla       two large protuberances, one on each side; these constittue
them. Not only are the different species of plants its organs of vision. The whole surface of these protube.
and flowers distinguished from each other by their rances is covered with a multitude of small hemispheres,
different forms, but even the different, individuals placed with the utmost regularity in rows, crossing each
of the same species.  In a bed of tulips or carna- other in a kind of lattice-work. These little hemispheres
tions, for example, there is scarcely a flower in  have each of them a minute transparent convex lens in the
tins, for example, there is scarcely a flower in  middle, each of which has a distinct branch of the optic
which some difference may not be observed in its nerve ministering to it; so that the different lenses may be
structure, size, or assemblage of colors; nor can  considered as so many distinct eyes. Mr. Leeuwenhoek
any~ two flowers be found in which the~ shape'and' counted 6236 in the two eyes of a silk-worm, when in its'    fy state; 3180 in each eye of a beetle; and 8000 in the two
shades are exactly similar.  Of all the hundred  eyes of the common flay.  Mr. Hooke reckoned 14,000 in the
thousand millions of plants, trees, herbs, and  eyes of a drone fly; and, in one of the eyes of a dragofly,
-flowers, with which our globe-is variegated, there there have been reckoned 13,500 of these lenses, and conse
ale not, perhaps, two -individuals precisely alike, quently, in both eyes 27,000, every one of which is capable
in every point of  view  in which they may be  of forming a distinct image of any object, in the same man
in every point of view  in which they may be ner as a common convex glass; so that there are twenty
contemplated; yea, there is not, perhaps, a single  seven thousand images formed on the retina of this little
leaf in the. forest, when minutely examined, that animal. Mr. Leeuwenhoek having prepared the eye of a
wfly for that -purpose, placed it a little farther from his microwill not be found to differ, in certain aspects, scope than when he would examine an-object, so as to leave
from  its fellows.  Such  is the wonderful and  a proper focal distance between it and the lens of his soil
infinite diversity with which the Creator has croscope; and then looked through both, in the manner of a
adorned the vegetable kingdom.                      telescope, at the steeple of a church, which was 299 feel
His wisdom  is also- evidently displayed in this high, and 750 feet distant, and could plainly see, through
His wisdom  is also bl evidentl  displayed  in this every little lens, the whole steeple inverted, though not larges
vast' profusion of vegetable nature-in adapting  than the point of a fine needle; and then directing it to a
each plant to the soil and situation in which it is neighboring house, saw through many of these little hemi.
desti~nedl to flourish —in furnishing it with those  spheres, not only the front of the house, but also the doors
dessnel by wuich-i asrbstheairnd moise  and windows, and could discern distinctly whether the winessels by which  it absorbs the air and moisture  dws were open or shut —such an exquisite piece of Divine
on.which it feeds —and, in adapting it to the n- mechanism transcends all human comprehension.




VARIETY OF NATURE.                                       35
are apparent in their external aspect, but also in through the sky. Sometimes the vault of heaven
their internal structure and organization. When appears like a boundless desert, particularly about
we reflect on the thousands of movements, ad- the time of the rising and setting of the sun in a
justments, adaptations, and compensations, which clear sky; and at other times adorned with an inare requisite ill order to the construction of an numerable host of stars, the blazing comet, the
animal system, for enabling it to perform its in- planets in their courses, and with  the moon
tended functions;-when we consider, that every "walking in brightness."  In short, whether we
species of animals has a system of organization direct our view to the vegetable or the animal
peculiar to itself, consisting of bones, joints, blood- tribes-to the atmosphere, the ocean, the mounvessels, and muscular motions, differing in a va- tains, the plains, or the subterranean recesses of
riety of respects from  those of any other spe- the globe, we behold a scene of beauty, order, and
cies, and exactly adapted to its various necessities variety, which astonishes and enraptures the conand modes of existence;-and when we consider templative mind, and constrains us to join in the
still further, the incomprehensibly delicate con- devout exclamations of the Psalmist, "How manitrivances, and exquisite borings, polishings, clasp- fold are thy works, 0 Lord!  In wisdom hast thou
ings, and adaptations, which enter into the or- made them all: the earth is full of thy riches; so
ganization of an animated being ten thousand is the great and wide sea, wherein are things creeptimes less than a mite; and that the different spe- ing innumerable, both small and great beasts."
cies of these animals are likewise all differently    This countless variety of objects which appears
organized from one another,-we cannot but be throughout every department of our sublunary
struck with reverence and astonishment at the system, not only displays the depths of Divine
Intelligence of that Incomprehensible Being who Wisdom, but also presents us with a faint idea of
arranged the organs of all the tribes of animated  the infinity of the Creator, and of the immense
nature, "who breathed into them the breath of multiplicity of ideas and conceptions which must
life," and who continually upholds them  in all have existed in the Eternal Mind, when the fabric
their movements!                               of our globe, and its numerous tribes of inhabitCould we descend into the subterraneous apart- ants, were arranged and brought into existence.
ments of the globe, and penetrate into those un- And if every other world which floats in the imknown recesses which lie toward its center, we mensity of space, be diversified with a similar
should doubtless behold a variegated scene of variety of existences, altogether different from
wonders, even in those dark and impenetrable re- ours (as we have reason to believe, from the vagions. But all the labor and industry of man riety we already perceive, and from the boundless
have not hitherto enabled him to penetrate far- plans and conceptions of the Creator), the human
ther into the bowels of the earth than the six- mind is lost and confounded, when it attempts to
thousandth part of its diameter, or, about a mile form an idea of those endlessly diversified plans,
and a quarter; so that we must remain forever conceptions, and views, which must have existed
ignorant of the immense caverns and masses of during an eternity past in the DivineMind. When
matter that may exist, and of the processes that we would attempt to enter into the conception of
may be going on, about its central regions. In so vast and varied operations, we feel our own litthose regions, however, near the surface, which tleness, and the narrow limits of our feeble powlie within the sphere of human inspection, we ers, and can only exclaim, with the apostle Paul,
perceive a variety analogous to that which is dis-  O0 the depth of the riches both of the wisdom
played in the other departments of nature. Here and knowledge of God! how unsearchable are his
we find substances of various kinds formed into counsels, and his ways (of creation and provistrata, or layers of different depths-earths, sand, dence) past finding out!"
gravel, marl, clay, sandstone, freestone, marble,   This characteristic of variety, which is stamped
limestone, coals, peat, and similar materials. In on all the works of Omnipotence, is doubtless inthese stratra are found metals and minerals of tended to gratify the principle of curiosity, and
various descriptions-salt, nitrate of potash, am- the love of novelty, which are implanted in the
monia, sulphur,' bitumen, platina, gold, silver, human breast; and thus to excite rational beings
mercury, iron, lead, tin, copper, zinc, nickel, to the study and investigation of the works of the
manganese, cobalt, antimony, the diamond, ru- Creator; that therein they may behold the glory
bies, sapphires, jaspers, emeralds, and a countless of the Divine character, and be stimulated to the
variety of other substances, of incalculable benefit exercise of love, admiration, and reverence. For,
to mankind. Some of these substances are so as the records of Revelation, and the dispensations
essentially requisite for the comfort of man, that of Providence, display to us the various aspects of
without them he would soon degenerate into the the moral character of Deity, so the diversified
savage state, and be deprived of all those arts phenomena, and the multiplicity of objects and
which extend his knowledge, and which cheer operations which the scenery of nature exhibits,
and embellish the abodes of civilized life.    present to us a specimen of the ideas, as it were,
If we turn our eyes upward to the regions of of the Eternal Mind, in so far as they can be
the atmosphere, we may also behold a spectacle adumbrated by material objects, and exhibited to
of variegated magnificence. Sometimes the sky mortals, through the medium of corporeal organs.
is covered with sable clouds, or obscured with    To convey an adequate conception of the nummists; at other times it is tinged with a variety of ber of these ideas, as exhibited on the globe on
hues, by the rays of the rising or the setting sun. which we live, would baffle the arithmetician's
Sometimes it presents a pure azure, at other times skill, and set his numbers at defiance. We may,
it is diversified with strata of dappled clouds. At however, assist our conceptions a little by conone time we behold the rainbow rearing its ma- fining our attention to one department of nature;
jestic arch, adorned with all the colors of light; for example, the ANIMAL KINGDOM. The number
at another, the Aurora Borealis illuminating the of the different species of animals, taking into
sky with its fantastic coruscations. At one time account those which are hitherto undiscovered,
we behold the fiery meteor sweeping through the and those which are invisible to the naked eye,
air, diffusing a sparkling and brilliant light; at cannot be estimated at less than 300,000. In a
another, we perceive the forked lightning darting human body there are reckoned about 446 muscles,
from  the clouds, and hear the thunders rolling in each of which, according to anatomists, there




36                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER
are at least ten several intentions or due'qualifica- viduals, of all the millions of the race of Adam
tions to be observed-its proper figure, its, just that have existed since the beginning of time,
magnitude, the rigb t- disposition of its several would be found to resemble' each other. We
ends, upper and lo'wr, the position of the whole, know no'two human beings presently existing,
the insertion, of its proper nerves, veins, arteries, however similar to each other, but may be distinetc.,.so that, in'the: muscular system alone, there guished either by their stature, their forms, or the
are z4460 several ends or aims to be attended to.-  features of their faces; and on the ground of this
The bones are reckoned to be in number about dissimilarity, the various wheels of the machine
245, and the distinct scopes or intentions  of each of society move onward, without clashing'or coneof these are above 40; inall, about 9800:' so that fusion.  Had it been otherwise-had. the faces of
the system of bones and muscles alone, without men, and their organs of speech, been cast exactly
taking any other parts into consideration,amounts in the same mold, as would- have been the case
to above 14,000 different intentions or adaptations. had the world been framed according to the EpiIf now we suppose, that all. the species of animals curean system, by blind chance directing a con-l
above stated are differently constructed, andtaken course of atoms, it'might have been as difficult to
one with another, contain, at'an average, a system  distinguish one human countenance from another,
of bones and muscles as numerous as in the hu-' as to distinguish theeggs laidby the same hen, or
malil body —the number of species must  be mul- the drops of waterwhich trickle from the same oritiplied  by the' number of different aims and fice; and consequently, society would have been
adaptations, and the product will'amount to thrown into a state of universal anarchy and con4,200,000,000.  If we were next to attend to the fusion. Friends would not have beendistinguished
many thousands of blood, vessels in an: aninmal from enemies;, villains from the good and honest,
bodiy, and the numerous ligaments, membranes, fathers from sons, the culprit from the innocent
humors, and fluids of various descriptions,  the person, nor the branches of the same family from
skin with its millions of pores,and everyother one another. And what a scene of perpetual conpart of an organical system, with the aims and fusion and disturbance would thus have been creintentions, of each,'we should, have another sum' ated. Frauds, thefts, robberies, murders, assassiof many hundreds of millions to be multiplied by nations, forgeries, and injustice of all kinds, might
the former product, in order to express the diver- have been daily committed without the least possified ideas which enter into the construction of sibility of detection. Nay, were even the variety
the animal world. And if we still further consider of tones in the human voice, peculiar to each perthat, of the hundreds of millions of individuals son, to cease, and the handwriting of all men to
belonging to each species, no two individuals ex- become perfectly uniform, a multitude of distressactly resemble each other-that all the myriads of ing deceptions and perplexities would be produced
vegetables with which the earth is covered are in the domestic, civil, and commercial transactions
distinguished from each other by some one cha- of mankind. But the All-wise and Beneficent
racteristic or another, and, that every grain of  Creator has prevented all such evils and inconvesand contained'in the mountains, and in the, bed niences by the character of variety which' lie has.of the ocean, as shown by the microscope, dis- impressed on the human species, and on all his
covers a different form and configuration from an- works. By the peculiar features of his counteother-we are here presented with an image of  nance, every man may be distinguished in the
the infinity of the conceptions of Him  in whose light; by the tones of his voice he may be recogincomprehensible mind they all existed, during  nized in the dark, or when he is separated from
countless ages, before the universe was formed.   his fellows by an impenetrable partition; and his
To overlook this amazing. scene of Divine in- handwriting can attest his existence and individtelligence, or to considerit as beneath our notice, uality, when continents and oceans interpose beas some have' done-if it be not the characteristic tween him and his relations, and be a witness of
of impiety, is, at least, the mark of a weak and his sentiments and purposes to future generations.
undiscriminating mind. That man who disregards
the visible displays of Infinite Wisdom, or. who
neglects to investigate them  when opportunity
offers, acts as if he considered himself already    Thus I have taken a very cursory view of some
possessed of' a sufficient portion of. intelligence, evidences of Divine Wisdom, which appear in tire
and stood in no need of such sensible assistance general constitution of the earth, the waters, and
to direct his conceptions of the Creator. Pride, the atmosphere, and in the characteristic of variety,
and false conceptions of the nature and design of which is impressed on all the objects of the visible
true'religion, frequently lie at the foundation of creation.  When these, and Other admirable arall that indifference and neglect with which the rangements in our sublunary system, are seriously
visible works of God are treated'by those who contemplated, every rational and pious mindwill
make pretensions to a high degree:of.spiritual bedisposed to exclaimwith the Psalmist-" There
attainments. The truly.-pious man will trace, is none like unto thee, O Lord, neither are there
with wonder and delight, the footsteps of his Fa- any works like unto thy works."'-" Thou art
ther and' his God, wherever they appear in the great, and dost wondrous' things: thou art God
variegated scene of creation around him, and will alone." —" 0 that men would praise the Lord for
be filled with sorrow and contrition of heart, that, his goodness, and for his wonderful works toward
amidst his excursions and solitary walks, he has the children of men!"
so often disregarded "the works of the Lord, and   When we consider not only the utility, but the
the operation of his hands."                     beauty and grandeur of the wise arrangements of
In fine, the variety which appears on the face    nature, what reason have we to admire and adore
of nature not only enlarges our conceptions of  the goodness of the great Author of our existence'?
Infinite Wisdom, but is also the foundation of all Were all the diversities of shape and color, of
our discriminations and judgments as rational mountains and vales, of rivers and lakes, of light
beings, and is of the Amost essential utility in the and shade, which now embellish the various landaffairs of human society. Such is the variety of scapes of the world, to disappear, and were on0
wihich the features of the human countenance are unvaried scene perpetually to present itself to file
susceptible, that it is probable, that no two indi- eye, how dull, and wearisome, and uninteresting.




STRUCTURE OF: THE EYE. -                                      37
*would the aspect of the universe.appear to an in- constitution of things, the harmony of nature is
te llgen t mind!  IAlthough the variegated beauties occasionally disturbed, and its'beauty defaced, by
which adorn the surface of. iour globe, and the earthquakes, storms, and'tempests-we must. revault of heaven, are notessential to our existence member, that the inhabitants of the earth are now'as sensitive beings,:yet.were they completely a.depraved race of mortals, no longer adorned
withdrawn, and nothing:presented to. the eye but with primeval purity and innocence; and that the
a boundless expanse of barren sands, the-mind physical economy of our globe has undergone a
would recoil upon itself, its sactivity would be de- certain derangement, corresponding to the moral
stroyed, its powers would be:confined, as'it were, state of its present occupants.-But -since  this
-to a prison, a:d it would.roami in vain amids4t the- earth, even in its present stateof degradation and
surrounding:waste in search of enjoyment.  Even derangement, presents to the- view of every be-.the lhuxuries of.a'palace, were it possible to pro- holder so many objects of beauty and magnifi-.cure -them  amidst such a scene of desolation, cence, and so numerous traces of Divine Benefiwould become stale aid insipid, and would leave cence —we may reasonably conclude, that scenes
the rational soul almost destitute of ideas and of- of Divine Wisdom  and Goodness, far more glorimental energy, to the tiresome round of a cheer- ous and transporting, must be displayed in those
less existence. But, in the actual state of the worlds where moral evil has never shed its malign
world we live.in, there is no landscape. in nature, influence, and where the inhabitants-superior to
firom the. icebergs of Greenland -to the -verdant disease and death-bask forever in'the regions of
scenes of the Torrid Zone, in which objects, either immortality. And therefore, however admirable
of sublimity or of beauty, in boundless variety, the displays of Divine Wisdom may appear in the
are not presented to the view, in or'der to stimulate sublunary scene around us, they must be considthe mind to- activity, to gratify its -desire of nov- ered as inferior to those which are exhibited in
elty,a and to elevate its conceptions of -the Benefi- many other provinces of-Jehovah's- empire, in so
cent Creator.                                   far as they are blended with those physical deAnd if the present constitution of our world rangements which indicate his displeasure against
displays so evident marks of beauty and benevo-  the sins of men.
lent design, now that it is inhabited by an assem- blage of depraved intelligences, and its physical
-aspect deformed, in consequence of"  the wicked-   Were we now to direct our attention to the
-less of man," whit transporting beauties and mechanism  of animated beings;' and to consider
sublimities must —it have presented, when':it ap- the numnberless contrivances and adaptations in.peared fresh from -the hand of its Almighty Ma- their organical structure and functions, a thousand
ker, and when all thingswere pronounced by him  instances of exquisite wisdom  and design, still
to be very good!  After a deluge of waters has more striking and admirable, would crowd upon
swept away many of its'primeval beauties, and our view. For, although the general fabric of-the
has'broken and deranged even its subterraneous world, and the immense variety- of objects it constrata, this terrestrial world still presents to the tains, are evident proofs of a Wise and Intelligent
eye a striking scene of beauty, order, and benefi- Contriver, yet it is chiefly in the minute and delicence. But we have the strongest reason to be- cate contrivances of organical structures, their
lieve, that, before sin had disfigured the aspect of adaptation to the purposes of life, motion, and
this. lower world, all was'beauty to the eye, and enjoyment, and their relation and correspondence
music to the ear"-that "immortality breathed to the surrounding elements, that the consummate
in the winds, flowed  in the rivers," and exhaled skill of the Great Architect of nature is most
from every plant and flower. No storms disturbed strikingly perceived. But as it forms no part of
the tranquillity of nature, nor created the least my present plan to enter on so extensive a field
alarm  in the breasts of its holy inhabitants.  No of illustration, on which volumes might be writearthquakes shook the ground, nor rent the foun- ten, I shall content myself with merely stating
dations of nature. No volcanoes vomited their an example or two. My first example shall be
rivers of lava, nor overwhelmed the plains with taken from
deluges of fire. No barren deserts of heath and
sand disfigured the rich landscape of the world-       THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN EYE.
no tempests nor-hurricanes tossed the ocean, nor
scorching heats nor piercing colds, nor pestilence    The eye is one of the nicest pieces of mechannor disease, annoyed the' human frame.  In the ism which-the human understanding can contemparadisaical state of the world, we may reason- plate; but as it requires a knowledge of its alnaably suppose, that all the elements of'nature con- tomical structure, and of the principles of optics,
tributed directly to the pleasure and enjoyment to enable us to appreciate its admirable functions,
of man, and of the other tribes of animated h:na- I shall confine myself to a few general descripture; and that they were not subjected as they tions and remarks.
now are, to the operation of those'natural agents   The eye is nearly of a globular form. It conwhich so frequently spread destruction and ruin sists chiefly of three coats and three humors. The
among the abodes of men. To suppose -the con- first- or outer coat is termed sclerotica; it is every-trary to have happened would be inconsistent with where'white and opaque, and is joined, at its ante-the state of pure and happy intelligences, and with rior edge, to another' which has more convexity
the beiiignity'of the Creator; and Would imply, than any other part of the globe of the eye, and,
that.God was either unwilling or unable to re- being exceedingly transparent, is called the cornea.
moves such physical evils. But.we cannot sup- These two parts are perfectly different in their
pose it beyond the limits of Infinite Wisdom and structure, and are supposed, by some anatomists,
Omnipotence, to create and arrange a world en- to be as distinct from each other as the glass of a
tirely free from- those evils and inconveniences watch is from the case into which it is affixed.which now  fliow from -the operation of certain Next within this coat is that called the choroides,
physical agents, without,_at the same time, sup- on account of its being furnished with a great
posing that his power and intelligence are con- number of vessels. - It serves, as it were, for a
fined-within certain bounds,' beyond which they lining to the other, and is joined with that part
cannot pass. And, therefore, if, in the existing of the eye termed the iris. The iris is an opaque




38                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
membrane like the choroides, ibut of different wipe from it superfluous moisture, and to cover it
colors in different eyes, as gray, black, or hazel. during sleep. In the upper part of its orbit'it is
It is composed of two sets of muscular fibers, the furnished with a gland, to supply it with water
one of a circular form, which contracts the hole sufficient to wash off dust, and to keep its outer
in the middle, called the pufpil, when the light is surface moist, without which the cornea would
too. strong for the eye; and the other of radial be less transparent, and the rays of light would
fibers, tending everywhere'from  the- circumfe- be disturbed in their passage; and the superfluous
rence of the iris toward the middle of the pupil; water is conveyed to the nose through a perfora.
which fibers,' by their contractions,- dilate Sand tion in the bone.
enlarge the pupil, when the light is weak, in order   For the purpose of enabling the eye to move in
to let in moreof-its rays.-The third coat is called its' socket, six muscles are provided. These are
the retina, upon which are painted the images of admirably contrived -to move it in every direction,
all visible objects, by the'rays of light which flow  upward or downward, to' the right or to the left,
from them.'It spreads like network all over the or in whatever direction the occasion may require;
inside of the choroides, and is nothing more than  and thus we. are spared the trouble of turning our
a'fine expansion of the optic nerve; by which  heads continually toward the objects we wish to
nerve the impressions of visible. objects are con- inspect. If we want to look upward, one of these
vTyed to the brain.                              muscles lifts up the orb of the eye; if we would
Tile inside of the globe of the eye, within these cast our eyes to the ground, another muscle pulls
tunics or coats, is filled with three humorsocalled them  down. A  third muscle moves the globe
the aqueous,' th6 crystalline, and the, vitreous. outward toward the temples, and a fourth draws
The aqueous humor lies at the forepart of the it toward the nose. A-fifth, which slides within
eye, and occupies all the' space between the crys- a cartilaginous ring, like a cord over a pulley, and
talline' and the prominent cornea. It has the is fastened to the globe of the eye in two points,
same specific gravity and refractive power as makes it roll about at pleasure  A  sixth lies
water,' and seems chiefly of use to prevent the under the eye, and is designed to temper and
crystalline from being easily bruised by rubbing, restrain within proper bounds the action of the
or by a' blow- and, perhaps it serves for the rest, to keep it steadily fixed on the object it becrystalline humor to move forward in while we holds, and to prevent those frightful contortions
view near objects; and backward, for remoter which otherwise might take place.*  By these,
objects; without which, or some other mechanism  and a multitude of other mechanical contrivances,
effecting the same purpose, we could not, accord- all acting in harmonious combination, the eye, at
ing to the law  of optics, perceive objects dis- a natural telescope and microscope, is made t.
tinctly when placed at different distances.-Be- advance, to recede, to move to the right, and to
hind the aqueous lies the crystalline humor, which the left, and in every other direction; and to view
is shaped like a double convex glass, and is a little near and distant objects with equal distinctnessl
more convex on the back than on the forepart. so that a single eye, by the variety of positions it
This humor is transparent like crystal, is nearly may assume, perform's the office of a thousand.t
of the consistence of hard jelly, and converges    The utility of these several movements, and the
the rays which pass through it from  visible pain and inconvenience which would be suffered
objects, to its focus at the bottom or back part of were any of them  wanting, call scarcely  be
the eye.-The vitreous- humor lies behind the conceived by any one whose eyes have always
crystalline,'and fills up the greater part of the orb remained in a sound state. We are so much
of the eye, giving it a globular shape. It is nearly accustomed to the regular exercise of our visual
of the consistence of the white'of an egg, and organs, that we seldom  reflect on the numerous
very transparent; its forepart is concave, for the delicate springs which must be set in action,
crystalline humor to lodge in, and its back part before the functions of vision can with ease be
being convex, the' retina is spread over it.  It performed.  But were any one of the muscular
serves as a medium to keep the crystalline humor organs, now described, to fail in its functions, we
and the retina at a due distance. From what has should soon experience so many inconveniences,
been now stated, it is obvious, that the images of as would throw a gloom on all the other comforts
external objects are depicted on the retina, in an of life; and convince us how much we are ininverted position, in the same manner as the debted, every moment, to the provident care and
images- formed by a' common convex lens; but goodness of our beneficent Creator, for thousands
howthe.rmind, in this case, perceives objects erect, of enjoyments which we seldom think of, and for
is a question, about which the learned have been which we are never sufficiently grateful.  " With
divided in their opinions.*                      much compassion, as well as astonishment, at the
The ball, of the eye, as now described, is situ- goodness of our loving Creator," says Dr. Nieuated in a bony cavity, called its orbit, composed  wentyt, "have I considered the sad state of a cerby the junction of seven different'bones, hollowed  tain gentleman, who, as to the rest, was in pretty
out at their edges.  This cavity is, in all the va- good health, but only wanted the' use of those
cant spaces, filled with a loose fat, which serves two little muscles that serve to lift up the eyelid,
as a proper medium  for the eye'to rest in, and as and so had almost lost the use of his sight-being
a:socket in which it may move. It is sheltered  forced, as long as this defect lasted, to shove
by the eyebrows, which are provided with hair, up  his  eyelids every moment with his own
to prevent the descending sweat of the forehead hands."**
from  running down into it.-' As a still further   How  admirable, then, is the formation of the
protection to this delicate organ, it is furnished eye, and how grateful ought we to feel at the
with the eyelid, which, like a curtain, is drawn
over it with inconceivable swiftness, for its secuover it with inconceivable swiftness, for its seu-   * A more particular description of the muscles of the eye
rity on the approach of danger.  It also serves to illustrated by two engravings; will be found in the author'l
volume, entitled, "The Improvement of Society by the Dif
* An idea of the relative positions of the coats and humors fusion of Knowledge," p. 72.
described above, may be obtained by a simple inspection of   t Flies and other insects, whose eyes are immovable
the Frontispiece, Fig. 6.-Fig. 5 represents a front view of have several thousands of distinct globes in each eye. See
the human eye, as it appears in its natural state, and exhi- Note, p. 34.
bits the relative positions of the Cornea; Iris, and Pupil.  NieuRventyt's Religious Philosopher, vol. i, p. 232.




WONDERS OF VISION.                                       39
consideration, that we are permitted to enjoy all so large, that a million of them wore equal in
he transporting pleasures of vision, without the bulk to an ordinary grain of sand, we durst no
east perplexity or effort on our part!  If the loss more open our eyes to the light, than suffer sand
Af action in a single muscle produces so many to be shot point-blank against them  from  the
listressing sensations and efforts, what would be mouth of a cannon."  It may also be remarked,
the consequence if all the muscles of the eye that the property which all bodies possess of rewere  wanting or deranged?  And is it man fleecting light, is essential to the purpose of vision,
that governs these nice and intricate movements, without which the splendid and variegated scene
— or is it the eye itself, as a self-directing ma- of nature would be changed  into a dreadful
ehine, that thus turns round, seasonably and sig- gloom; and were the rays of light of one uninificantly, toward every visible object?  Man form color, and not compounded of various hues,
knows neither the whole structure of the organs one object could not be distinguished from anof vision, nor the functions they ought to per- other, and the beautiful aspect of our globe would
form. The eye is only an unconscious machine instantly disappear.
in the hands of a Superior Intelligence, as a   Thus we see that the eye is adapted to light, and
watch or a steam-engine is in the hands of a me- light to the eye; and in this admirable adaptation
chanic. It is God alone who constantly performs the wisdom of the Creator is strikingly displayed.
its movements, according to certain laws, which For light has no effect upon the ear, or upon any
he has submitted to our inclinations and desires; other organ of sensation, so as to produce a pcer"for in. hi  we live and move."  We are desirous ception of visible objects; as, on the other haind,
to see certain objects around us: this is all the the undulations of the air have no effect upon the
share we have in the operations of our eyes; and eye, so as to produce the sensation of sound. The
without perplexing our understanding, without eye did not produce the light, nor did the light
the least care or management in regard to any of form  the eye; they are perfectly distinct from
the functions, we can, in a few moments, take each other, yet so nicely adapted in every partica survey of the beauties and sublimities of an ular, that had any one quality or circumstance
extensive landscape, and of the glories of the been wanting in either, the functions of vision
vault of heaven. Thus the Divine Being ope- could not have been performed in the manner in
rates, not only in this, but in a thousand different which they now operate; which strikingly deways, in the various senses and  contrivances monstrates, that one and the same Intelligent Bewhich belong to our animal system; and yet ing, possessed of a wisdom beyond our comprethoughtless and ungrateful man often inquires, in hension, formed the curious structure of the eye,
the language of doubt and hesitation, "Where is and indued the rays of light with those properties
God my Maker?" —He is in us and around us, of color, motion, and minuteness, which are cal.
directing every movement in our animal frame to culated, through the medium  of this organ, to
act in harmony with the surrounding elements, produce, in sentient beings, the ideas of visible
and to minister to our enjoyment; and it is only objects.  And, surely, he never intended that
when his exquisite operations are deranged by such exquisite skill and contrivance should be alexternal violence, or by vicious or imprudent together overlooked by rational beings, for whose
habits, that we feel inconvenience or pain.    pleasure and enjoyment all this benevolent care is
Such are only a few general outlines of the exercised.
structure of the eye; for no notice has been taken
of the numerous minute veins, arteries, nerves,
lymphatics, glands, and many other particulars'Which are connected with this organ. But. all   Let us now attend a little to the manner in
this delicate and complicated apparatus in the which vision is performed, by the medium  of'
structure of the eye would have been of no use light acting on the organs of sight. If we take
whatever for the purpose of vision, had not a dis- a common convex glass-a reading-glass, for extinct substance been created to act upon it, exactly ample-and hold it at some distance from a candle
adapted to its nature and functions.  In order or a window-sash, placing a piece of white paper
that the eye might serve as the medium  of our behind the glass, at the distance of its focus, the
perceptions of visible objects, liqht was formed, image of the candle or sash will be painted on the
and made to travel from its source at the rate of paper, in an inverted position. This experiment
192,000 miles in a second of time. This prodi- may be performed with a better effect, by darkengious velocity of light is doubtless essential to the inlg a room, and placing the convex glass in a hole
nature of vision; since it actually exists, and since cut out of the window-shutter, when the rays of
we find that it radiates with the same swiftness light, flowing from the objects without, and passing
from the most distant visible star, as from the sun  through the glass, will form a picture of the obwhich enlightens our system. To abate the force  jects opposite the window, on the white paper,
of thie amazing velocity, its particles have been adorned with the most beautiful colors.  In a
formed almost infinitely small-a circumstance manner similar to this are the images of external
which alone prevents this delightful visitant from  objects depicted on the back part of the inuer
becoming the most tremendous and destructive coat or membrane of the eye.  The rays of light,
element in nature.  Dr. Nieuwentyt has com- proceeding in all directions from surrounding obputed that, in one second of time, there flows jects, and falling on the eye, are transmitted
418,660,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,- through the pupil; and being refracted by the dif000,000,000 * particles of light out of a burning ferent humors (particularly by the crystalline hucandle, which number contains at least 6,337,- mor, which acts the part of a convex lens), they
242,000,000 times the number of grains of sand converge to a focus on the retina, where the imin the whole earth, supposing every cubic inch ages of visible objects.are painted in an inverted
of the earth to contain a million of grains. It position; and, by means of the optic nervot, these
has been justly remarked by Mr. Ferguson, and images are conveyed to the mind.
other authors, that'if the particles of light were   The following figure will perhaps more distinctiy illustrate this point. Let a b c x y repre.
That is four hundred and eighteen septillion, ix hn- sent the globe of the eye, and A a c an object at
tired and sixty sextillions.-See Appendix, Note IL.  a certain distance from it. Now, it is well known




'40                         THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
that every'point of a visible object sends'out rays mense must be the number of radiations which
of light in all directions; and therefore, a certain  are issuing from  all the objects which compose
portion of the rays which filow from  the. object this extensive landscape! Myriads of rays, from
A B C, will fall.upon the cornea-between-x and y, myriads of objects, must be crossing each other
in' an infinity of directions,, so'that the mind is
Fig.-. 8.,                  confounded at the apparent confusion which seems.-D.               A    to exist in this immensity of radiations; yet every
ray passes forward in the crowd, in the most perfeet order, and, without being blended or confused
with any other ray, produces its specific effect on
every eye that is open to receive it. But this is
not all: these millions of rays, which flow from
the minutest points of the surrounding scene, bei-'.`.  0.   1    fore they can produce the sensation of vision, and,'. -...  --,   <':,    form  a. picture of the landscape on the retina,
and passing through the aqueous humor, m n, and must be compressed into a space little more than
the crystalline humor, o p, and the vitreous humor, one-eighth of an'inch in diameter, before they
D E, will be converted to a focus on' the' retina, can enter the pupil of the eye; yet they all
and paint a'distinct picture,',a b c, of the object pass through this small aperture without the least
A  c, in an inverted position.  The rays'from the confusion, and paint. the images of their respecpoint A'of the object, after being refracted'by the tive objects in exactly the same order in which
different humors, will be brought to a point -at a; these objects are arranged. —Another circumthose from  nB will be converged, at b; and those stance demands attention. The rays which pro-:from c at c; and of course the intermediate rays ceed from the- objects before me, are not all di-.between A B and B c will be formed between a b rected to the spot where I stand, but are diffused
and' b c, and \the object, will become Visible by throughout every point of the.surrounding space,
means -of its image or representation being paint- ready to produce the same effect, wherever sened on the retina, in all the- colors and propor- tient beings are present to receive them. Were
tions which belong to it. If we take a bullock's the whole inhabitants of Edinburgh placed on the
eye, and cut off the- three coats from  the back sloping declivity of Arthur's Seat, and along the
part,.and put a.piece of thin white paper over top of Salisbury Crags, and were mill.ions of
that part, and hold the eye toward the window, or other spectators suspended in the surrounding atany bright object, we shall see the.image of the mosphere, similar sensations would be produced,
object depicted, upon the paper, and in an inverted and a scene similar to that which I now behold
position, as stated above.                       would'be depicted in every eye.  Amidst the inIn order that we may more distinctly perceive finity of cones of light, crossing each other in an
the wonders of vision, and thenumerous circum- infinity of directions, no confusion would ensue,
stances on which-it depends, let us suppose our- but every spectator, whose eyes were in a sound
selves placed on an eminence, which commands a' state, would' obtain a correct view of the scene.view of a variegated and- extensive landscape.-  before him; and hence it happens, that, whenever
Let us suppose ourselves stationed on Arthur's I shift my position to the right hand or to the
Seat, or on the top of Salisbury Crags, in the vi- left, other streams of light enter my eye, and procinity of Edinburgh. Turning our face to the duce the same effect.
north-west, the city, with'its:castles, spires, and    Let me now attend to another circumstance, no
stately edifices, presents itself to. our view.  Be- less admirable than the preceding, and that is, the.yond it, -on the' north and west, a beautiful coun- distinct impression which I have of the shape, cotry,- adorned with villas, plantations, and fertile lor, and motion, of the multiplicity of objects I
fields, stretches as far as the eye can reach, until am now contemplating, and the small space with-the view'is bounded -by the castle of Stirling, at in which their images are depicted at the bottom
a dstance of more than thirty miles.  On the of my eye. Could a painter, after a long series
right hand, we behold the port of Leith, the ship- of ingenious efforts, delineate the extensive landping in the roads, the coast of Fife, the isles of scape now before me on a piece of paper not exInchkeith  and' of May, and the frith of Forth ceeding the size of a silver sixpence, so that every
gradually losing itself in the German ocean. If object might be as distinctly seen, in its proper.we suppose the length of this landscape to be shape and color, as it now appears when I surforty' miles, and its, breadth twenty-five, it will, vey the scene around me, he would be incompaof course, coomprehend an area of a thousand rably superior to all the masters of his art that
square miles.                                   ever went before him.  This effect, which far
The first circumstance which strikes the mind, transcends the utmost efforts of human genius, is
is the immense multitude of rays of reflected light accomplished in a moment, in millions of inwhich flow in all directions, from.the myriads of' stances, by the hand of Nature, or, in other
objects which compos, the surrounding scene.-  words, by "%"  finger of -God."  All the objects
In. order to form a rude idea of this infinity of ra- I am neW surveying, comprehending an extent of
diations I fi*x my attention on a single object. I a thousand square miles, are accurately delineated
direct my eye to Nelson's monument, on the Cal- in the bottom of my eye, on a space less than i.alf
ton Hill. From the parapet at the top, a'thousand an inch in diameter.  How delicate, then, must
different points send forth a thousand different be the strokes of that divine pencil which has
cones of rays, which, entering my eye, render formed such a' picture!' I turn my eyes tb the'the different parts of it distinctly visible, beside castle of Edinburgh, which appears one of the
myriads of'rays from the same points, which flow  most conspicuous objects in my field of view.in every other direction'through the open spaces Supposing that portion of it which strikes my eye
of the atmosphere whichi surround them. How'to be 500 feet long, and 90 in hight, I fird, by
many thousands of millions, then, of different ra- calculation, that it occupies only the sixbh J adreddiations must be issuing forth every moment from  thousandth part of' the whole lands, up a, and)
the.whole mass of the morument! And if one consequently, fills in my eye no more than the
obiect pours forth.isuch a'flood of rays, how im- twelve-hundred-thousandth part of a-, inch.  I




WONDERS OF VISION.,                                       41
next direct my eye toward the Frith of Forth, and   00000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,,  or,
perceive a steamboat sailing between Queensferry  thirty-three thousand five hundred sextillions of
and Newhaven. I distinctly trace its motion for'cubical miles. And were we to institute compathe space of 40 minutes, at the end of which it risens and calculations with respect to the possireaches the chainpier at Newhaven, having passed ble variety of effects they might produce through-'
over a space of five miles in length, which is but out this immense region, whole pages might be
the eighth part of the lineal extent of'the land — filled with figures, ciphers, and computations. We
scape in that direction; and, consequently, occu- might compute how many globes similar to the
pies, in the picture formed on my retina, a lineal' earth, or any of the larger planets, might be conspace of only one-sixteenth of an inch in extent. tained within this vast space, allowing several
And, if the'boat be reckoned about 88 feet in hundreds of cubical miles of empty space around
length, its image is only the three-hundredth part each globe -how  many myriads of refractions
of this extent; and, of course fills a space' in the and reflections the rays of light would suffer, in
eye of only the four-thousand-eight-hundredth  regard to the peculiar objects connected with every
part of a lineal inch. Yet, my perception of the one of these globes -how many eyes of sentient
motion of the vessel could be produced' by only a beings might be affected'by the diversities of color,
corresponding motion of its image in' my eye; shape, and motion which would thus be produced
that is, by the gradual motion of a point one- -and what a variety of shades of light and color,
four-thousand-eight-hundredth part of?an inch in and what a diversity of scenery Would be prodiameter, over a space one-sixteenth of an inch in duced, according to the distances of the respective
length.  How inconceivably fine and accurate,'globes from the central luminary. After:what we
then, must be the impression of those strokes have just now stated, however, we may rest satiswhich the rays of light, from visible objects, pro- fled with joining in the pious exclamation of one
duce on the retina of the eye! The mind is lost' who had just finished a devout survey of the
in wonder when it attempts to trace so exquisite structure of the human frame: " Marvelous are
and admirable an effect.                        thy works, and that my soul knoweth right well.
I take a reflecting telescope, and through it How precious are thy thoughts unto me, O God!"
view some of the distant parts of the landscape. (or, as the' words might be rendered), "How preMy wonder is still increased when I consider the clous are thy  wonderful contrivances concerning
new directions into which"' the rays of light are me, O God! how great is the sum of them?  If I
bent-the' crossings and recrossings, the refrac- should count them they are more in number than
tions and reflection's, that take place between the'the sand."  In what direction soever I turn mine
mirrors and the lenses of the instrument, and the eyes, whatever portion of thy works I investisuccessive images that are formed-so that, in- gate, "Iam  still with thee."*  Thine infinity and
stead of a scene of confusion, Which previous to unsearchable wisdom are impressed on every obexperience, might have been expected from  the  ject, so that I feel myself every moment encomnumerous additional bendings and intersections passed by thine immensity, and am irresistibly led
of the rays-I now perceive hundreds of objects, to wonder and adore.
with the most perfect distinctness, which were    I shall now conclude these reflections on vision,
before invisible. Rays of light from distant and with- two or three additional remarks. It is worminute objects, which a moment before made no thy of notice, in the first place, that the eye has
sensible impression on my eye, being collected the power of adapting itself to objects placed at
and variously modified by the telescope, now  different distances. By means of some delicate
paint a vivid representation of their objects in pieces of mechanism, not hitherto satisfactorily
their true figures, colors, and positions.       explained, it can perceive, with distinctness, a
From a consideration of the innumerable modi- large object at the distance of six miles, and the
ficationls of the rays of light, and of the immense next moment it can adjust itself to the distinct
variety of effects they produce in every region of perception of an object at' the distance of six
the earth-I am led to investigate what proportion inches; so that it acts the part both of a telescope
of the solar light falls upon our globe, in order to and a microscope, and can be instantaneously adproduce so diversified a scene of sublimity and  justed to perform either as the one instrument or
beauty. Supposing the sun's rays to be chiefly  as the other. This necessarily supposes a corresconfined, in their effects, within the limits of the pending alteration in the state of the organ, every
planetary system, since they diverge in every di- timewe lift our eye from a near to look at a disrection, they must fill a cubical space 3,600,000,000 tant object. Either the cornea is somewhat flatmilesin diameter; which consequently will contain tened, or the crystalline humor is pushed backabout 24,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,00,000 of ward, or both these changes, in combination with
cubical miles, so that an eye, placed in any point others, may concur in causing the rays from disof this vast space, would receive a distinct impres- tant objects to unite exactly on the retina, withsion from the solar rays. The solidity of the earth  out which, distant vision cannot be produced.is about 264,000,000,000 cubical miles, and, there- This contrivance, in whatever kind of mechanfore it receives only the  o o    o  o o o oism it may consist, is one which art would vainly
part of the light which fills the sphere of the s   attempt to imitate. e can see objects that are
ar system. SoP that- the light which cheers all the near us with a microscope; and those that are disinhabitants of the world, and unvails such a varie  taut with a telescope; but we should in vain atty of beautiful and magnificent objects, is nothing tempt to see distant objects with the former, or
more'than a single stream of celestial radiance out those that are only a few inches from us with the
of ninety thousand billions of similar streams, latter, without a variety of changes being made
which. the great source of light is every moment in the apertures and positions of the glasses bediffusin~g throughout surround~ing'worlds.  But~ longing to the respective instruments.  In this
the solar rays' are-not confined within the bounds respect therefore, as well as in every other, the
of theplanetary system; their influence extends,       is an optical instrument, incomparably supein-every direction, as far as the neareststars, fill- rior to any instrument or imitation that art can
inga cubical space a cubical space at least 40,000,00000,000 produce ald wereit notfor he peculiar,roperty
miles n diameter, and which contains 33,500,000,              * Psalm cix. 14,17,'




42                          THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
now described,.t would be. almost unfit for the I perceived. If one of the six muscles of Mhe eye
purpose of vision, notwithstanding all the other were wanting, or impeded in its functions, we
delicate contrivances which enter into its con- could not turn it to the right; if a second were
struction.~ If it were adjusted only fer the dis- deficient, we could not turn it to the left; if a
tinct. perception of distant objects, every object third, we could not lift it upward; -if a fourth, we
within the limits of an ordinary apartment would could not move it downward; and if it were deappear.a mass of confusion; and were it adjusted prived of the other two muscles, it Would be apt
solely for viewing objects within the limits of a to roll about in frightful contortions. If the eyes
few feet oi inches, the glories of the heavens, and' were placed in any other part of the body than
the beautiful landscape of the earth, would be_ the head- if they were much more prominent
vailed from our sight, as if they were enveloped than they now are —if they were not surrounded
in a mist.                                     by the bony socket in which they are lodgedAnother circumstance worthy of attention, is -and if they were not frequently covered by the
the power which the pupil of the eye possesses of eyelid-they would be,exposed to a thousand- accontracting or enlarging the aperture or hole cidents from which they are now protected. If'
through which the light is admitted. When the they wanted moisture, and if they were not' frelight is too weak, the pupil is enlarged; when it quently wiped by the eyelids, they would become
is too strong, it is again contracted.. Accordingly less transparent,'and more liable to be inflamed;
we find, that when we enter; a darksome apart- and if they were not sheltered by the eyebrows,
ment, though, at first, nothing can be accurately  the sweat and moisture of the forehead would
distinguished, yet, in the course of a minute or frequently:annoy them. Were the light which
two, when the - pupil has had time to dilate, we, acts upon them devoid of color-were it not recan perceive most objects with considerable dis- flected from objects in every direction-were its
tinctness. Antl, on the other hand, when we pass motion less swift,' or its particles much larger
from a dark room to an apartment lighted up with than they now are-in short, were any one cira number of lusters,.we feel uneasy at the sudden cumstance connected with the structure of this
glare, until, the pupil has contracted itself, and ex- organ, and with the modification of the rays of
cluded.a.portion of the superfluous rays. Were light, materially different from  its present ar.
it.not for this property, we should, for the most rangement, we should either be subjected to the
part, either. be surrounded with a disagreeable -hourly recurrence of a thousand painful sensagloom, or oppressed with an excessive splendor.- tions, or be altogether deprived of the entertainIt is for this reason that we are unable to look ments of vision.
upon the sun without being dazzled, and are un-   How admirable an organ, then, is the eye, and
der the necessity of closing the -eyelids, or of turn- how nicely adapted to unvail to our view the gloing away the head, when a strong light suddenly ries of the universe! Without the application of
succeeds to darkness.                          any skill or laborious efforts on our part, it turns
Again, it may not be improper to observe, how  in every direction, transports us to every surwisely the Author of Nature has fixed the dis- rounding object, depicts the nicest shades and
tance at which we ordinarily see near-objects most colors on its delicate membranes, and
distinctly. This distance is generally from five to " Takes in, at once, the landscape of the world
eight inches from the eye. But, had the eye been   qt a small inlet, which a grain might close,
formed for distinct vision, at the distance of only   And half creates the wondrous world we see."-YOUNG.
one inch, the object would have obstructed the -How strikingly does it display, in every part of
light, and room would have been wanting for the its structure and adaptations, the marks of beperformance of'manynecessary operations, which nevolent design, and of Infinite- Intelligence!require the hand to intervene between the eye However common it is to open our eyes, and to
a.nd the object. And, had the limits of distinct behold, in an instant, the beauties of an extensive
vision for near objects been beyond two or three landscape, and however little we may he accusfeet, sufficient light would not.have been afforded tomed to admire this wonderful effect-there is
for the inspection of minute objects, and we could not a doctrine in religion, nor a fact recorded in
neither have written a letter nor have read a book Revelation, more mysterious and incomprehensiwith the same convenience and ease we are now  ble.  An excellent French writer has well obenabled to do.                                 served-" The sight of a tree and of the sun,
From the preceding descriptions and remarks, which God shows me, is as real and as immediate
it will evidently appear, with what admirable skill a Revelation as that which led Moses- toward the
the different parts of the organs of vision are con- burning bush. The only difference between both
structed, and how nicely they are adapted to the these actions of God on Moses and me is, that
several ends they were intended' to subserve.- the first is out of the common order and economy;
Were any one of these parts deficient, or ob- whereas the other is occasioned by the sequel
structed'in its functions, vision would either be and connection of those laws which God hasimpeded, or rendered painful and distressing, or established for the regulation both of man and
completely'destroyed. If any of the humors of nature."
the eye were wanting-if they were less transpa-   If then, the eye of man (who is a depraved inrent-if they were of a different refractive power habitant of a world lying partly in ruins), is an
-or if they were of a greater or less convexity organ so admirably fitted for extending our prosthan they now are, however minute the.alteration pects of the visible creation-we may reasonably
might be, vision would inevitably be obstructed, conclude, that organized beings of superior inteland every object would appear confused and in- ligellce and moral purity, possess the sense of vidistinct. If the retina, on which the images of sion in a much greater-'degree of perfection than
objects are painted, Were flat, instead of being man in his present state of degradation-and that
concave, while objects in the middle of the view  they may be enabled, by their natural organs, to
appeared distinct, every object toward the sides penetrate into regions of the universe far beyond
would appear dim  and'confused.' If the cornea what man, by the aid of artificial helps, will ever
were as opaque as, the, sclerotica, to which it is be able to descry. It may not be altogether exjoined, or if the retina were not connected with' travagant, nor even beyond the reality of existthe optic nerve, no visible object could possibly be I ing facts, to suppose, that there are intelligences




MECHANISM OF THE BONES.                                     43
in the regions of Jupiter or Saturn, whose visual and thus enables it to inspect very near objects.
orgaus are in so perfect a state, that they can de- The other consists of a peculiar muscle, which
scary the nonntains of our moon, and the conti- draws back, as occasion requires, the crystalline
nents, islands, and oceans which diversify our humor, by.which means-.it can take a distinct
globe, and are able to delineate a map of its sur- view of a distant landscape, and can pass from
face,. to mark the period of its diurnal rotation, the sight of a velry near to the sight of a distant
and even to distinguish its cities, rivers,- and vol- object, with rapidity and ease. In fishes, which
cainoes. It is quite evident, that it must be equal- live in a medium  of a different refractive power.ly easy to Divine Wisdom and Omnipotence, to from  that of air, the crystalline humor has a
form organs with powers of vision far surpassing greater degree of convexity, and more nearly, apwhat I have now supposed,.as to form an organ in preaches to a globular form than that, of land aniiwhich the magnificent scene. of heaven and earth mals-which conformationis essentially requisite
is depicted, in a moment, within -the compass of to distinctness of vision in the watery element.
half an inch. There are animals whose range of A fish, of course, cannot see distinctly in air, nor
vision is circumscribed within the limits of a few  a quadruped under water; and every person who
feet or inches; and, had we never perceived ob- has dived inlto the water with his eyes open, knows
jects through an organ in the same state of per- that though he may perceive the general forms
fection as that with which we are furnished, we and colors of objects, his vision is obscure and incould have formed as little conception of the sub- distinct.-In hares and rabbits, the eyes are very
limity and extent of our present range of sight, convex and prominent, so that they can see nearly
as we can now do of'those powers of vision which quite round them; whereas, in dogs, which purwould enable us to descry the inhabitants of dis- sue these animals, the visual organs are placed
tant- worlds.  The invention of the telescope more in the front of the head, to look rather beshows, that the penetrating power of the eye may fore than behind them. —Some animals, as cats
bei indefinitely increased; and, since the art of a'nd owls, which pursue their prey in the dark,
man can extend the limits of natural vision, it is have the pupil of their eye so formed as to be caeasy to conceive, that, in the hand of Omnipo- pable of great expansion, so that a few rays of
tence, a slight modification of the human eye light may make a lively impression on their
might enable it, with the utmost distinctness, to retina; while the eagle, which is able to look
penetrate into regions to which the imagination directly at the sun, has its pupil capable of being
can set no bounds. And therefore it is - not un- contracted almost to a point.-Insects, such as the
reasonable to believe, th'at, in the future world, beetle, the fly, and the butterfly, whose eyes aro
this will be one property, among others, of" the incapable of motion, have several thousands of
resirrection-body, that it will be furnished with small transparent globes, set in a convex hemiorgans of vision far superior to the present, in sphere, every one of which is capable of forming
order to qualify its intelligent inhabitant for tak- an image of an object;'so that they are enabled to
illg an ample survey of the " riches and glory" view the objects around them  without moving
of the empire of God.                          their heads.-But it would be beyond the limits
I have dwelt somewhat particularly on the of my plan to prosecute this subject any further:
functions of the eye, in order to show, otLal it is enough has already been stated, to show that the
only when we take a minute inspection of the eyes of men and of other animals are masteroperations of the Creator, that his Infinite Wis- pieces of art, which far transcend the human
dom and Intelligence are most distirictly perceiv- understanding; and that they demonstrate the
ed. The greater part of Christians will readily consummate wisdom of Him who planned and
admit, that the Wisdom of God is manifested in constructed the organical functions of the varievery object; but few of them take the trouble to ous tribes of animated existence.
inquire, in what particular contrivances and ad-    I shall conclude this branch of my subject, by
aptations, this wisdom  is displayed; and, there- presenting an instance or two of the mechanism of
fore, rest satisfied with vague and general views, the bones, and the movements it is fitted to prowhich seldom  produce any deep impression on duce.
the mind. " The works of the Lord," which are   The bones of the human frame are articulated,
"great" and admirable, "must be sought out by or connected together in different ways, but most
all those who have pleasure therein;" and the frequently in the following manner:-Either, first,
more minutely they are inspected, the more ex- a bone with a' round head is articulated with a
quisite and admirable do all his arrangements cavity, and plays with it as a ball in the socket;
appear.                                        or, second, they are connected together by a hingeWere we to enter into an investigation of the like articulation, which enables a bone-to move up
visual organs of the lower animals, and to consider or down, backward or forward, like a door upon
the -numerous varieties which occur in their struc- its hinges. An idea of these two motions, and
ture, position, and movements, and how nicely the the purposes they serve, may be obtained, by con-'peculiar organization of the eye is adapted to the sidering the construction of the pedestal of a telegeneral structure of the animal, and to its various scope, and the joints on which it moves. One of
necessities and modes of existence-the operation the joints is of the nature of a hinge, by which a
of' the same inscrutable Wisdom and Intelligence vertical motion, or a motion upward and down-would meet our eye at every step. Birds, for ex- ward, is produced. A horizontal motion, or a
ample, which procure their food by their beak, motion toward the right hand or the left, is prohave the power of seeing distinctly at a very duced by a pivot moving in a socket'; so that, by
small distance; and, as their rapid motions through these two motions, the telescope can.be made to
the air renders, it necessary that they shoud descry point in any direction. Such is the nature of the
abjects at a considerable distance,' they have two articulations in the bones, and the movements
peculiar mechanical contrivances, connected with they produce; and whenever one or other of these
their organs of vision, for producing both these motions, or both of them combined, is requisite
effects. One of these contrivances consists in a for the comfort-and convenience of the individual,
flexible rim, formed of bone, which surrounds the such a power of motion is uniformly found to
broadest part of the —eye; and, by occasionally exist. If the movement of a joint in every direcpressing upon its orb, shortens its focal distance, tion would in any particular case be found incon



44                              THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
venient, the hinge-like articulation is fixed upon: this case, we could not'have bored a hole with a
but If a motion in every direction is required for gimlet, cut'down corn with~a sickle, digged the
the convenient use ofparticular members, and  earth'with a spade,'sewed clothes with-a u needle,
for the variety of evolutions-which  a sentient tossed up a ball, or turned up the palm  of the
being/ may have occasion to make, the ball and  hand, for any of the useful purposes for which
socket articulation is -combined with the former. that motion was ordained.  In short, without the
For example, let any person for a moment con- rotatory motion of the wrist, thegreater part of
sider the joints,of his fingers, and com pare them   the operations connected with gardening, agricul.
with, the joint at his wrist, where the hand is con- ture, cookery, washing, spinning, weaving, paint.
nected with the fore-arm.   If he holdthe back of  ing, carving, engraving, building, and other mehis hand upward, he will find that he can move  chanical. arts, could not be performed; and suchll
his'fingers upward or downward; but he cannot of them  as could be effected, would be accomturn therm to the right hand.or to the left, soas to plished only with the greatest inconvenience and
make them  describe a-circular motion.  He will labor.  Any person may convincehimself of this,
also find that his wrist is  capable of a similar byholding his hand in a horizontal position', and
movement, so that the hand may be'bent in a ver- preventing his wrist joint from  turning  round,
tical direction.: -But, in addition to this motion, and then by trying.what operationshe can easily
it is also capable' of being turned in a'horizontal perform  without the rotatory motion; and he will
direction, or from  one,side to:another. ~In the  soon perceive with what exquisite skill the nuformer case, we have an example of the hinge  merous- movements -'of. our animal frames have
articulation; in the latter, it is combined with an  been contrived by the Great Author of our exis.
articulation which produces nearly the same effect tence... In each hand there - are 27 bones, all of
as; a pivot moving  ina socket.  Now,'had the  which are essential to the different motions we
joints of the fingers. been capable of the same  wish to perform.  Every finger is composed of
motionsas the wrist, the hand would have lost its three bones,'connected together by articulations,
firmness,and been incapable of performing a varie- muscles, and ligaments.  If, instead of three, each
ty of mechanical' operations, which require objects
to'be - held.with astaeadvz: rasp-  O   the other
to'be-' held.with a steady grasp.,On the other    every minute part and motion connected with our animal
hand, if the wrist had been confined to a vertical frame to subserve our convenience and pleasure. No one
motion, the' hand would'have been, incapable of  whois acquaintedwith the minute and exquisite mechanism
onle out of a hundred varied movements which it of the human body, will dare to call in question, the skill,
can  now  perform  with the greatest ease.*  Inthe design, and the forethought of the Great Artificer of
can now perfom   with the greatest ease.   t wonderful frame; and he must possess a cold and unfeeling heart, who can behold with apathy, and witiout
The horizontal motion of th  wrist, r that motion reverence and gratitude, the multitudinous mass of splendid'SThe horizontal'motion of the wrist, or, that motion byanexustcorinesfwhhhevrymetfel
and exquisite contrivances of which he every moment feels
which the, palm of the hand is alternately turned up and e pe
down, is produced chiefly by-the motions of the,two bones     sure and advantage.
of the fore-arm, called the radius and the lna, one of
which-is articulated to the humerous, or bone connected with                  Fig.9.
the shoulder.-In the following representatiion (fig. 9),'C is
thie hkmerus or shoulder bone; B is the elbow where the two.bones of the fore-arm are connected with the humerus; D is
the radius, which joins. the wrist, on the side where the
thumb is, and E the nlna, which joins the wrist on the side         A
where the little finger is: in fig. 10, G is the radius; fig. 11,
H is the Ulna. The slna has. a hooked process marked e,
which catches round the lower end of the humerus, forming
with'it a hinge'jint. This bone projects beyond the head
of the humerus, forming, when the arm is bent, the point of                
the elbow. The radiues has a small roundhead B, on which
it turns, withbut- any motion of the humerus-bound to the
ulna by ligaments-and asthe bones of the wrist are attached t0 the Towe' end of this bone alone, and' not to thenulna,
— when the radius revolves the whole: hand'turns with it.
This alternate rolling is what anatomist's call pronation and
sapinatiom. Flexion and extension of the arm are perferm-'ed by' means of the ulha, which carries the radius along
with it in all its movements. While the larger part of the
ulna is above; the larger part of the radius is below, so that Fig..
Fig. 10'                      Fig. I11.
while the former presents a large surface for articulation at
the elbow, the latterdoes the same at the wrist,, and this inverse arrangement, likewise, contributes'to the uniform   B   I                        -'
diameter of the fore:arm. While the fore-arm is thus at-          G
tached to the humerus, the radius is attached. to the wrist,                                     H
so that when we turn the, palm of the hand the radius rolls
on. the ulna by the help of a groove or hollow near each end   In the human hand, in particular, we pereive an instru.
of thebone,'carrying the hand with it. So admirable, in-n ment far superior to that of any similar part connected with
deed, is this contrivance, that both motionsmaybe perform- the structure of the lower animals. In this hand we per.
ed att the same time; for while we are bending the arm; we ceive the -sensibilities to changes of temperature, to touch,
may also be rotating.or turning it upon'its axis. To facili- and to motion, combined with a facility in the joints of untate -these motions, a tubercle of the'radius plays- into a folding and moving in every possible degree and direction
socklet of thle ulna, near the elbow,-'while near the wrist, and'in'a, manner inimitable by any artifice of joints and
the radius findsthe socket,'and the ulna the tubercle.'    levers. In all the movements'of human beings, it is the
Now, had both bones been joined tothe upper arm at the hansd that guides them in their industry and mental ac.nisielob.w, or both to the hand' at the wrist, the motions now  tions. By its assistance they have drained unwholesome'stated could not have been' accomplished. The first bone marshes-transformed deserts into fruitful fields-turn', the
was to:be at liberty at one end, arnd the second at the other, course of rivers —banked out the headlong sea —cleared the
by which means the two motions maybeperformed together. thickest forests, and caused cities, temples, and palaces to
The bose which carries the fore-ares may be swinging upon arise where the wild beasts of the forests formerly roamed
its hinge at the elbow, at the very time that the other bone  at large. In short, by this instrument Man has been enawhich, carries the hand may be turning'round it in'lts bled to prosecute' his course along pathless oceans and
grooves.' Had there been only'a single re in the fore- through the region of thle clouds-to measure. tinie and
arm, with a ball and socket at the elbow,- it might, in a-cer-'space-to investigate the wonders of the earth and of the
tain degree, have accomplished the purpose intended; but heavens, and to promote his progress toward intellectual
in this case, the turning of the shand and arm would have perfection,-and, without it, scarcely any science or de.
been effected by a comparatively s16w and laborious motion. partment of human knowledge could be acquired or cultivs.
Such is the wonderful care and accuracy with which. our ted —supposing the whole human race to have been destfAll-Wise and Benevolent Creator has contrived and adjusted tute of this instrumenlt.




MECHANISM OF THE BONES.                                        45
finger were composed) of only one bone, it would ments of the Creator, in the materal.universe.
bequite impossible for us to grasp a single object. How many thousands of human beings pass their.The same admirable contrivance may be per- existence without once reflecting on the numeceived in the movements of which the head is- rous evidences of Divine Wisdom and Beneficence
susceptible.  It was requisite, in order to our. which appear around them, or feeling the least.
convenience and comfort, that'we should be ena- spark of gratitude for their preservation and conmbled to move our head backward or'forward-to  forts, to that Being "'in whose hand their breath
look up toward the heavens, or downward to the is, and whose are all- their ways! "  Yea, how
ground.   It was also expedient that it should have many are there who consider themselves as standa power of turning to the right or to the left, so ing high in the ranks of the Christian profession,
as to take in a considerable portion of a circle, who affect to look down with a certain degree of
without being under the necessity of` turning  contempt on the study of the material works of
round the whole body. Accordingly we find that God, as if it were too gross a subject for their
both these motions are provided for, in the man- spiritual attainments!' They profess to trace the
ner in which the head is connected with the wisdom of God in the Scriptures, and to feel gravertebrve. The head rests upon the uppermost of titude for his pardoning mercy; but they seldom
these bones, to which it is connected by a hinge feel that gratitude which they ought to do for
joint, similar to -those  in the fingers, which  those admirable arrangements in their own bodies,
allows it to move backward and forward; and by and in the elements around them, by which their
means of a round, longish process, or projection, lives are preserved, and their happiness promoted;
which moves in a socket, it is enabled to move and even seem to insinuate that they have little
horizontally, as upon an axis. Had the first mo- or nothing to do with the contrivances of the God
tion been wanting, we could not have, looked up of Nature. They leave it to the genius of infidel
to the zenith, without lying flat on our back; nor philosophers-to trace the articulation of the bones,
could we have -looked to the ground, without the branchings of the veins and arteries, the proplacing our bodies in a, prone position; and, in perties of light, and the composition of the atmosuch a case, we could never have seen our own sphere, while they profess to feast their minds on
feet, unless when they were bent considerably more sublime and spiritual entertainments. But
forward. Had the second motion been wanting,:surely such astonishing displays of the wisdom
we could have looked to nothing, except the ob- and benignity of the Most High, as creation exjects directly. before us, without the trouble of hibits, were never intended to be treated by his
turning round the whole body, either to the-right intelligent offspring with apathy or indifference;
or to the left. But, in the construction of our and to do so must indicate a certain degree of
corporeal system, everything is so arranged and base ingratitude toward Him  whose incessant
adapted to another, as at once to contribute to energy sustains the whole assemblage of sentient
ease and facility of motion, in all the- varied- and intelligent beings, and who displays himself,
operations and movements we have occasion to in their construction and preservation, to be " wonperform; which circumstance forcibly, demon- derful in counsel and excellent in working."
strates both the benevolent intentions and the Shall we imagine, that because God stands in the
admirable wisdom  of Him  ",whose hands have gracious relation of our Redeemer, he has ceased
made and fashioned us," and who "-breathed into to stand in the relation of our Creator and Preour nostrils the breath of life."               server?  Or shall. we consider those subjects as
The above are only two or three out of a hun- unworthy of our attention, which are the theme
dred of similar instances, which might be pro- of the praises of the heavenly host?*  Can we
duced to show the benevolent care which has been suppose that the Almighty displayed his infinite
exercised in arranging and articulating the system  wisdom in the curious organization of the human
of bones of which the propwork of the human eye, that man-the only being in this world who
frame is composed. Were we to enter into an inves- is endowed with faculties capable of appreciating
tigation of the actions and uses of the various its structure, and for whose use and entertainmuscles, the wonderful system of veins and arte- ment it was intended-should overlook such a
ries, the action of the heart, stomach, and bowels; wonderful piece of Divine workmanship' and feel
the process of respiration, and insensible perspira- no gratitude for the bestowment of so admirable a
tion, and the system of nerves, glands, lymphatics, gift?  Shall we extol the ingenuity displayed in a
and lacteals,-a thousand instances of Divine wis- clock or a watch, in a chess-player, or a steamdom  and  beneficence would crowd upon our engine, and shall we feel no sentiment of admiraview, which could not fail to' excite the pious tion at the view of millions of instances of Divine
and contemplative mind to join in the devotions mechanism, which infinitely transcend the powers
of the "sweet singer of Iarael:"-"I will praise of the human understanding?  To act in this
thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made: manner, as too many are disposed to do, is unmarvelous are thy works, and  that my soul worthy of man, both as a Christian and as an
knoweth right well'-But as I intended to pre- intelligent agent. Such was not the conduct of
sent only a few specimens-of the Wisdom of God, the inspired writers; their spirituality of views did
as displayed in the construction of the material not lead them  to neglect the. contemplation of
world, I shall conclude this department of my any of the works of God. "I will meditate on all
subiect.with a single-reflection.*              thy works," says the Psalmist, "and talk of all
How foolish and ungrateful is it for rational be- thy doings; I-will utter abundantly the memory
ings to overlook the wise and benevolent arrange- of thy great goodness, and speak of all thy wondrous works."  Accordingly we find, that the
wonders of the human frame, the economy of the
* Those  who ish to prosecute this subject, particularly animal and the vegetable tribes, the scenery of
that part of it which relates to the contrivances of. Divine
Wisdom which appear in the animal system, will find the "dry land," and of the " mighty deep," and
ample gratification in Nieuwentyt's " Religious Philoso- the glories of the heavens, were the frequent subpher," Vol. I, Bell's Bridgewater Treatise on "The Hand," jects of their devout contemplation.  They conand Dr. Paley's"  N-atura, Theotogy." A variety of useful remarks on this subject will also be -found in " Ray's Wisdom
of God in the Creation," Derham's " Physico-Theology," 
and Bonnet's "Contemplation of Nature." Revelation W. 11.




463                        THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
sidered them in relation to the unceasing agency joy so many comforts flowing from the plans of
of God, by whom they were formed'ahnd aranged, Infinite Wisdom-have our attention directed to
and as, declaring  his Wisdom, Goodness, and the benevolent contrivances within us and around
Omnipotence;, and with this, view, ought all the, us, in order that grateful emotions may be hourly
scenes of the visible creation to be investigated by arising in our hearts to the Father of our spirits?
his intelligent creatures.                     For the essence of true religion consists chiefly
We have reason to believe that it is owing, in in gratitude to the God of our life, and the Auparth to want of attention'to the Divine wisdom  thor of our salvation; and every pleasing sensaand beneficence, as exhibited in the construction  tion we feel from the harmonies and the beauties
of the'visible world,: that many professed Chris- of nature, ought to inspire us with this sacred
tians entertain so vague and,. confused ideas re- emotion. —" Hearken unto this, O-man! stand still
specting the' wisdom and goodness of Deity, as and consider the wonderful works of God. Con*displayed in'the economy of - edemption. The. template the balancings of the' clouds, the wonterms, Wisdom,'Goodness, and' Beneficence, in drous works of Him who is perfect in knowledge."
their mouths, become words almost without mean- "He hath made the-'earth by his power, he bath
ing, to which no precise or definite ideas are at- established the world by his wisdom. When he
tached; because they have never considered the uttereth his voice, there is a noise of -waters in the
instances and the evidences of these attributes, as heavens;. he causeth the vapors to ascend from
displayed in the material creation. And if our the ends of the earth, and-bringeth the winds out
minds, have not been impressed with a sense of the of -his treasuries." While it is shameful for man
wisdom and beneficence of God, in'those objects to be inattentive to the wonders which surround
which are "presented''to the external senses, we him, what can be more pleasing. and congenial to
cannot be supposed to have luminous and distinct a rational and devout mind'than contemplations on
ideas of those spiritual:objects and arrangements the works.of the Most High?  "What can be
which are riemoved beyond'the sphereof our cor- more' gratifying," says Sturm, "than to contemporea: organs.' For all our'ideas in:relation to plate in the heavens, in the earth, in the water. in
Religionl and'its objects, are' primarily derived the night and day,  ind, indeed, throughout all
from the'intimations we receive of external~ ob- nature, the proofs which they afford of the wisjects, through the medium  of our senses; and,' dom and purity, and the goodness of our great
consequently,the more clearly we perceive the Creator and Preserver! What can be more deagency of God in his visible operations, the more lightful than to recognize, in the whole creation,
shall we be qualified to perceive the wisdom and in all the natural world, in everything we see,
harmony of his dispensations, as recorded in the traces of the ever-working providence and tender
volume of inspiration.                         mercy of the great Father of all."
We live in a world, all' the arrangements of
which are the effects oflinfinite wisdom. We are
surrounded with wonders on every hand; and
therefore we cease to admire, or to.fix our atten-           S E C T I ON  I V.
tion on any one of the wonders daily- performed
by God. We have never been accustomed to ON THE GOODNESS OR BENEVOLENCE OF THE DEITY
contemplate, or to inhabit a world where benevolence and wisdom'are' not displayed; and there-   THE benevolence of God is that perfection of
fore w.eare apt to imagine that'the circumstances his nature, by which he communicates happiness
of our terrestrial existence could not have been to the various ranks of sensitive and intelligent
much otherwise than they actually are. We be- existence.
hold the sun in the morning ascending from the   The system of Nature, in all its parts, exhibits
east-a thousand shining globes are seen in the an unbounded display of this attribute of the
canopy.of the sky when he ihas disappeared in the Divine Mind, both in relation to man, and in
west. We open our eyelids, and the myriads relation to the subordinate tribes of animated
of objects which compose an extensive landscape existence. In relation to Man-the magnificence
are Jin a  rhomnlent painted on our retina,-we wish and glory of the heavens-the variegated coloring
to move our bodies, and in an instant the joints which is spread over the scene'of -nature-the.
and muscles of our hands and feet perform their beauitiful flowers, shrubs, and trees, with which
several functions. We spread out our wet clothes the earth is adorned, which not only'delight the
to dry,,and in a few hours the moisture is evapo- eye, but perfume the air with their delicious odors
rated. We behold the fields drenched with rain, -the  various kinds of agreeable sounds that
and in a few days it disappears and is dispersed charm the ear-the music of the feathered songsthrough the surrounding atmosphere, to be again ters, which fill the groves with their melodyemibodied into clouds. These are all common ope- the thousands of pleasant images which delight
rations, and therefore thoughtless and ungrateful the eye, in the natural embellishments of creaman seldom considers the obligations he is under tionll-the agreeable feelings produced by the coli
to the Author of his existence, for the numerous tact of almost everything we have occasion to
enjoyments which flow from these wise arrange- touch —the pleasure attached to eating, drinking,
ments. But were'the globe we' inhabit, and all muscular motion, and activity-the  luxuriant
its appendages, to remain in' their present state- profusion and rich variety of aliments which the
and were ojnly the principle of evaporation. and'earth affords-and the interchanges of thought
-the refractive and reflective properties of the air to and affection-all proclaim  the Benevolen ce of
be. destroyed-we should soon feel, by the univer- our Almighty Maker, and sl.s, S.nat t,. G rms3al gloom which would ensue, and by a thous4nd munication of happiness is one grand object of t'.'
other  inconveniences we- should'suffer,'what'a'his arrangements.- For these circumstances are
miserable world was allotted for our abode. We not essentiaclly requisite to our existence.  We
should most sensibly pereiiethe wisdomand good- might have lived and breathed, and walked,
ness we had formerly overlooked, and would most though  everything we touched had produced
ardently implore the restoration of those arrange- pain; though everything'we ate and drank had
ments for which we were never sufficiently grate- been bitter; though every movement of our hands
ful. And why should we not now-while we on- and feet had been accompanied with uneasiness




BENEVOLENCE OF, THE  DEITY.                                     47
and fatigue;, though every sound had been as muscles which now enable them  to move with
harsh as the, saw of the carpenter; though n  o ease in every direction, and every ray of light
birds had warbledin the groves;:though no flow- might have affected them with pain. The ground
ers had decked the fields, or filled the air: with  might have been formed so soft and  yiolding, that
their perfumes; though one unvaried scene of dull at every step we should have sunk like persons
uniformity had: prevailed, and.beauty and, sub- walking in a quagmire.-In short, our imaginalimity, had been swept from the face of nature;  tions, in such a case, would have presented to us
though the earth had been covered with a mantle little else than frightful specters and objects of
of black, and no radiant orbs had appeared: in terror and alarm,-and our- minds have been filled
our nocturnal: sky.  But what a miserable world  with dismal forebodings and dreadful expectations.
should we then have inhabited, compared with  But, every arrangement in the system of nature,
that which we now possess,!- Life would have as it is now constituted, is directly the reverse of.
passed away without enjoyment, and pain would what we have now supposed. And this considerhave overbalanced  the pleasures- of existence. ation demonstrates, that the Great Creator of the
Whereas, in the. existing constitution of things, universe is -the God of Love, whose mercy and
all the' objects around: us, and every sense of benevolence are displayed toward every rank of
whiclh we are possessed, when preserved in its sensitive and intelligent existence, and these at —
natural vigor, have a direct tendency to produce tributes, we are assured, will never cease in their
pleasing  sensations, and to contribute to our en- operations, so long as the universe endures.
joyment: and it is chiefly when we indulge in   If we consider, further, that the inexhaustible
foolish and depraved; passions, and commit im- bounty of the Creator, and the numerous pleasures
moral actions, that the benevolent intentions of  we enjoy, are bestowed upon a guilty race of men,
the Deity are'frustrated, {and pain and.misery  the Benevolence of the o eity will appear in a still
produced.                                        more striking point of view. Man has dared to
Had the Creator of the world been a malevo- rebel against his maker; he is a depraved an4'unlent -being, and possessed of infinite power and. grateful creature.''The great majority of our race
intelligence, every arrangement of nature would have banished God from  their thoughts, trampled
have been almost the reverse of what we now find  upon his laws, neglected to contemplate his works,
it. Tlhe production of evil, and of' pain in sensi- refused to pay him  that tribute of reverence and
tive beings, would have been the aim of the con-: adoration which his perfections demand, have been
triver-:in all his operations and allotments.  All ungrateful for his favors, have blasphemed his
design in the' frame of the, universe, and all that Name, and have transferredto "' four-footed beasts
wisdom and intelligence'which we now, admire in  and creeping things," that homage which is due
the adaptations of the parts and functions of ani-' to: him alone. It has been: the chief part of their
mals totheir necessities and to the constitution of employment, in all ages, to counteract the effects
nature around them-we should have dreaded as of his Beneficence, by inflicting injustice, opcontrivances to produce painful sensations, and to pression, and torture upon each other; by maim'
render them  acute and permanent. Instead of ing the human frame, burning cities and villages,
ease, and enjoyment, and delight, in the exercise turning fruitful fields into a wilderness, and, byl
of. our functions and faculties —the ordinary state every other act of violence, carrying death and de-.
of the lower animals and of human beings would struction through the world.  And if water, ai';
have been a state of trouble, disease, dejection, and and the light of heaven:, had been placed within theo
anguish... Every breath of air might have cut us limits of their control, it is more than probable,.
like the point'of a dagger, or produced a pain like that whole nations would have been ccasionally:
that of swallowing aquafortis or sulphuric acid.* deprived of these elements, so essential to human.,
Every touch might' have been felt like the sting existence.  Yet, notwithstanding the prevalence,
of a nettle, or like the rubbing of salt upon a fes- of such depraved dispositions, the streams of Di —
tering wound. Every taste would have been bit- vine benevolence toward our apostate race have.
ter as gall and wormwood, and every sound harsh  never yet been interrupted.  The earth has neverand dissonant, or as a hideous scream. All our stopped in its career, and thrown nature into as
senses,.instead of being the sources of pleasure, scene of confusion; the light of heaven~has neveras they now are, would have been the instruments ceased to illume the world; the springs of water,
of pain and torture.. The lower animals, instead' have never:been dried up, nor has the fertile soili
of tninistering to our- delight and necessities;  ceased to 9nrich the plains with golden harvests.
would have been formed so as to torment, to ha  God " hath not left himself without: awitness" to,
rass, and-annoy us. The cow and the goat would his beneficence, in any age, in that he hath unhave afforded us no milk, nor the bee its honey, ceasingly bestowed on the inhabitants of. the,
nor would the birds of the air have charmed us world, "rain from  heaven        f d fruitful seasonsi.
with their music. Dismal and haggard objects filling their heartswith food'd gladness." This.
would have been strewed over the whole face of is one of the characters of D i, which forms the,
creation,/and all would have -appeared a melan- most perfect contrast to the selffiand revengeful
choly gl'oom, without: beauty or variety.' The dispositions of man, which as f.transcends hu —
fields.would have wanted their delightful verdure, man benevolence as the heavens la extent surpass
their diversified aspect,'and the beautiful'flowers the earth-a characteir calculated to excite our
with which they are now adorned. The fire rright highest -love and admiration,. and which we are
have, scorched without warming us, and water, called upon, in the Saered Oracles;,to imitate and
instead of refreshing us, might have produced in- revere: "Be ye mereiful,.as your Father who is in
tolerable: pain. The light might have been with- heaven is merciful; for he maketh his sun to rise
oatM color; it might have dazzled instead of cheer-:on the evil and on the good, andisendeth rain on
ing. us, and prevented distant -objects-from being; the just and on the unjust."'  "0 that-men would
perceived.  Our eye-balls might have wanted the praise the Lord for his;goodness, and for his wr-.
derful works. to tile children of men!"
* Sulphuric, acid coisists of 75 parts oxygen, and 25 parts   From sueh considerations  we learn,.evei fi-om
irogen, vhich fern ~the constituent. pa"rts of the air we the system  of nature, that mercy is an attribute
breathe, only in a different proportion;  Were thiis proportion materially altered, we shonld feel the most excruoiating of the Deity; for ift meroy consists in bestowingpain in attempting so breathe it in some of its combinations. favors on those who. are unworthy., or who meri
VOL. II. -4




48                        - THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
punishment, the greatest sinners in all ages have Benevolence. I shall therefore conclude this tople
shared in it, and every individual of the human with the following extract from DR. PALEY:race, now existing, enjoys a certain portion'of f' "Contrivance proves design; and the prominent
those -comforts which flow from-' the benevolent tendency of the contrivance indicates the disposiarrangements which' the Creator has established: tion of the designer. The world'abounds with
"He maketh the sun to rise on the evil and on the contrivances; and all the contrivances we are acgood."  Though the nations in ancient times, as quainted with are directed to beneficial purposes.
well as at present, "walked in their own ways," Evil, no doubt, exists; but it is never, that we can
indulging in impiety, falsehood, lewdness, war, perceive, the object of contrivance. Teeth are
devastations, revenge, abominable. idolatries, and contrived to eat' not to ache; their aching now
every other violation of his law, he still supported and then is incidental to the contrivance, perhaps
the functions of their animal:'frames, and caused inseparable from it; or even, if you will, let it be
*; the influences of the sun, the rains, and the dews, to called a defect in the contrivance, but it is not the
descend upon their fields, that they might be re- object cf it. This is a distinction that well defreshed with his bounty, and filled " with' food serves to be attended to. In describing implements
and gladness."  If mercy were not' an essential of husbandry, you' would hardly say of a sickle,
attribute of the Deity, he would have cut them  that itwas made to cut the reaper's fingers, though
down in the midst of their first transgressions, from the construction of the instrument, and the
shattered to pieces the globe on which ithey dwelt, manner of using it, this mischief often happens
and buried them in eternal "oblivion. Butwhether But if you had occasion to describe instruments
Divine: mercy will'extend to the final forgiveness of torture or execution,-this, you would say, is
of sin, and the. communication of eternal happi- to extend the sinews; this. to dislocate the joints;
uess to such beings, can be learned only from the this to' break the bones; this to scorch the soles of
discoveries of' revelation.'-                    the feet.  Here pain and misery are the very obIn relation to the inferior animals-the immense jects of the contrivance.  Now, nothing of this
multitude of living creatures with which the earth sort is to be found in the works of Nature. We
s, replenished' is a striking evidence of the vast never discover a train of contrivance to bring
Profusion of Divine Beneficence. More than a about an evil purpose. No anatomist ever discohundred thousand species of animated beings are vered a system of organization calculated to prodispersed through the different regions of the air, duce pain and disease; or, in explaining the parts
the water, and the earth, beside myriads which of the human body, ever said, this is to irritate;
are invisible to'the unassisted eye. To estimate this to inflame; this duct is to convey the gravel
the number of individuals belonging to any one to the kidneys; this gland to'secrete the humor
species is beyond the power of man. What count- which forms the gout. If, by chance he come at
less myriads of herrings, for, example, are con- a part of which he knows not the use, the most
tained in a single shoal, which is frequently more he can say is, that it is useless; no one ever susthan six miles long, and three miles broad! To pects that it is put there to incommode, to annoy,
estimate the number ofi individuals in all the dif- or torment. Since, then, God hath called forth
ferent species, would therefore be as impossible as his consummate wisdom  to contrive and provide
to count the grains of sand in the Arabian des- for our happiness, and the world appears to have
erts. There is not a single spotinl any region of been constituted with this design at first, so long as
the globe but what teems with animated beings. this constitution is upheld by him, we must, in
Yet all this vast assemblage of sensitive existence reason, suppose the same design to continue."*
is amply provided for by the bountiful Creator.   Thus I have endeavored, in this and the pre"These all wait upon, him, and he giveth them  ceding section, to exhibit a few specimens of the
their meat in due season.": They enjoy not only Wisdom and Goodness of God in the system of
life, but also a happy existence.  The sportive mo- nature.  These might have been multiplied to an
tions and gesticulations of all the animal- tribes- indefinite extent; but the instances adduced, I
the birds skimming through the air, warbling in presume, are sufficient to show, that the economy
the groves,and perching on-the trees —the beasts of of the material world is not altogether a barren
the" field bounding in'the.forests.and.through the subject to a pious and contemplative mind. Every
lawns-the fishes sporting. in- the waters —the rep- intelligent. believer in Revelation will readily adtiles wriggling in'the dust —and the winged in- mit, that it would be a highly desirable object, to
sects,: -by a thousand wanton mazes —all declare induce upon the mass of Christians such a habit
that'they are rejoicing in their existence, and in of devout attention to the visible works of creathe exercise of' those powers with which the- Cre- tion, as would lead them, in their social and soliator has furnished them. So that wherever we tary walks, to recognize the agency of God in
turn our eyes, we evidently perceive that " the every object they behold; to raise their thoughts
earth is' full of the goodnress' of the Lord," and to him as the Great First Cause, and to expand
that " his tender mercies are over all his works."  their hearts with emotions of gratitude.  How
This subject is boundless; but it would be in- very different must be the sentiments and the
consistent with the limited plan of this work to piety of the man who looks on the scene of wisenter into any' particular details. And it is the dom and magnificence around him with a " brute
less necessary, when we consider'that every in- unconscious gaze," as thousands of professed
stance of Divine Wisdom, is at the same time, an Christians do-and the grateful and pious emoinstance-of benevolence; for it is the ultimate ob- tions of him  who recognizes the  benevolent
ject of all the wise contrivances in the system of agency of God in the motions of his fingers and
Nature, that happiness may be communicated.to eyeballs; in the pulsation of his heart; in the piec
the various ranks of sensitive and intelligent ex- ture of -external objects every moment formed on
istence.  Goodness' chooses:the -end, and wisdom  his retina; in the reflection of the rays of light,
selects the most proper means for its accomplish- and the. diversified colors they produce; in tile
ment; so that these two attributes must always drying of his clothes; in the constitution of the
be considered in simultaneous operation. And atmosphere; in the  beauty and  magnificence
therefore, the instances I have'already specified'of' of the earth and the heavens; and in every other
the wisdom  and intelligence of the Creator may
also be considered as' exemplifications of Divine     * Paley's Moral Philosophy, Book II, Chap. v.




INTRODUCTION TO THE SCIENCES.                                    49
o'oject fnat meets his eye in the expanse of nature! an "ever-present Deity;" -and I envy not the
The numberless astonishing instances of Divine sentiments or the feelings of that man, who
agency, which everywhere present themselves to imagines that he stands in no need of such sensiour view in the scene around us, seem evidently  ble mediums, to impress his mind with a sense
intended to arrest the mind to a consideration of  of the benevolent care and omnipresence of God
CHAPTER  II.
CONTAINING A CURSORY VIEW OF SOME OF THE SCIENCES WHICH ARE RELATED TO RELIGION AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY.
THEOLOGY has generally been viewed as a study portals of immortality, have   quently set themof a very limited range: and hence, when it has selves in hostile array; I' mts have ensued
been admitted into the circle of the sciences, a equally injurious to the' in e;o.;both parties.
much smaller space has been allotted for its dis- The Philosopher has occasiob    -een disposed
cussion than has been devoted to almost any other to investigate the economy of  ire, without a
department of human knowledge. When consi- reference to the attributes of that   Weighty Being
dered, however, in its most extensive sense-in its who presides over its movements, as'sif the unirelations to the Divine Being-to his past and pre- verse were a self-moving and independent masent dispensations toward the human race-to the chine; and has, not unfrequently, taken occasion,
present circumstances and the future destiny of from certain obscure and, insulated facts, to throw
man-and to the physical and moral condition out insinuations hostile to the truth and the chaof all the sentient and intelligent beings of which  racter of the Christian Revelation. The Theolowe have any intiination —it ought to be viewed gian, on the other hand, in the heat of his intemas the most varied and comprehensive of all the perate zeal against the infidel philosopher, has
sciences; as embracing, within its extensive grasp, unguardedly, been led to declaim  against the
all the other departments of useful knowledge study of science, as if it were unfriendly to reliboth human and divine. As it has God for its gion - has, in effect, set the works of God in
object, it must include a knowledge of the uni- opposition to his word-has confounded the foolverse he has formed-of the movements which ish theories of speculative minds with the rational
are continually going on throughout the wide study of the works of Deity-and has thus preextent of his empire, in so far as they lie open to vented the mass of mankind from expanding their
our inspection-of the attributes which appear to minds, by the contemplation of the beauties and
be displayed in all his operations-of the moral subiimities of nature.
laws he has framed for the regulation of holy   It is now high time that a complete reconciliaI.ntelligences - of the merciful arrangements he tion were effected between these contending parhas made for,the restoration of fallen nlan-of the ties. Religion ought never to disdain to derive
plans by which the knowledge of his will is to be her supports and illustrations from the researches
circulated and extended in the world in which we of science; for the investigations of philosophy
live-of the means by which truth, and moral into the economy of Nature, from whatever mopurity, and order, are to be promoted among our tives they may be undertaken, are nothing else
apostate race, in order to their restoration to the than an inquiry into the plans and operations of
happiness they have lost-together with all those the Eternal Mind. And Philosophy ought always
diversified  ramifications of knowledge, which to consider it as her highest honor to walk as a
have either a more remote or a more immediate handmaid in the train of that religion which
bearing on the grand objects now specified. Like points out the path to the regions of eternal bliss.
the lines which proceed from  the circumfe- By their mutual aid, and the subserviency of the
rence to the center of an immense circle-all the one to the other, the moral and intellectual immoral* arts and sciences which have been invent- provement of man will be promoted, and the
ed by'men-every department of human know- benevolent purposes of God in the kingdom of
ledge, however far it may, at first sight, appear to providence, gradually accomplished. But, when
be'removed from religion —may be considered as set in opposition to each other, the human mind
having a direct bearing on Theology, as the grand is bewildered and retarded in its progress, and the
central point, and as having a certain tendency to Deity is apt to be considered as set in opposition
promote its important objects.                 to himself-as proclaiming one system  of doeIt is much to be'regretted, that- Theology has trines from the economy of revelation, and anso seldom been contemplated in this point of view  other, and an opposite system, from the economy
-and- that the sciences have been considered of nature. But if the Christian Revelation, and
rather as so many independent branches of secu- the system of the material world, derived their
lar knowledge, than as subservient to the elucida- origin from the same Almighty Being, the most
tion of the facts and doctrines of religion, and to complete harmony must subsist between the revethe accomplishment of its benevolent designs. lations they respectfully unfold; and the apparent
Hence it has happened that Philosophy-and Reli- inconsistencies which occur, must be owing
gion, instead of marching hand in hand to the chiefly to the circumstances of our present station
in the universe, and to the'obscure and limited
The epithet moral is here used in its application to arts, views we are obliged to take of some of the grand
because there are certain arts which must be considered as               embrace. And there
having an immoral tendency, such as the art of war, the art
of boxing, of gambling, etc., and which, therefore, cannot fore we have reason to believe, that when the
bave a direct tendency to promote the objects of religion.  system  of nature shall be more extensively ec



50                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
*plored, and the leading objects of revelation con- tions, the color, and the different aspects of the
templated in a clearer light, without being tinged  ocean, and the facts which have been ascertained
with the false coloring. of party. opinions and con- respecting its saltness, its depth, its bottom, and
tracted views, and.when- rational' inquirers shall its different currents.  We might next take a
conduct their researches with a greater degree of more particular view  of some of the most rereverence, humility, and,Christian temper-the  mnarkable objects on its surface, and give a detail
beauty and harmony of all the plans and revela- of the facts which are known respecting the his.
tions of the Deity, in reference both to the physi- tory of volcanoes-their number-the Countries
cal and the moral world, will be more distinctly  in which they are situated-the awful phenomena
perceived and appreciated..'                     they exhibit-and the devastations they have proIn the following cursory sketches,.it forms no duced —the history of earthquakes, their pheno.
part of. my plan to trace even. an outline of the mena and effects, and the countries most subject
different sciences which are &onnected with reIit to their ravages-basaltic and rocky wonders,
gion, much less to enter into any particular de- natural bridges, precipices, cataracts, ice islands,
tails in relation to their facts and pi'inciples. It icebergs, glaciers, whirlpools, mineral wells, reel
would. be comparatively easy to fill up the remain- procating -fountains, boiling springs, sulphurio
ing sheets of this volume with skeletons of the moustains, bituminous lakes, volcanic islandsdifferent sciences; but such meager details as be-' the various aspects of nature in the. different
-hoved-to be brought forward, could not be inte- zones, and the contrasts presented between the
resting to the gei~r ~i:reader, and Ywould:'fail in verdant scenes of tropical climes, and the icy
accomplishing the' objects proposed.  My design  cliffs of the polar regions.. We would next take
simply is, toselect some ieading facts, or general  survey of the subterraneous wonders which lie
truths, in relation to some of the -physical sci- beneath the surface of the earth-the immense
ences, for thepurpose of showing their connec- chasms and caverns which wind in various direcAtion with the objects of ireligion, and the interests tions among the interior strata of our globe-such
ofrdatl!onal piety. At' the same tiie,. such definite as the great Kentucky cavern, and the grotto of
-descriptions will be given as will enable commbn Antiparos-the mines of salt, coal, copper, lead,
reahiers to appreciate the objects and bearings of diamond, iron, quicksilver, tin, gold, and silver —
the different branches of knowledge which may  the substances which compose the various strata,
be'presented to their view.              the fossil bones, shells, and petrifactions which''The first science5 I shall notice, is that of  are imbedded in the different layers, and the bendings and disruptions which appear to have taken
NATURAL HISTORY.                  place in thedsubstances which compose the exterior crust of the earth. We might next survey
This. science, taken in its  ost comprehensive the atmosphere  with which the earth is environed,
sense, includes a knowledge an.d description of all and give a detail of the facts which have been
the known facts- in the material universe.        ascertained  respecting  its specific gravity and` It is. to be re.gartted, that most'books' published pressure, the elementary principles with which it
under the title of:Natura.l History, to which com- is compounded, its refractive and reflective powmon readers have1 access, contain nothing more ers, and the phenoinena.which result from  its
than a general description of animals, as if this various properties and modifications —the meteors
science were confined merely to one class of be- which appear in its different regions-thunder
ings; whereas there is an infinite variety of other and lightning, winds, hail, rain, clouds, rainbows,
objects seldom  noticed, which would appear no  parhelias or mock-suns, meteoric  stones, the auless interesting, and, in.some instahces, much rora borealis, luminous arches, ignes fatui, the
more novel and gratifying to tthe  general reader, mirage, the fata morgana, hurricanes, monsoons,
and to the youthful mind. All the diversified  whirlwinds and waterspouts, sounds and echoes.
forms of matter, whether existing  on the surface   In prosecuting our survey of sublunary nature,
or in tihe bowels.of the earth, in the ocean, the we would next advert to the -arious orders of the
atniosphere, or in the- heavens, form  the legiti- vegetable tribes-their anatomical structure-the
nate objects of.this departmient of' the science of circulation of their juices-the food by which
nature.                                          they are nourished-the influence of light and
Were we, therefore, to sketch a comprehensive air on their growth and motions-their male and
outline of the subjects of Natural History, we female organs-their periods of longevity-their
might, in the first place, take a cursory survey  modes of propagation-their diseases and dissoluof the globe we inhabiti in reference to its mag- tion-their orders, genera, and species-their imnitude, figure, motions, and general arrangements mense variety-their influence on the salubrity
-the form, relations;,and extent.of its continents of the atmosphere- the  relation which  their
— the numerous islands which  diversify the sAr- trunks, roots, leaves, and fruits, bear to the wants
face of the ocean-the magnitude, the direction, of man and other animals, in supplying food,.ad the- extent of its rivers, and the quantity of clothing, and materials for constructing habitawater they pour inito'-:the ocean-the direction, tions- the gums and resinous substances they
elevation, and extent of the different ranges of exude —the odors they exhale —the variety of
mountains which rise from its surface-the plains, colors they exhibit —the vast diversity of forms
muorasses, lakes, forests, dells,'and sandy deserts, in which they appear-and the beauty and vawhich diversify its aspect-the extent, the m o- riety which they spread'over the whole face of
___________________________nature.'
The, mineral'kingdom would next require to be
* The term science in its most general and extensive surveyed. We would inquire into the facts which
sense, signifies ksnoweledge, particularly that species of know. have been ascertained respecting the earthy, saline,
ledge which is acquired by-the exertion of the human facul- iammable, and' metsec. substaces, which are
ties. In a more restricted sense,- it denotes -a sytematinflmable, and  llic substances,  hich are
species of knowledge which consists of rule and order, such found on the surface and in the bowels of the earth
as Mathematics, Astronomy, Natural Philosophy, etc. —In -their specific and distiuguishing characters-the
the discussions contained in this w:orkit-is used in its most elementary  rcples,  or simple substances, of
general sense, as denotinga the various departments of hu-a
masn knowledge; in which sense, historyi both natural, civil, which they are composed-the regions of thie
and sacred, may be termed ceiee.   -    earth where the' respective minerals most fro -




NATURAL HISTORY.                                         51
quently abound-and the ends which they are de- tion-their transformations from  one state and
signed to accomplish in the constitution of the form  to another- their migrations to different
globe.  We would consider, more particularly, countries and climates-'their various instinctsthe various metals,' such as iron, copper, lead, tin, their care in rearing and protecting their younggold silver, bismuth, zinc, etc., in reference to the their passions, mental characters, and social dissubstances with which they are united,in their positions- their language or modes of communative ores-the-changes produced upon them by nication with each other — their capacities for
the action of oxygen and the different acids-  instruction  and  improvement -their different
their combustibility - their combination with  powers of locomotion-the' adaptation of all their
phosphorus, sulphur, and carbon- the various organs to the purposes for which they seem  incompounds into which they may be formed — tended —the indications they give of being postheir important uses in the arts which minister to sessed of moral dispositions and rational powersthe comfort and embellishment of human life-  their different periods of longevity, and the ends
their relation to the multifarious necessities of which they are intended to subserve in the sysman-and the wisdom and goodness of the Crea- tem of nature.  Along with these details, certain
tor, as displayed in their arrangement in the bow- views might be exhibited of the various forms of
els of the earth, and in the admirable properties sensitive life, and niodes of existence, which obof which they are possessed. In these details, the tain in those numerous species of animals which
natural history of Iron would hold a prominent are invisible to the naked eye, and which the miplace. In point of utility, it claims, the highest croscope discovers in almost every department of
rank in the class of metals, and is intrinsically  nature.
more valuable than gold and silver, and all the  - Having surveyed the objects which compose
diamonds of'the East.  There is scarcely a mine-, our sublunary system, we would next direct our
ral substance in the whole compass of nature view to the regions of the sky, and contemplate
which affords a more striking instance of the bene- the facts which have been discovered in relation
ficial and harmonious adaptation of things in the to the celestial orbs. We would first attend to the
universal system. We would, therefore, consider apparent motion of the sun, the different points
it in reference to its vast abundance in all parts of of the horizon at which it seems to rise and' set,
the world-the' numerous substances into which and the different degrees of elevation to which it
it enters into combination-its magnetical pro- arrives, at different seasons of the year,-the difperty —its capability of being fused and welded —  ferent aspects it presents as viewed from different
the numerous useful utensils it has been the parts of the earth's surface, and the different
means of producing-its agency in carrying for- lengths of days and nights, in different parts of
ward improvements in art and science, in the the world. We would next attend' to the varied
civilization of barbarous tribes, and in promoting phases of the moon —the direct and retrograde
the progress of the human mind; and the aids motions of the planets-the apparent diurnal mowhich it affords to the Christian missionary in tion of the whole celestial sphere, from  east to
heathen lands.                                   west-and the different clusters of stars which are
Having surveyed the inanimate parts of the ter- seen in our nocturnal sky, at different seasons of
raqueous globe, and its appendages, we might the year. We would next consider the deductions
next direct our attention to the animated tribes which science has made, respecting the order and
with which it is peopled. Beginning at Man, the arrangement of she planets which compose the
head of the animal creation, we would detail the solar system-their distances from  the sun, and
principal facts which have been ascertained re- from the earth-their magnitudes-the periods of
specting his structure and organical functions-  their diurnal and annual revolutions-the secondthe muscular movements of the human body, the ary planets, or moons, which accompany themsystem  of bones, nerves, veins, and arteries; the their eclipses —the various phenomena which their
process of respiration; and the' organs of vision, surfaces present when viewed through telescopes
hearing, smelling, tasting, and feeling, by which -the physical influence which some of them
he holds a' correspondence with  the material produce on the surface of our globe-and the sinworld-the modifications which appear in his cor- gular appearance  of those bodies called Comets,
poreal frame, and in his mental faculties, during which occasionally visit this part of our system.
the' periods of infancy, puberty, manhood, and We would, in the next place, extend our views to
old age-the causes and phenomena of sleep and the starry regions, and consider the number of
dreaming-the varieties of the human race, in re- stars which present themselves to the naked eyespect of color, stature, and features-Ithe devia- the immensely greater numbers which are discotions from the ordinary course of nature, which vered by telescopes-the systems into which they
occasionally occur, in the case of  monsters, appear to be arranged-the facts which have been
dwarfs, and giants-the moral and intellectual fa- ascertained respecting new stars-double and treculties-and those distinguishing characteristics ble stars-stars once visible, which have now diswhich prove the superiority of man  over the appeared from the heavens-variable stars, whose
other tribes of animated nature.       w         luster is increased and diminished at different peThe inferior ranks of the animal creation would  riods of time-and the structure and position of
next demand our attention.  We would take a the many hundreds of Nebulae, or starry systems,
survey of the numerous tribes of Quadrupeds, which appear to be dispersed throughout the im.
Birds, Fishes, Serpents, Lizards, and Insects, in mensity of creation.
reference to the characteristic marks by which the   All the particulars now stated, and many others
different species are distinguished, - their food, which might have been specified-considered simand habitations -the different modes in which  ply as facts which exist in the system of Nature
they display  their architective faculty, in con- -form the appropriate and legitimate objects of
structing places of abode for shelter and protec- Natural History, and demand the serious attention
tion —the clothing with which they are furnished  of every rational intelligence, that-wishes to trace
-their sagacity in finding out the proper means the perfections and agency of the Almighty Creafor subsistence and self-preservation-their hostili- tor. To investigate the causes of the diversified
ties-their artifices in catching their prey, and phenomena which the material world exhibits,
escaping their enemies-their modes of propaga- and the principles and modes by which many of




52                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
the facts now alluded to are ascertained, is the sustenance to monkeys, squirrels, peacocks, and
peculiar province of Natural Philosophy, Chemis-. birds of various kinds, which dwell among. the
try, and the Mathematical Sciences. ~            branches.
Amidst so vast a variety of objects as Natural   "The Hindoos are peculiarly fond of the Ba
History presents, it is difficult- to fix-on any parti- nian tree; they consider its long duration, its outcular facts, as.specimens of the interesting nature  stretching arms, and its, overshadowing, benefiof this department. of, knowledge, Without going cence, as emblems'of the Deity, and almost pa)
beyond the limits to which I am necessarily, con- it divine honors. The Brahmins, who thus' find
fined in this volume. I, shall content myself with a fane in every sacred grove,' spend much of thei
a description of two objects, which'have a refer- time in religious solitude, under the shade of the
ence chiefly to the vegetable kingdom.  The first Banian tree; they plant it near their temples oi
of. these is   - \                               pagodas: and in those villages where there is no
THE BANIAN -TREE.-.- This Tree, which is also structure erected for public worship, they placecalled the Burr tree, or the Indian Fig, is'one of an image under one of these trees, and there per.
the most curious and beautiful of Nature's pro- form. a morning and evening sacrifice. The naductions, in -the genial climate of India, where  tives of all castes and tribes are fond of.recreating
she sports with the greatest variety and profusion. in the cool recesses, beautiful walks, and lovely
Each tree is in itself a grove; and some, of. them  vistas of this umbrageous canopy, impervious to
are of an amazing size, and- extent, and, contrary  the hottest beams of a tropical sun. It is. reto most other animal and vegetable productions, corded that oneof these trees shaded all the town
seem to be exempted from d'ecay.' Every branch  of Fort St. -David and Gombroon. These are the
from the main body throws out its own roots; at trees under which a sect of naked philosophers,
first, in small tender. fibers, several yards from the called Gymnosophists, assembled in Arian's days,
ground; these continually grow.thicker, until, by and this historian of ancient Greece presents a
a gradual descent, they reach the surface, and true picture of the Modern Hindoos.'In winthere, striking in, they increase to large trunks, ter,' he says,' the Gymnosophists enjoy the beneand become  parent trees, sliooting out new  fit of the sun's rays in the open air; and, in sum.
branches from, the tops. These in time suspend mer, when the heat becomes excessive, they past
thieir roots, and, receiving nourishment.from  the their time in cool and. moist places, under large
earth, swell into trunks, and shoot forth other trees, which, according to the accounts of Nearbranches; thus continuing ins a state.of progres- chus, cover a circumference of five acres, and exsion, so long as the- earth, the Afirst parent of them  tend their branches so far, than ten thousand men
all, contributes her sustenance.  A Banian tree, may easily find shelter under them.'
with many trunks, forms the most beautiful   "On the banks of the river Narbudda, in the
walks, vistas, anfd cool recesses, that can- be ima- proviice of Guzzerat, is a Banian tree, supposed,
gined.  The leavies are large, soft, and of a lively  by some persons to be the one described by Neargreen, about six.inches in length; the fruit is a chus,who commanded the fleet of Alexander the
nall fig, when ripe, of a bright scarlet, affording  Great, and certainly not inferior to it. It is dias
Fig. 12.
ting.sshed by the name; of Cubbepr Burr, which tard-apple and other fruit trees. The large trunks
was given it in honor of a famlous saint. Forbes, of this single tree amount to three hundred and
in his-' Oriental Memoirs,' when speaking- of the fifty; and the smaller ones exceed three thousand;
ageof such trees,states that he-smoked his hookha every one of these is constantly sending forth
under.the very Banian beneath which part of Al- branches and. hanging roots.to form other trunks,
exander's cavalry took shelter.. High floods have:, and become the parents of a future progeny. The
at various times, swept away a considerable part Cubbeer Burr is famed throughout Hindostan, not
of this extradrdinary tree; but what; still remains only on account of its great extent, but also of its
is nearly two thousandfeet in circumference, mea- sulrpassing beauty.  The Indian armies generally
sured round the principal stems;.the overhanging encamp around it;..and at stated seasolls, solemn
branches, not yet struck down, cover a much Jatarras, or Hindoo festivals, to which thousands
larger space; and under it grow a number of cus- of votaries repair from every part of the Mogul




iNA:TURAL HIISTORY.                                      53
empire, are thiere celebrated.  It is said that seven sweet, the ear was constantly attacKed by an exthousand petsons find ample room to repose under tremely soft, but agreeable murmuring sound.  It
Its shade.   It has long been the custom:of the was easy to know, that some animalwithin the
British residents in India, on their hunting and covert must be the musician, and. that the little
shooting parties, to form extensive encampments,  noise must come from some little creature suited
and spend weeks together, under this delightful to produce it.  I instantly distended the lower
and magnificent pavilion, which affords a shelter part of the flower, and placing it inna full light,:to all travelers, particularly to the religious tribes could discover troops of little insects frisking,
of the Hindoos.  It: is generally filled with green with wild jollity, among the narrow pedestals that
wood-pigeons, doves, peacocks, and a variety of supported its leaves, and thelittle threads that ocfeathered. songsters —-witl monkeys, which both cupled  its. center. What a fragrant world for.4ivert the spectator by their antic tricks, and in- their habitation! What a perfect security from
terest him by the parental affection they display all annoyance, in the dusky husk that surrounded
to-their young-offspring, inteaching them to select the scene of action! Adapting: a microscope to:their food, and to exert themselves in jumping take in, at one view, the whole base of the flower,
from bough to bough,-and is shaded by bats of a I gave myself an opportunity of contemplating
large size, many of them; measuring upward of six what they were about, and this for many days tofeet from the extremity of one wing to the other. gether, without giving them the least disturbance.
This tree affords not  only shelter, but also suste- Thus, I could discover their edonomy, their pasnances to all its inhabitants, being covered, amid sions, and their enjoyments.  The microscope, on
its bright foliage, with small figs, of a rich scar- this occasion, had given what nature seemed to
let, on which they all regale with as much delight have denied to  the  objects of contemplation.
as the lords of creation on their more costly fare, The base of the flower extended itself, under its
in their parties of pleasure."                  influence,-to a vast plain; the slender qtems of
~The preceding figure will convey a general, the leaves became trunks of so many stately
though imperfect, idea of this singular tree, and of cedars; the threads in the middle seemed columns
tlhe:manner in which the branches from the main  of massy structure, supporting at the top their
body throwL out their shoots, and form the nu- several ornaments; and the narrow spaces between
merous'vista, which are found under its shade.   were enlarged in walks, parterres, and terraces.
This tree, which is doubtless one of the most   On the polished bottoms of these, brighter than
singular and.magnificent objects in the vegetable Parian marble, walked in pairs, alone or in larger
kingdom, appears to be a world in miniature, in  companies,: the winged inhabitants; these, from
which thousands, both of human beings, and' of little dusky flies, for such only the naked eye
the inferior tribes that traverse' the earth and the would have shown them, were, raised to glorious
air, may find anlple accommodation and sub- glittering animals, stained with living purple, and
sistence.'- What a striking contrast does it pre- with a glossy gold, that would have made all tihe
sent to the forests of trees, or mushroons, which labors of the loom  contemptible in the compariare perceived:bythe help of the microscope, in a son.-I could, at leisure, as they walked together,
piece  of moldiness -every  plant of which is admire their elegant limbs, their velvet shoulders,
several hundreds of times smaller than the point and their silken wings; their backs vieing with
of a fine needle!  Yet both are the effects of the the empyrean in its blue; and their eyes, each
*agency of the same Al-wise'and Omnipotent Be- formed of a thousand others, out-glittering the,ing.  And what an immense variety of gradations  little planes on a brilliant; above description, and
is to be found in the vegetable world, between too great almost for admiration. I could observe
these two extremes-every part of the vast inter- them  here singling out their favorite females;
val being filled.up with flowers, herbs, shrubs, courting themni with the music of their buzzing
and trees, of every color, form, and size, and in wings, with' little songs, formed for their little
such vast multitudes and profusion that no man  organs, leading them  from walk to walk, among
can number them!                                 the perfumed shades, and pointing out to: their
An object which approximates in a certain de- tastethe drop of liquid nectar, just bursting from
gree to the one now described, is meAeti6ned in some vein within the living trunk-here were the:"'Staunton's Account of  Macartney's Embassy  perfumed groves, the more than mystic shades of
Vto China," p. 70. It is called by Botanists, Adan- the poet's fancy realized.  Here the happy lovers'son'ia, and is also known by. the name of'the spent their days in joyful dalliance, or in the triMonkey Bread Tree, and was discovered in the umph of their little hearts, skipped after one anIsland of St.:Jago.  ".The circumference'or girth  other,: from stem to stem, among the painted trees,
of the base was 56 feet, which soon divided into or winged their short/flight to the close shadow
two vast branches, Ithe one:in a perpendicular of some broader leaf, to revel undisturbed in the
direction, whose periphery, or girth, was 42 feet, hights of all felicity."
the other 26. Another, of the same species, stood    This picture of the splendor and felicity of in.
near it, whose single trunk, girthing 38  feet, was sect life, may, to certain readers, appeariomewhat:scarcely noticed."                              overcharied. But those who have been,uch in'The only other specimen I shall exhibit to the the habit of contem plating  the beatt i:.of the
reader, has a relation both to the animal and to animal and'vegetable world, through mi'Cscopes,
he Ve:v~getabile kingdom    It is well' known that can easily enter into all the views which are here
th'e'.ex"amination of flowers, and vegetables, of described.  I have selected this example, for the
eve;ry; description,; by the microscop e, opens a purpose of illustrating the unbounded goodness
new and: interesting field of wonders to the in- of the: Creator, in the vast profusion of enjoyqulring naturalist;'Sir JOHN HILL has given'the meat he-has  communicated'even to-the lowest
folloiing cuIri us account of what appeared on tribes of animal existence, and as a specimen of
his wxmining a. carnation:-                      those invisible worlds which exist beyond the
~~~h                                                                      It awri, n  t'    lsters, ta'"The principal flower- in an elegant bouquet range of our natural vision. For it appears, that
was a carnation: the firagrance of this led me to  there is a gradation of worlds downward, as well
enjoy it frequently and near.  The sense of smell-  as upward.  However small our globe may ap
ing was not the only one affected on these occa- pear when compared with the sun, and with the
sions: whil that was'satiated with tha powerful immensity'of starry' systems which lie dispersed




.54                          THE  CHRISTIAN: PHILOSOPHER.
through the infinity of space, there are worlds ted by finite minds,'without some material mefilled with myriads of living  beings, which, in dium of communication, there are but two medipoint of, size and extent, bear as small' aproportion  urns with which we are acquainted by which we
to the earth, as the earth bears to; the vast assem- can attain a knowledge of his nature and perfecblage of the celestial':worlds. A single flower, a tions. These are, either the facts which have
leaf, or.a drop of water, may appear as large, and occurred in tlhe course of his providential dispenas diversified in its structure, to sbme of the beings sations toward our race, since the commencement
which inhabit it, as the':whole earth appears to the of time, and the moral truths connected with
view of man: and a thousand scenes of magnifi- them-or the.facts which are displayed in the
cence and beauty may be presented to their sight,- economy ofnature.  The first class of facts is
of,whicli:no distinct conlception can be formed recorded in the Sacred History, and in the Anm
by the human mind.  Thle many thousands of nals of Nations; the:second class is exhibited in
transparent globes, of which'their, eyes are cornm- the diversified'objects and motions which appear
posed, may magnify and multiply the objects' throughout the 7system  of the visible universe.
around them' without end, — so that an object The one maybe. termed the Moral History, and
scarcely visible to the eye of man, may appear to the other the Natural History of they operations
them as a vast extended universe.],,  of the Creator.  It is obviously incumbent on
"Having examined," says ST. PIERREa, "one  every rational being to contemplate the Creator
day, by, a microscope, the flowers-,of thyme, I through both these mediums, for each of them
distinguished in them, with equal surprise and conveys its distinct and peculiar revelations; and,
delight, superb flagons with long-necks, of a sub- consequently, our perception of Deity through
stance resembling the amethyst, frominthe- gullets the one medium  does not supersede the necessity
of which seemed to flow ingots of liquid gold. -I of our contemplating him  through the other
have'nver made observationi of the corolla, sim- While, therefore, it is our duty to contemplate the
ply of the. smallestflower, without finding it comin- perfections, the providence, and the agency of
posed of an admirable substance, half transparent, God,. as displayed in the Scripture-revelation, it
studded with brilliants, and shining in the most is also incumbent upon us to trace his attributes
lively. colors. The beings which live under a re- in the system  of Nature, in order that we may
flex thus'enriched must have ideas very different be enabled to contemplate the Eternal Jehovah,
from  ours, of light, and of the other.phenomena  int every variety of aspect in which he has been
of nature.  A drop of dew, filtering in the capil- pleased to exhibit himself in the universe he has
lary and transparent tubes of a plant, presents to  formed.
them thousaads of cascades; the same drop fixed    The -visible creation may be considered as a
as a wave on the extremity of one of its prickles, permanent and sensible manifestation of' Deity;
-an ocean without a shore; evaporated into air, intended every moment to present to our view the
avast aerial- sea.-It.is credible, then, from analo- unceasing energies of Himn  "in'whom  we live
gy, that there are animals feeding on the leaves and move."  And'if the train of our th}oughts
of plants, like the cattle in our meadows and on were directed in its proper channel, we would
our mountains, which repose- under the shade of a perceive God in every object and in every movedown imperceptible to the naked eye, and which. ment; we would behold.him  operating in the
from goblets formed like so many suns, quaff nec- whirlwind-and in the storm; in the subterraneous
tar of the color of gold and silver."            cavern and in the depths of the ocean; in the genThus it appears that the universe extends to tle rain and the refreshing breeze; in the rainbow,
infinity on either hand; and that wherever matter- the fiery meteor, and the lightning's flash; in the
exists,' from the ponderous globes of heaven-down Isplendors of the sun and the majestic movements
to the invisible atom, there the Almighty Creator of the heavens; in the frisking- of the lambs, the
has prepared habitations for countless orders of songs. of birds, and the buzz of insects; in the
existence, from  the seraph to the animalcule, in circulation of our blood, the movemlents of our
order to demonstrate his boundless beneficence, joints, the motion of our eye-balls, and in the
and the infinite variety of modes by which. he can rays of light which are continually darting from
diffuse happiness through the >universal system. surrounding objects, for the. purposes of vision.
For these and ten thousand other agencies in the
i e s n is shkill, displayd-  system  of nature, are nothing else but the voice
infinite skill!-in all that he has made, 
To trace in Nature's most minutesdesign,    -   of Deity, proclaiming to the sons of men, in
The signature and stamp of Power Divine;   silent but emphatic language, "Stand still, and
Contrivance exquisite, express'd with ease,  consider the wonderful works of God."
Where un assistebd sight no beautysees;      If, then, it be admitted that the study of NaThe shapely limb and lubricated joint,
Within the small dimensions of a point;    -  ture is the study of the Creator-to overlook the
Muscle and nerve miraculously spun,        grand and beautiful scenery with which we are
His mighty work; who speaks and it is done:  surrounded, or to undervalue anything which InTh' Invisible in things scarce seen revealed'
To whom an atom is an amplefield l —CowPER.
temn the Creator himself. Whatever God has
*With- regard to the religious tendency of the thought proper to create, and to present to our
study of Natural History, it, may be remarked, view in the visible world, it becomes man to study
that as all the objects.which it embraces are the and contemplate, that from thence he may derive
workmanship of Godj the delineations and descrip- motives to excite him to the exercise of reverence
tions of the Natural Historian must be considered  and adoration, of gratitude and praise.  In so far
as "the history of the operations, of the Crea- as any individual is unacquainted with the varitor; "' or, in other words, so far as the science ex- ous facts of the history of nature, in so far does
tends, "the history of the Creator himself; " for he remain ignorant of the manifestations of Deithe marks of his incessant agency, his power, ty; for every object on the theater of the universe
wisdom, and beneficence, are impressed on every exhibits his character and designs in a different
object, however minute,' throughout the three point of view. He who sees God only as he dis.
-kingdoms of nature, and throughout every region plays himself in his operations on the earth, but
of earth, air, and sky.:  As'the Deity is invisible has never contemplated the firmament with the
to mortal eyes, and cannot be directly contempla- eye of reason, must be unacquainted with those




\NATURAL:HISTORY. -55
amazing energies of eternal Power, which are dis- manifold are thy works, O Lord! In wisdom thou
played inl the stupendous fabric and movements hast made them all!  The earth is full of:thy
of theo'rbs of heaven.  He: who sees God~only:in  riches; so is this great and wide sea, wherein are
the generial appearances of nature, but neglects to things creeping innumerable, both small and great
penetrate into his minute operations, must remain beasts.  The glory of the Lord shall endure forignorant,of those astonishing manifestations of ever; the Lord shall rejoice in all his works.*  1
Divine wisdom: and skill, which appear in the will, sing unto:the Lord as long as I live; I will
contrivances, adaptations, and, functions of the sing praises to my God while I have. my being."
animal and the vegetable kingdoms.  For the    But in order to enter into the spirit of such
more we know of the  work, the more accurate sublime reflections, we must not content ourselves
and comprehensive will be our views of the-Intel- with a superficial and cursory view of the objects
ligence by whom it was designed; and the firther and operations of nature,-we must not think it
we carry our investigations of the works of God, sufficient to acquiesce in such vague propositions
the, more admirable and astonishing will his plans as these: "The glory of God is seen in every
and perfections appear..            blade of grass, and every drop of water; all naIn short, a devout contemplation of the works ture is full of wonders, from the dust of the earth
of nature tends to ennoble the human soul, and to the stars of the firmament."  We must study
to purify.and exalt the affections.  It inspires the the works of creation with ardor, survey them
minid with a relish for:the beauty, the harmony, with minute attention, and endeavor to acquire a
and order,.which subsist in the universe around specific and comprehensive knowledge of -the Creaus-it elevates the soul to the love and admiration tor's'designs.  We must endeavor to acquire a
of that Being who is the Author of all our com- knowledge of the particular modes, circumstances,
forts and of all that is, sublime and beneficent in contexture, configurations, adaptations, structure,
creation, and excites us to join with all holy be- functions, and relations of those objects-in which
ings in a chorus of praise to the God and. Father benevolence and design conspicuously appear-in
of all. For they'                              the animal and the vegetable world, in the ocean,.Wom nature's workcancharwithe atmosphere, and the heavens; that the mind
hold convature's works can carm w ith God himself   may be enabled to draw the conclusion with fll
Hold converse, grow -familiar day by day            -
With his conceptions, act upon his plan,     \conviction and intelligence-"In wisdom thou hast
And form to his the relish of their souls."   made them  all!"   The -pointed  interrogatories
which Jehovah addressed to Job, evidently imply
The man who surveys tile vast field of nature that Job had previously acquired an intimate acwith the eye of reason and devotion, will not only quaintance with the works of nature.  It seems
acquire a more comprehensive view of that illimi- to be taken for granted, as a mattek of course, that
table power- which organized the universe, but he had made himself acquainte.d with the general
will. find his sources of enjoyment continually in- range of facts in the visible cfrationl. and the increased, and will feel an ardent desire after that tention of the several questions presented -to-''h'is
glorious world, where the vail which now hides consideration evidently was, to impress him with
from  our sight some of the grandest manifestm- a sense of his own impotency, and to lead him  to
tions of Deity will be withdrawln, and the wvon- the investigation of the wonders of Creating
fders' of Omnipotence be.' displayed in all their Power, which he had formerly overlooked.  The
splendor and perfection.                          conclusion which the Psalmist draws respecting
In conformity with these sentiments, wo find the Wisdom displayed throughout all the works of
the inspired writers, in numerous instances, call- God, plainly intimates, -that he had made the difing our attention to the wonders of creating power ferent parts of nature the subject of minute exand wisdom. In one of the first speeches in which amination and of deep reflection; otherwise he
the Allsnighty is introduced as addressing the sons could not have rationally deduced his conclusion,
of'men, and the longest one'in the Bible,* our or felt those emotions which filled his mind with
attention is exclusively directed to the subjects of the pious raptures so beautifully expressed in that
Natural History;-the, whole address having a hymn of praise to the Creator of the world.
reference to the economy of Divine Wisdom  in    We have therefore  reason  to  believe, from
the arrangement of the world at its first creation  -theseand other instances, that pious men, "in the
-the wonders of the ocean, and of light anld days of old," were much more accustomed than
darkness-the phenomena of thunder and light- modern Christians to contemplate and admire the
ning, rain, hail, snow, frost, and other meteors ill visible works of the Lord; and it is surely much
the atmosphere-the intellectual faculties of man, to be regretted, that we, who enjoy so many suand. the economy and instincts of quadrupeds, perior means of information, and who have access
birds, fishes, and.other tribes of animated exist- to the brilliant discoveries of later and more eneIle.. Indeed, the greater part of the sublime lightened times, should manifest so much disredescriptions contained in the book of Job has a gard to " the works of Jehovah, and the operadirect reference to the agency of God in the ma- tions of his hands."  To enable the common
terial creation, and to the course of his providence mass of Christians to enter into the spirit of this
in relation to the different characters of men; and delightful study and Christian duty, should, therete. reasonings of the different speakers in that
sacred drama, proceed on  the supposition,, that   * The glory of the Lord,'in this passage, denotes-the dis.
their auditors were intimately acquainted with the play of his perfections in the material universe; and the devariedlappearances of nature, and their tendency  claration of the inspired writer plainly intimates, that this
display will continue forever, and will remain as an object
to exhibit the character and perfections of: the of unceasing contemplation to all intelligences, and as an
Omnipotent Creator. We find the Psalmist, in  eternal monument of his Power and Wisdom. For although
Psalm  civ, employed in a devout description of the earth and the aerial heavens will be changed at the close
of that dispensation of Providence which respects our worldl,
his miand oies, raised  to adoringviewsl  of their Al-yet the general frame of the universe, in its other parts,
his mind is,, raised to adoring views of their Al- will remain substantially the same; and not only so, but will,
mighty Author-and, from  the whole of his sur- in all probability, be perpetually increasing in magnitude
roy, he deduces.the'following conclnsions:-" How  and grandeur. And the change which will be effected in
respect to the terraqueous globe and its appendages will be
___  such that Jehovah will have reason to " rejoice" in this,'s
Job, chaps. xxxviii, xxxix, xli, xli.    well as in all his other works.




-56                      -    THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
fore, be one object of those periodical and other experiment may be male on. any portion' of stil,
religious works which,:are put. into their' hands; water, of a mile or two in extent, when its conso that they may be enabled, with vigor-and intel- vexity will be perceived by the eye. - A little boat.
ligence, to form  the pious' resolution of Asaph, for instance, may be perceived by a man who is
"I will meditate on all thy works, 0 Lord! and any bight above the water, but if he stoops down
talk of thy- doings."  "I will, utter abundantly  and lays his eye near the surface, he will find tha
the memory of thy great goodness, and tell of-all the fluid appears- to rise, and intercept the view
thy wondrous works."                              of the boat. 2.'If we take our station on the sea
shore, and view the ships leaving the coast, in
G E'O G Rk AH Y.                 any direction-as they retire from  our view, wo
may perceive'the masts and rigging of the vessels
The next department of knowledge I shall no- when.the hulls are out of sight, and, as it were,
tice is the: science of Geography.'              sunk on the water.  On the other hand, when a
The object. of this science'is, to describe-~ the ship'is approaching the shore,-the first part of' her
world we inhabit, in reference to the continents, that is seen is the'topmast; as -she approaches
islands, mountains,  oceans, seas, rivers, empires, nearer, the sails become visible, and, last of all, the
and kingdoms with which'it. is diversified, to-.. hull comes gradually into view *  The reason of
getber with the manners, customs, and religion of such appearances obviously is, that the rotund or:the'different tribes which people its surface.''  convex surface of the water interposes between
-In order to form: an accurate conception of the our' eye and the body of; the ship, when she has
relative positions'of objects on the surface of the reached a certain distance, while, at the same
earth, and to enter, with intelligence, on the study  time, the sails and' topmast, from their great eleof thi's subject, it is requisite, first of all,'to have vation, may be still in view. To the same cause
an accurate idea of itsfigure and magnitude.'For it is owing, that the higher'the eye is placed, the
a lo'ng series of-ages, it was supposed, by the bulk  more extensive is the prospect; and hence it is
of -mankind, that the surface'of the earth was' common for sailors to climb to the top of masts,,nearly a plane, indefinitely extended, and bounded  in order to discover land or ships at a distance.
on all sides by the sky. Lactantius, and several The contrary of all this would take place, if the
of the Fathers of the Christian'Church, strenu- earth and waters were an extended plane. When
ously argued, that the earth was extended infinite- a ship came within view, the hull would first
ly downward, and established upon several foun- make its appearance, being the largest object, next
dations.  The ancient philosopher Heraclitus is the sails, and last of all the topmast. These consaid to have believed, that the earth was of the siderations, which hold true in all parts of the
shape of a skiff or canoe, very much' hollowed; world, prove to a- certainty, that the mass of the.and the philosopher Leucippus supposed it to be ocean is of a globular form; and if the ocean be
of the form of a cylinder or a drum.  It is only  a portion of a sphere, it follows, that the land also
within the period of the lastthree hundred years is of the same general figure; for no portion of'that the true figure of the earth has been accu- the earth's surface is elevated above four or five
rately ascertained.  This -figure is now found to miles above  the level of the ocean. 3. That the
be that of an oblate spheroid, nearly approaching earth is round from north to south, appears from
to the shape of a globe or' sphere. To have as- the following circumstances:-When we travel a
serted this opinion several ages ago would have considerable distance from north to south, or from
been considered as a heresy in religion, and would south to north, a number of new stars successively
have subjected its abettors to the anathemas of the appear' in the heavens, in the quarter to which we
Church, and even to the peril of their lives. His- are advancing, and many of those in the opposite
torians inform us; that the learned Spigelius, bish- quarter gradually disappear, which would'not
op of Upsal, iin Sweden, suffered martyrdom  at happen if the earth were a plane in that direction.
the stake, in defense of the doctrine of the An- 4. That the earth is round from east to west, aptipodes; and we know that, for asserting the mo- pears from  actual experiment; for many navigation of the earth, the celebrated philosopher Gali- tors, by sailing in a westerly direction, have gone
leo was immured in a dungeon, and: condemned quite round it, from'east to west; and were it not.
by an assembly of Cardinals, to all the horrors of for the frozen seas, within the polar regions, which
perpetual imprisonment.  The doctrine he main- interrupt navigation in those directions, it would,
tained, and which is now universally received by long ere now, have been circumnavigated from
every one acquainted with the subject, was de- north to south.  5. All these proofs are confirmed
clared bythose arrogant ecclesiastics to be "a pro- and illustrated by eclipses of the moon, which
position absurd in its very nature, false in philoso- present an ocular demonstration of the earth's rophy, heretical in' religion, and contrary to the tundity. An eclipse of the moon is caused by the
Holy Scriptures,"  Such are some of the horrible intervention of the body of the earth between the
and-pernicious consequences which flow from ig- sun and the moon; in which case, the shadow of
nlorance of the phenomena of nature, and of those the earth falls upon the moon.  This shadow is
laws by which the Almighty governs the universe found in all cases, and in every position of the earth,
he has formed; and whichprove itto be a Christian  to be of a circular figure; which incontrovertibly
duty for every rational being. to study the order proves that the whole mass of land and water, of
and economy of the visible world.                 which the earth is composed, is nearly ofea globu-That the earthis'nearly of a globula/ figure is lar form. The mountains and vales which diverproved by the following considerations;  1 When sify its surface, detract little or nothing from  its
we stand on the sea-shore,'while-the sea is per-' globular shape; for they bear no more proportion
fectly calm, we perceive that the surface of the to its whole bulk than a few grains of sand to a
water is not quite plane, but convex or rounded: common terrestrial globe; the highest mountains
and if we are on one side of. an arm of the sea, on its Surface being little more than the two-thouas the Frith of Forth, and with our eyes near the sandth part of its diameter.  Some of the mounwater, look toward the opposite coast, we shall        
plainly see the'water'elevated between our eyes o*In order to make such observations to advantage, the
ob:server's eye should be, as near as possible, on a level with
and the opposite shore, so as to preVent our.seeing  the sea, and he should use a telescope to enable him to per.
the land near the edge offthe water.  The same ceive more distinctly the upper parts of the vessel.




::GEOGRAPHY.                                                57
iains on the surface of the moon are higher; than  without a knowledge of the extent of which, the
those on the earth,_and yet that body appears, both  important results which have been deduced re
to the naked eye and through telescopes, of, a: specting the system  of the universe, could not
spherical figure.                                    have been  ascertained, and  consequently, our
To some readers, the -discovery of the rue fig- views of the grandeur and omnipotence of the
Mare of the earth may appear as a matter-of very  Deity, and of the magnificence and extent of his
trivial -importance  in religion. T.I hesitate  not, dominions, must have been much more circumhowever, to affirm, that it constitutes a most: im-  scribed than they now are.  Such is the intimate
portant fact in the history of Divine Providence. connection that subsists between every part of
Lad not this discovery been-made, it is probable  the chain of Divine dispensations, that if any one
tlhat the vast continent-of America might yet have  link had been either broken or dissolved, the state
remained undiscovered; for Columbus, who first. of things, in the moral and intellectual world,
Aiscovered:that new world, had learned, contrary  would have been very different from what it now
to the general opinion of those times, that the  is; and the plans of Providence, for accomplishearth was of a spherical figure; and, from  the  ing the renovation and improvement of mankind,
maps then existing, he began to conjecture' that, would have been either partially or totally frusthe nearest way of sailing to the East Indies would  trated.be to sail westward.  And although he missed the    With regard to the magnitude of the earth-I
object of his research, he was the means of' lay- -have already stated the mode by which we may
ing open to view a vast and unknown region of  acquire  the most accurate  and comprehensive
the earth, destined, in due time, to receive from  conception of this particular, in the course of the
the. eastern- world the blessings of knowledge, illustrations. which, were given of the`Omnipocivilization, and religion.  On the knowledge of. tence of Deity —(pp. 15-17). It is necessary here
the spherical figure of the earth, the art of navi- only to remark that, according to the latest comgation in a great measure depends; and'all the  putations, the. diameter of the earth is about 7930
voyages of discovery which have been made in- miles, and its circumference 24,9-12 miles; and
later years, were undertaken in consequence of'consequently, the whole surface of the land and
the knowledge: of this fact.  Had mankind re- water it contains comprehends an area of 197,mained unacquainted with this discovery, the cir- 552,160 miles.  The proportion of land and water
oumnavigation  of the globe -would never have  onl its' surface cannot be very accurately aseerbeen attempted-vast portions of the habitable  tained; but it is quite evident, from an inspection
world would lhave remained unknown and. unex-  of a map of the world, that the water occupies at
plored-no regular intercourse would, have been- 
maintained between the various tribes of the hu-  along with two angles. otherwise the length of the different
maIn race, and consequently, the blessings of Di- sides of the triangle cannot be determined.-Now, in mea.
suring the distance of a heavenly body, such as the Moon,
the diameter or semidiameter of the earth is the known side
cated to the greater part of the Gentile world.- of the triangle by which such a distance is to be found. In
Beside, the knowledge of the true figure and mag- Fig. 14, let i C represent the Earth, M the Moon, and A B
nitude of-oUr sublunary world forms the groundwork of all the sublime discoveries which have                   A
hitherto been made in the regions of the firmameait.  For its diameter forms the base-line of
those triangles by which the distances and magnitudes of the celestial globes have been determined,*
" In order that the general reader may understand what is
meant by'"the -diameter of the earth forming the base-line of
those triangles by which the distances, etc. of the heavenly
bodies are measured," it may not be unnecessary to state the       E
following explanations.
In any triangle, as A B C, if the length of the side A B
be known, and likewise the quantity of the angles at A and
B, or the number of degrees or minutes they subtend, be.
ascertained, we can find the length of the sides A C and B                                    B
C.'If A B represent a horizontal plane, 100 feet in extent,
and C B a tower whose hiight we wish to determine, and if,
with a quadrant, we find the angle at A_, or C:A B, to be 43
degrees; then by an easy trigonometrical process -Radius- a portion of the starry firmament. If a spectator at the
is to thle tangent of A, 43-:: as the side A B, 1(111 feet  earth's surface at E view the moon in the horizon, it will
is to tme tangent of A, 43:'as the side A B, 10b feet.:                                            I
is tothe hight of the tower C      B, which, in this case, will be appear in the line E M, among the stars at H. But, if
faund to be 9334 feet,                              viewed from the center of the earth at C or from the surface
at D, it will appear in the line C D M, among the stars at
Fig. 13.                       s. The difference of position in which the moon is seen,... C.. as viewed from the surfac'e of the earth E, and'the center C,
is called the moon's horizontal parallax, or the are S H,
which is subtended by the angle S M H, which is equal to
the angle E MI C. In determining the distance of the moon
therefere, we must first find, by observation, the horizontal
parallax, or, in other words, the angle E M C; and the side
E C, or the semidiameter of the earth being known to be
about 4000 miles in extent, forms the base-luine of the triangle
E M C, and hence the other sides of the triangle E M and
C  M, or the distance of the moon from the earth, can be
found by an easy calculation.
From what has' been now stated it will appear that, were
we ignorant of the figure and magnitude of the earth, we
could not ascertain the distance of the moon or any other
celestial body. In the above explanation I have merely
-A..  [    A                              stated the principle on which astronomers -proceed in mea.
>,.  \..  suring the distances of bodies in the heavens, without deIt is on this general principle that the distances and mag- scending into details. For a more particular explanation
nitudes of the celestial' bodies are determined. But, in all and illustration of this subject, the reader is referred to the
cases where we wish to aseertain-the dimensions of the dif- author's work entitled " Celestial Scenery," chap. vii, where
ferent parts of a triangle-one side, at least, must be given, the subject is pretty fully and popularly treated.




58                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
least two-thirds of. its surface, and of course the two immense bands of water, termed tile Paciflo
land cannot occupy more; than one-third. Sup- alid the Atlantic oceans, whose greatest length is
posing it to be only one-fourth fof the. earth's likewise in a direction from north to south.surface, it will contain 49,388,040 square miles,   Beside the two bands of earth to which I have
which is considerably more than what is stated in  adverted, many extensive portions of -land are
most of our late systems of -Geography; in some  dispersed through the ocean,'which covers the
of which the extent of the land is -rated'at 39  remaining part of the earth's surface; particularly
millions, and in others, so low as 30 millions of the extensive regions of New  Holland, which
square miles-the former of which statements occupy a space nearly as large as the whole of
being less than one-fifth, and'the latter less than  Europe, and the Arctic continent, which probably
one-sixth of the surface -of the globe. But it is exists'within the North Polar regions, and which
quite obvious'that the'extent of the land cannot -some French writers propose to designate by the
be less than one-fourth of the area of the globe. name of Boreasia, is, in all probability, of equal
and must, therefore, comprehend at least about extent.- There are also the extensive islands of
50 millions of square miles., And if a large arctic  New  Guinea, Borneo, Madagascar, Sumatra,
continent; eleven hunidred leagues in length, exist Japail, Great Britain, New Zealand, Ceylon,
around the North Pole, -as some French philoso- - Iceland, Cuba, Java, and thousands of others, of
phers infer, frosm Captain Parry's late discoveries* different dimensions, scattered through the Paci-the quantity of land on the terraqueous globe will fic, the Indian, and the Atlantic oceans, and
be much greater than what has:now bee,  stated. which form  a very' considerable portion of the
GENERAL DIVISIONS OF THE EARTH.-The sur- habitable regions of the globe.
-face of the earth is divided, from north-.to.: south,    GENERAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE.by-two bands of earth, and' two of water. The  In taking, a general survey of the external feafirst band of earth'-is-the ancient or Eastern  tures of the earth, the most prominent objects
Continent, comprehending Europe, Asia, and Af- that strike the eye, are those huge elevations
rica;- the:greatest length of which is found to be. which rise above the level of its general surface,
in a line beginning on the east point of the north- termed Hills and Mountains.  These are distriern part of Tartary,- and extending from thence buted in various forms and sizes, through every
to the Cape of Good Hope, which measures about portion of the continents and. islands; and, run10,000 miles, in a direction nearly from  north- ning into immense chains, form a sort of connecteast to south-west; but if measured according to  ing band to the other portions of the earth's surthe meridians, or from north to, south, it extends face. The largest mountains are generally formed
only 7500 miles, from the northernmost cape in into immense chains, which extend, in nearly the
Lapland to the Cape of Good Hope. This vast same direction, for several hundreds and even
body of land contains about 36 millions of square  thousands of miles.  It has been observed, by
miles, forming nearly one-fifth of the whole sur- some philosophers, that the most lofty mountains
face of the globe. The other band'of earth is form  two immense ridges or belts, which, with
what is commonly called the New  Continent, some interruptions, extend  around  the whole
which comprehends North and South America. globe in nearly the same direction.  One of thee
Its greatest length lies in a line.beginning at the ridges lies between the 45th and 55th degrees of
south of the river Plata,, passing, through the  north latitude. Beginning on the western shores
island of Jamaica, and terminating beyond Hud- of France and Spain, it extends eastward, includson's Bay;.and it measures about 8000 miles. ing the Alps and the Pyrenees, in Europe, the
This body of land: contains about 14 millions of Uralian' and Altaic mountains, in Asia-extendsquare miles, or somewhat more than a third of  ing from thence to the shores of Kamtschatka,
the Old Continent.                               and, after a short interruption from  the sea, they
It may not be improper here to remark, that rise again on the western coast of America, and
the two lines now mentioned, which measure the terminate at Canada, near the eastern shore. It,greatest length of the two continents,' divide them  is supposed that the Chain is continued cominto two equal parts, so that an equal portion of pletely round the globe,' through the space that is
land lies on each side of these lines, and that each  covered by the Atlantic  ocean, and that the
of the lines has an inclination.of about 30 degrees Azores, and other islands in that direction, are
to the equator, but in opposite directions; that of  the only summits that are visible, until we come
the old continent extending from the north-east to the British isles. The'other ridge runs along
to the south-west; and that of the new continent, the  southern  hemisphere, between  the 20th
fiom the north-west' to the south-east;, and that and 30th degrees of south latitude, of which
they both- terminate at the same' degree of north- detached portions are found in the mountains of
ern and southern latitude. It may also be noticed, Tucuman and of Paraguay, in South America;
that the old -and new continents are almost oppo- of Monomotapa and Caffraria, in Africa; in New
site to each other, and that.'the old is more exten- Holland, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, the
sive to the north of the equator, and the new  Friendly, the Society, and other islands in the
more extensive toethe south. The center of the  Pacific ocean.  From  these ridges flow a variety
old continent is in the. 17th degree of north lati- of ramifications in both hemispheres, toward the
tude, and the center of the new, in the 17th de- Equator and the Poles, which altogether present
gree of south latitude; so that they seem to be a magnificent scenery, wh.ch diversifies and enlimade to counterbalance each other, inll order to vens the surface of our globe.
preserve the equability of the diurnal rotation of    The highest mountains in the world, according
the earth.  There is also a singular connection  to some late6accounts published in the " Transacbetween the two continents, namely, that if they  tions of the Asiatic Society," are the Himalayat
were divided into-two parts, all four would be sur- chain, north of Bengal, on the borders of Thibet.
rounded by the sea, were it not for the two small The highest mountain in this -ange is stated to
necks of land called the isthmuses of Suez and  be about 27,000 feet, or a little more than five
Panamua.t                  -'...              miles in perpendicular hight, and is visible at the
Between'the two continents now mentioned lie distance of 230 miles. Nineteen different mounSee Monthly Magazine, April, 1823, p. 5 - - tains in this chain are stated to be above four
t See Buffon's Natural History, vol. i.     miles in perpendicular elevation.  Next to the




GEOGRAPHY.                                          59
Himalayas are the Andes, in South America, powering magnitude and grandeur, and which
which extend more than 4000 miles in length, inspires the mind with so impressive an idea of
from the province of Quito to the straits of Ma- the power of that Almighty Being, who " weighgellan.  The highest summit of the Andes is eth the mountains in scales, and taketh up the
Chimboracco, which is said to be 20,600 feet, or isles as a very little thing."
nearly four miles, above the level of the sea. The   THE OCEAN.-The ocean surrounds the earth
highest mountains in Europe are the Alps, which on all sides, and penetrates into the-interior parts
run through Switzerland and the north of Italy, of different countries, sometimes by large open-the Pyrenees, which  separate France from  ings, and frequently by small straits. Could the
Spain, and the Dofrafield, which divide Norway eye take in this immense sheet of waters at one
from Sweden. The most elevated ridges in Asia view, it would appear the most august object
are Mount Taurus, Imaus, Caucasus, Ararat, the under the whole heavens. It occupies a space on
Uralian, the Altaian, and the Mountains of Japan, the surface of the globe at least three times greater
-in Africa, Mount Atlas, and the Mountains of than that which is occupied by the land; comthe Moon.  Some of the mountains in these prehending an extent of 148 millions of square
ranges are found to contain immense caverns or miles. Though the ocean, strictly speaking, is
perforations, of more than two miles in circum- but one immense body of waters, extending in
ference, reaching from their summits to an immea- different directions, yet different names have been
surable depth in the bowels of the earth. From  appropriated to different portions of its surface
these dreadful openings are frequently thrown That portion of its waters which rolls between
up, to an immense hight, torrents of fire and the western coast of America, and the eastern
smoke, rivers of melted metals, clouds of ashes shores of Asia, is called the Pacific ocean; and
and cinders, and sometimes red-hot stones and that portion which separates Europe and Africa
enormous rocks, to the distance of several miles, from America, the Atlantic ocean. Other portions
accompanied with thunders, lightnings, darkness, are termed the Northern, Southern, and Indian
and horrid subterraneous sounds —producing the oceans. When its waters penetrate into the land,
most terrible devastations through all the sur- they form  what are called gulfs, and mediterrounding districts.  The most noted mountains ranean seas. But without following it through
of this kind in Europe are mount Hecla, in Ice- all its windings and divisions, I shall simply state
land; Etna, in Sicily; and Vesuvius, near the a few general facts.
city of Naples, in Italy. Numbers of volcanoes   With regard to the DEPTH of this body of water,
are also to be found in South America, in Africa, no certain conclusions have yet been formed.
in the islands of the Indian ocean, and in the Beyond a certain depth, it has hitherto been found
empire of Japan.*                              unfathomable. We know, in general, that the
We who live in Great Britain where the high- depth of the sea increases gradually as we leave
est mountain is little more than three quarters of the shore; but we have reason to believe that this
a mile in perpendicular elevation, can form  no increase of depth continues only to a certain disadequate idea of the magnificence and awful sub- tance. The numerous islands scattered everylimity of the mountain scenery in some of the where through the ocean, demonstrate, that the
countries now mentioned, especially when the bottom'of the waters, so far from uniformly sinkvolcano is belching forth its flames with a raging ing, sometimes rises into lofty mountains. It is
noise, and spreading terror and desolation around highly probable, that the depth of the sea is someits base. From the tops of the lofty ridges of the what in proportion to the elevation of the land;
Andes, the most grand and novel scenes some- for there is some reason to conclude, that the
times burst upon the eye of the astonished tra- present bed of the ocean formed the inhabited
veler. He beholds the upper surface of the clouds part of the ancient world, previous to the general
far below him covering the subjacent plain, and Deluge, and that we are now occupying.the bed
tirrounding) like a vast sea, the foot of the moun- of the former ocean; and if so, its greatest depth
tain; while the place on which he stands appears will not exceed four or five miles; for there is no
like an island in the midst of the ocean. He sees mountain that rises higher above the level of the
the lightnings issuing from the clouds, and hears sea. But the sea has never been actually soundthe noise of the tempest and the thunders roll- ed to a greater depth than a mile and 66 feet
ing far beneath his feet, while all is serene around Along the coast its depth has always been found
him, and the blue vault of heaven appears with- proportioned to the hight of the shore; where
out a cloud. At other times he contemplates the the coast is high and mountainous, the sea that
most sublime and extensive prospects-mountains washes it is deep; but where the coast is low, the
ranged around him, covered with eternal snows, water is shallow. To calculate the quantity of
and surrounding, like a vast amphitheater, the water it contains, we must therefore suppose a
plains below-rivers winding from their sources medium depth. If we reckon its average depth
toward the ocean —cataracts dashing headlong at two miles, it will contain 296 millions of cubiover tremendous cliffs-enormous rocks detached cal miles of water. We shall have a more specifrom  their bases, and rolling down the declivity fic idea of this enormous mass of water, if we
of the mountains with a noise louder than thun- consider,, that it is sufficient to cover the whole
der-frightful precipices impending over his head globe, to the hight of more than eight thousand
-unfathomable caverns yawning from below- feet; and if this water were reduced to one spheriand the distant volcano sending forth its bellow- cal mass, it would form a globe of more than 800
ings, with its top enveloped in fire and smoke. miles in diameter.
Those who have studied nature on a grand scale   With regard to its BOTTOM —As the sea covers
have always been struck with admiration and so great a portion of the globe, we should, no
astonishment at the sublime and awful exhibition doubt, by exploring its interior recesses, discover
of wonders which' mountainous regions exhibit; a vast number of interesting objects. So far as
and perhaps there is no terrestrial scene which the bed of the ocean has been explored, it is found
presents, at one view, so many objects of over- to bear a great resemblance to the surface of the
dry land; being, like it, full of plains, caverns,'A more particular description of the phenomena of these rocks, and mountains, some of which are abrupt
terrific objects will be found in chap. iv, sect. 2.  and almost perpendicular, while others rise with




,60                         THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER
-a gentle acclivity, and sometimes tower above expanse of waters is the grand reservoir of Nature,
the. water, and form islands. The. materials, too, and the source of evaporation, which enriches the
which compose. the -bottom_  of the sea are the earth'with fertility and verdure. Every cloud.same which form the bases: of the, dky land. It which floats in the atmosphere, and every founalso resembles the land. in" another remarkable tain, and rivulet, and flowing stream, are indebtparticular;-many fresh springs, and even rivers, ed to this inexhaustible source for those watery
rise out of:it; an. instance of' which occurs near treasures which they distribute through every reGoa-, on. the western coast of Hindostan, and in gion of the land. In fine, whether we consider
the Mediterranean sea,. not far from  Marseilles. the ocean as rearing its tremendous billows in the
The sea sometimes; assumes different colors. The midst of' the tempest,-or as stretched out into a
-materials which compose its bottom  cause it to smooth expanse-whether we consider its inmreflect different hues in diffirent places; and''its measurable extent, its mighty movements, or the
appearance is also affected by te wind   nd by innumerable beings which glide through its rollthe sun; while: the clouds that pss over it com- ing waves-we cannot but be struck with astonishmunicate all.i their -varied- and fleeting colors. ment at the grandeur of that Omnipotent Being
When the sun shines, it'is: green; whenhe gleams who holds its waters in the " hollow of his hand,"
through a fog, it is yellow; near the poles, it is and who has said'to its foaming surges, -"Hitherblack;, while in the torrid zone, its color is often to shalt thou come, and no farther; and here shall
brown; alid, on certain occasions, it assumes a thy proud-waves be stayed."
luminous appearance, as if sparkling with fire.  RIvERs.-The next feature of the earth's surface
The ocean has three kinds of motions. The first which may be noticed, is the rivers with which it
is that undulation- which is produced by the wind, is indented in every direction. These are exceedand which is entirely confined: to its surface. It ingly numerous, and seem to form as essential a
has,been ascertained: that this motion can be part in the constitution of our globe, as the moundestroyed, and its surface rendered smooth, by tains from which they flow, and as the ocean to
throwing oil upon its waves. The second motion which they direct their'course. It is reckoned,
is that continual tendency which the whole water that in the old continent, there are only about 430
in the sea has toward the west, which is greater rivers, which fall directly into the. ocean, or into
near the equator than toward the poles. It be- the Mediterranean and the Black seas; but in the
gills on the west side of America, where it is mo- new continent, there are only about 145 rivers
derate; but as the waters advance westward, their known, which fall directly into the sea. In this
motion is accelerated; and, after having traversed enumeration, however, only the great rivers are
the globe, they return, and strike with great vie: included, such as the Thames, the Danube, the
lence on the eastern shore of South America. Wolga, and the Rhone. Beside these, there are
Being stopped by that continent, they rush, with many thousands of streams of smaller dimensions,
impetuosity, into the Gulf of Mexico, thence which, rising from the mountains, wind in every
they proceed  along the coast of North America, direction, until they fall into the large rivers, or
until they come to the south side of the great are carried into the ocean.  The largest rivers
bank of Newfoundland, when they turn off and in Europe are-the Wolga, which, rising in the
run down through'the Western isles. This mo- nortliern parts of Russia, runs a course of 1700
tion is most probably owing to the diurnal revolu- miles, until it falls into the Caspian sea-the
tion of the earth on its axis, which is in a direc- Danube, whose course is 1300 miles, from  the
tion contrary to the motion of the sea. The third mountains in Switzerland to the Black sea-and
motion of the sea is the'tide, which is a regular the Don, which runs a course of 1200 miles. The
swell of -the ocean every 1212 hours. This mo- greatest rivers in Asia are-the Hoanho, in China,
tion is now ascertained to be owing to the attrac- whose course is 2400 miles —the Boorhampooter,
t-ive- influence of the moon, and also partly to the Euphrates, and the Ganges.  The longest
that of the sun. There is always a flux and re- rver in Africa is the Nile, the course of which is
flux at the same time, in two parts of the globe, estimated at 2000 miles. In the continent of
and these are opposite to each other; so that America, the rivers appear to be formed on the
when our Antipodes have'high water, we have the grandest scale, both as to the length of their
same. When the attractive powers, of the sun course, and the vast body of waters which they
aind moon act in the same direction, which hap- pour into the ocean. > The Amazon, the largest
pens at the time of new and full moon, we have river in the world, runs a course of above 3000
the highest, or spring tides; but when their attrac- miles across the continent - of South America,
tion is opposed' to each other, which happens at until it falls into the Atlantic ocean, where it disthe quarters, we have the lowest, or neap tides.   charges a body of waters 150 miles in breadth.
Such is the ocean, a most stupendous scene of Next to this is the river St. Lawrence, which is
Omnipotence, which forms the most magnificent more than 2400 miles from its mouth through the
feature of the globe we inhabit. When we stand lake of Ontario to the lake Alempigo and the Asonl the sea-shore, and cast our eyes over the ex- siniboins; and the rivers La Plata and Mississippi,
panse of its waters, until the- sky and the waves each of whose courses is not less than 2000 miles.
seem to mingle, all that the eye can take in at one   When we consider the number and the magni -
survey is but an inconsiderable speck, less than thes tude of these majestic streams, it is evident, that
hundred-thousandth part' of the whole of this vast an enormous mass of water is continually pourabyss. If every drop of water can be divided into ing into the ocean from every direction. From
26 millions of distinct parts, as some philosophers observations which have been made on the river
have demonstrated,* what an immense assemblage Po, which runs through Lombardy, ana waters a
of watery particles must be contained in the un- tract of land 380 miles long and 120 broad, it is
fathomable caverns of the ocean! Here the pow- found, that it moves at the rate of four miles an
ers of calculation are completely set at defiance; hour, is 1000 feet broad and 10 feet in depth, and
and an image of infinity, immensity, and ~endless- consequently, supplies the sea with 5068 millions
duration, is presented to,-the mind. This-mighty of cubical feet of water in a day, or a cubical
mile in 29 days. On the supposition that the
The demonstration of thlproposition may be seen-in quantity of water which the sea receives from the
Nleuwentyt's Religious Philqtipher, vol. iii, p. 852.  great rivers in all countries, is proportional to the




GEOGRAPHY.                                           61
extent and surface of these countries, it-will fol — economy of our globe. They carry off the relow. that the quantity of waters carried to the sea'dundant waters which fall in rains, or which ooze
by all the other-rivers on the'globe, is 1083 times from: the springs, which might otherwise settle
greater than that furnished by the Po (supposing into stagnant pools; they supply to the. seas the
the land, as formerly stated,:to contain about 49 loss of. waters occasioned, by their daily evaporamillions of square miles), and will' supply. the tion; they cool the air, and give it a gentle circuocean with 13,630 cubical miles of water in a lation; they fertilize the countries through which
year. Now, reckoning the ocean, as formerly, to they'flow; their waters afford a wholesome drink,
contain. 296 millions of cubical miles of water, and the fishes they contain a delicious food for
this. last number divided by the former, will give the nourishment of man; they facilitate coma quotient of 21,716. Hence it:-appears,! that, merce, by conveying the productions of nature
were the ocean completely drained of its waters, and art from the inland countries to. the sea; they
it would require more than twenty thousand years *: form  mechanical. powers for driving machinery
before its caverns could be again completely filled of different'kinds; they enliven and diversify the
by all.the. rivers in the world running into it, at scenery of the countries through which they
their present rate.                              pass; and the cataracts which they frequently
Here two questions will naturally occur- form   among the mountains, present us with
Whence do the rivers receive- so constant a sup- scenes the most picturesque and sublime; so
ply of water? and, Why has not the ocean long that every part of the constitution of nature
ago overflowed the world, since so prodigious a is rendered subservient both.to utility and to.mass of water is continually flowing into its pleasure.
abyss?  This was a difficulty which long puzzled   Waving the consideration of other particulars,
philosophers; but it is now satisfactorily solved, I shall simply state some of the artificial divisions
from a consideration of the effects of evaporation. of the earth, and two or three facts respecting its
By the heat'of the sun, the particles of water are inhabitants.
drawn up into the atmosphere, from the surface    The LAND has generally been divided into four
of-.the ocean, and- float in the air in the form of parts, Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, to
clouds,.or vapor.  These vapors:are carried, by which has been lately added the division called
the- winds, over the- surface of the land, and are Australasia, which comprehends, New  Holland,
again condensed into water on the tops and the New Guinea, New Zealand, Van Dieman's Land,
sides of the mountains, which, gliding down into and several other islands in the Pacific ocean.
their crevices and caverns, at length break out   Europe comprehends the following countriesinto springs, a number of which meeting in one Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Russia, Prussia,
common valley, become a river; -and many' of Germany, Austria, Turkey, Italy,,Switzerland,
these united together, at length form-such streams France, iHolland, Belgium, or the Netherlands,
as- the'Tay, the Thames, the Danube, and the Spain, Portugal, and Great Britain and Ireland,
Rhine. That evaporation is sufficient to account together with the islands of Sicily, Malta, Canfor this effect, has been demonstrated by many dia, Corsica, Sardinia, Majorca, Minorca, Ivica,
experinlents and calculations.  It is found, that Zealand, Funen, Gothland, Iceland, and several
finom the surface of the Mediterranean sea, which others of smaller note.
contains 762,000 square miles, there are drawn up    Europe is the smallest of the five grand diviinto the air every day, by evaporation, 5280 mil- sions of the globe. Its greatest extent is from
lions of tons of water, while the rivers which flow  northeast to southwest, namely, from  the mouth
into it yield only 1827 millions of tons in the of the'Kara in N. Lat. 68~ 40" to the rock of
same, time; so that there is raised in vapor from  Lisbon in N. Lat. 380 45", which is computed at
the Mediterranean nearly three times the quantity 3400 British miles.  Its greatest breadth, from
of water which is poured into it by all its rivers. Cape Matapan, in the Morea, to the North Cape
One-third of this falls into the-sea before it reaches of Norway, is computed at 2350 miles.  Its suthe land; another part falls on the low lands, for perficial contents have been computed at 3,650,the nourishment of plants; and the other third  000 square miles, or 2,336,000,000 English acres,
part' is quite sufficient to supply the sources of all reckoning 640 to the square mile. Its form is
the rivers which run into the sea. This is in full singularly broken and varied, being split into
Conformity to what was long ago stated by an many distinct portions, peninsulas,, and  large
inspired Naturalist; "All the rivers run into the islands with extended and winding coasts, which
sea, and yet, the sea is not full; unto the place- arises chiefly from the number of its inland seas,
from whence the rivers came, thither do they re- of which the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and the
turn again; " but, before they regain their former Black sea, are the most important.  Its rivers are
place they make a circuit over our heads through numerous, the largest of which are the Rhine, the
the regions of the atmosphere.                   Rhone,-the Wolga, and the Danube. Its mounSuch are the varied movements.and transforma- tains do not reach tha't stupendous'hight, nor extions which are incessantly going on in the rivers, tend in such unbroken chains, as those of Asia
the ocean, and the atmosphere, in order to pre- and America. Its highest ranges are the Alps
serve the balance of nature, and to supply the ne- and Pyrenees, the Appennines in Italy, and the
cessities of the animal and vegetable tribes; all Dofrafield, in Norway. Its lakes, though numerunder the agency and direction of- Him  who ous, are comparatively small; those of Ladoga
"formed the sea and the dry land,"' and who has and Onega alone being of any commercial imarranged all things in number, weight, and mea- portance. Its soil is distinguished for its valuable
Pure, to subserve the purposes of his will.      prodsictions: Grain of different kinds is raised
Rivers serve many important purposes in the over its whole surface, except in the extreme
*::                          - y; a —    - -north-wines throughout all its southern region;
* Buffon makes this result to be 812 years, in which he is and it is equally productive in hemp, flax, wool,
tbllomwed by Goldsmith, and more subsequent writers; but and silk. Its northern forests produce some of
he proceeds on the false assumptions that the ocesn covers the finest timber in the world; and the iron of
only half the surface of the globe, and that it contains only Euope surpasses that of apy othercontry.   The
65 millions of square miles, and he estimates the average Europesurpa sses that of apy othercountry. The
depth of the ocean to be only 140 yards, or one.fourthof a cultivation of the soil is carried on with great
anile.                                           diligence, and in point of science, skill, and the




62                          THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
extent of capital employed upon it, and upon                   the New world. This quarter of
every branch of commerce and -manufacture, it tie globe is reckoned to be 7500 miles in length,
stands unrivaled" among the other countries of the firom east to west, and about 5000 miles'in breadth,
globe..;; Its commerce is on airvery extensivevscale, from south to north, and contains about 16 mil.
and in manufacturing skill it has surpassed' every' lions of square miles, being more than four times
other country, both in the variety and the cheap- larger than Europe. -Its inhabitants have been
ness of its productions.. Eropean- vessels, con- computed by some writers' to amount to 580 milveying articles and manufacturesf of all:adescrip- lions.; Itwas in Asia where the human' race was
tions. are to be'found.ate the utmost- bounds of first planted; it became the nursery of the world
Asia-' and America, in the, lowy. regions' of the after the universal deluge, and it was the scene in
poles, and crowding the ports of sNew Holland, which.the most memorable transactions recorded
Van Dieman's Land, New Zealand,ani d the islands in the sacred history took place. But its inhabiof'the Indian and Pacific oceans.:              tants are now immersed in Mahometan and Pagan'The population of Europe:'is:now reckoned to darkness; and the Christian Religion, except in a
amount to about 200 millions.- -Its inhabitants are fow insulated spots, is almost unknown among its
divided chiefly into three races, the Sclavonic,i vast population. It is the richest and most fruitTeutonic, and Romish' races.  The Sclavonic con- ful part of the world, and produces cotton, silks,
sists of about 25 millions of Russians, 10 millions spices, tea, coffee, gold, silver, pearls, diamonds,.
of Poles, and 10 millions in other adjacentacoun- and precious stones: but despotism, in its worst
tries.  The: Teutonic race, which occupy the forms, reigns, uncontrolled over every part of this
greater part of JScandinavia, the Netherlands, and immense region.
Great Britain, may be estimated at 50 nmillions.   Africa comprehends the following kingdomsThe. Romish: race includes the:*::inhabitants:of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Egypt, Zaara,
Southern Europe,'France, IJaly, Spain, etc., and  Negroland, Guinea, Nubia, Abyssinia, Caffraria,
may be estimated at about 80 mihillions. The Celts' Dahomey, Benin, Congo, Angola, and various
in Scotland,. Ireland, Wales,- and Spain, are the other territories.  By far the greater part of Afremains of the most ancient inhabitants of West- rica remains hitherto unexplored, and, conse —
ern Europe, Iand may amount to 6 millions. The quently, we are possessed of a very slender porGreeks in Europe amount-to 2 millions, and the tion of information  respecting  the numerous
Jews throughout.all Europe to about 2 millions. tribes that may inhabit it. This quarter of the
The Tartars, Turks, Hungarians, and Gypsies, world, which once contained several flourishing
which are of Asiatic origin, amount altogether to kingdoms and states, is now reduced to a general
6 or:7 millions. Though this division of the state of barbarism.  That most abominable trafearth is least in point of size-being only the one fic, the slave trade, is carried on to an unlimited
sixteenth part of the terraqueous globe'-itis yet extent on its western coasts, by a set of Europeby far'the greatest as to' moral', political:, and com- an ruffians, whose villanies are a disgrace to humercial importance.  Its surface is in general man nature. It is to be hoped, this traffic will,
more crowded'with inhabitants than most other ere long, be extirpated:by the efforts now making
countries' (China excepted), more improved by by European nations, and by the plans which are
cultivation, more enriched by:industry and com- now concerting for promoting the religious, moral,
merce-embellished with mighty cities, and splen- and commercial improvement of this country.
did works of art, and illuminated with the reflec- The Christian Religion has lately been introduced
tions of genius.' Here we behold mind asserting into its southern regions, in the districts adjacent
its'supremacy over matter, and man, the lord of to the Cape of Good Hope, and the labors of Misthis lower world, pursuing the high' destiny origi- sionaries of different denominations appear, in
nally assigned him'- to.replenish the earth'and numerous instances, to have been crowned with
subdue it.". In learning, arts, and sciences, Eu- remarkable success.* —A  colony of blacks, forrope has far surpassed every other portion of'the merly slaves in America, has lately been estabglobe;, andby the invention of Printing, knowl- lished on the western coast, a little to the south of
edge of every description is now rapidly diffused, Sierra Leone, which goes by the name of Liberia.
and promoting the moral and intellectual improve- All the affairs of this little state are conducted by
ment of its population.                         emancipated negroes, and particular attention is
Asia, the largest and most populous division of paid to the literary and religious instruction of
the. ancient continent, contains the empires of the colonists.  Some of the Newspapers we have
China- and Japan, Chinese Tartary, Thibet, Hin- seen,.published by the settlers in this colony, indostan, or-British India, the Birman Empire, Per- dicate a considerable degree of talent and inforsia, Arabia,; Turkey in Asia, Siberia, Independent mation; and there is a prospect that the improveTartary, and a variety of:territories inhabited by ments going forward in Liberia will, ere long,
tribes with which' we- are very imperfectly ac- produce a beneficial influence on those tribes who
quainted; together with the immense islands of occupy the adjacent territories, and have a tendenBorneo, Sumatra,  Java,. Ceylon, Segalien, the cy to lessen the traffic in slaves  The greatest
Philippines,. and thousaids of others of smaller breadth of-.Africa is about 4790 miles, and its
dimensions. The: immense expanse of Asia pre- length from north to south about 5000 miles. Its
sents every possible variety of soil and climate, as most striking features are those immense deserts,
it extends from the confines of the polar regions near its northern parts, which comprise nearly
to the tropical! climes. Its grandest feature is a one-third of its surface. The deserts of Zaara
chain of mountains crossing it:from the Mediter- are 1500 miles long and eight hundred broad.
raiean to the:?Eastern -seas, of which  Taurus,   America is divided into North and South. It
Caucasuls,.and; the Himalaya are the.portions best remained unk noti to the inhabitants of thie EastkroWn.:'- 0One leading feature of middle Asia con- ern hemisphere until the year 1492, when it was
si sts in large lakes. or inland seas, salt like the discovered' by Columbus  who first landed on
ocean, and having no outlets; of-which the Cas- Guanahani, or Cat Island, one of the Bahama
plan, the Sea of  Aral, and. Baikal, are the largest. isles. North America comprehends the following
It contains many rivers of great magnitude. The
Euphrates, the Ganges, the Hoanho,'ande the  -*See Moffitt's interesting work, entitled "M'issionaryAnlur, in the length of their course, yield only to Scenes and Labors in Southern Africa." 1842.




GEOGRAPHY.                                            63
countries: The United  States, New  and Old tants of the Northern states, and by other nations.
Mexico, Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, But it is to be hoped that the good sense of the
New Brunswick, and- Labrador. South America inhabitants of these states will, ere long, excite
comprehends the immense districts called Terra them to arouse themselves to remove that blot upon
Firma, Peru, Guiana, Amazonia, Paraguay, Bra- their national character by which their instituzil, Chili, and Patagonia.-Between N. and S. tions have been so long and so deeply disgracet,.
America, lie the islands of Cuba, St. Domingo,   AUSTRALASIA is the name given to a number of
Jamaica, and Porto Rico,:known by the name of large islands occupying a portion of the Indian
the West Indies.  America is bounded on the or Southern Pacific ocean, between the 10th and
east by the Atlantic, on the west by the Pacific, 45th degrees of south latitude.  The chief island
and on the north by the Arctic ocean. South  in the group is New Holland or Australia, the
America comprises a surface of six and a half largest island in the world, being about 2400 miles
millions of square miles, its length being 4500  in length, from east to west, and 1800 from north
miles, and its greatest breadth 3200 miles. North  to south, comprising an area of nearly three mnilAmerica, exclusive of the islands that surround  lions of square miles.  The country is generally
it, contains about nine millions of square miles. flat, with the exception of some mountain —ranges,
It has been divided into five physical regions: and in many places the inclination is inward, in1. The table land of Mexico; 2. The slope lying  stead of outward toward the sea, so that the
between the rocky mountains and the Pacific mountains and elevated land form a ridge nearly
ocean; 3. The great valley of the Mississippi; 4. round it.  The great Kangaroo is the largest
The eastern declivity of the Alleghany moun- quadruped in this country, and the total absence
tains; 5. The great northern plain beyond 500 of such  animals as lions, tigers, deer, oxen,
north latitude, a bleak and barren waste, covered horses, bears, is the most striking feature in this
with lakes. Beside these, there are connected region.  The native human beings are of the Mawith America, the Bahama and Caribbee islands, lay race, and exist in the lowest state of degradaNewfoundland, Cape Breton. Tobago, Trinidad, tion and barbarism.-Three ]British settlements
Terra del Fuego, etc. America is distinguished  have been formed in New Holland: 1. New South
by its numerous and extensive lakes, which re- Wales, which stretches about 1400 miles along its
semble large inland seas. Its rivers, also, form  eastern coast, and some hundreds of miles inland.
one of its grand and distinguishing features, being -This is the oldest and most populous of the
the largest on the globe. It is likewise diversified'Australian colonies, and was selected at first for
with lofty and extensive ranges of mountains. the transportation of convicts, though voluntary
When first discovered, it was almost wholly cov- emigrants, of late years, have emigrated thither
ered with immense forests and thinly peopled with  in considerable numbers.  It lies at the distance
a number of savage tribes.  Its mingled popula- of about 16,000 miles from  Great Britain; but
tion of Aborigines and Europeans is now making the voyage to it is generally accomplished  ill
rapid advances in knowledge, civilization, and from 100 to 120 days.  Its capital, Sydney, pleacoilmmrN e.                                       santly situated on a fine bay, called Port Jackson,
The United States, which extend from the 20th is now considered as containing a population of
to the 50th degree of north latitude, form  the 25,000.  The whole population of this colony,
greatest and most influential power that exists free and convict, is calculated to be about 110,
on this continent, and possess a territory of vast 000, and it is rapidly increasing.  2. Western
extent —-stretching from the great -lakes to the Australia, or the Swan-river settlement, which is
Gulf of Mexico, a breadth of about 1600 miles; not so populous, nor does it appear so prosperand from  the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, a ous as the other settlements.  3. South Australia
length of 2500 miles, including a surface of -which lies on the southern shore.  In this
2,300,000 square miles. The population of these colony slavery is not permitted'to exist, nor are
States now  amounts to about 15 millions-an any convicts allowed to be sent to it from Engastonishing number, when we consider that only land.  Here learning and religion are greatly
a little more than 200 years ago these territories encouraged, and every mean has been employed
were little else than a boundless wilderness, peo- by the directors of the South Australian Company
pled by a few  tribes of savages. Were they  to render the settlers, as'far as possible, a moral
brought to a cultivated state, they would be suffi- and religious population.  The capital is Adecient to subsist a population of three or four hun- laide, which already contains about 7000 inhabidred millions.  These States have been peopled  tants, although it is only about five years since
from  different European  nations, particularly  the colony was established.  Each denomination
from  Great Britain and Ireland, and the English of Christians supports its own ministers and
language prevails over most of the 26 States. places of worship; and already about ~15,000
The form of government is that of a republic; and have been expended in Adelaide and its vicinity
in religion they have adopted' the system of cut- in erecting chapels for Christian worship.  Three
ting off all connection between church and state. millions of capital have been invested in this proEvery sectary chooses its own pastor and provides vince up to the 1st December, 1841, and 491,984
entirely for his support.  Literature and science acres of land have been surveyed.  The climate
have not yet reached the high elevation they have is one of the finest and most salubrious in the
attained  in  Europe; but numerous colleges, world, and it has sometimes been alluded to as
highly respectable, and literary institutions of va- "the fair and fertile province of South Austrarious descriptions, have been established,-some lia." Its winter, which is mild, is in May, Junk)
of which enjoy a high reputation.  The educa- and July; and its summer in'November, Decemtion of th'i mass of the community forms a pro- ber, and January.
minent object of attention in each state; and the    Van Dieman's Land is an island of about the
benefits of a good common education are perhaps size- of England, which is separated from  New
more generally diffuse'd than in any other country Holland by a channel 90 miles wide, called Bass's
in the world.  It is much to be regretted:that the Strait.  Its shape is nearly that of a parallelosystem  of slavery still prevails in the Southern  gram.  It is more hilly and better watered than
states, notwithstanding  all the  remonstrances Australia, and possesses many excellent harbors.
which have been made against it by the inhabi- Its capital is Hobart-Town, situated on the southTOL. II. -5




i64~                        TIHE CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
ern side of the island, and on the northern shore. able portion of the Pacific ocean is diversified
is Launcetown, the second town, and a busy seat They principally lie in an easterly and north-eastot trade. Tile population of the island was lately  erly direction from Australasia, within about 30
estimated at 25,000, of which about one half were degrees on both sides of the equator. They are
convicts.-                                     many thousands in number, and are inhabited by
New  Zealand consists chiefly of two large savage races, who have generally been found more
islands, called the Middle Island, and the North' tractable than the barbarous tribes of' other parts
Island, separated  by  a passage called Cook's of the world. They may be divided into the great
Straits, with numerous smaller isles scattered groups of the  Society, Sandwich, Marquesas,
around their shores. They lie in an easterly di- Friendly, Navigators, Caroline, and Marianne
rection from New   Holland, at a'distance of about islands, with several others. Most of these islands
12'00 miles from that continent, between the 34th are fruitful and beautiful; some are exceedingly
and 48th'degrees of south latitude, and the 166th  high and romantic, and their climate is reckoned
and 179th of eastlongitude. The southern island the most delicious on the globe. The Society
is about 500 miles.long, and nearly 129 broad. islands, though not the largest, are the most beauThe northern is about 400 miles long, and from  tiful, and -those in which civilization and polished
5 to.30 broad. Both the islands are estimated to manners have made the greatest progress. Tahiti,
contain 95,000 square miles; of which' twoithirds the largest in the group, is one of the brightest
are fit for cultivation. Numrbers'of fine streams gems of the Pacific, as the people of this island
and rivers are scattered through the country, and were the first to abjure Paganism and to embrace
the bays and harbors are not surpassed either in Christianity.  It consists of two peninsulas,
number or advantages by those of any couiitry in  joined by a narrow isthmus. The one is about
the-world. A chain of mountains runs through 25 miles long and about the same in breadth.
the whole of the southern and a considerable part The other is about 20 miles in length by 15 in
of the northern island, some of the tops of which  breadth. The religion of the natives, like that
are as high as 1-4,000 feet above the level' of the of the Tonga, Sandwich, and other islanders, was,
sea, and present a highly picturesque appearance.  until within these 20 or 30 years, idolatry of the
All accounts agree that the climate is highly salu- most barbarous kind, their manners were exbrious, and very congenial to European constitu- tremely licentious, and their dispositions sometions. The natives of this country were formerly  times ferocious and cruel. They were perpetusavage and dangerous, but are now partially im- ally at war among themselves, and their contests
proved and comparatively harmless in disposition,  were of the most relentless and cruel character.
the missionaries having now acquired a consider- But, in consequence of the labors of Christian
able influence over certain tribes. It is univer- Missionaries, sent out by the London Missionary
sally admitted that they are a robust and healthy Society, the majority of the inhabitants of this
looking people; and Captain Cook observes that and the adjacent islands have made an open prohe never saw a single person among them who fession of Christianity. Their places of idolaappeared to have any bodily complaint, and that trous worship have been thrown down, their idol'their wounds healed with astonishing rapidity. gods destroyed, and an end put to their ferocious
The entire population of this country has been and destructive wars. The whole of the Sacred
estimated at 158,000, which is at the rate of 5 Scriptures has been translated into their native
persons to 3 /square miles. The New Zealand language; they are learning to read the word of
Comnpany for colonizing this country was estab- God; and, in numerous instances, they have made
lished in May, 1839, and is now employed in a wonderful progress in studying its facts and
carrying its plans into effect.  Land has been doctrines, and in practicing those duties which it
purchased from the natives, and a considerable enjoins. The consequence has been that they
number of adventurers have already taken pos- have made a great improvement in all the arts
session of certain districts. A township has been and accommodations of life.  They have built
marked out on the shores of Port Nicholson-a ships, engaged in manufactures of different kinds,
fine harbor in the Northern Island about the reared spacious places of worship, established
center of Cook's straits-to be named Welling- schools and  other seminaries of instruction,
ton, which it is supposed will be the capital of the erected villages adorned with neat and commodicolony. But apprehensions are entertained that ous habitations, and have made astonishing promisunderstandings and serious disputes may arise  gress in the cultivation of the soil. The moral
between the settlers and the natives, and that the transformation and improvements which  have
runaway convicts from  Botany Bay, and the been effected among the inhabitants of these:southern whalers, will introduce dissension and  islands in consequence of the introduction of
immorality among the colonists.                Christianity-afford a striking and incontestable,New, Guinea, next to New  Holland, is the proof, that there are no tribes orn the face of the
Jlargest island of Australasia, being 1400 miles earth, however'barbarous and debased, but may
long. It is inhabited by Papuans, with the still be raised to the dignity of their moral and intelruder race of Haraforas- in the interior. This lectual natures, were the religion of the Bible
island is said to be one of the finest countries in  once introduced among them, and every other
existence, producing most of the rich fruits of the  judicious mean employed to promote their protorrid zone, such as cocoas, nutmegs, cloves, and  gress in knowledge and civilization.
spices of all kinds, and is everywhere covered    The Sandwich Islands lie about 20 degrees
with lofty forests. The Papuans are much far- north of the equator, and about 2500 miles north
ther advanced in civilization than the New Hol- by west of Tahiti.  Owhyhee, the largest of the
landers;'but no European nation has yet attempt- group, is remarkable for the murder of the celeed a settlement in this island.-New Britain, New  brated Capt. Cook in 1779. It measures 84 miles
Ireland,'and several others, compose a group in- in length, by 70 in breadth. It abounds with
habited by Papuans. The Archipelago, called the lofty mountains. Mount Roa rises to the hight
blomnon's:isleands, is inhabited by Papuans, with  of 16,000 feet, and Mount Koa to the hight of
a niixture of Malays.                          18,000 feet, the tops of both being covered with
Polynesia, or "the many isles," includes the perpetual snow. It also abounds with volcanoes.
numerous group of islands with which a consider- The volcano of Peli, on the flank of Mount Roa,




GEOGRAPHY.                                           65
s reckoned one of the most striking and awful in landers,, and the Esquimaux. 2. The flat-nosec;
any part of the world. The people of -the Sand- olive-colored tawny race;- as the Tartars, the Chi.
wich islands have, of late years,'embraced Chris- nese, and the Japanese. 3. The blacks of Asia
tianity, and several missionaries from the United with European features. Of this description are
States are now settled in those regions. A con- the Hindoos, the Birmans, and the inhabitants of
siderable part of the population, including the the islands of the Indian ocean. 4. The woollykifigand his court, attend the schools they have haired negroes of Africa, distinguished by their
established, and the ordinances of Christian wor- black color, their flat noses, and their thick lips.
ship. They have formed a small navy, and carry 5. The copper-colored native Americans, distinon a profitable trade with foreigners, and  the guished likewise by their black hair, small black
general state of morals is undergoing a- great im- eyes, high cheek bones, and flat noses.  6. The
provemnent.                                     sixth variety is the white European nations, as
The Friendly Islands include the Fejee, and the British, the French, the Italians, and the
several other detached islands, of which Tongata- Germans.
bob is the largest. They enjoy a remarkably rich    The number of inhaibitants which people the
soil, which is carefully cultivated by the natives, earth at one time, may be estimated to amount to
who rank among the most respectable of the at least eight hundred millions; of which 500 milSouth-Sea islanders, and are remarkable for their lions may be assigned to Asia; 58 millions to
neatness and skill- in improving and inclosing Africa; 42 millions to America; and 200 millions
their lands. Christianity has been lately intro- to Europe.-With regard to their religion, they
duced into some of these islands, chiefly by the may be estimated as follows:persevering labors of the Wesleyan Missionaries.
Their population is reckoned at about 100,000.-      Pagans,................. 490,000,000
The Navigators' Islands are among the most im-       Mahometans.       100,000,
portant and fertile group yet discovered in South-   Roman Catholics.           100,000,000
ern Polynesia. The natives are uncommonly tall       Protestats,.............    55,000,000
and stout, and remarkable for a ferocity of Cha-     Greeks and Arminians.       50,000,000
racter scarcely found in any other- part"of Poly-    Jews.5,000,000
nesia. Here, however, the Christian religion has
lately been introduced, and is already producing                                800,000,000
many interesting and beneficent effects.- The   From  this estimate it appears that there are
Marquesas are situated north by east from  the nearly 3 Pagans and Mahometans to 1 Christian,
Society isles, within 90 of the Equator. Their and only 1 Protestant to about 14 of all the other
inhabitants are distinguished for their fair com- denominations. Although all the Roman Cathoplexion and peculiar beauty, but they are fierce and lics, Greeks, and Protestants, were reckoned true
licentious in their character. Christianity has been Christians, there still remain more than 595 milintroduced, but has hitherto produced little effect lions of our fellow-men ignorant of the true God,
upon them.-The New Hebrides are agroup gene- and of his will as revealed in the sacred Scriprally covered with high mountains, some of which tures; which shows that a vast field of exertion
contain volcanoes.  They are situated about five still lies open to Christian benevolence, before the
or six hundred miles west of the Friendly isles, blessings of civilization, mental improvement, raand were first discovered by Quiros in 1606, when tional liberty, and Christianity, be fully commuthey were supposed to be part of a great southern nicated to the Pagan and Mahometan world.
continent which philosophers then imagined to   If we..suppose that the earth, at an average,
exist.' But Cook, in 1774, explored the whole has always been as populous as it is now, and that
group, and gave them the name of the New He- it contains 800 millions of inhabitants, as'above
brides. The cluster consists of about 17 islands, stated, and if we reckon 32 years for a generaof which Terra del'Espiritu Santo- is the largest. tion, at the end of which period the whole human
At Erromango, one of these islands, the deeply- race is renewed; it will follow, that one hundred
lamented missionary WILLIAMS was treacherously and forty-six thousand two hundred millions of
and cruelly murdered by the natives, along with human beings have existed on the earth since the
another missionary of the name of HARRIS, in present system of our globe commenced, reckon1839, when attempting to introduce Christianity ing 5846 years from Adam  to the present time.*
among them. This island will be as much dis- And consequently, if mankind had never died,
tinguished in future ages for this atrocious mur- there would have been nearly 183 times the preder as the island of Owhyhee has been for the sent number of the earth's inhabitants now in exmurder of Captain Cook. The geographical dis- istence. It follows from  this statement, that 25
covelies of this celebrated circumnavigator pre- millions of mankind die every year, 2853 every
pared the way for most of the,missionary opera- hour, and 47 every minute, and that at least an
tions which have been undertaken in the islands equal number, during these periods, are emerging
of the Pacific, and of all the laborers in this work from non-existence to the stage of life; so that
of philanthropy, none stands so conspicuous, for almost every moment a rational and immortal beunwearied beneficent exertions in this holy cause, ing is ushered into the world, and another is
and for the important and beneficial effects with transported   to the invisible state.'Whether,
which they have been accompanied as the lamented WILLIAMS. His " Narrative of Missionary
Enterprises in the South-Sea Islands," deserves to    This calculation proceeds on the supposition, that ony
terprises in tev Ser islands,"y doserv  4004 years elapsed between the creation of man and the
be read by every Christian, by every philosopher birth of Christ, according to the Hebrew Chronobgy. But
and statesman, and by every one who feels a de- Dr. Hales, in his late work on Scripture Chronology, has
light in contemplating beneficent actions and proved almost to ademonstration, that from the Creation to
romantic incidents.          - -the birth of Christ, are to be reckoned 5411 years; and this
computation nearly agrees with the Samaritan and Septua.
In regard to the human inhabitants that occupy gint Chronology, and with that of Josephus. According to
thle different regions now specified-they have this computation, 7253 years are to be reckoned from the
been divided by-some geographers into the six fol- Creation to the present time; and consequently, 220 thoulowilng classes: —l1. The dwarfish inhabitants of sand 500 millions of human beings will have existed since
lowisng classe.s:                          of the Creation, which is more than 226 times the number of
the polar regions; as the Laplanders, the Green- inhabitants presently existing.,




66'                         THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
therefore, we contemplate the world of matter, or and of the true religion among the scattered
the world of mind, we perceive incessant changes tribes of mankind.
and revolutions going on, which are gradually
carrying forward the earth and its inhabitants to
some important consuinmation.-If we suppose
that before the close of time, as many human be-   With that branch of knowledge to which I
ings will be brought into existence, as have al- have now adverted, every individual of the human
ready existed during the bypast ages of the world, race ought to be in some measure acquainted.there will, of course, be found at tne general, re- For it is unworthy of the dignity of a rational
surrection 292,400,000,000 of mankind. Vast as being, to stalk abroad on the surface of the earth,
such an assemblage would be, the whole of the and enjoy the bounty of his Creator, without conhuman beings here supposed, allowing six square sidering the nature and extent of this sublunary
feet for'every individual, could be assembled with- habitation, the variety of august objects it conin the space of about 62,400 square miles, or on a tains, the relation in which he stands to other
tract of land not much larger than  that of Eng- tribes of intelligent agents, and the wonderful
land, which contains, according to the most accu- machinery which is in constant operation for suprate calculation, above 50,000 square miles.   plying his wants, and for producing the revoluOur world is capable of sustaining a much tions of day and night, spring and autumn, sum
greater number of inhabitants than has ever yet mer and winter.-In a religious point of view.
existed upon it at any one time. And since we Geography is a science of peculiar.interest. Fo)
are informed in the Sacred oracles that God "cre- "the salvation of God," which Christianity unated it not in vain, but formed it to be inhabited,'" folds, is destined to be proclaimed in every land,
we have reason to believe. that, in future ages, in order that men of all nations and kindreds and
when the physical and moral energies of mankind tongues may participate in its blessings.  But,
shall be fully exerted, and when peace shall wave without exploring every region of the earth, and
her olive-branch over the nations, the.earth will the numerous islands which are scattered over the
be much more populous than it has ever been, and surface of the ocean, and opening up a regular inthose immense deserts, where ravenous animals tercourse with the different tribes of human beings
now roam undisturbed, will be transformed into which dwell upon its surface, we can never carry
scenes -of fertility and beauty. If it be admitted into effect the purpose of God by " making knows
that the produce of twelve acres of land is suffi- his salvation to the ends of the earth."-As God
cient to maintain a family consisting of six per- has ordained, that "all flesh shall see the salvasons, and if we reckon only one-fourth of the tion" he has accomplished, and that human besurface of the globe capable of cultivation, it can ings shall be the agents for carrying his designs
be proved that the earth could afford sustenance into effect-so we may rest assured, that he has
for 16,000 millions of inhabitants, or twenty times ordained every mean requisite for accomplishing
the number that is presently supposed to exist.- this end; and consequently, that it is his will that
So that we have no reason to fear that the world men should study the figure and magnitude of
will be overstocked with inhabitants for many the earth, and all those arts by which they may
ages to come; or that a period may soon arrive be enabled to traverse and explore the different
when the increase of population will surpass the regions of land and water, which compose the
means of subsistence, as some of the disciples' of terraqueous globe —and that it is also his will,
Malthus have lately insinuated. To suppose, as that every one who feels an interest in the presome, of these gentlemen seem  to do, that wars sent and eternal happiness of hire fellow-meln
and diseases, poverty and pestilence, are necessa- should make himself acquainted with the restlt
ry evils, in order to prevent the increase of the of all the discoveries t: ihis sciaence that have
human race beyond the means of subsistence been or may yet be made, in orditr te stimulat.
which nature can afford-while the immense re- his activity, in conveying to the wreat. hed sons a'
gions of New Holland, New Guinea, Borneo, and Adam, wherever they may be foe.nd,'5 the unthe greater part of Africa and America are almost searchable riches of Christ."
destitute of inhabitants-is both an insult on the   To the Missionary, and the Dirqe',,rs of Bibl.
dignity of human nature and a reflection on the and Missionary Societies, a minute ana compre
wisdom and beneficence of Divine Providence.-  hensive knowledge of this science, an' of all th%
The Creator is benevolent and bountiful, and facts connected with it, is essentiali. requisite.
"his tender mercies are over.all his works;" but without which they would often grope in thq
man, by his tyranny,.ambition, and selfishness, dark, and spend their money in vain, and "their
has counteracted the streams of Divine benefi- labor for that which doth not profit."  They musi
cence, and introduced into the social state poverty, be intimately acquainted with the extensive field
disorder, and misery, with all their attendant of operation which lies before them, and with the
train of evils; and it is not before such dernorali- physical, the moral, and the political state of the
zing principles be in some measure eradicated, and different tribes to which they intend to send the
the principles of Christian benevolence brought message of salvation; otherwise their exertions
into active operation, that the social state of man  will be made at random, and their schemes be
will be greatly meliorated, and the bounties of conducted without judgment or discrimination.
Heaven fully enjoyed by'the human race. If, in To attempt to direct the movements of Missionathe present deranged state'of the social and po- ry Societies, without an intimate knowledge of
litical world, it be found difficult in any particular this subject, is as foolish and absurd as it would
country to find sustenance for its inhabitants, be for a land-surveyor to lay down plans for the
emigration is the obvious and natural remedy; improvement of a gentleman's estate, before he
and the rapid emigrations which are now taking had surveyed the premises, and made himself acplace to the Cape of Good Hope, New Holland, quainted with the objects upon them, in their vaNew Zealand, Van Dieman's Land, and America, rious aspects, positions, and bearings. If all those
are doubtless a part of those arrangements of who direct and support-the operations of such so.
Providence, by which the Creator will accomplish cieties were familiarly acquainted with the differhis designs, in peopling the desolate wastes of our ent fields for missionary exertions, and with the
globe, and promoting the progress of knowledge peculiar state and character of the diversified




GEOGRAPHY.                                                  67
tribes of the heathen world, so far as they are  inevolent wishes is highly becoming, and congoknown, injudicious schemes might be frustrated  nial to  the spirit of Christianity.'But a very
before they are carried into effect, and the funds slight acquaintance  with  geographical science
of such institutions preserved from  being wasted  will teach us, that when we in this country are
to no  purpose.  In  this view, it is thle duty of  commencing religious services of the first day of
every Christian, to mark the progress andthe re- the week, our Christian  brethren  in  the East
suits  of the  various  geographical expeditions  Indies, who live under a very different meridian,
which are now going forward in quest of discove- have finished  theirs; those in  Russia, Poland,
ries, in connection with the moral and political Greece, Palestine, and on the banks of the Caspian
movements which.are presently agitating the na- sea, have performed one-half of their public retions: for every navigator who plows the ocean in  l;gious worship  and  instructions; and those in
search of new  islands and continents, and every  New Holland and Van Dieman's Land have retraveler who explores the interior of unknown  tired to rest at the close of their Sabbath.  On the
countries, should be considered as so many pio-  other hand, our friends in the West India islands,
neers, sent beforehand, by Divine Providence, to  and in America, at the close of our worship, are
prepare the way for the labors of the missionary, only about to commence the public instructions
and for the combined exertions of Christian be- of the Christian Sabbath.  If, then, it be admitted
nevolence..                     that our prayers, in certain cases, ought to be
But even to every private Christian, Geography  specifc, to have a reference to the particular cases
is an interesting branch of study, without some  and  relations of certain classes of individuals,
knowledge of which, his prayers and his Christian  there can be no valid reason assigned, why they
sympathies cannot be judiciously and extensively  should not have a reference to the geographical
directed.  We occasionally hear the ministers of  positions of the different portions of the Chrisreligion, at the commencement of public worship  tian Church, as well as to those who live on or
on the first day of the week, imploring  the Di- near our own meridian: that, for example, in the
vine blessing on their brethren throughout the  beginning of our public devotions, we might imChristian Church, who are commencing the same  plore that the blessing of God may  accompany
exercises; and at the close of worship in the af- the instructions which have been delivered in the
ternoon, that the same blessing  may  seal the  Eastern parts of the world; and that at the close
instructions which have been delivered in all the  of the worship, that the same agency may direct
churches of the saints; as if all the public reli- the exercises of those ill the Western hemisphere,
gious seivices of the  universal Church were at who are about to enter on the sacred services of
that moment drawing to a close.  This is all very  that day.  On the same principle we may per-well, so far as it goes: the: expression of such be- ceive the absurdity of those "concerts" for pray.
iing in different places at the same hour, which
* On this subject the Author feels great pleasure in refer- were lately proposed, and attempted by a certain
ring his readers to a small volume, lately published by James
Douglas, Esq., of Cavers, entitled, " Hints on Missions,"-portion of the religious world. Even within the
a work which deserves the attentive perusal, both of the limits of Europe, this could not be attempted,
philosopher, the politician, and the Christian, and particu- with the prospect of Christians joining in devolarly of the Directors of Missionary Societies; and which is tion at one aand the same time; for when it is six
characterized by a spirit of enlightened philanthropy, and  o'clock in one part of Europe, it is eight in ana conedensation of thought, which has seldom  been equaled
in the discussion of such topics. It concentrates, as it other, and five o'clock at a third place; much
were, into a focus, the light of which has been reflected  less could such a concert take place throughout
from hundreds of volumes; and the original hints it suggests  Europe, Asia, and  America.  So  that science,
claim the serious consideration of the superintendents of and a calm consideration of the nature and rela
missionary schemes; without an attention to some of which,
the beneficial effects resulting from such undertakings will tions of things, may teach us to preserve our debe few and unimportaht.-The following excellent works, votional fervor and  zeal within  the bounds of
recently published on this subject, are warmly recommended
to the serious attention of tihe reader: —l. "The Great Com- reason and propriety; and, at the same time, to
mission," by Dr. Harris, President of Cheshunt COllege, direct our reflections and our Christian sympaAuthor of " Mammon," etc.-a prize Essay on Christian'thies, to take a wider range than that to which
Missions, to which the highest prize of 200 guineas was they are usually confined.
awarded. This work has been generally characterized as    Beside the consideration now suggested, a se
"A masterly production, comprehensive in plan, elegant in
diction, happy in illustration, cogent and conclusive in rea- ous contemplation of the physical objects and
soning, powerful in appeal, and a book which every Chris- movements which  this science  exhibits, has a
tian in the world ought to read."  2. s"JIissions, their tendency to excite pious and reverential emotions.
authority, scope, and encouragement," by the Rev. Richard
W. Hamilton, Leeds, to which the second prize of the Association alluded to above was adjudged. This work has flying with rapidity through the voids of space,
likewise been characterized by properties somewhat similar conveying its vast population from  one region to
to those which have been applied to "The Great Commis- another at the rate of fifteen hundred thousand
sion," and the Author has been eulogized as a writer of
greatpower and originality.-3. "Tie J.ubilee of the FWorld," miles in a day, and whirling round its axis at the
by the Rev. J. Macfarlane, Minister of Colessie, published  same time, to produce the constant succession of
at the recommrendation of four ofthe adjudicators of the day and night,-to contemplate the lofty ridges of
Missionary Prize Essays-a volume which is justly consids that stretch around
ered as "the production of a well-disciplined mind, accustomed to think deeply and accurately on any subject to tion; the flaming volcanoes; the roaring cataracts;
which its energies might be directed — that its tone and ternm- the  numerous rivers, incessantly  rolling  their
per are decidedly evangelical, its spirit eminently catholic, watery treasures into the seas; the majestic ocean,
and its appeals stirring and appropriate." —4. "Christia   and its unfatomable caverns; the vapors rising.Missions to Heathen JNations," by the Honorable Baptist and it
WV. Noel, M. A. Though this volume is not considered from its surface, and replenishing the springs and.equal to Mr. Macfarlane's in point of close argument and rivers; the avalaliche hurling  down  the mounlogical deduction, yet it has the advantage of it as a practi-  ail's side with a noise like thunder; the luxurical treatise on missionary work, and evinces a minute acquaintance with the whole  scene of missionary labors, ant plains of the torrid zone; the  rugged  cliff
which, sit this re.spect, is considered by some as superior to  and icebergs of the polar regions; and thousands
any of the other essays. Were these works carefully perused  of other objects of diversified beauty and sublimiby the great mass of the Christian world, their spirit im-  -    an e
bibed, and their practical suggestions carried into effect, the ty                         to           e 
world would, ere long, be regenerated, and the dawn of the ceptions of the  human  mind, to increase its
Millennial era would soon make its appearance           sources of rational enjoyment, and to elevate the




68                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
affections to that.All-powerful Being who gave the discoveries which have been lately made in re.
birth to all the sublimities of -Nature, and who lation to the structure and formation of the earth,
incessantly superintends all its movements.     that the truth of the facts detailed in Sacred HisIn fine, from  the numerous moral facts which tory rests on a solid and immutable basis; and
Geography unfolds, we learn the. vast depth and that the Supreme Intelligence who arranged the
extent of that moral degradation into which the  fabric of heaven and earth, and he alone, conlmua
human race has fallen-the ferocious tempers, nicated to the inspired writers the doctrines and
and immoral practices, which are displaved in the facts they have recorded: and we have reason to beregions of Pagan idolatry-the horrid cruelties, lieve,that as Geologists proceed in their researches
and vile abominations,:that are'daily  perpetrated  and investigations, still more sensible proofs of the
under the sanction of what is termed Religion —' authenticity of Revelation will be brought to light
the wide extent of population over which the    Geology has of late become an interesting obprince of darkness sways his scepter-the diffi- ject of inquiry to the student of general science,
culties which require to be surmounted, before and is now prosecuted with ardor by many dis"' the Gospel of salvation" can extend its full in- tinguished philosophers.  The observations which
fluence throughout the Pagan world —and the vast have been made in various parts of the world by
energies which are requisite to accomplish this late navigators; the facts which have been ascerglorious event. All these portionis of information. tained by Pallas, Saussure, De Luc, Humboldt,
are calculated to confirm and illustrate the scrip- Lyell, Sedgwick, and other intelligent travelers;
tural doctrine of the universal depravity of man-  and the discoveries which have been brought to
to exercise- the faith of the Christian on the pro- light by modern chemists and mineralogists, have
mises of Jehovah, in reference to the conversion all conspired to facilitate Geological. inquiries, to
of the benighted nations —to arouse his sympa- render them  more enlightened and satisfactory,
thies toward his degraded brethren of mankind, and to prepare the way for future ages establishto excite his intercession iii their behalf, and to ing a rational, scriptural, and substantial theory
direct. his benevolence and activity, in devising of the earth. The man who engages at such inand executing schemes for enlightening the peo- quiries has always at hand a source of rational
pie who are sitting " in darkness, and iin the investigation and enjoyment.  The ground on
shadow of death."                                which he treads-the aspect of the surrounding
country-the mines, the caves, and the quarries
which he explores-every new country in which
Another subject intimately related to the for- he travels, every mountain he climbs, and every
mer, is the science of Geology.                  new surface of the earth that is laid open to his
This science has for its object, to investigate inspection, offer to him  novel and interesting
and describe the internal structure of the earth, stores of iinformation. On descending into mines,
the arrangement of the materials of which it is we are not only gratified by displays of human
composed, the circumstances peculiar to its origi- ingenuity, but we also acquire views of the strata
nal formation, the different states under which it of earth, and of the revolutions it has undergone
has existed, and the various changes which it ap- since the period of its first formation.  Our repears to have undergone since the Almighty crea- searches on the surface of the earth, amidst abrupt
ted the substance of which it is composed. From  precipices and lofty mountains, introduce us to
a consideration of the vast quantity of'materials the grandest and most sublime works of the Crecontained in the internal structure of our globe, ator, and present to our view the effects of stuand of the limited extent to which men can carry pendous forces, which have overturned mountheir operations, when they attempt to penetrate  tains, and rent the foundations of nature.  " In
into its bowels, it is obvious that our knowledge the midst of such scenes, the Geologist feels his
of this subject must be very shallow and imper- mind invigorated; the magnitude of the appearfect.  The observations, however, which have ances before him  extinguishes all the little and
been made on the structure of our globe during contracted notions he may have formed in the'the last half century, and theconclusions deduced closet; and he learns, that it is only by visiting
from  them, are highly interesting both to the and studying those stupendous works, that he can
philosopher and to the Christian. Before the facts form  an adequate conception of the great relaon which'this branch of Natural History is tions of the crust of the globe, and of its mode
founded, were accurately ascertained, various ob- of formation." *
jections to the Mosaic history of the creation    At first sight, the solid mass of the earth appears
were started by certain skeptical philosophers, to be a confused assemblage of rocky masses,
founded on partial and erroneous views of the piled on each other without regularity or order,
real structure and economy of the earth; but it is where none of those admirable displays of skill
now found, that the more accurately and minute- and contrivance are to be observed, which so
ly the system of nature is explored, the more dis- powerfully excite attention in the structure of
tinctly do we perceive the harmony that subsists animals and vegetables. But on a nearer and
between the records of Revelation and the opera- more intimate view, a variety of beautiful artions of the Creator i'n the material world. If rangemelts has been traced by the industry of'both be admitted as the effects of the agency of Geologists, and the light of modern discoveries:
the same Almighty and Eterlal Being, they must, by which they have been enabled to classify these
in the nature of things, completely harmonize, apparent irregularities of nature. The rocks of
and can never be repugnant to each other-  which the crust of the earth is chiefly composed,
whether we be capable in every instance of per- occur in beds or layers, each of which is distinceiving their complete coincidence or not.  If guished byits peculiar characteristic. 1. The first
any facts could be produced in the visible creation class is what has been denominated PRIMARY
which directly contradict the records of the Bible, RocKs.  These constitute the great frame-work,
it would form  a proof, that the oracles which we or primitive envelope of the globe. They form
hold as Divine were not dictated by the Creator the most lofty mountains, and at the same time
and Governor of the Universe. But although extend downward below all the other formations
some garbled facts have been triumphantly exaibited in this view; it is now ascertained, from     * Edinburgh EncyclopEdia, Art. XJineralogy




GEOLOGY.                                                69
to the greatest depths yet penetrated by man, and  three principal rocks of this class, granite, gneiss,
constitute everywhere the foundation on which  and mica slate, might with propriety be regarded as
tile other rocks are supported.  It is, therefore, belonging to one formation.  They are composed
supposed that they were the earliest formed, in  essentially of the same minerals, varying in differthe progress of creation; and are hence denomi-  ent proportions, and are rather modes of the same
nated prislitive or primary rocks.  One of the  rock than different species.  They pass by graprincipal rocks of this class is granite, which is  dations  into  each other, as  one  or other of
compounded of qna.rtz, feldspar, and mica.  Gneiss,  their constituent minerals becomes more or less
or slaty granite, is considered as another species; abundant; they alternate with each other in vaand mica slate a third species of the primitive rocks. rious situations, and may be regarded as couternThere are somie other primary rocks which occur  poraneous.-Granite is considered as the founldaimbedded in, and interstratified with the principal tion rock, on which slate and all secondary rocks
primitive rocks. ThIey ar calledsubordinate rockls, are laid.  When granite rises above the surface,
and are named as follows:-Hornblende rock, Ser-  thi beds of other rocks in the same district rije
penti-ne, Grystalline Limestone, Quartz rock.  The  toward it, and lie against it, as in fig. 15; but there
Fig. 15.                            are instances in which they appear to pitch
under the granite, as in the next figure.
fT, ii~flhffli'i               The aspect of granite mountains is ex~f~ll~Ih  i j 1/ij I~I i|t 111 h i ltremely various.  Whsen the beds are horizontal, or when the rock is soft and disinteI   |,! 0  1:   grating, the surmnmits are rounded and un>i' ~i?l (f "'""  "''4:'   picturesque.  (See fig, 16.)  When  hard
~/~X*'c~;Bllrli;i'iiill'/'iji  K ]}"'[1"           and soft granite occur in the same mass,'H'.. L!b. I"!!i~?                the soft decomposes, and leaves the hard in
large, loose inasses upon the soil, or if they
Fig. 16.                           lie in alternate and highly inclined beds,
I... f       r~              the hard granite forms high anld almost inaccessible peaks, as seen in fig. 17.
i I l      1   l   i}, fThe structure of primary rocks is crys|| |I I  jl  l I!| ltalline-(see fig. 17), they form the central
p~             p l    i 11  arts of the most elevated Inountain-chains
1~i          ii.@liri fi5 i                      D-they never contain the, fragments of other
\'~;~x"    " *:"!i:' il"I           ~     z          ~-~   rocks —andthey are particularly distinguish\.....,\~......~....  _-..,       ed from all other formations in this,-that
stassces.  dhere also appears cosclusive evFig. 17.                            idence, that materials composing granite,
of which this class of rocks chiefly consists,
were osIce ins a state of fusion.
d2.-The class of rocks nlext ill order to the
fllly                   yflllIIi iliii              primitive are what are termed TRANSITION
b l     I[i YmIIi  ihs            mledlcl  I   Et1  Rocsis,-Owhich are next and  alcove  thee
pritmitive  on which they rest.  This formaii tiiiheir o pi)v  I ction is colnposed of the larger fragments of
all the primitive  rocks consolidated   into
-the {liiiiiii~ii;;3t-bol  ofa earthly~llie,-1    costisinous masses. It is supposed  that: tllli~tiiijlijjii~ii~   iii ltheese rocks were formed, when the primary rocks were thrown up from  the bed of
the primeval ocean, when the disruptions cuused  longed to primitive rocks.  Geologists now divide
by such powervful and mighty movements, reduced  these roc ks into upper secondary and lower seconthe higher  partsof the primitive to fragments. dary.  The principal secondary formations are:
~hese shattered fiiagments becoming agglutinated  (1.)-The coal formation, in the lower secondary
by their own pulverent cement, recomposed con-  series, and the rock-salt or saliferous fornmation in
tinuous  strata whiclh fors   the rocks to which we the uppersecondary.  The strata of the coal forallude.  In this class of rocks we first behold the marion are numerous, extensive, and parallel; but
rudiments of vitality  the  dawn of organization  they are often beset, undulating;  curved, broklen,
— the first-born of earthly creatures, whose ex- and contorted in va-rious ways.  The strata conisteeice is recorded in  imperishable clharacters. nected with the coal bear evidences, in some inThese  consist of organized beings of the lowest stances, of having been rapidlydeposited, as in the
orders, such as sea-shells of various descriptions, cases where we find the vertical stems of plants
whlich are here found imbedded, and which afford  standing in their natural position, in many coal
a decisive evidence that such rocks were formed  mines, and the rocks deposited around them  in
after the creation of organized beinigs-the rocks horizontael or slightly inclined strata.  The stems
belonging to this class are T'ransition or mountain  of arborescent plants, two or three feet in diamelimestone-Graywacke, and  graywacke  slate-   ter, are thus found piercinug through the strata
Slate and its varieties.  Roof-slate, and the slate of  many feet.  In such a case, tihe sand mud must
which school slates are made, are well known va- have been deposited within a comparatively short
rieties of this rock.  It is sometimes called clay- time around them, otherwise in a climate such as
slate, argillaceous slate, and argillaceous schistus. that in which these plants grew, they would leave
Transition rocks are the principal repositories of  decayed and left no indications of their existence.
metallic ores,which  occur both in beds and veins -Coal occurs in regular strata which vary inll
more abundantly in many of the rocks of this thickness from  a few  inches to several feet or
class thani in primary rocks.                         yards.  In the same coal formations many strata
3. Ti'e next class is the SEcoXDARY  RocKS, of coal occur under each other separated by a
wlhich  lie upon the transition rocks, and appear stratum of shale, sandstone, etc.  The series of
lilke deposits composed of grains which once be- strata which occur together is called a coal field




70                           TIIE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
Coal fields are of limited extent, and the strata bonaceous and  mineral matter. The different
often dip to a common center, being often ar- strata over and under the beds of coal are freranged in basin-shaped cavities, which appear to quently similar, and the same series of strata is
have been originally detached lakes that were repeated for each successive stratum or coal, as
gradually filled up by repeated depositions of car- shown ill fig. 18. Coals are generally supposed
Fig. 18.
Sandstone..........: 
Slate.        -..........
Coal.. 
Slate.................'Sandstone.........
Slate............_.........
Slate.....................
Sandstone..:......
to have -had a vegetable origin; and, when we    4. The next division is the TERTIARY, which is
consider the abundance of vegetable remains usa- considered   as having  been deposited after the
ally foupd in cohlection with-coal, and the vege- Secondary.  The strata comprehended under this
table -structure which the coal itself sometimes class consist of beds of clay, marl, sand, puddingexhibits, we can hardly doubt as to its origin. At stones, and imperfectly consolidated limestone,
most coal mines, even the thinnest layers of slate, which appear to have been deposited since the
when split off, show the impressions of the leaves chalk formation. The tertiary deposits contain
and flat stems of the various grasses, reeds, and  no beds of minerals or metallic veins, capable of
ferns, in all their most delicate parts.  The im- exploration, except lignite and jet, which are used
pressions between the layers of slate sometimes for fuel and ornament,-clay for pottery, sand for
give as perfect a representation of the plant, as if  the manufacture of glass, pyrites for the manuthe plant had been pressed and dried in a book, facture of copperas and alum, and a valuable iron
and the leaves then opened to display it.         ore called hydrate of iron. This formation, how(2.) The upper secondary rocks comprise all the ever, abounds with a vast quantity of vegetable,
different formations above the great coal forma- and animal remains, such as crocodiles, crabs, lobtions, to the upper limit of the chalk series. These sters, several species of vertebral fish, and a vast
rocks are divided into the three following, forma- number of testaceous exuviae; so well preserved
tions.  1. Chalk, or cretaceous rocks, including as to have the appearance of recent shells. The
the ferruginous and green sand. 2. Oolitic Rocks, most remarkable discovery that has been made relias limestone, and lias clay.  3. Red Sandstone, specting the Tertiary deposits is, that many of
including magnesian limestone.-The red sand- them  contain the bones of mammiferous annials
stone formation is -characterized by the first ap- (that is those which suckle their young) as perpearance of the remains of the Saurian, or lizard- fect in their organization as any of the exisilg
shaped' animsals. The remains of a number of species of land animals; but most of them belong
species have been found, differing in their appear- to genera or species that are extinct. These strata
ance from  the crocodile and alligator, some of are further remarkable for presenting the frequent
which must have been from  60 to 120 feet in alternation of beds containing the remains of malength.  These animals appear to have lived in  rine animals, with other beds that contain the
salt water, unlike any of this' class with which  bones of land animals or fresh water shells. The,
we are acquainted at the present day, all of which  city of Paris, in France, and the country around,
belong either to the land or to fresh water. They  which are situated upon a tertiary deposit, which
had neither feet nor finss,- hut paddles like the sea rests upon chalk-are remarkable for the extraorturtle, and their tails were long, of the form of an  dinary organic remains which they contain. Miloar, and fitted to- propel them through the most lions of marine shells compose the principal mass.
agitated waters. The Oolitic rocks are composed  Bones of marine animals, of which the genera are
of various strata of limestone, clay, sand, and  entirely unknown, are found in certain parts.
sandstone. Oolite derives its name from the small Other bones, remarkable for their vast size, and
globules that are imbedded' in this species of rock  of which some of similar genera exist only in dis-some of the masses of which appear composed  tant countries, are found scattered in the upper
of little rounded globules like tie roes of fish. beds. Not only the remains of sea animals and
These rocks are remarkable'for the great variety  land quadrupeds, but also-those of birds, are found
of organic remains they contain.  The' animal in this deposit, such as the duck, the pelican, the
remains are those belonging to the land, and to woodcock, the starling, and the skylark.  The
fresh water.  The teeth and bones of fish and famous locality of fossil fish at Monte Bolca, in
reptiles are abundant.  The reptiles are mostly  Italy, is ill tertiary strata. About 105 species
saurian animals and turtles.  Ainong these are have been found in those quarries, and many of
the Megalo saurus, the Plesio saurus, and the Igu- them are different from any species krtowrn to exanodon, some of which must have been at least ist in the neighboring seas, or even in any part of
70 feet in length, and of the hight of an elephant. the earth.
There are also vegetable fossils inr these rocks,-   5. The next distinction of formations made by
consisting of arborescent forms, trunks of palms, Geologists is DILuvIAL and Alluvial deposits-the
gigantic reeds, and similar vegetable productions, former being generally considered as having been
which'are now to be found growing only in the formed by tho last general deluge, and the latter
Torrid Zone.                                     by currents of rivers and other causes now' in




GEOLOGY.                                            71
operation.  The blocks of rock and the beds of neath, or cutting out a passage on one side of the
gravel spread or scattered on the surface of the lava. —TRAP rocks are related to volcanic, and are
ground, composed of stone or fragments foreign mostly composed of hornblende and feldspar. The
to the district in which they are spread, andwhich  term trap is derived from the German word trappa,
frequently cover the bolnes of unknown species a stair, as many of these rocks occur in a terrace
of quadrupeds — are called Diluvial depositions, form, or like the steps of a stair-a configuration
that is, depositions which have been caused by a which- is supposed to be owing to the stopping of
deluge.The materials of these deposits are -usu- large sheets of lava when flowing, whether at the
ally coarse, and composed of gravel, pebbles, and  bottom of the sea or on dry land; for it is known
blocks of a great variety of rocks aggregated with- that streams of lava- generally terminate in about any regularity.  The sand, soil, or fragments rupt precipices, similar to the beds constituting
brought down by rivers, and spread along their the trap ranges.  These rocks are distinguished,
banks or at their mouths, aie called alluvial depo- even at a distance, from  those of the stratified
sitions. The bones and skeletons of large ani- formations, as they occur in shapeless masses, and
mals, aNd especially the Mammoth, are found in form hilly tracts of great irregularity of surface,
diluvial gravel in many countries.  In Siberia, or in the form of walls or dykes penetrating other
the tusks of the fossil elephant are found in the rocks, which they alter in character to a certain
diluvial banks of almost every river, and some- degree at this point of contact.
times in such abundance that the ivory from these   Basalt is of' a black or bluish-gray color.  It is
skeletons is an article of export.  It is said that commonly fine-grained, and consists of an intithe skeleton of a whale lies on the top of moun- mate admixture of feldspar and augite, a variety
tains 3000 feet high on the coast of the Northern  of hornblende, with some oxyd of iron.  Many
ocean, which could scarcely have been conveyed of the Western Islands of Scotland are wholly or
to such an elevation but by an immense over- almost composed of basalt. The island of Staffa
whelming deluge.                                 is a complete mass of basalt.  It is about two
ALLUVIAL deposits are the most superficial of miles in circumrnference, and is surrounded on
all the formations; they are forming every day; every side by steep cliffs, 70 feet high, formed of
they envelop the remains of animals that still ex- clusters of angular columns, containing from  5
ist on the surfaces they have formed, and they are to 7 sides each. Fingal's cave is in the S. E. coralso mingled with the remains of animals which ner of the island, and presents a magnificent
have existed in recent times. The alluvial beds, chasm, 42 feet wide, and 227 in length.  The
taken as masses, are all of loose earth, and are roof, which is 100 feet high at the entrance, granever covered by rocky masses; and in these dually diminishes to 50, and is composed of the
beds chiefly are to be found the remains of human projecting extremities of basaltic pillars, and the
beings and the monuments of their industry and base of a causeway of the same materials.-The
art.  There is a constant tendency in torrents, Giant's Causeway, in the county of.Antrirn, in
currents, rivers, tides, winds, and similar causes, Ireland, is another striking specimen of basaltic
to wear down the inequalities of the land and de- columns.  It consists of hundreds of thousands
posit the materials in the sea. In this way deltas of pentagonal and hexagonal columns (that is,
have been formed, such as the deltas of the Nile, columns of 5 and 6 sides) varying from 1 to 5
the Ganges, the Mississippi, the Danube, and the feet in thickness, and from 20 to 200 feet in hight.
Rhone.  The mouths of the Mississippi are now  The district in which this remarkable formration
more than 100 miles from  its original entrance  occurs lies on both sides of the river Bann, and
into the gulf of Mexico, and for hundreds of comprehends an area of 800  square  miles.miles above most of the land seen from its banks Throughout this area, the basalt is found occupyis alluvial; so that all the mass of land alluded to ing all the eminences, and constituting an overhas been formed by materials carried down by the lying bed of igneous rocks, at least 500 feet in
rapid current of this mighty river.  The delta of thickness. The greatest mass of basalt yet known
the Ganges commences 220 miles in a direct line occurs in the province of Deccan in India, where
from  the ocean; and the town of Adria, which  it constitutes the surface over an area of many
was once a port on the Adriatic, is now 20 miles thousand square miles.
inland; all which vast accumulations are con-   Having given the above brief sketches of the
sidered as the effects of Alluvial depositions.  different orders of stratification, I shall conclude
6. There is likewise a species of Rocks distill- this department of the subject, by a few general
guished by Geologists by the title of VOLCANIC statements respecting the organic remains imnlbedand BASALTIC rocks; which owe their origin to ded in the several formations to which we have
volcanic fire, and are sometimes forced up to the adverted.
surface of the earth by the action of subterranean    1. Organic remains are not found promiscuousheat.  The principal volcanic rocks are basalt, ly scattered through the rocks, but each formalava, and greenstone.  Volcanic rocks occur in tionl has its peculiar group of animals and plants;
shapeless mlasses, and are destitute of organic re- and o0l comparing together the larger groups of
mains.  Ili some parts of Euriope, as in Iceland, strata, we find scarcely ally organic remains com
Sicily, and the. country aroun lid Naples, active vol- meon to any two of them. These fossil animal
canoes still exist, which frequently emit vast and plants are found together in' groups, very
quantities of lava, ashes, and other species of mat- much as living plants and animals are-different
ter  But even in places where no active volca- groups occupying different portions of the surface
noes exist, as in Auvergne, Velay, and Vivavais, in of the earth and of the ocean.  Hence it is conFrance, several hunldreds of conical hills are cluded, that these remains were once living plants
found, with craters near their surhmits.  These and animals, which, in different periods, occupied
hills are composed of materials similar to those the ocean and tile dry land, grouped together as
of active volcanoes, and streams of lava may  we now find them, and that, as they died, they besometimes be traced -proceeding from  the cones came enveloped in rock, near the places where
into the adjoining valleys, where they choke up they passed their existence.
the ancient channels of rivers, in the same man-   2. Some of the formations and deposits to which
ner as some of the modern lavas in Iceland have we have alluded, particularly the Mountain limebeen known to do, the rivers either flowing be- stone, consist almost entirely of the shells and co



72                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER:
ralline productions of sea animals, and this for- (some of them of 1000 cubic yards) at the l!ight
mation is often a thousand or imore feet in thick- of more than 2000 feet above the lake of Geneva.
ness, and many miles in lengthi and breadth. In These blocks are foreign to the rocks among which
what are termed the Silurian formations is found  they:lie, and have evidently come from the oppoa long succession of strata many thousand feet in site chain of the Alps; but the land which conthickness, and imbedding not fewer than 375 spe- stituted the inclined plane over which they were
cies' belonging to the aniimal. kingdom.          rolled o,r transported has been worn away, and the
3. It is considered as an established, fact, that valley of Lower Switzerland, with its lakes, now
of more than 3000 species of- plants and animals occupies its place. Transported masses of prirnithat are found'in a fossil state in the secondary tive rocks of the same description are found scatrocks, not a single species corresponds with any  tered over the north of Germany, which Von
now living on the globe; and even out'of: 3000 Buch ascertained, by their characters, to' belong to
fossil species in the Tertiary formation less than the mountains of Scandinavia; and wliich there600 are identical: with livinig species. In short, fore carry us back to a period when an elevated
in all the different formatibns, until we come to cointinent, occupying the basin of the Baltic, conthe uppermost and the newest, the thousand spe- nected Saxony and Norway."'
cies they contain are all differelnt from any in the    The production of a bed for vegetation is effecnow existing creation, though possessing family  ted by the decomposition of rocks. This decomanalogies.                                       position is effected by the expansion of water in
4. It is a remarkable fact,that notwithstanding  pores or the fissures of rocks, by heat or congelathe great variety of fossils observed in the early  tion, by the solvent power of moisture, and by
formations, the remains of Mlean are not to be electricity, which is known to be a powerful
found in these formations.  The, remains of hu- agent of decomposition.  As soon as the rock beman beings and the vestiges of the arts and ope- gins to be softened, the seeds of lichens, which
rations of'man are discovered only iln or upon are constantly floating in the air, make it their
those earthly masses which-are demonstrably pos- resting-place.  Their generations occupy it until
terior to all regular geological deposits-or, the a finely divided earth is formed, which becomes
Diluvial and A-lluvial formations-and under cir- capable of supporting mosses and heath; acted
curnstances indicating the human species to have upon by light and heat, these plants imbibe the
been among the recent productions of the Crea- dew and convert constituent parts of the air into
tor's power, and that man-was created at a period nourishment.  Their death and decay afford food
posterior to those great'changes and convulsions for a more perfect species of vegetable; and at
which destroyed so many millions of millions of length a mold is formed, in which even the trees
animated beings. Had this not been the case, it of the forest can fix their roots, and which is cais almost certain that numerous remains of the pable of rewarding the labors of the cultivator.human species would have been found in the early The decomposition of rock tends to the renovation
formations.                                       of soils, as well as their cultivation.  Finely di"The phenomena of Geology show  that the vided matter is carried by rivers from  the higher
original formation of the rocks has been accom- districts to the low countries, and alluvial lands
panied, in nearly all its stages, by a process of are usually extremely fertile.  By these opera.
waste, decay, and recomposition.  The rocks, as tions the quantity of habitable surface is conthey were successively deposited, were acted upon stantly increased; precipitous cliffs are gradually
by air and water, heat, etc., broken'into frag- made gentle slopes, lakes are filled up, and islands
melnts or worn down into grains out of which are formed at the rLouths of great rivers; so that,
new  strata were formed.  Even the newer se- as the world grows older, its capacity for containcondary rocks, since their consolidation, have ing an increased number of iihabitants is gradubeen subject to great changes, of which very dis- ally enlarging.
tinct monuments remain. Thus, We have single    Of all the memorials ofthe past history of our
mountains, which from  their structure can be globe, the most interesting are those myriads of
considered only as remnants of great formations, remains of organized bodies which exist in the
or of great continents no longer in existence. — interior of its outer crusts.  In these, we find
Mount Meisner, in Hesse,; six miles long, and three traces of innumerable orders of beings existing
broad, rises about 1800 feet above its base, and under different circumstances, succeeding one an2100 above the sea, overtopping all the neighbor- other at distant epochs, and varying through muling hills for 40 or 50 miles round. The lowest tiplied changes of form. "If we examine the
part of' the mountain consists of the same shell, secondary rocks, beginning with the most ancient,
limestone, and sandstone, which exist in the adja- the first organic remains which present themselves
cent country.  Above these are, first, a bed of are those of aquatic plants and large reeds, but
sand, then a-bed of fossil-wood 100 feet thick at of species different from ours. To these succeed
some points, and the whole is covered by amass madrepores, encrenites, and other aquatic zooof basalt, 500 feet in hight. On considering these phites, living beings of the simplest forms, which
facts it is impossible to, avoid concluding, that this remainl attached to one spot, and partake, in some
mountain which now  overtops the neighboring -degree, of the nature of vegetables.  Posterior to
country, occupied at one time the bottom  of a these are ammonites, and other mollusci, still very
cavity in the midst of the higher lands.  The simple in their forms, and entirely different from
vast mass of fossil wood could not' all have grown any animals now known. After these, some fishes
there, but must have been transported by water appear; and plants, consisting of bamboos and
from a more' elevated surface, and lodged in what ferns, increase, but still different from those which
was then a holloW.:  The basalt which; covers the exist. In the next period, along with an increaswood mnast also have flowed in a current from a ing numbo r- of extinct species of shells and fishes,
higher site;- but the soil over which the basalt and we meet wo'.h amphibious and viviparous quadruthe wood passed has been swept away, leaving this peds, such as crocodiles -and tortoises, and some
mountain as a solitary memorial to attest -its ex- reptiles, as serpents, which show  that dry land
istence. Thus also on the side of Mount Jura
next the Alps, where no other mountain inter-   *Supplement to the Encyclopadia. Britannica, 6th edit
poses, there are found vast blocks of granite vol. vi.




GEOLOGY.                                            73
now existed. As we approach the newest of the this animal are frequently to be met with; but, in
solid rock formation, we find lamantins, phome, a late instance, the whole animal was found preand other cetaceous and mammiferous sea ani- served in ice. This animal was discovered on the
mals, with some birds., And in the newest of banks of the frozen ocean, near the mouth of the
these formations, we find the remains of herbife- river Jena, in 1799; and in 1805; Mr. Adams got
rous land animals of extinct species, the paleothe- it conveyed over a space of 7000 miles to Petersriumn, anaplotherium, etc., and of birds, with some burg, where it is deposited in the museum.  The
fresh water shells. In the lowest beds of loose flesh, skin, and hair, were completely preserved,
soil, and in peat bogs, are found the remains of and even the eyes were entire. It was provided
the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elk, etc., with a long mane, and the body was' covered with
of different species from  those which now exist, hair. This hair was of different qualities. There
but belonging to the same genera.  Lastly, the were stiff black bristles from  twelve, to fifteen
bones of the species which are apparently the inches long, and these belonged to the tail, mane,
same with those now existing alive, are never and ears. Other bristles were from  nine to ten
found except in the very latest alluvial deposi- inches long, and of a brown color; and beside
tions, or those which are either formed in the these, there was a coarse wool, from  four to five
sides of rivers, the bottom- of ancient lakes and inches long, of a pale yellow color. This maminarshes now dried up, in peat beds, in the fis- moth was a male; it measured nine feet four
sures and caverns of certain rocks, or at small inches in hight, and was sixteen feet four inches
depths below the present surface, in places where long, without including the tusks.  The tusks,
they may have been overwhelmed by debris,, or measuring along the curve, are nine feet'six
even buried by man. Human bones are never inches; and the two together weigh 360 lbs. avoirfound except among those of animal species now  dupois.  The head alone, without the tusks,
living, and in situations which show that they  weighs 414 lbs. avoirdupois.  The remains of this
have been, comparatively speaking, recently depo- animal have been found likewise in Iceland, Norsited."*                                         way, Scotland, England, and in  many places
Numerous species,ff animals have been found  through the continent onward to the Arctic ocean.
imbedded in the secondary strata-no living ex-   2. The Megatherium. A complete skeleton of
amples of which are now  to be found in any  this colossal species was found in diluvial soil
quarter of the globe. Among the most remarka- near Buenos Ayres, and sent to Madrid.  The
ble of these are the following: —1. The 111am mot, specimen is fourteen feet long, and seven Spanish
which'bears a certain resemblance to the ele-feet in hight.
phant, but is much larger, and differs consider-   3. The Great M1astodon of the Ohio, of which
ably in the size and form of the tusks, jaws, and the following figure is a representation. This spegrinders.  The fossil remains of this animal are cies appears to have been as tall as the elephant,
more abundant in Siberia than in other countries; but with longer and thicker limbs.  It had tusks.
there being scardely a spot, from the river Don to like the elephant, and appears to have lived on
Kamntschatka, in which they have not been found. roots. Its remains abound in America, particuNot only single bones and perfect skeletons of larly on the banks of the Ohio.
Fig. 19.
4. The Tapir, which also abounds ill America. deduced by modern  geologists-even by those
The one named G igantic Tapir, is about eighteen  who acknowledge the divinity of the Christian
feet long, and twelve feet high.                 Revelation, is, that the materials qf which our globe
5. The Irish Elk, or Elk of the Isle of Man. is composed are of very high antiquity, and were
This gigantic species, now  apparently extinct, brought into existence long before the race of
occurs in a fossil state, in Ireland, Isle of Mal, Adam  was placed upon the earth. The exact
England, Ge'rmany, and France. The most per- period of years which any of these materials may
feet specimen of this species, which was found in have -existed, or any approximation to it, no geothe' Isle of Man, may be seen in the museum of logist has yet undertaken to determine, nor is it
the University' of Edinburgh.  It is six feet high, likely that the problem will ever be satisfactorily
nine feet long, and in hight, to the tip of the right solved. In reference to some of the coal strata,
horn, nine feet seven and a half inches.t         Mr. Macculloch, in his "System  of Geology,"
Such are a few of the facts which the researches states that it would be even too short a period
of modern Geology have disclosed. Let us now  "were we to allow 200,000 years for the producconsider what are the conclusions which have tion of the coal mines of Newcastle with all its
oeen deduced from them.                          rocky strata," not including the subsequent forOne of the grand conclusions which has been mations up to the present condition of the eartlh.
__________________________________________    Mr. Maclaren, in his "Geology of Fife and the
Lothians," estimates a single period of volcanic
Sup. to Encyc. Brit., vol. vi.
t An Engraving of this skeleton may be seen in Vol. quiescence, during which strata of coal, sliale,
Sixth of Sup. to Encyc. Brit., 6th edit.          salidstone, and limestone, were deposited over tho




,74                          THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
side of Arthur's Seat, a basaltic hill in the vici- riads of brings were brought into existence, under
nil y of Edinburgh-at five hundred thousand- the direction of Infinite Wisdom, endowed with
years.  Mr. Babbage, when referring to the ter- faculties and natures adapted to those peculiar
tiary class of formations, regards it' as a truth, states of- the terraqueous globe in which they
supported by irresistible evidence, "that the for- were to pass their existence.
mation even of those strata which are nearest the
surface, must-have occupied vast periods, probably
millions of years.",*  Thle Rev. Professor'Sedgwick, when adverting to the process of forming    Such are a few of the facts connected withl the
deposits, says, that "a section of a few perpendi- constitution of our globe, -and the conclusions
cular feet indicates a very long lapse of time," so which have been deduced from  them.  It now
that in such processes " many thousands of years remains that we inquire into' their accordance
sink into a trifling period."  IIn short, the most with the records of the Sacred history.
respectable modern geologists, when alluding to   It has been too frequently taken for granted by
this point, use such expressions'as the following-  theologians and commentators, that the whole
"immense periods of time" —"a duration to system of the material universe was brought into
which we dare not assign a boundary"-" unde- existence' within the period of 6000 years from
fined ages'-"-"'a long succession of monuments, the present time; and hence, some of them who
for the production of each of whicl there may have been anxious to reconcile the Mosaic and
have been required a thousand ages "-"  succes- Geological chronologies, have attempted to show
siolls of events, where the langpage of nature that all the formations and changes in the strata
signifies millions of years"-" aduration'which  of the earth, to which we have alluded, might
it-would be presumptuous to put into an estimate have been effected within the period of 6000
of years and centuries"-with many other ex- years, and particularly during the continuance of
pressions of a similar import.'Whether such the deluge in the days of Noah. Some of them
strong and unlimited expressions be warranted by have insinuated that the coralline reefs, which
the nature of the processes,alluded to, I do not exhibit vast accumulations of calcareous matter,
take upon me to determine.                       and which abound on the coast of New Holland,
2. Another conclusion which has been deduced and among the islands of the Pacific ocean, have
from  the above Stated facts, is, that during the been all formed since the present order of things
changes which the globe has undergone, since-its commenced; and therefore that all the other fororiginal production out of nothing, several de- mations to which we have already alluded, even
structions and subsequent new creations of animals the oldest, may have been formed within the
and plants have taken place, perhaps at very dif- same period.  It has also been insinuated, that it
ferent and very distant epochs.  The greater part appears derogatory to the Wisdom and Power of
of geologists conclude, that four or five distinct the Creator to suppose, that for thousands of years
epochs of destruction and renewal may be traced the earth should have been occupied merely with
in the organic remains contained. in the different vegetables and animals of the lowest orders, and
strata; in other words, that whole groups have that many species of each class were alternately
been swept at once from existence by some pow- created, and permitted to retire out of existence.
erful catastrophe, and their places supplied by    But such positions are now considered as absoother races, called into- existence by the creating lutely untenable by all the most scientific and
energy of the Almighty. The records of geology respectable geologists of modern times, as being,
seem to testify that such was the condition of the inconsistent withb facts that are everywhere perglobe, in those early periods, as to temperature  ceptible in the strata of our globe. As to the
*and other circunmstances, that our present races designs which the Almighty had in view, in reof animals could not have then existed, and that plenishing the earth for so long a period of time,
such was the nature and constitution of these chiefly with the inferior ranks of existence, and
primeval beings, that they could not exist in the again permitting tlhem to perish, it becomes us to
present constitution and circumstances of our speak with reverence and humility, as beings
globe; their natures being adapted to the different whose faculties are limited, and altogether inadeconditions of the earth,' at different periods of its quate to trace the inscrutable paths of the Diviexistence.                                       nity, or to investigate the reasons of every part
3. A  third conclusion is, that the successive of his procedure.  We cannot, in many cases,
change3 to Which obur globe- has been subjected, have decide as to what is consistent or inconsistent
been improvenisents in its condition as a habitable with the attributes of the Almighty; and, in the
uorld, that there has been a correspondent ad- present case, as well as in many others, we must
vance. toward perfection in the natures of' the. admit that the operations of the Deity are unanimrils and plants which have been placed upon searchable, and "his ways past finding  out."
its sisrftac; acond that the Deity, du ring this long "Canst thou by searching find out the secrets of
period of successive changes, swas gradually fitting  God?  Canst thou find out the designs of the
aq, this w9rldl for the ultimate residence of mloral and Almighty? they are as high as the heavens,
ilnte!. ecltal' beinrgs,.sluch as the human species that deeper than hades; the measure thereof is longer
niow inhabit it. For it appears next to certain than' the earth and broader, than the sea."  But
that the race of man cotlld, not have inilabited  this we know that, in consequence of the previous
this globe in ainy of the past periods of its revolutions,which our globe has undergone, it
durationi, prior to that era il which he was placed was prepared for being a suitable habitation for
upon it.  It would appear that: the Deity did not the human species, and for the other ranks of
think. proper to prepare a suitable habitation for animated nature that now possess it; and although
man by a miracle, or a direct interposition of his some portions of it present the appearance of deAlmighty energy, but by the.agency of those phy- solation and disarrangement, yet were man  its
rical laws which he had impressed upon the ele- | chief inhabitant, renovated in the spirit of his
mentary principles of the material universe. And mind, and found acting'on the moral principles
In order that matter might not exist in vain, my- of Christianity, in the capacity of communities
and nations, it might soon be cultivated and reno* Babbage's Ninth Bridgewater Treatise.   vated throughlut all its extent, so as to present




GEOLOGY.                                            75
the aspect of a terrestrial paradise, and to shine dently implies that, at what period soever in the
forth with all the beauties of Eden.             long lapse of past duration, any part of the mateB-t, to come more particularly to the subject rial creation was brought inlto existence, it derived
in hand.  Had Moses,- in his history of the Crea- that existence from  the Self-existent and Eternal
tion, positively declared that every portion of the Divinity. But no specific period is here stated.
nmaterial world was created out of nothing, within Had Moses expressly told his readers that this pe1650 years of the period of the deluge, or about riod, when the first materials of creation were
6000 years ago, it would be difficult, if not impos- brought into existence, was about 2500 years from
sible, to reconcile the facts of geology with the the time in which he wrote, then there would
Mosaic history.  But no such position is to be have been an almost insuperable difficulty in refound either in the writings of Moses or through- conciling the discoveries of geology with such a
out any other portion of sacred Scripture.  For statement. But no such assertion, either directly
the illustration of this point, it may be proper for or by implication, is to be found throughout the
a little to consider the meaning and import of whole range of Divine revelation. Ten thousands
the 1st verse of the first chapter of Genesis: "In  of years, or even millions of ages, may have
the beginning God created the heavens and the elapsed since the first portions of matter were
earth."                                          created, or previous to what is termed the first
This proposition is to be considered as a Preface day's work, in the arrangements of our globe,to the following narrative of the arrangements for anything that the Scripture asserts to the conconnected with our terrestrial system, and, indeed, trary.  No limit is fixed to the time which may
to the whole of Divine Revelation; and a more have elapsed between the period when the compocomprehensive, emphatic, and appropriate intro- nent materials of our globe were created, and the
duction can scarcely be conceived.  By the hea- period when it began to be reduced into the order
vens and the earth, we are here undoubtedly to un- in which we now behold it; and no information
derstand the whole frame of the material universe, is given as to the events which may have occurred
with all the bodies it contains, wherever existing during this interval.  For it appears to have been
throughout immensity-whether suns, planets, the chief design of the Sacred Historian to give a
comets, niebulae, or whatever else exists through- narration of those events which were introductory
out the regions of boundless space. All the bodies to the placing of man upon the earth. And in
comprehended under this general expression are this point of view it is important to remark, that
here said to have been created, that is, brought the passage before us is entirely independent of
from  nothing into existence by the energy of an the narrative of the six days' work which follows,
Eternal and Omnipotent agent.  The original and is to be considered simply as a general and
Hebrew  word,' Bara, does not indeed  neces- most important truth, forming an appropriate insarily convey this idea, as it most frequently sig- troduction both to the following narrative and to
nifies " to produce something new or wonderful,"  the whole system of Revelation.
or "to arrange, to renovate, or new-model" some-   It is therefore to be regretted that certain theothing which was previously in existence.  It is a logians should still persist in maintaining that the
matter of rational inference, however, and strictly whole material creation must be limited to a peaccordlant with just philosophical principles, that riod within 6000 years from this date, when Scripthe material universe was created out of nothing. ture is silent on this point; for in so doing they
It is such an inference as cannot be resisted with- put an argument into the hands of the philosophiout doing violence to the fundamental laws of cal infidel, which it is in his power to wield against
human belief. This magnificent frame of the the truth and authority of Revelation.
universe is here said to have been brought into   If the propriety of the explanation now given
existence by God, the God of Israel, the Self-ex- be admitted, then it completely removes every obistent and Eternal Jehovah.  This declaration  jection.,against the Mosaic record, derived from
was intended to teach the Israelites, and all others, the supposed antiquity of the earth. Although it
that the material world as. to its original atoms, could be proved that some of the strata of our
did not arise without a cause, or out of pre-existent globe were formed millions of ages ago; although
materials; that the beautiful orderit now exhibits we should conceive what is neither impossible,
did not originate- from the fortuitous concourse nor altogether improbable-that our globe, in anof atoms, as some heathen philosophers imagined, other form, has been the abode, for thousands of
and that it did not derive its existence from  any ages, of intellectual beings analogous to man, who
of the gods of the nations, as some of their blinded are now transported to another region of creation
worshipers foolishly imagined.  In opposition to -or that it has been the habitation of numerous
all such chimerical, absurd, and atheistical notions, and diversified races both of sentient and intelMoses declares, "'In the beginning God"-the lectual natures, and that millions of millions of
God of Israel-" created the heavens and the ages have rolled on since the Creator put forth his
earth."  As if he had said, That God who deliv- Omnipotent energy, and since such stupendous
ered you from  the land of Egypt, after having revolutions commenced-neither of -such views is
displayed so many signs and wonders; who di- in the least discordant with any doctrine or fact
vided the waters of the Red sea before you, and recorded in the sacred oracles.  The Psalmist dewho appeared in awful majesty at Mount Sinai; clares in reference to creation, when addressing
that God whom  you are commanded to worship, the Almighty, " OF OLD hast thou laid the foundaand whose laws you are bound to obey-is the tions of the earth, and the heavens are the works
Great Being who reared that wonderful fabric of of thy hands;" and the Apostle Paul declares,
heavenl and-earth which your eyes behold.        "Thou Lord, IN THE BEGINNING, hast laid the
The period when this astonishing effect was foundations of the earth."  But. no specific period
produced is also here declared, "Inthe beginninq." is stated here, or in any other portion of ScripUpon a proper conception of the meaning of this ture; and the expression OF OLD is not only corexpression depends, in a great measure, the recon- respondent with what we have now  stated, but
ciliation of the geological and the Mosaic chro- seems to imply the idea of the high antiquity of
nology.  The phrase here stated, " In the begin- the earth.
ning," is used to denote the commencement of an    The circumstance now adverted to-that Moses
era, or of a series of successive events. It evi- specifies no definite period as the commencement




7*6                          THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
of the material creation —I consider as a corrobo- the bottom  of the seas-if the Almighty, aftel
rative argument for the truth of Divine Revela- creating the matter of our globe, impressed certain
tion.  Had he written at random, or from vague laws upon its elementary substances, and left
tradition, or had he intended merely to give play  these laws to operate as they now do, with only
to an exuberant fancy, in:describing what no- un- occasional interferences-if races of animated
inspired mortal could ever have known-it is not beings have occupied:the globe for myriads of
likely he would have used language so cautious. ages-if new races have been created at differcnt
and appropriate, as not to have interfered with periods and subsequently destroyed-or if numerany subsequent discoveries that might be made in  ous orders of intelligent existence may have
the constitution of the material universe. Among  occupied the surface of the globe ages before man
all the cosmogonies wllhich have been composed by was introduced to this terrestrial scene-if treheathenl writers, either from  tradition or from  mendous convulsions have shaken the firm fountheir own fancies, there is not one which accords dations of the earth-in short, if by all the
with the discoveries.of modern times; but, on the processes to which we have alluded, our globe
contrary, they all contain statements in direct was gradually prepared for the purposes it now
opposition to facts which are known to exist in fulfills, and that the Creator chose to employ these
the material system. But the inspired writers rather than the special interposition of miraculous
were-perhaps unconsciously to themselves-di- power-such considerations tend to exhibit the
rected to use such language as, when-rightly in- power, wisdom, and benevolence of the'Deity, in
terpreted, would be quite consistent.with all the a new point of view, and to enlarge our concepviews and discoveries' that might be opened of the tions of the magnificent plans of him who is " The
-works of God to the latest generations.         King eternal, immortal, and invisible," who is
It has been supposed by some who cannot be "wonderful in counsel and excellent in working."
persuaded to admit the notion of the high anti- We are here shown that the space which has
quity of the earth, that the rocks, with all the intervened  between the present time and tile
fossil petrifactions they contain, were created just period when man was first placed upon the globe,
as we find them, in a moment of time. "The is but one of the units of a vast series of chronoDivine Being," they affirm, " might as easily have logical periods which have gone before, and which
made matter to assume the form of a shell, a fish, stretch backward into the abyss of immeasurable
a lizard, or a water-worn pebble,. such as we find duration. It is but a single link of the great chain
in these rocks, or of any other shape or structure." which stretches from  the moment when matter
To all who have bestowed the least attention on first arose from nothing, to diversify the wilds of
the strata of the earth and their fossil remains, immensity, down to the hour which is now passuch  statements and  reasonings must appear sing over us. And who knows but that the system
foolish and absurd in the highest degree. To use of the globe with which we are presently conthe'words of Professor Silliman:  "We will not nected- may be but one link in an interminable
inquire, whether Almighty Power inserted plants series of events connected with other orders of
and animals in mineral, masses, and was thus intelligences, which will be unfolded during the
exerted in working a long series of useless mira- revolutions of a coming eternity.
cles without design or end, and therefore incredible.   The science of astronomy directs our views to
The man who can believe, for example, that the regions of space which are immeasurable by morIguanodon, with' his gigantic form, 70 feet in tals, and perhaps even by intelligences of a higher
length, 10 in height, and 15 in girth, was created order, and discloses to our sight ten thousands
in the mi-lst of consolidated sandstone, and placed and millions of magnificent orbs, whose existence
down 1000 or 1200 feet from the'surface of the was not even suspected 200 years ago. Geology
earth, in a rock composed of ruins and fragments, directs our views to a stupendous series of events
and containing vegetables, shells, fish, and rolled stretching back to the ages of a past eternity..pebbles —such a man can believe anything, with The one conducts our vision to the far distant reor without evidence. If there be any such per- gions of immensity;-the other to the immeasurasons, we must leave them to their own reflections, ble periods of past duration; the one enlarges our
since they cannot be influenced by reason and conceptions of space, and the innumerable objects
sound argument; with them we can sustain no with which it is diversified;-the other expands
discussion, for there is no common ground on our ideas of time, and the revolutions which have
which we can meet."                             marked its progress. But astronomy has done
But why, I would ask, should the idea of the more than this. Like Geology, it extends our
high antiquity of the earth frighten any persons views to periods of time immensely long in the
from  acquiescing in it, when it is not in the least flux of past duration —periods during which thourepugnant to the declarations of Scripture?  So sands of the luminaries of heaven have existed
far from  contracting or distorting our views of and displayed their radiance. Sir W. Herschel,
the Divine perfections, it tends to expand our in his remarks on the Nebulae, has concluded, from
conceptions of the plans and operations of the a variety of ingenious reasonings and observaDeity. If periods of duration almost too great tions, that these nebulae which assume a milky
for human powers to estimate, have been employed light or appearance, cannot. be less than about
since the original creation of our globe, to bring  7000 times the distance of the star Sirius, or 168
it to its present state,-if vast successive;evolu- thousand billions of miles; and from other obsertions, at different eras, have taken place upon its vations, it is inferred that other bodies in the heasurface-if the waters of the-mighty deep have vens are removed to a much greater distance.
at different periods overflowed the solid land-if Now, light, notwithstanding its amazing velocity
the place where we now stand was once a portion of 192,000 miles in a second, would be nearly
of, the bottom of the ocean, over which its mighty thirty thousand years ere it could fly from  such
billows for ages had rolled-if subterraneous fires a nebulae'to the earth. Since,' therefore, it is a
have at different periods raised up from'the bottom  fact that the light of such bodies has actually been
of the deep those huge mountains y5hich now lift seen, and consequently, that it must have been
their summits to the clouds-if lofty mountains traveling at least many thousands of years before
have been sunk down many thousand feet below  it could have reached the eyes of any of the intheir ancient level, so as -to form deep valleys of habitants of our globe; it follows, that such bodies




GEOLOGY.                                            77'must have. been brought into existence at far dis- portion of the happiness of renovated spirits: and'taut periods of past duration, otherwise they could  as such a progression will never cease, their felinot thus have darted their light through such vast city will be of perpetual duration; for, if a finite
spaces of immensity.                             spirit were to stop short in its excursions, or to
The discoveries of modern astronomy likewise arrive at a boundary where it could proceed no
disclose to us certain facts which lead us to the farther-from  that moment its happiness would
conclusion, that certain progressive operations begin to diminish, and misery, to a certain cx..
are going forward, analogous to those which ap- tent, would infallibly ensue.
pear to have been carried forward in remote ages,   I have only to add, that whatever may be afina relation to our globe. —Had our limits permit- firmed respecting the antiquity of the materials
ted, we might have shown that some of the com- of which the earth is composed, it is admitted
ets appear to be in an early stage of their progress by every Geologist, that our globe, as to its pretoward becoming habitable worlds-that many of sent state and arrangement, has been comparativethe nebule  give evidence of a gradual progression  ly of short duration.  All the physical mrontoward condensation —that the appearance of new  ments which exist, and the'progressive changes
stars, the disappearance of others which had long which have happened in the strata of the earth, as
shone in the heavens, and the gradual diminution well as historical monuments, and the concurrent
of the light of others-the changes which appear tradition of many nations, bear witness to this
to be occasionally taking place on the surfaces of truth, that the first appearance of man upon the
the sun and the planets, along with other ce- face of the globe cannot be referred to a period
lestial phenomenna-are indications that progres- farther back than five or six thousand years from
sion toward perfection, and perpetual change, are the present time.
not peculiar to our world, but are principles in the   Had the limits assigned to the present article
Creator's government pervading the wide-extended permitted, I might have introduced some remarks
universe.                                        on the 2d verse of the 1st chapter of Genesis,
- In short, progressive improvement toward per- " The earth was without form and void," etc., or
fection forms a characteristic of the plans of the. as it has sometimes been translated-"Afterward
Almighty, not only in the physical, but also in the the earth became waste and desolate"-which exmoral world. In the first instance, after the flood, pressions evidently imply that, at the period hero
the knowledge of the true God was chiefly con- alluded to, the substance or materials of the
fined to the family of Abraham; afterward, it globe did exist; for we are told that the earth
was disseminated among the tribes of Israel, but  " was," or "had become," desolate or waste, precircumscribed within the small territory of Judea; vious to the arrangements which are subsequently
in process of time it was partially diffused among described.
the surrounding nations; after the Christian era    How long it had continued in this state, or in
It spread abroad thirough the greater part of the Ro- any of its previous states-whether a year, a cenmanl Empire; it has now extended its influence tury, or thousands of years, we are not informed,
over most of the European nations, and over a nor is there any expression in scripture which decertain portion of the tribes that inhabit Asia, termines this, so that we are left at full liberty to
Africa, and America.  It is still in progress; and, carry our views on this point as far back into the
oni the foundation of the declarations of inspired ages of past duration as the facts connected with
prophets, we now look forward to the period when  the structure of our globe may warrant, without
i' the glory of Jehovah shall be revealed, and when  controverting any position contained in the Sacred
all flesh shall see it together;" when " all the ends Oracles.-I might likewise have shown that the
of the world shall remember and turn to the sun and stars must have been brought into exisLord," and " when righteousness and praise shall tence before the period called the " fourth day,"
spring forth before all nations."  And the scenes at which time they were appointed "to rule the
of a coming eternity will doubtless display changes day, and to be foT signs and seasons, and for days
and revolutions far surpassing in grandeur all the and years"-and that the Creator, either through
events which have happened during the myriads the medium of physical causes, or by a direct in.
of ages which have already passed, and which  terposition of his power, produced the effects dewill excite the astonishment and adoration of an scribed in the Sacred Narrative-such as the sepaadmiring universe.-Even in an intellectual and ration of the ocean from  the dry land-in the
political point of view, the nations are'making  periods of time there specified.  But the proof
progress toward perfection.  "Old things are and illustration of such positions would occupy
passing away," and new scenes of improvement too much space in the present work.*          c
are gradually unfolding. The state of society, in    On the whole, the subject of Geology forms an
the island in which we dwell,'2000 years ago, pre- interesting and instructive study both to the phisents nearly as great a contrast to what is now, losopher and to the Christian.  When we take a
as the chaotic state of our globe exhibited before survey of the august objects which diversify the
it was reduced to the beauty and order in which  surface of our globe; when we enter the wild and
we now behold it.-In short, everything we con- romantic scene of a mountainous country, or detemplate in the scene arou nd us is progressive; scend into the subterraneous regions of the globe,
the fdculties of the human mind, and the corpo- we are everywhere struck with the vestiges of
real powers from infancy to manhood —the growth  operations carried on by the powers of Nature,
of all the animal and vegetable races-the im- upon a scale of prodigious magnitude, and with
provements of art, and the discoveries of science the exertion of forces, the stupendous nature of
-education, civilization, and political economy  which astonishes and overpowers the mind?  We
-the- cultivation of the earth, the mode of travel- seem as if standing on the ruins, and contemplaing by sea and land,,and hundreds of other objects tiIg the vestiges of a former world. We behold
and movements demonstrate that progression is a
law which pervades both the intellectual and the   * For a further illustration of some of these topics, the
corporeal universe;-and, in the future world, the author respectfully refers the reader to a Lecture, lately pubJxpaIasion of the human faculties, and the pro- lished, entitled "Discoveries of Modern Geology not incon.
sistent with Revelation" —being the 6th of a series of Lee.
gress of the mind from one scene of material and tures to Young Men, delivered in Broughton Place Chureh,
intellectual, grandeur to another, will form  one &dinburgh, in March, 1842.




78                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
" hills" which "have melted like wax at the pre- ceive an apparent hollow hemisphere, placed a4
sence of the Lord," and "mountains" which an indefinite distance, and surrounding the earth
"have been carried into the midst of tile sea." on every hand. In the day-time, the principal
We behold rocks of enormous size, which have object which appears in this hemisphere is the
been rent from their-foundations, and rolled from  sun. In the morning, we see him rise above the
one continent to another-the most solid strata of distant mountains, or from  the extremity of the
the earth bent under the action of some tremen- ocean: he gradually ascends the vault of heaven,
dous power, and dispersed in fragments through- and then declines and disappears in the opposite
out the surrounding regions.  We behold the quarter of the sky. In the northern parts of the
summits of lofty mountains, over which the globe, where we reside, if, about the 21st of
ocean had rolled its mighty  lllows-confounding  March, we place ourselves on all open plain, with
lands and seas in one universal devastation-  our face toward the south, the sun will appear to
transporting plants and forests from one quarter rise on our left, or due east, about six in the
of the world to another, and spreading universal morning, and about the same hour in the evening
destruction among the inhabitants of the waters he will set due west. In the month of June, he
and the earth.  Contemplating such scenes of rises to our left, but somewhat behind us, in a
grandeur, we perceive the force and sublimity'of direction toward the north-east, ascends to a
those descriptions of the' Deity contained in the greater hight at noon than in the month of
volume of inspiration.  "The Lord reigneth; he March, and, after describing a large are of the
is clothed witht majesty; in-his hand are the deep heavens, sets on our right and still behind us, in
places of the earth, the strength of hills is his the north-western quarter of the sky.  In the
also. He removeth the mountains and they know  month of December, if we stand in the. same ponot; he overturneth them in his anger; he shalketh sition, we may observe, without turning ourthe earth out of her place, and the pillars thereof selves, both his rising and setting. He rises in
tremble. At his presence the earth shook and  the south-east, ascends to a small elevation at
trembled; the foundations also of the hills moved  noon, and sets in the south-west, after having deand were shaken. He covereth the earth with scribed a very small are of the heavens. Every
the deep as with a garment, the waters stood  day he appears to move a little toward the east,
above the mountains.  At his rebuke they'fled; or contrary to his apparent diurnal motion; for
atthe voice of his thunders they hastenledaway.'  the stars which are seen to the eastward of him,
But, amidst all the revolutions and catastrophes appear every succeeding day to make a nearer
that have taken place in the constitution of our approach to the place in which he is seen. All
globe, there is the clearest evidence of an All- the variety of these successive changes is ac.
wise and  superintending Providence directing complished within the period of 365 days 6 hours,
every event.  Amidst the convulsions which have in which time he appears to have made a comrelnt its strata-that have: "carried hills into the plete revolution around the heavens from west to
midst of the seas"-and raised'mountains from  east.
the bottom of tile ocean-these are strikilng indi-   The moon is the next object in the heavens
cations of Divine Benevolence in prepariinlg our which-naturally attracts our attention; and she is
world  for  the  comfort and  accommodations found to go through similar variations in the
its inhabitants now enjoy. The facts disclosed by course of a month. When she first becomes visigeological investigation tend. to enlarge our con- ble at new moon, she appears in the western part
_.eptions of the attributes of the Divinity, and of of the heavens, in, the form of a crescent, not far
the sublimity of his plans and arrangements in from the setting sun. Every night she increases
the universe; and to demonstrate that his area- in size, and removes to a greater distance from the
ting power has been repeatedly exercised- during sun, until at last she appears in the eastern part
countless ages, in calling into existence numerous of the horizon, just as the sun disappears in tile
orders of beings, and' in carrying forward his western; at which time, she presents a round fullarrangements to a glorious consummation          enlightened face. After this she gradually moves
farther and farther eastward, and her enlightened
ASTRONO 0MY.
part gradually decreases, until at last she seems to
Another science which stands in an intimate approach the sun as nearly in the east as she did
relation to religion, is Astronomy.              in the west, and rises only a little before him in
This sublime science teaches us the magnitudes the morning, in the form  of a crescent. All
and distances of the heavenly bodies, their ar- these different changes may be traced, by attendrangement, their various motions and phenomena, ing to her apparent positions, from  time to time,
and the laws by which their movements are regu- with respect to the fixed stars.
lated.  It presents to our view objects the most   A  dark shadow is occasionally seen to move
wonderful and sublime; whether we consider the across the face of the moon, which obscures her
east ~magnittude of the bodies about which it is light, and gives her the appearance of tarnished
conversant-their immense nutmber-the velocity copper.  Sometimes this shadow covers only a
of their motions-the astonishing forces requisite  small portion of her surface; at other times it
to impel them  in their rapid career through the covers- the whole of her disc for an hour or two,
regions of the sky-the vast spaces which sur- and its margin always appears of the figure of a
round them, and in which they perform  their segment of a circle. This phenomenon, which
revolutions-the nmagnificent circles they describe happens, at an average, about twice every year,
-the,splendor of their appearance-or the impor- is termed- an eclipse of the moon.  It is produced
tant ends they a'tc'destined to serve in the grand  by the shadow  of the earth falling upon the
system of the universe. Having adverted to this moon, when the sun, the earth, and the moon aresubje'ct, when illustrating the Omnipotence of the  nearly in a straight line; and can happen only at
Deity, I shall here simply state a few additional the time of full nmoon. Sometimes the moon apfiacts with respect to the general appearance of pears to pass across the body of the sun; when
the heavens, the bodies which compose the plane- her dark side is turned toward the earth, covering
tary system, and tile- discoveries which have been  his disc either in whole or in part, and interceptmade in the region of the stars. -               ing his rays from a certain portion of the earth.
When we lift our eyes toward the sky, we per- This is called an eclipse of the sun, and can hap



ASTRONOMY
pen only at the time of new moon.  In a total our latitude, appears elevated a little more than
eclipse of the sun, which seldom  happens, the half way between the northern part of our horidarkness is so striking, that some of tile planets zon and the. zenith, or point above our heads.
and sometimes the larger stars are seep, and the    The following cut, which repr esents tile princlinferior animals appear struck with terror.         pal stars in the constellations Ursa Major and
Again, if on a winter's evening, about six  Ursa Minor, will enable the reader to recognize
o'clock, we direct our view to the eastern quarter the Pole star, by attending to the following direcof the sky, we shall perceive certain -stars just tions.  The seven stars in the lower part of the
risen above the horizon; if we view the same stars figure represent Ursa Major, or the Great Bear,
about midnight, we shall find them  at a conside- sometimes known by the names of the Plow and
rable elevation in the south, having apparently  Charles's Wain.  Tie stars on the upper part removed over a space equal to one-half of the whole  present Ursa Minor, or the Little Bear, the largest
hemisphere.  On the next morning, about six  star of which, on the right hand side, is the Pole
o'clock, the same stars will be seen setting in the  star.  About the beginning of November, at 6 or
uwestern part of the sky.  If we turn our eyes 7 o'clock in the evening, the Great Bear will aptoward the north, we shall perceive a similar mo- pear near the north, at a low elevation above tlhe
tion in these twinkling orbs; but with this diffe- horizon, and nearly in the position here reprerence, that a very considerable number of them  sented.  The two stars on the right hand side of
neither rise nor set, but seem  to move round an  the Great Bear are called the Pointers, and are
immovable point, called the north pole.  Near distant from  each other about 5 degrees.  If a
this point is placed the pole star, which seems to  line connecting these stars be considered as prohave little or no apparent motion, and which, in  longed upward to a considerable distance (about
Fig. 20.
29 degrees), until it meet the first bright star, that apt to imagine below us, and when they set, re'star is the Pole star, which is here represented at turn to that hemisphere again; and that the reathe higher part of the figure. Were the same son why the stars are not seen in the day-time, is.
observation made about the middle of April, at not because they are absent from our hemisphere9.
10 o'clock in the evening, the Great Bear will ap- or have ceased to shine, but because their light' is'
pear almost directly over our heads, above thePole  obscured by the more vivid splendor of the sun.*
star, and then we must conceive the line connecting the two Pointers as drawn downward toward
thle Pole star.  At different times of the night,   * This isput beyond all doubtby the invention of the telead at diffeent periods of the year, the Great scope; by which instrument, adapted to an equatorial m,tion, we' are enabled to see many of the stars even at noon,
Bear will appear to be in different positions with  day. The author of this work, in 1812 and 1813, made a
respect to the Pole star, sometimes below, some- number ofobservations by means of an Equatorial Teletimes above, and at other times to the east or the  scope, to determine the following particulars: —What stars
west of it.  But in all positions, a line drawn  and planets maybe conveniently seen in theday-time, when
the sun is above the horizon?-what degrees of magnifying
through the Pointers will always direct the eye to  power are requisite for distinguishing them?-how near their
the Pole star.                                      conjunction with the sun they may be seen?-and, whetheti
A person who has directed his attention to the  the diminution of the aperture of the telescope, or the iii
heavens for the first time, after having made such  crease of magnifying power, conduces most to render a star
bheavens for the firsttimi, after  havi ng made suce  or planet visible in day-light? The results of several hqnobservations, will naturally  inquire —Whence dreds of observations on these points, accompanied with
conme thiose stars which begin to appear in the  some original deductions and remarks,are inserted in Nich
ea~st?   Whither have thosegone which have dis- olson's Philosophical Journal, for October 1813, vol. xxxv'.
in.the west? and, Wat  becomes d- pp. 109-128.  The following are some of tle results which
appeared in. the west  and, What becomegs, du- were deduced from the observations: —That a star'of the first
ring the day, of the stars which are seen in the magnitude may be distinguished, at any time. of the day,
night?-It will soon occur to a rational observer, with a magnifying power of 30 times, but that a higher m'rnwho is convinced of the roundness of the earth  nifying power is preferable —That most of the stars ofthe
secontv  masnitade   may be seen with a power of 100; and
that the stars which rise above the eastern hori- with a power of 60 times, when the sun is not much morn
aon come from another hemisphere, which we are  than two hours above the hortzon-Thatthe planet Jupiter,
VOL. II. —-6




\ 80                          THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER
]?rom sucn ooservations we are led to conclude, they appear to move toward the east, sometimes
that the globe on which we tread is suspended in  toward the west, and at other times seem  to reempty space-is surrounded on all -sides - by the main in a stationary position.  These bodies have
celestial vault-and that the whole sphere of the obtained the name of planets, or wandering stars;
-heavens has an apparent motion round the earth  and in our latitude are most frequentEy seen,
every twenty-four hours.  Whether this- motion  either in the eastern- and western, or in the southbe real, or only apparent, must-be determined- by  ern parts of the heavens. Ten of these planetary
other considerations.                              orbs have been discovered: six of which- are, for
Such general views of,the nocturnal heavens, the most part, invisible to the naked eye.  By a
which every common observer maay take, have a careful examination of the motions of these bo.
tendency to expand the mind, and to elevate it to- dies, and their different aspects, astronomers have
the contemplation of an Invisible Power, by which  determined that they all move round the sun as
such mighty movements are conducted. Whether the center of their motions, and form, along with
we consider the vast concave, with all its radiant the earth and several smaller globes, one grand
orbs, moving in majestic grandeur around our and harmonious system.  This assemblage of
globe, or the earth itself whirling round its inhab- planetary bodies, is generally termed the Solar
itants in an opposite' direction-an idea of sub- system, of which I shall now  exhibit a brief
limity, and of almighty energy, irresistibly forces outline.
itself upon the mind, which, throws completely
into the shade the mightiest efforts of! human                     THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
power.  The most powerful mechanical engines
that were ever constructed by the agency', of man    Of this system, the SUN is the center and the
can scarcely afford us the least assistance in form- animating principle' and by far the largest body
ing a conception of that incomprehensible Power, that exists within its limits.  The first thing that
which, with unceasing energy, communicates mo- strikes the mind when contemplating this glorious
tion to revolving wo'rlds.- Ain'd yet, such:is the  orb, is its astonishing magnitude. This vast globe
apathy with which the heavens ale viewed by the  is found to be about 880,000 miles in diameter,
greater part of mankind, that there are thousands and consequently conta ns a mass of matter equal
who have occasionally gazed at' the stars for the  to thirteen hundred thousand globes of the size of
space of fifty years, who a re still' ignorant of the  the earth. Were its central parts placed adjacent
tact, that they perform an apparent diurnal revo- to the surface of the earth, its circumference
lution round our globe.                            would reach two hundred thousand miles beyond
Again, if we contemplate the heavens with  the moon's orbit, on every-side, filling a cubical
some attention, for a number of successive nights, space of 356,818,739,200,000,00  miles.  If it
we shall find, that-by far the greater part of the would require 18,000  years to  traverse  every
stars never vary their positions with respect to  square mile on the earth's surface, at the rate oi
each other.  If we observe two: stars at -a certain  30 miles a-day,* it would require more than two
apparent distance from each other, either north or hundred millions of years to pass over every porsouth, or in any other direction. they will appear tion of the sun's surface, at the same rate.  Even
at the samedistance,-and in the same relative po-  at the rate of 90 miles a-day, it would require
sition to each other, the: next evening, the next more than 80 years to go round its circumference.
nlonth, and the next year.- The stars, for in- -Of a body so vast in -its dimensions, the human
stance, which form the sword- and belt of Orion, mind, with all its efforts, can form  no adequate
present to our eye: the same figurd and relative as- conception.  It appears an extensive universe in
pect, during the whole period they are visible in itself; and although no other body existed within
winter, and from. onoe year to another; and the the range of infinite space, this globe alone would
same is the case with all -the fixed stars in the afford a powerful demonstration of the Omnipofirmament.  On examining the sky a' little more tence of the Creator. Were the sun a hollow
minutely, however, — we perceive certain' bodies sphere, surrounded by an external shell and a luwhich regularly shift their positions.  Sometimes minous atmosphere; were this shell perforated
with several hundreds of openings into the inter —
hal parts; were a globe as large as the earth placed
when not within 30 or 40 degrees of the sun, may be seen  at its center a  globe as large as th     e
with a power of 15 times; and that Venus may, in most instances, be seen with a power of from 7 to 100 times, and moon, and at the same distance from  the center
upward-That Jupiter can scarcely be distinguished -in the as the moon is from us, to revolve round the cenday-time, when within 26 degrees of the sun; but that Ye- talglbe,-it would present to the viw  a uninus may be distinctly perceived near her superior conjune. tral glbe,-it would present to the view aunition, when only 1 degree and 27 minutes from the sun's mar. verse as splendid and glorious as that which now
gin: and consequently may be visible at the time of that appears to the vulgar eye-a universe as large and
conjunction, when her geocentric latitude equals or exceeds extensive as the whole creation was conceived to
1 degree 43 minutes-''hat she may be perceived like a fine beby our ancestors, inthe infncy of astroomy.
slender'crescent, withinu 35 hours after passing her nfriorbe by our ancestors, the infancy of astronomy.
conjunction, etc. One practical purpose to which such ob- And who can tell, but that the Almighty Being,
servations on Venus, at the time of her saperior conjunction, who has not left a drop of water in a stagnant pool
may be' applied, is to determine the difference (if anv) be. without its inhabitants, has arranged a.umber of
tween her polar and equatorial diameters. - For it is only at worlds withi  the cpaciou  circuitof the sun, and
that conjunction that she presents to the earth a full enlight. worlds wi the capacioustcircuit of the sun, and
ened hemisphere; and in no otherposition can the measure peopled them with intelligent beings in the first
of both diameters be taken, except when she makes atrasit stages of their existence, to remain there for a
-across the sun's disc. As the earth, Mars, Jupiter, -and Sa- certain period, until they  e prepared for being
turn, are found to be spheroids,,it is highly pirobable that Venus is of a similar figure; but this point has never yet been transported to a more expansive sphere of existascertained'by actual observation. See also the Edinburgh ence?  It is easy to conceive that enjoyments as
Philosophical Journal, No. V, for July 1820, p. 191; and No. exquisite, and a range of thought as ample, ar
XIlI, for July 1822-The Scots' Magazine, for Feb. 1814, have ever yet been experience  by the  ajority of
p. 84-Monthly Magazine, Feb. 1814, and August 18230, p.'   e 
62-Brewster's Ferguson's Astronomy, 2d edition, vol. ii, the inhabitants of our'world, might be afforded I.
p. 111.-On March 10, 1842, the author saw Venus about 12 myriads of beings thus -placed at the center of
o'clock noon, when only 10 21' distant from the sun's eastern this magnificent luminary..  This supposition is
limb, with a 3 Y feet achromatic telescope, mngnifyiing 95
times-the aperture of the objeet glass being constructed to            *    p
I1 inches.                                                              See p, 18.




ASTRONOMY.                                               SI
at least as probable as that of the celebrated Sir tinguished in the vicinity of. the violet. The solar
W. Herschel, who supposed that the exterior sur- light, therefore, consists of three different orders
face of the sun was peopled with inhabitants. For of rays, one producinglcolor, a second producing
if this were the case, the range of view of these  heat, and a third chemicdal effects. Euler has comrninhabitants would be confined within the limits of puted that the light of the sun is equal to 6500
two or three hundred miles, and no celestial body, candles at a foqt distance, while the moon would
but an immense blaze of light would be visible  be as one candlb at 7o/ feet; Venus at 421 feet;
in their ~hemisphere.  Such is the variety which  and Jupiter at-1320 feet. —That this immense luappears among the works of God, and such is: the  minary appears so small to our eyes is owing to
diversity of situations in which sensitive beings  its vast distance, which is no less than ninety-five
are placed, that we dare not pronounce it impossi- millions of miles.  Some faint idea of this disble that both these suppositions may be realized.   tance may be obtained, by considering that- a
Though the sun seeins to perform  a daily cir- steamboat, moving at the rate of 200 miles a-day,
cult around our globe, he may be said, in this re- would require thirteen hundred years before it
spect, to be fixed and immovable.  This motion  could traverse the space which intervenes between
is not seal, but only apparent, and is owing to the  us and the sun.
globe on which we are placed moving round its,, Hail, sacred source of inexhausted light!
axis from west to east; just as the objects on the        Prodigious instance of creating might.
bank of a river seem to move in a contrary direc-         His distance man's imagination foirs;
tion, when we are sailing along its stream  in a          Numbers will scarce avail to count the miles.
steamboat.  The' only motion which is found to            As swift as thought he darts his radiance round
To distant worlds, his system's utmost bound."
exist in the sun is a motion of rotation, like that oft
a globe or ball twirled round a pivot or axis, which    The planet MERcuRY.-Mercury is the nearest
is performed in the space of twenty-five days and  planet to the sun that has yet been discovered.teg hours.  This motion has been ascertained by  He is,'about 37 millions of miles distant from  the
means of a variety of dark spots which are dis- sun, and revolves around him  in 88 days.  His
covered by the telescope on the sun's disc; which  diameter is -about 3200 miles.  Before the discofirst appear on his eastern limb, and after a period' very of the four new planets, Ceres, Pallas, Juno,
of about thirteen days, disappear on his western, and Vesta, in the beginning of the present cenand after a similar period reappear on his eastern  tury, this globe was considered as the smallest
edge.  These spots are various, both in- number, primary planet in the system.  His surface, howin magnitude, and inl shape: sometimes forty or ever, contains above 32 millions of square miles,
fifty, and sometimes' only one or` two, are visible, which is' not much less than all the habitable parts
and at other times the sun appears entirely with- -of our globe.  On account of his nearness to the
out spots.  Most of them:have a very dark nu- sun he is seldom  seen by the naked eye; being
cleus, or central part, surrounded by an umbra, or always near that quarter of the heavens where
fainter shade.  Some of the spots are as large as  the sun appears; and therefore few discoveries
would cover the whole continent of Europe, Asia, have been'made on his surface by the telescope.
and Africa, others have been observed of the size  M. Schroeter concludes, from  certain  observa-'of the whole surface of the earth;'and one was tions, that this planet revolves round its axis in
seen, in the year 1779, which was computed to  twenty-four hours and five minutes.  The sun
be more than fifty thousand miles in diameter.      will appear to an inhabitant of Mercury seven
With regard to the nature of this globe-it ap- times larger than to an inhabitant of the earth:
pears highly probable, from  the observations of  and if the degree of heat be in proportion to a
Sir W. Herschel, that the sun is a solid and opaque  planet's nearness to the sun. the, heat in this plabody, surrounded with luminous clouds which  net will be seven times greater than on the surfloat in the solar atmosphere, and that the dark  face of. our globe; and consequently, were the
nucleus of the spots is the opaque body of the sun  earth placed in the same position, all the water on
appearing; through occasional openings in this  its surface would boil, and soon be turned into
atmnosphere.  The hight of the atmosphere he  vapor.  But the All-wise Creator has doubtless
computes to be not less than 1843, nor more than  attempered the surface of that globe, and the con2755 miles, consisting of two regions; that near- stitution of the beings that may occupy it, to the
est the sun being opaque, and probably resembling  situation in which they are placed.*
the clouds of our earth: the outermost emitting    VENUS, the next planet in order from the sun,
vast quantities of light, and forming the apparent
luminous globe we behold.                             * From a variety of facts which have been observed in reThe sun is the grand source of light and heat, lation to the production of Caloric, it does not appear probat
both to the earth and to all the other planetary  ble that the degree of heat on the surfaces of the differenbodies.  The heat he diffuses animates everyv part planets is inversely proportional to the squares of their respective distances from the sun. It is more probable'that it
of our sublunary system, and all that variety of  depends chiefly on the distribution of the substance of. ca
coloring which adorns the terrestrial landscape is loric on the surfaces and throughout the atmospheres of
produced by his rays. It has been lately discov- these bodies-in different quantities, according to the  iffeerent situations they occupy in the Solar system; and that
ered that the rays of light and the rays of heat, these different quantities of caloric are put into action by
or'caloric, are distinct from each ogther; for it can  the influence of the solar rays, so as to produce that degree
be, demonstratedi that some rays from  the sun  of sensible heat requisite for each respective planetary globe.
produce heat, whichhave no power of communi-  On this hypothesis-which is corroborated by a great varieor color.  The gratest heat is found  ty of facts and experiments-there giay be no more sensible
cating light or color. The greatest heat is found  heat felt on the surface of the planet Mercury than on the
in the red rays, the least in the violet rays; and in  surface of Uranus, although one of these bodies is nearly 50
a space beyond the red rays, where there is no  times nearer the sun than the other. We have only to suplight, the temperature is greatest.  The rays of  pose that a small quantity of caloric exists in Mercury and
the sunhave also been found to prodce different a larger quantity in Uranus, proportionate to the distance
the sun, have, also been found to produce different afrom the center of the system. On this ground, we have no
chemical effects.  The white muriate of silver is reason to-believe either that the planets nearest the sun are
blackened in the violet ray in the space of fifteen  parched with excessive heat, or that thpse that are most dise1sEeconds, though the red will not produce the same  tant are exposed to all the rigors of insufferable cold, or that
the different degrees of temperature which may be found in
effect in less than twenty minutes. Phosphorus'these bodies render them unfit for being the abodes of sam
is kindled in the vicinity of the red ray, and ex- sitive and intellectual beings.




82                            THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
revolves around him in 224 days, at the distance 49 minutes, at the distance of 95 millions of miles,
ofU 68 millions of miles: its diameter is about and round its axis in 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seseven thousand seven hundred milesi or hearly the conds. The former is called its annual, and the
size of the earth; and it turns round its axis in latter its diurnal motion.  That the earth is, in
the space of 23 hours and 20 minutes. This pla- reality, a moving body, is a fact which can no
net is the most brilliant orb which -appears in our longer be called in question; it is indeed susceptinocturnal heavens, and is usually distinguished by ble of the clearest demonstration.  But my limits
the name of the morning and evening star.- will not permit to enter into a detail of the arguWhen it approaches nearest to: the earth, it is ments by which it is supported.  I have already
about 27 millions of miles distant; and, at its adverted to one consideration, from which its digreatest distance, it is no less than 163 millions urnal rotation may be inferred.*   Either the
of miles from the earth. Were the-whole of its earth moves round its axis every day, or the whole
enlightened surface turned toward the earth when universe moves round it in the same time. To
it is nearest, it would exhibit a light and brilliancy  suppose the latter case to be -the fact would intwenty-five times -greater than it generally does, volve a reflection on the wisdom  of its Almighty
and appear like a small brilliant moon; but at Author, and would form the only exception that
that time its dark hemisphere is turned toward  we know to that beautiful proportion, harmony,
our globe.  Both Venus and  Mercury, when and simplicity, which appear in all the works of
viewed by a telescope, appear to pass successively  Nature.. Were it possible to construct a machine
through all the shapes and appearances of the as large as the city of London, and apply to it
moon; sometimes assuming a gibbous phase, and mechanical powers sufficient to make it revolve on
at other times the form of a half moon, or that of an axis, so as to carry round a furnace for the
a crescent; which proves that they are dark bodies purpose of roasting a joint of mutton, suspended
in themselves, and derive their light from the sun. in the center of its motion-while we might adThe most distinct and beautiful views of Venus, mire the ingenuity and the energies displayed in
especially when it appears as a crescent, are to be its construction — all mankind would unite in
obtained in the day-time, by means of an equato- condemning it as a display of consummate folly.
rial telescope. -From. a variety of observations But such  an  extravagant piece of machinery
which the author has made with this instrument, would not be half so preposterous as to suppose,
it has been found that Venus may be seen every  that the vast universe is daily revolving around
clear day, without interruption, during a period our little globe, and that all the planetary motions
of 583 days, with the occasional exception of thir- have an immediate respect to it. And shall we
teen days in one case and only three days in an- dare ascribe to Him who is " the only wise God,"
other-circumstances which cannot be affirmed contrivances which we would pronounce to be
of any other celestial body, the sun only except- the perfection of folly in mankind?  It is recorded.*  M. Schroeter affirms that he has discovered ed of the astronomer Alphonsus, king of Castile,
mountains on the surface of this globe, one of who lived in the 13th century, that, after having
which is 10, another 11, and a third 22 miles high. studied the Ptolemaic system, which supposes the
It appears also to be encompassed with an atmo- earth at rest in the center of the universe, he utsphere, the densest part of which is about 16,000 tered the following impious sentence: " If I had
feet high.  About twice in the course of a centu- been of God's privy council when he made the
ry this planet appears to pass, like a dark spot, world, I would have advised him  better."  So
across the sun's disc.  This is termed the transit that false conceptions of the System  of Nature
of Venus. The last transit happened Julie 3, lead to erroneous notions of that adorable Being
1769; the next will happen on December 8, 1874, who is possessed of Infinite Perfection.-We find
which will be invisible in Europe.  Another will that bodies much larger than the earth have a
happen on the 6th December, 1882, which will be similar rotation.  The planet Jupiter, a. globe
partly visible in Great Britahi.                  295,000 miles in circumference, moves round its
The EARTH is the next planet in the system.-  axis in less than ten hours; and all the other
It moves round the sun in 365 days 5 hours and  planetary bodies, on which spots have been discovered, are found to have a diurnal-motion.  Be* See Edin. Phil. Journ., No. V, July 1820, and No. XIII, side, it is found to be a universal law of nature.
July 1822. —1 have found from observation tlhat this planet that smaller globes  revolve around larger; but
may be seen in the day-time, when only 1~O21t from the there is no example in the universe, of a larger
sun's center; and consequently, when its geocentric latitude body revolving around a smaller.  The moon reat the time of the superior cosajnaction exceeds that quantity, it may be distinctly seen during the whole period of 583volves around the earth,but she is much smallel
days, excepting about 35 hours before and after its 4iferior than the earth; the moons which move around
conjunction,-It is well known to astronomers that there has Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel, are all less than
been.a difference of opinion with respect to the period of the their primaries, and the planets which perform
rotation of this planet. Cassini, ifrom observations on a bright theirrevolutions around the sun are mu
spot which advanced 20 degrees in 24 hours 34 minutes, de- their revolutions around the sun are much less
termined the time of its rotation to be 23 hours and 20 min- than that central luminary.
utes. On the other hand, Bianchini, from similar observa-   With regard to the annual revolution of the
vations, concluded that its diurnal period was 24 days and 8 earth
bours. The difficulty of deciding, between these two opinearth if such a motion did not exist, the planeions arises from the short time in thicli observations can be tary system' would present a scene of inextricable
made iiithfiis planet, either before suntise or after sunset, confusion., The planets would sometimes move
which prevents us from tracing with accuracy the progres. backward, sometimes forward, and at other times
sive motion of its spots for a sufficient length'of time. And remain stationary; ad would  describe looped
although an observer should mark the position of the spots,
at the same hour, on tw~o succeeding eveniigs, and find they curves, so anomalous and confused, that no mal,
had moved forward about 20 degrees in 24 hours, he would in his senses could view the All-wise Creator as
still be at a loss:to'determine whether they had moved 20 the author of so much confusion. But by con
degrees ian all, since the preceding observation, orhad finished a revolution, and 20 degrees more.-In Nicholson's Phi- sidering the earth as revolving in an orbit between
losophical Journal,'vol. xxxvi, I endeavored to show how  Venus and Mars (which ajcelestial observations
this'point may be determinsed by observations made on e- completely demonstrate), al the apparent irregunuS in the day-time, by which, in certain cases, the progres- larities of the planetary motions are completely
sive motion of its -spots might"be'traced, without' interrup.tion for 12 hours or more, which would completely settle the
period of rotation.                                                  BSee p. 22.




ASTRONOMY.                                           83
solved and accounted for; and the Solar System  of a large city with gas-light, might present simi.
presents a scene of beauty, harmony, and gran- lar appearances to a spectator in the moon.-The
deur, combined with- a simplicity of design, which bright spots on the moon are the mountainous
characterizes all the works of Omnipotence.     regions: the dark spots are the plains, or more
The MOON.-Next to the sun, the moon is to level parts of the surface.  There may probably
us the most interesting of all the celestial orbs.- be rivers or small lakes on this planet; but there
She is the constant attendant of the earth, and are no seas or large collections of water  It aprevolves around it in 27 days 8 hours; but the pears highly probable, from the observations of
period from  one new or full moon to another, is Schroeter, that the moon is encompassed with an
about 29 days 12 hours.  She is the nearest of all atmosphere: but no clouds, rain; or snow, seem to
the heavenly bodies; being only about two hull- exist in it. The illuminating power of the light
dred and forty thousand miles distant from  the derived from the moon, according to the experiearth. She is much smaller than the earth; being ments made by professor Leslie, is about the
only 2180 miles in diameter. Her surface, when one hundred and fifty thousandth part of the illuviewed with a telescope, presents an interesting minating power of the sun. According to the
and a variegated aspect; being diversified with experiments of M. Bouguer, it is only as 1 to
mountains, valleys, rocks, and plains, in every 300,000.
variety of form  and position.  Some of these   The moon always presents the same face to us,
mountains form long and elevated ridges, resem- which proves, that she revolves round her axis in
bling the chains of the Alps and the Andes; while the same time that she revolves round the earth'others, of a conical form, rise to a great hight, As this orb derives its light from the sun, and refrom  the middle of level plains, somewhat re- flects a portion of it upon the earth, so the earth
esmbling the Peak of T'eneriffe. But the most performs the same office to the moon. A spectator
singular feature of the moon is, those circular on the lunar surface would behold the earth like a
ridges and cavities which diversify every portion luminous orb suspended in the vault of heaven,
of her surface. A range of mountains of a cir- presenting a surface about 13 times larger than the
cular form, rising three or four miles above the  moon does to us, and appearing sometimes giblevel of the adjacent districts, surrounds, like a bous, sometimes horned, and at other times with
mighty rampart, an extensive plain; and, in the a round full face.  The light which the earth
middle of this plain or cavity, an insulated coni- reflects upon the dark side of the moon may be
cal hill rises to a considerable elevation. Several distinctly perceived by a common telescope, from
hundreds of these circular plains, most of which two to six or eight' days after the change.-The
are considerably below the level of the- surround- lunar surface contains about 15 millions of square
ing country, may be perceived with a good tele- miles, and is, therefore, capable of containing a
scope, on every region of the lunar surface. They population equal to that of our globe, allowing
are of all dimensions, from two or three miles to only about 53 inhabitants to every square mile.
forty miles in diameter; and, if they be adorned That this planet is inhabited by sensitive and in.
with verdure, they must present to the view of a telligent beings, there is every reason to conclude,
spectator, placed among them, a more variegated, from a consideration of the sublime scenery with
romantic, and sublime scenery than is to be found which its surface is adorned, and of the general
on the surface of our globe. An idea of some of beneficence of the Creator, who appears to have
these scenes may be acquired, by conceiving a left no large portion of his material creation withplain of about a hundred miles in circumference, out animated existences; and it is highly probable,
encircled with a range of mountains, of various that direct proofs of the moon's being inhabited
forms, three miles in perpendicular hight,'and may hereafter be obtained, when all the varieties
having a mountain near the center, whose top on her surface shall have been more minutely exreaches a mile and a half above the level of the plored.*
plain. From  the top of this central mountain,    The planet MARs.-Next to the earth and moon,
the whole plain, with all its variety of objects, the planet Mars-performs his revolution round the
would be distinctly visible; and the view would sun, in one year and ten months, at the distance
appear to be bounded on all sides by a lofty am- of 145 millions of miles. His diameter is about
phitheater of mountains, in every diversity of 4200 miles, and he is distinguished from  all the
shape, rearing their summits to the sky. From  other planets by his ruddy appearance, which is
the summit of the circular ridge, the conical hill owing to a dense atmosphere with which he is enin the center, the opposite circular range, the vironed. With a good telescope, his surface applain below, and some of the adjacent plains, pears diversified with a variety of spots; by the
which encompass the exterior ridge of the moun- motion of which it is found, that he turns round
tains, would form another variety of view;-and  his axis in 24 hours and 40 minutes. The inclia third variety would be obtained from  the vari- nation of his axis to the plane of his orbit being
ous aspects of the central mountain, and the about 280 42', the days and nights, and the differsurrounding scenery as viewed from  the plains ent seasons in this planet, will bear a considerable
below.'                              resemblance to those we experience in our terThe lunar mountains are of all sizes, from a restrial sphere. t  At his nearest approach to the
furlong to five miles in perpendicular elevation. earth, his distance from us is about 50 millions of
Certain luminous spots, which have been occa- miles; and, at his greatest distance, he is about
sionally seen on the dark side of the moon, seem' 240 millions of miles; so that in the former case
to demonstrate that fire exists in this planet. Sir he appears nearly 25 times larger than in the lat.
W. Herschel,-and several other astronomers, sup-  ter. To a spectator in this planet, our earth will
pose that they are volcanoes in a state'of eruption. appear alternately, as a morning and evening
It would be a more pleasing idea, and perhaps as
nearly corresponding to  fact, to suppose, that   BeeAppendix, Note EV.
these phenomena are owing to some occasional   t The inclination of the, earth's- axis to the ecliptic, or, in
splendid illuminations produced by the lunar in- other. words, to the plane of its annual orbit is 230 28',
habitants, during their long nights. Such a scene- which is the cause of the diversity of seasons, and of the
different length of days and nights. Were the axis of the
as the burning of Moscow, the c nflagration of earth perpendicular to its'orbit, as is the case with the plans
an extensive forest, or the splendid illumination Jupiter, there would be no diversity of seasons.




THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
tar; and will exhibit all the phases of themoon, tions.  The orbit of Ceres crosses the' orbit ofjust as Venus does to us, but with a less-degree Pallas.  Vesta may sometimes be at a- greater dis
of apparent magnitude- and splendor.-  A  lumi- tance from  the, sun than either Ceres, Pallas, or
nous zone has been observed about the'poles fof Juno, although itsmnean distance is less than that
Mars, which is subject to successive changes. of either of them-, by several millions of miles;
Sir W. Herschel supposes that it is produced by so that the orbit of Vesta crosses the orbits of all
the reflection of the sun's light from  his frozen the other three. From  these and other circuitregions, and that the melting of these masses of stances, it has, with a high degree of probability
polar ice is the cause of the variation inll its mg- been concluded-that' these four planets are the
nitude and appearance.  This, planet moves, in fragments of a largercelestial body which once reits orbit, at the rate' of fifty-five thousand- miles- volved between Mars and Jupitei', and which had
an hour.                                           been burst asunder by some immense irruptive
The NEW PLANETS.-Between the orbits of Mars force. This- idea seems to have occurred to Dr
and Jupiter, four planetary'bodies have  been Olbers, after he had discovered the planet Pallas,.
lately discovered, accompanied, with circumstances and he imagined that other fragments might possomewhat different from those of the other bodies- sibly exist. He-concluded, that, if they all diverged
which compose our system.  They are named, from  the same point, "they ought to have two
Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta.  The planet Ceres was common points of reunion, or two nodes in oppodiscovered at Palermo, in Sicily, by M. Piazzi, on site regions of the heavens, through which all the
the first -day of the present century.  It ise of a planetary fragments. must sooner or later pass."
ruddy color, and appears about the size'of a star One of these nodes he found to be in the constelof the eighth magnitude, and, is consequently in- lation Virgo, and the other in the Whale; and it
visible to the naked eye.  It performs its revolu- is a remarkable coincidence,-that it was in the
tion in- 4'years and 7 months, at the:distance of latter of these regions that the planet Juno was
260 millions of miles from the sun, and is reck- discovered by Mr. Harding, In order to detect
oned by some astronomers to be about 1624 miles the remaining fragments (if'any existed), Dr.
in'diameter, or about half the diameter of Mercu- Olbers examined, three times every year, all the
ry.  It appears to be surrounded with a large small stars in Virgo and the Whale; and it was
dense atmosphere.-Pallas was discovered the fol- actually in the constellation Virgo that he dislowing year, namely, on the 28th March, 1802, covered the planet Vesta.  It is not unlikely that
by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen.  It is supposed to be other fragments of a similar description may yet
about 2000 miles in diameter, or nearly the size be discovered.  Sir D. Brewster attributes the fall
of the moon.  It- revolves about the sun in 4 of meteoric stones* to the smaller fragments of
years and 7 months, or nearly in tLe same time these bodies happening to come withia the sphere
as Ceres, at the distance of 266 millions of miles; of the earth's attraction.  His ingenious reasonand is surrounded- with a nebulosity or atmos- ilg'on this subject, and in support of Dr Olbers'
phere above 400 miles in hight, similar to that of hypothesis above stated, may be seen in Edin.
Ceres. —The planet Juno was discovered on the Encyc., vol. ii, p. 641, and in his " supplementary
1st September, 1804, by Mr. Harding, of Bremen. chapters to Ferguson's Astronomy."
Its mean distance from  the sun is about 253 mil-   The facts to which I have now adverted seem to
lions of miles; its revolution is completed in 4 unfold a new scene in the history of the dispenyears and 130- days,':and. its'diameter is'com- sations of the Almighty, and to warrant the conputed to be about 1425 miles. It-is- free from the clusion, that the earth' is not the only globe in the
nebulosity wich surrounds Pallas, and is distin- universe which is subject to physical changes and
guished fifrom  all the other planets by the great moral revolutions.
eccentricity of its orbit; being at its least distance    The Planet JUPITER.-This'planet is 490 milfrom  the sun only 189 millions of miles,'and at lions of miles distant from the sun, and performs
its greatest distance, 316'millions.-IVesta was'its annual revolution in nearly twelve of our
discovered by Dr. Olbers on the 29th March, 1807. years,!moving at the rate of twenty-nine thousand
It appears like a star of the fifth or sixth magni- miles an hour.' It is the largest planet in the Sotude, and may sometimes be distinguished by the lar system; being 89,000 miles in diameter, or
naked eye. Its light is more intense and, white about fourteen hundred times larger than the earth.
than any of the other three, and it is not sur- Its motion round' its axis is performed in nine
rounded with any nebulosity. It is distant from  hours and fifty-six minutes; and, therefore, the
the sun about 225 millions of miles, and completes portions of its surface about the equator, move at
its revolutions in 3 years and 240 days.  Its the rate of 28,000 miles an hour, which is nearly
diameter has not yet been accurately ascertained; twenty-seven times swifter than the earth's diurbut from  the intensity of its light and other cir- nal rotation.  The figure of Jupiter is that of al
eumstances, it is concluded, that it is not inferior
in magnitude to either Pallas or Juno.                Meteoric stones, or what are generally termed aerolites,
1These planetary globes present to our view a are stones which sometimes fall from tie upper regions of
variety of anomalies and singularities, which ap- the atmosphere upon the earth. The substance of whiich
pear incompatible with the regularity, proportion       are composed is, for the most part, metallic but the
and ~'hron wicwrfrely'upoe oore of which they consist is not to he found in the same cor.
and -harmony, which were formerly supposed to- tituent proportions, in any terrestrial substances. Theio
characterize the arrangements of the Solar sys- fall is generally preceded by a luminous appearance, a histem. —They are bodies much smaller in size than sing noise, and a loud explosion; and, when found immedi.
the other planets —they revolve nearly at the same ately after their descent, are always lhot. Tleir size differ,
dthtacesr  o —.the    r sandperrsntheir revol- -a  a -e    from small fragments of inconsiderable weight, to the most
distances'from the sun, a nd perform  their revolu- ponderous masses.' Some of the larger portions of these
tions.in nearly the satme; periods-their orbits are stones have been found to weigh from 300 lbs. to several
much more eccentric, and have a mu'ch greater de- tons; and they have often descended to the earth with a
gri:of inclination to the ecliptic,, than those of the force sufficient to bnthrtheseveral fee t ploder  the sfito
Some have suppose'd that these bodies are projected from
old'planets-and, what is altogether singular (ex- volcanoes in the moon; others,'that they proceed from vol.
cept in the case of comets), their orbits cross each canoes on the earth; while others imagine that they are
other; so that there is a possibility that two of generated in the regions of the atmosphere; but the true
cause is probably not yet ascertained. In some instances,
these bodies might happen to'` interfere,and -to these stones have penetrated through the roofs of hbusea,
strike each other, in the - course: of their revolu- and proved destructive to the inhabitants.




ASTRONOMY.                                            85
oblate Spheroid, the axis, or diameter,, passing others imagine, that they are the marks of great
through the poles, being about 6000 miles shorter physical revolutions which are perpetually changthan that passing through the equator.  The ing the surface of that planet.: The former
Earth, Saturn, and Mars,, are also spheroids; and opinion appears the most probable. But -whatit is highly probable that Mercury, Venus, and ever be the nature of these belts, the sudden
Herschel, are of a similar figure, though the fact changes to which they are occasionally subject,
has not yet been ascertained by actual observation. seem to indicate the rapid operation of some powWhen viewed with a telescope, several spots have erful physical agency; for some of them  are
been occasionally discovered on the surface of this more than five thousand'miles in breadth; and
planet, by the motion of which its rotation was since they have been known to disappear in the
determined.                                      space of an hour or two, or even during the time
But what chiefly distinguishes the surface of of a casual observation-agents more powerful
Jupiter, is several streaky appearances, or dusky  than any with which we are acquainted must
stripes, which extend across his disc inll lines have produced so extensive an effect.
parallel to his equator.  These'are generally    Jupiter is attended by four satellites, or moons,
termed his Belts. Three of these belts, or zones, which present a very beautiful appearance when
nearly equi-distant from each other, are most fre- viewed through a telescope.  The first moon, or
quently observed; but they are not regular or that nearest the planet, is 230,000 miles distant
constant in their appearance.*  siometimes only  from its center, and goes round it in 42Y2 hours;
one is to be seen, sometimes five, and sometimes and will appear from its surface four times larget
seven or eight have been visible; and in the latter than our moon does to us.  The second moon,
case, two of them have -been known to disappear being farther distant, will appear about the size of
during the time of observation.  On the 28th of ours; the third, somewhat less; and the fourth
May, 1780, Sir W. Herschel perceived  "the  which is a million of miles distant from  Jupiter,
whole surface of Jupiter covered with small curved  and takes sixteen days to go round him, will apbelts, or rather lines, that were not continuous pear.only about one-third the diameter of out
across'his disc."  Though these belts are gene- moon. These moons suffer frequent eclipses from
rally parallel to each other, yet they are not al- passing through Jupiter's shadow, in the same
ways so. Their breadth is likewise variable; one way as our moon is eclipsed by passing through
belt having been observed'to grow narrow, while the shadow of the earth. By the eclipses of these
another in its neighborhood has increased in  moons, the motion of light was ascertained; and
breadth, as if- the one had flowed into the other. they are found to be of essential use, in deterThe time of their continuance is also uncertain; mining the longitude of places on the surface of
sometimes they remain unchanged for several our globe. This planet, if seen from  its nearest
months, at other times, new belts have been form- moon, will present a surface a thousand times as
ed in an hour or two. What these belts, or varia- large as our moon does to us, and will appear in
bie appearances are, it is difficult to determine. the form  of a crescent, a half moon, a gibbous
Some have regarded them  as  strata of clouds- phase, and a full moon, in regular succession.
fl)ating in the atmosphere of Jupiter; while every 42 hours.
Fig. 21.
The foregoing figure exhibits a view of Jupi- blotted out from  the map of creation; and the
ter's belts and satellites as seen through a good i inhabitants of these regions must have much bettelescope; but they do not always appear, two on ter eyes than ours, if they know that there is in
each side, as here represented, but' in every varin  the universe such a globe as the earth.
ety of position; and sometimes all on the same    The Planet SATURN. —This planet is 900 milside, in the order of their: distances; and they  lions of miles distant from  the sun, being nearly
seem to move from one side to another, in nearly double the distance of Jupiter.  Its diameter is
straight lines, on account of our eye'being nearly 79,000 miles, and consequently, it is more than
on a level with the planes of their'orbits.      nine hundred times the bulk of the earth. It takes
Jupiter's axis being nearly perpendicular to his it 2912 years to complete its revolution about the
orbit, he has no sensible change of seasons, such sun; but its diurnal motion is completed in ten
as we experience on the earth. Were we placed hours and sixteen minutes; so that the year in
on the surface of this planet, with the limited  this planet is nearly thirty times the length of
powers of vision we now possess, our earth and ours, while the day is shorter, by more than onemoon would entirely disappear, as. if they were half. The year, therefore, contains about twentyfive thousand  one. hundred and fifty days, or
* A representation of these belts' in the positions in which periods of its diurnal rotation, which is equal to
they most frequently appear, is exhibited in the Frontis- 10,759 of our days. Saturn is of a spheroidal
piece, Fig. 2.-Fig. 1 represents the double ring of Saturn figure, or somewhat of the shape of an orange;
as, it appears when viewedthrough a powerful telescope.Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., represent Saturn, Jupiter, Herschel, his equatorial being more than six thousand miles
the earth, and moon, i4 their relative sizes and proportions. longer than his polar diameter. His surface, like




86'IHE  CHIR1STIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
that of Jupiter, is alverslfiea with belts and dark I roned with so wonderful an appendage: and the
spots. Sir iW. Herschel, at certainltinmes, per- planets which may belong to other systems, being
ceived' five belts on his surface, three of which placed beyond the reach of our observations, no
were dark, and two bright. -The dark belts had a idea can be formed of the peculiar apparatus with
yellowish tinge, and generally covered a larger which any of them  may be furnished.  This
zone of the disc of Saturn than the belts of Jupi- double ring consists of two concentric rings, deter occiupy upon his surface. On account of the tached from each other; the innermost of which
great distance of this planet from  the sun, the is nearly three times as broad as the outermost
light it receives from  that luminary is only the The outside diameter of the exterior ring is 204,ninetieth part of what we enjoy; but, by calcula- 000 miles; and consequently, in circumference,
tion, it is found that this quantity is a thousand will measure six hundred andforty thousand miles,
times greater than the light which the full moon or eighty times the diameter of our globe. Its
affords to us.  Beside, it is surrounded by no breadth is- 7200 miles, or nearly the diameter of
fewer than seven moons, which supply it with the earth. Were four hundred and fifty globes,
light in the absence of the sun. Fi;ve of these of the size of the earth, placed close to one anmoons were discovered during the seventeenth  other, on a plane, this immense ring would incentury, by Huygens and Cassini; and the sixth close the whole of them, together with all the
and seventh were discovered by Sir W. Herschel, interstices, or open spaces between the different
in 1789, soon after his large forty feet reflecting globes.  The outside diameter of the innermost
telescope was constructed.  These moons, and ring is 184,000 miles, and its breadth 20,000
also those which accompany Jupiter, are esti- miles, or about 212 times broader than the diamemated to be not much less than the-earth in mag- ter of the earth.  The dark space, or interval
nitude, and are found, like our moon, to revolve between  the two rings, is 2800 miles.  The
round their axes in the same time in which they  breadth of both the rings, including the darkl
revolve about their respective primaries.       space between them, is thirty thousand miles,
RINGS OF SATURN.-The most extraordinary cir- which is equal to the distance of the innermost
cumstance connected with this planet is, the phe- ring from the body of Saturn.
nomenon of a double ring, which surrounds its   The following figure represents a view of Sabody, but nowhere touches it, being thirty thou- turn and his rings, as they would appear were our
sand miles distant from  ally part of the planet, eye perpendicular to one of the planes of thosa
and is carried along with the planet in its circuit rings; but our eye is never so much elevated
around the sun.  This is the most singular and above either plane as to have the visual ray standastonishing object in-the whole range of the pla. ing at right angles to it: it is never elevated more
netary system; no other planet being -found envi- than 30 degrees above the planes of the rings
Fig. 22.
When we view  Saturn through a telescope, we i One obvious use of this double ring is, to reflect
always see the ring at an oblique angle, so that -it light upon the planet in the absence of the sun:
appears of an oval form, the outward circular in all probability, it also serves as an ample habiring being projected into an ellipsis more or less tation for myriads of sensitive and intelligent
oblong, according to the different degrees of obli- beings; for the surfaces of the two rings contain
quity with which it is viewed, as will be seen in  no less than 228 millions of square miles, or
the Frontispiece.                                about 600 times more than all the habitable parts
These rings cast a deep shadow  upon the of our globe, and it is not likely that, in the wise
planet, which proves' that they are not shining  arrangements of the'creator, such an immense
fluids, but composed of solid matter. They appear space would be left destitute of inhabitants: what
to be possessed of a higher reflective power than other purposes it may be intended to subserve, in
the surface of Saturn: as the light reflected by the system of Saturn, is at present to us unknown.
them is more brilliant than that of the planet. The sun illuminates one side of it auring fifteen




ASTRONOMY.                                             87
years, or one half of the period of the planet's millions of miles from  that luminar;, which is
revolution; and, during the next fifteen years, the nineteen times farther than the earth is from  the
other side is enlightened in its turn.  Twice in sun-a distance so great, that a ca lnon ball, flythe course of thirty years, there is a short period, ing at the rate of 480 miles an flour, would not
during which neither side is enlightened,, and  reach it in 400 years.  Its diameter is about 35,when, of course, it -ceases to be visible;-namely, 000 miles; and of course, it is about eighty times
at the time when the sun ceases to shine on one larger than the earth.  It appears like a star of
side, and is about to shine on the other.  It the sixth magnitude; but can seldom  be distinrevolves round its axis, and consequently around  guished by the naked eye.  It takes about 83
Saturn, in ten hours and a half, which is at the years and a half to complete its revolution round
rate of a thousand miles in a minute, or fifty-eight the sun; and, though it is the slowest moving
times swifter than the earth's equator.  When  body in the system, it moves at the rate of 15,000
viewed from the middle zone of the planet, in the miles an hour. As the degree of sensible heat in
absence of the sun, the rings will appear like vast any planet does not appear to depend altogether
luminous arches, extending along the canopy of on its nearness to the sun, the temperature of this
heaven, from the eastern to the western horizon; planet may be as mild as that which obtains in
having an apparent breadth equal to a hundresd  the most genial climate of our globe.*   The
times the apparent diameter- of our mooll, and diameter of the sun, as seen from  Herschel, is
will be seen darkened about the middle, by the little more than the apparent diameter of Venus
shadow of Saturn.*                                as seen by the naked eye; and the light which it
There is no other planet in the Solar system, receives from  that luminary, is 360 times less
whose firmament will present such a variety of than what we experience; yet this proportion is
splendid, and magnificent objects, as that of Sa- found by calculation to be equal to the effect
turn. The various aspects of his seven moons, which would be produced  by 248 of our full
one. rising above the horizon, while another is moons; and, in the absence of the sun, there are
setting, and a third approaching to the meridian; six moons which reflect light upon this distant
one entering into an eclipse, and another erner- planet, all of which were discovered likewise by
ging from  it; one appearing as a crescent, and Sir W. Herschel.  Small as the proportion of
another with a gibbous phase; and sometimes the light is which this planet receives from the sun,
whole of them shining in the same hemisphere, it is easy to conceive, that beings similar to man,
in one bright assemblage;-the majestic motions placed on the surface of this globe, with a slight
of the rings,-at one time illuminating the sky modification of their organs of vision, might be
with their splendor, and eclipsing the stars; at made to perceive objects with a clearness and
another, casting a deep shade over certain regions distinctness even superior to what we call do.
of the planet, and unvailing to view the wondess of We have only to suppose, that the Creator has
the starry firmament-are scenes worthy of the ma- formed their eyes with pupils capable of a much
jesty of the Divine Being to unfold, and of rational larger expansion than ours; and has indued their
creatures to contemplate. Such magnificent dis- retina with a much greater degree of nervous
plays of Wisdom and Omniiipotence, lead us to con- sensibility.  At all events, we may rest assured,
elude that the numerous splendid objects connected  that He who has placed sentient beings in any
with this planet, were not created merely to shed region, has, by laws with which we are partly
their luster on naked rocks and barren sands; but unacquainted, adapted the constitution of the inthat an immense population of intelligent beings habitant to the nature of the habitation.
-is placed in those regions, to enjoy the bounty        Strange and amazing must t
and to adore the perfectionls of their great Creator.'Twixt this dull planet and bright.Mercury!
The double ring of Saturn, when  viewed              Yet reason says, nor can we doubt at all,
through a good telescope, generally appears like        Millions of beings dwell on either ball,
With constitutions fitted for that spot
a luminous handle on eachl side of the planet,               constitutionsfitte fo thatspot
a iVhere Providence, all-wise, has fixed their lot."
with a dark interval between the interior edge of
the ring, and the convex body of Saturn; which    The celestial globes which I have now described,
is owing to its obliqule position with respect to are all the planets which are at present known to
our line of vision. When its outer edge is turned  belong to the Solar system.  It is probable that
directly -toward the earth, it becomes invisible, or other planetary bodies may yet be discovered beappears like a dark stripe across the disc of the tween the orbits of Saturn and Herschel, and even
planet as it did in 1832. This phenomenon hap- far beyond the orbit of the latter; and it is also
pens once every fifteen years.                    not improbable, that planets may exist in the
The Planet HERSCHEL,-This planet, which is immense interval of 37 millions of miles between
-also known by the names of the teorqium Sidus, Mercury and the Sun.t  These (if any exist) can
and Uranus, was discovered by Sir W. Herschel be detected only by a series of day observations,
on the 13th of March, 1781. It is- the most dis- made with equatorial telescopes; as they could
tant planet from  the sun that has yet been dis- not be supposed to be seen, after sunset, on
covered,; being removed at no less than 1800 account of their proximity to the sun.  Five
primary4 planets, and eight secondaries, have been
* See the, Frontispiece, Fig 7, which represents a view of
the appearance which the rings and moons of Saturn will: See Note, p. 81.
exhibit, in certain cases, about midnight, when beheld from   t1The Author, some years ago, described a method by
a point 20 or 30 degrees north from his equator. The shade which the planets (if any) within the orbit of Mercury, may
on the upper part of the rings represents the shadow of the be discovered in the day-time, by means of a simple con.
body of Saturn. This shadow will appear to move gradu- trivance for intercepting the solar rays, and the frequent
ally to the west as the morning approaches.-From obser- application, by a number of observers, of powerful telescopes,
vations which were made some time ago by Captain Kater, to a certain portion of the sky, in the vicinity of the sun.
Professor Quetelet, anrd others, it has been surmised that The details of this plan have not yet been published; but
the outer ring of Saturn is divided into several smaller rings. the reader will see them alluded to, in No. V of the Edin.
Kater states, that he " saw the outer'ring separated by burgh Philosophical Journal, for July,-1820, p. 191.
numerous dark divisions extremely close, one stronger than   t A primary planet is that which revolves round the sun
the rest dividing the ring about equally." Such surmises, as a center; as Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. A secondary
however, require to be confirmed by subsequent observa- planet is one which revolves- round a primary planet as its
tious                                             center; as the Moon, and the setellites of Jupiter and




88                             THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER
discovered within the'last 60 years; and, therefore, the economy of the universe; are inquiries which
we have no reason to conclude, that all the-bodies be.' naturally arise in the mind, but which surpass the
longing to our system have yet been detected, until limited powers of the- human understanding at
every region of the heavens be more fully explored. present to determine.  Of this, however, we may
COMETS.-Beside the planetary globes to which  rest assured, that they were not created in vail;
I have' now  adverted, there is a class of celestial that'they subserve purposes worthy of the infinite
bodies which -occasionally appear -in the heavens, Creator; and- that, wherever he has exerted -his
to which the name of: Comets has been given. power, there also he manifests his wisdom  and
They  are distinguished from  the other celestial beneficence.*
bodies, by their'ruddy appearance, and by a long    Such is a general outline of the leading facts
train  of light, called the tail, -which sometimes connected with that system  to which our earth
extends over a considerable portion of the heavens, belongs.  Though the energies of Divine Power
and which is so transparent-that the stars may be had never been exerted beyond the limits of this
seen through it.  The -tail is always directed to  system, it would remain an eternal monument of
that part of the heavens Which is opposite to the  the Wisdom  and Omnipotence of its Author.
sun, and increases in size as it approaches him, Independently of the Sun, Which is a vast universe
and is again gradually diminished, as the comet in itself, and of the numerous comets which are
flies off  to the more distant regions, of'space. continually traversing its distant regions, it conTheir apparent magnitude is very different: some- tains a mass of material existence, arranged in the
times they appear only of the. bigness of the fixed  most beautiful order, two thousand five hundred
stars; at other times they equal the diameter of times larger-than our globe.  From  late observaVenus; and sometimes they have appeared nearly  tions, there is the -strongest reason to conclude
as large as the Moon.  They traverse the heavens  that the sunl along -with all this vast assemblage
in all directions, and cross the orbits of the planets. of bodies, is carried through the regions of the
Whe-n examined through a telescope, they appear universe toward some distant point of space, or
to consist of a dark central nucleus, surrounded  around some- wide circumference, at the rate of
by a dense atmosphere, or mass of vapors.  They  more than sixty thousand miles an hour; and if
have been ascertained  to move in long narrow  so, it is highly probable, if not absolutely certain,
ellipses or ovals, around the sun; some of them, that we shall never again occupy that portion of
on their nearest approach to him, having been  absolute space through which we are this moment
within a million of miles of his center: and then  passing during all the succeeding ages of eternity.
fly off to a region several thousands of millions    Such a glorious system must have been brought
of miles distant.  When near the sun, they move  into existence, to subserve purposes worthy of the
with amazing velocity.  The velocity of the comet
which appeared in 1680, according to Sir Isaac'The periodical revolutions of'the greater number of
comets are accomplished only in long periods of time; some
Newton's calculation,  was.880,000 -miles an hour. of them requiring hundreds and even thousands of years to
They appear to be bodies of'no great- density, and  finish their circuits.' But, of late years, two comets have
their size seldom exceeds that of the moon..  The been discovered whose periodic revolutions are extremely
length of the tails of some comets has been esti- short.-These are, 1st. The comet of Enice, whose periodic
revolution is only 1200 days, or 3 years and three-tenths
mated at fifty millions of miles.'According to Sir and becomes visible ten times in 33 years. It was discov
W. Herschel's computations, the solid nucleus, or ered at Marseilles, by M. Pons, on the 28th November.
central part of the comet-whichi appeared in 1811, 1818, and soon after M. Encke of Berlin determined its
Swas only 428 miles in diameter; but the real diam-  period by incontestable calculations. This comet has since
r  regularly made its appearance. It was seen in Australia in
-eter of the head or nebulous portion of the comet, June, 1822, and since that time in Europe, in 1823, 1828
he computed to be about-127,000 miles., The length  1832, 1835, and 1838. This comet is very small; its light is
of its tail he computed to be above one hundred  feeble; it has no tail, and it is invisible to the naked eye,
millions of miles, and its breadth nearly fifteen  except in very favorable circstances-hed by  the na me 
to which we allude is distinguished hy the name of Biela's
millions.  It was nearest to the earth on the 11th. and sometimes Gaanbart's comet. This comet was first per.
October, when its distance was 113 millions of  celved at Johanisberg, on the 27th of February, 18216, by M.
miles.  The-number of comets which have occa-  Biela, and ten days after by M. Gambart, at Marseilles, who
-oa   seauwithin the limits of our system,  calculated its orbit, and determined the period of its revolusionally been seen within the limits of our system, tion to be 2460 days, or nearly 64 years. The predicted
since the commencement of the Christian era, is  appearance of this comet in 1832 produced considerable
about 500, of which the paths or'orbits of more  alarm  on the continent, particularly in France; as some
than a hundred have, been calculated.  - -            German journalists had predicted that it would cross the
earth's orbit near the point at which the earth would be at
As these bodies cross the paths of the planets in  that time, and cause the destruction of our globe. This
every direction, there is a possibility that some of comet is a small body without a tail, or any appearance
them  might strike against the earth in  their whatever of a solid nucleus, and is not distinguishable by
approach to the sun; and, were'this to happen, ythe naked eye. It is not improbable that the observations
approach to the sun; and, were this to happn,    which may hereafter be made on these comets, whose return
the consequences would be awful beyond descrip-  is so frequent, will lead to more definite and accurate views
tion.  But we may rest assured that that Almighty  of the nature and destination of these singular bodies. The
Being who at first launched them  into existence  only other comet whose period is determined is that which
is known by the name of Halley's comet. This comet was
directs all their motions, however complicated; observed by Dr. Halley in 1682, and, on calculating its ele.
and that the earth shall remain secure against all ments, he was led to conclude that it was identical with the
such concussions from  celestial agents, until the  great comets of 1456, 1531, and 1607; and that its period is
purposes of his moral government isn this world  75 or 76 years. He accordingly ventured to predict that it
Whaohm t r ns te  would again return about the latter part of 1758 or the
shall be fully accomplished.  What regions these  beginning of 1759. It actually reappeared near the end of
bodies visit, when they pass beyond the limits of December, 1758, and arrived at its perihelion on the 13th
our view; upon what errands they are sent; when  March, 1759; and it again made its appearance, according
they agaisn revisit.the central pa~r~ts of our system; to prediction, in September and October, 1835, having, been
seen in the particular positions previously predicted, a conwhat is the difference intheir physical constitu-  siderable time before it was visible to the naked eye. The
tion, from  that of the sun.and. planets; and what appearance of this comet, so near the time predicted by
important 6nds they are destined to accomplish in  astronomer's, is a clear proof of the accuracy which has
destd to acbeen c                introduced into astronomical calculations, and the
soundness of the principles on which astronomers proceed.
Saturn. The primary planets are distinguished from the This circumstance likewise shows us that comets in general
fixed stars, by the steadiness- of their light.; not having a are permanent bodies belonging to that system of which we
twin'klitg appearance, as the stars exhibit.         form a part.




ASTRONOMY.                                            89
Infinite Wisdom- and Benevolence of the Creator. itself, a strong presumptive evidence that die
To suppose that the distant globes of which it is records of the Bible are authentic and divine *
composed, with their magnificent apparatus of   Vast as the Solar System  we have- now been
Rings and Moons, were created merely for the contemplating may appear, it is but a mere point
purpose of affording a few astronomers, in these in the map of creation.  To a spectator placed in
latter times, a peep of them through their glasses, one of the stars of the seventh magnitude, pot
would be inconsistent with every principle of only the glories of this world, and the more
reason; and would be charging Him who is the resplendent scenes of the planet Saturn, but even
Source of Wisdom with conduct which we would the sun, himself would entirely disappear, as if
pronounce to be folly in the sons of men. Since he were blotted out of existence.  "Were the
it appears, so far as our observation extends; that sun,'-' says Mr. Addison, " which enlightens this
matter exists only for the sake of sensitive and part of the creation, with all the host of the
intelligent beings, and that the Creator made planetary worlds that. move about him, utterly
nothing in vain-it is a conclusion to which we extinguished and annihilated, they would not be
are necessarily led, that the planetary globes are missed by an eye that could take inl the whole
inhabited by various orders of intellectual beings, compass of nature, more than a grain of sand
who participate in the bounty and celebrate the upon the sea-shore. The space they possess is so
glory of their Creator.                         exceedingly little in comparison of the whole, that
When this idea is taken into consideration, it it wou d scarcely make a blank in creation."
gives a striking emphasis to such sublime decla-   The FIXED STARS.-When we pass from  the
rations of the Sacred Volume as these:-" All planetary system to other regions of creation, we
nations before him  are as nothing —He ~itteth have to traverse, in imagination, a space so imupon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants mense, that it has hitherto baffled all the efforts
thereof are as grasshoppers-The nations are'as of science to determine its extent. In these rethe drop of a bucket-All the. inhabitants of the' mote and immeasurable spaces are placed those
world are reputed as nothing in his sight; and he immense luminous bodies usually denominated
doth according to his will in the armies of heaven the. fixed stars. The nearest stars are, on good
and among the inhabitants of the earth-Thou  grounds, concluded to be- at least twenty billions
hast made heaven and the heaven of. heavens, of miles distant from our globe-a distance through
with all their hosts; and thou preservestthem all; which light (the swiftest body in nature) could
and the host of heaven: worshipeth thee-When I not travel in the space of three years; and which
consider thy heavens, what- is man that thou art a ball; moving at the rate -of 500 miles an hour,
mindful of him!"   If the race of Adam  were would not. traverse in four millions, five hundred
the principal intelligences in the universe of God, thousand  years, or 750 times.-the period which
such passages would be stripped of all their sub- has elapsed since the Mosaic creation. But how
limity, would degenerate into mere hyperboles, far they may be placed beyond this distance. no
and be almost without meaning.  If man were astronomer will pretend to determine. The folthe only rational being who inhabited the MATERIAL lowing consideration will prove, to those unacWORL.D, as some arrogantly imagine, it would be quainted with the mathematical principles of
7no, onder' at all that God should be-"'mindful of astronomy, that the stars are placed  at an
aim," nor could "all the inhabitants of this immeasurable distance. Wheli they are viewed
world," with any propriety, be compared to "a  through a telescope Which magnifies objects a
drop of a bucket," and be "reputed as nothing in thousand times, they appear no larger than to the
his sight."-Such declarations would be contrary  naked  eye; which  circumstance  shows, that
to fact, if this supposition were admitted; for it though we were placed at the thousandth part of
assumes that man holds the principal station in the distance from them at which we now are, they
the visible universe. The  expressions-" The would still appear only as so many shining points;
heavens, the heaven of heavens," and "the host for we should still be distant from  the nearest of
of heaven worshiping God," would also, on this them, twenty thousand millions of miles: or, in
supposition, degenerate into something approach-  other words, were we transported several theu~ ing to mere inanity.  These expressions, if they  sands of millions of miles from the spot we now
signify anything that is worthy of an Inspired  occupy, though  their numbers would  appear
Teacher to communicate, evidently imply that exceedingly  increased, they would  appear no
the universe is vast and extensive, beyond the larger than-they do from our present station; and
range of human comprehension-that it is peo- we behooved to be carried forward thousands of
pled  with  myriads of inhabitants-that these millions of miles farther in a long succession,
inhabitants are possessed of intellectual natures, before their discs appeared to expand into large
capable of appreciating the perfections of their circles like the moon. Sir W. Herschel viewed
Creator-and, that they pay him  a tribute of the stars with telescopes magnifying from one to
rational adoration:'" The host of heaven worship- two or three thousand times, yet they still appeared
eth thee."  So that the language of Scripture is only as brilliant points, without any sensible discs
not only consistent with the doctrine of a plurality  or increase of diameter. This circumstance inof worlds, but evidently supposes their existence contestably proves the two following things: 1.
to all the extent to which the discoveries of mod- That the stars are luminous bodies, which shine
ern science can carry us. HoWever vast the by their own native light; otherwise they could
universe now  appears-however numerous the not be perceived at such vast distances. 2. That
worlds, and systems of worlds, which may exist they are bodies of an immense size, not inferior
within its boundless range-the language, of to the sun; and many of them, it is probable, far
Scripture is sufficiently comprehensive and sub- exceed that luminary -in bulk and splendor.+
lime, to express all the emotions which naturally
ar':se in the mind when contemplating its struc-   * See Appendix, Note VI.
turae; a'characteristic which will apply to no   t Professor Bessel of Konigsberg appears to have lately asother book, or pretended revelation. And this certained the annual parallax of the star 61 Cygni, which he
consideration shows not only the harmony which has determined to be somewhat less than one-third of a sec.
s b t c   of Revelati.: -ond, and consequently its distance must be 62,481,500,000,000,
subsist's between the discoveries of Revelation and or sixty-two billions, four hundred and eighty.one thousand
the discoveries of Science,, but also forms, by five hundred millions of miles-a distance which light, swift




90                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER
For the conveniency of reference to particular constellation Orion, with the adjacent stars, on a
objects and regions in the heavens, the stars have more simple and natural plan, to show the manbeen arranged into different groups arid'constella- ner in which the celestial constellations might be
tions.  The, number of constellations recognized depicted on globes and planispheres, so as to make
by modern astronomers is about 94; of which 12 them resemble as much as possible their appearare contained in the Zodiac', or that zone -in the ance in the heavens. This constellation makes a
heavens in which -the suh, moon, and planets are splendid appearance in the southern parts of the
seen to perform-their real or apparent revolutions; heavens during our winter months.  The two
35 are reckoned North of the zodiac, and 47 to the large stars near the top toward the left, are BetelSouth, called the Northern andi Southern  constel-.guese and Bellatrix; tile three equidistant stars,
lations.  These constellations are generally de- near the middle, are Orion's belt, called in the
picted on celestial globes -and planispheres, as if book of Job, the " bands of Orion."  The large
they were represented by various animals  and star, near the bottom, on the right, is Rigel, a star
hieroglyphic objects, which give such exhibitions of the first magnitude.  A white line is drawn
of the heavens a very grotesque and unnatural around this constellation to define its boundaries,
appearance. We have therefore given, in the and, in this way the form  and limits of all the
following cut (fig. 23), a representation of the other constellations might be distinguished.
Fig. 23.
NORTH.
m                                                        m
Thlle stars, on accountof the difference in their name of the telescopic stars. Not more than a
apparent magnitudes, have been distributed into thousand stars can be distinguished by the naked
several (lasses or orders. Those which appear eye in the clearest winter night; but by means of
largest are called stars of the first magnitude; the telescope, millions have been discovered.*
next to those in luster, stars of the second magni- And as it is probable, that by far the greater part
tude, and so on to stars of the sixth magnitude, lie'beyond the reach of the best glasses which
which are the smallest that can be distinguished  have been, or ever will be, constructed. by manby the naked eye. Stars of the seventh, eighth, the real number ofthe stars may be presumed to
ninth, tenth, &c., magnitudes, which cannot be be beyond all human calculation or conception,
seen by the naked eye, are distinguished by the and perhaps beyond the grasp of angelic comprehension.
as its motion is, would require 10 years and 114 days to fly   In consequence of recent discoveries, we have
across this mighty interval; and a cannon ball, moving 500 now the strongest reason to believe, that, all the
miles every hour, would require fourteen millions, two hun- stars in the universe are arranged into clusters, or
dred and fift thousand years before it could move across groups, which astronomers distinguih   by the
the same interval.-For a more detailed account of this                         distinguish y
discovery of Bessel, the reader -is referred to the author's,olume entitled "' Sidereal-Heavens."                               * See page 21.




ASTRONOMY.                                           91
name of NEBULaE, or STARRY SYSTEMS, each ne- combinations, throughout the tracts of immensity.
bulaconsisting of many thousands of stars. The It also appears that changes are taking place
~nearest nebula is that whitish space or zone which among the Nebulae-that several nebulas are
is known by'the name of the Milky Way, to which formed by the decomposition of larger nebula?,
our sun is supposed to belong. It consists of and that many nebulas of this kind are at present
many hundreds of thousands of stars. When Sir detaching themselves from  the nebulas  of the
W  Herschel examined this region with his power- Milky Way. These changes seem  to indicate,
ftil telescopes, he found a portion of it, oilly fif- that mighty movements and vast operations are
teen degrees long, and -two broad, which contain- continually going on in thile distant regions of
ed fifty thousand stars large enough to be distinct- creation, under the superintendence of the Sovely counted; and he suspected twice as many ilore, reign, of the Universe, upon a scale of magnitude
which, for want of sufficient light in his telescope, and grandeur which overwhelms the hunman unhe saw only now  and then. More than three derstanding.
thousand nebula have already been observed; and,   To explore more extensively the region of the
if each of them  contain as many stars as the  starry firmament; to mark the changes that are
Milky Way, several hundreds of millions of stars taking place; to ascertain all the changeable stars;
must exist, even within that portion of the heav- to determine the periodical variations of their
ens which lies open to our observation. Beside light; the revolutions of double and triple stars,
those Nebulte which are resolvable into stars by and the motions and other phenomena peculiar
telescopes, there are nebulous bodies in the leav- to these great bodies-will furnish employment
ens, of vast extent, such as the nebula in the for future enlightened generations; and will persword of Orion, which the most powerful tele- haps form a part of the studies and investigations
scopes have hitherto been unable to resolve into of superior intelligences, in a higher sphere of'stars. These are found in different degrees of existence, during an indefinite lapse of ages.
condensation-fronm the resemblance of an irre-   If every one of these immense bodies be a STN,
gular dusky cloud to the appearance of a well- equal or superior to ours, and encircled with a
defined body of faintish lighlt, condensed to a host of planetary worlds, as we have every reason
bright spot in the center. They appear to be a to concludeto be the case,? how vast must be the
species of fine luminous matter, distinct from stars extent of creation! how numerous the worlds and
and planets, diffused in immense masses through- beings which exist within its boundless range!
out the spaces of the universe. It is an opillion  and how great, beyond all human or angelic connow generally entertained that these self-luminous ception, must be the Power and Intelligence of
portions of matter are the chaotic materials out that glorious Being who called this system  from
of which new suns and worlds may be formed  nothing into existence, and continually superinunder the superintendence of Omniipotence-and tends all its movements!' The mind is bewildered
that each mass of this substance is gradually con- and confounded when it attempts to dwell on this
centrating itself by the effect of its own gravity, subject; it feels the narrow limits of its present
andl of the circular motions of which it is suscep- faculties; it longs for the powers of a seraph, to
tible —into denser masses, so as ultimately to' enable it to take a more expansive flight into those
efitct the arrangement and establishment of side- regions which "eye hath not seen;" and, while
real systems.                                    destitute of these, and chained down to this ohIt appears, from  numerous observations, that scure corner of creation, it can only exclaim, in
various changes are occasionally taking place in the language of inspiration, "Who can by searchthe regions of the stars. Several stars have ap- ing find out God?-Great is our Lord, and of
peared for a while in the heavens, and then  great power: his understanding is infinite!-Great
vanished'from the sight. Some stars which were and marvelous are thy works, Lord God Almighty!'known to the ancients, cannot-now be discovered; -Who can utter the mighty acts of Jehovah!
and stars are now distinctly visible, which were to who can show forth all his praise!"
them unknown. A few stars have gradually in-   After what has now been stated in relation to
creased in brilliancy, while others have been con- the leading facts of Astronomy, it would be needstantly diminishing inl luster. Certain stars, to less to spend time in endeavoring to show  its
the number of fifteen or upwards, are ascertained  connection with Religion. It will at once be adto have a periodical increase and decrease of their mitted, that all the huge globes of luminous and
luster, sometimes appearing like stars of the first opaque matter to which we have adverted, are the
or second magnitude, sometimes diminishing to  workmanship  of Him  "who is wonderful in
the size of the fourth, or fifth magnitude, and'counsel, and excellent in working;" and form a
sometimes altogether disappearing to the naked part of the dominions of that august Sovereign,
eye. The late discoveries respecting double and "whose kingdom ruleth over alL"  And shall it
triple stars are particularly worthy of attention. ever be insinuated, that this subject has no relaSome stars, which, to the naked eye, appear single, tion to the great object of our adoration? and that
when examined by good telescopes, are found to it is of no importance in our views of the Divinity,
consist of two, three, or more stars. In reference whether we conceive his dominions as circumnto double stars, one of the two is generally consi- scribed within the limits of little more than 25,000
derably smaller than the other, and it is now as- miles, or as embracing. an extent whicli comprecertained that, in many instances, the smaller star hends innumerable worlds!  The objects around
has a circular or elliptical motion around the us in this sublunary sphere, strikingly evince the
larger.. About 6000 double stars have already superintendency, the wisdom, and benevolence of
been detected; and between 40 and 50 of these the Creator: but this science demonstrates, beyond
bodies have been ascertained beyond doubt to all other departments of human knowledge, the
form revolving systems. Some of'these require GRANDEUR and MAGNIFICENCE of his operations; and
1600, others 1200, and'others about 452 years to raises the mind to sublimer views of his attributes
complete their revolutions; while some others than can be acquired by the contemplation of
finish their circuits in the short periods of 55, 43, any other objects. A serious contemplation of
and even 30 years. So that here we have Suns the sublime objects which Astronomy has exrevolving around suns, and systems of worlds
revolving around s',stems of worlds, in various                   * See pp. 19, 28.




92                          THE  CHRISTIAN. PHILOSOPHER.
plored, must therefore have a tendency to inspire such subjects, or to the views they entertain re.
us with' profound veneration of the Eternal Jeho- specting the relation of such contemplations to
vah —to humble us in -the'dust' before his august thef objects of religion. In communicating relipresence-to excite admiration-of'his condescen- gious instructions in reference'to the- attributes
sion and grace- in the work of redemption-to'of God, the- heavens are seldom referred to, except
show us the littleness of this world; and:the in- in such a vague and indefinite manner as can prosignificancy of those riches and honors to which duce no deep nor vivid impression on the mind;
ambitious men aspire with so.much, labor and'and many pious persons whose views have been
anxiety of mind-to demonstrat6 the glory and confined to.a-narrow range of objects, have been
magnificence of God's universal  kingdom-to  disposed to declaim against such studies, as if they.convince us of the infinite sources of varied feli- had a tendency to engender pride and self-conceit,
city which he has in his power to communicate and as if they were even dangerous to the interto holy intelligences-to enliven our.hopes of the ests'of religion and piety. Ilow very different
splend(ors of that "-exceeding great and eternal were the feelings and the conduct of the sacred
weight. of glory," which will burst, upon the writers!  They call upon every one of God's'inspirits of good men, when they pass from this re- telligent offspring'to "" stand still and consider
gion of; mortality —-and to induce us to aspire the wondrous works.of the Most High;" and dewith more- lively ardor after that heavenly world, scribe the profound emotions of piety which the
where the glories of'the Deity, and the-magni- contemplation -of them  produced on their own
ficence of his works, will be more clearly un- minds:' "Lift up your eyes on high, and behold!
folded.                                       Who hath created these things?  The heavens
If, then, such be theeffects which the objects of declare,-the glory of God, and the firniament
astronomy have a tendency to produce on a de- showeth his handiwork. When I consider thy
vout and enlightened mind-to call in question  heavens, the, work of thy fingers, the moon and
the propriety of exhibiting such'i'iews in religious the stars, which thou hast ordained; what is mal,
publications, or in the courseof religious instruc- that thou, art mindful of him? and the son of
tions, would Abe an approach to impiety, and an man, that thou visitest him?  Thou, even thou,
attempt to cover with a vail the most illustrious art Lord alone: thou hast made heaven, and the,visible displays of Divine glory.-It forms a strik- heaven of heavens, with all their host, and thou
ing evidence of the depravity of man, as well as preservest them all; and the hosts of heaven worof his want of true taste, and of a discernment of ship thee. All the gods of the nations are idols;
what is excellent, that the grandeur of the noctur- -but the Lord MADE THE HEAVENS; honor and manal heavens, and the perfections of Deity they  jesty are before him. Jehovah hath prepared his
proclaim, are beheld with so much apathy and THRONE in the heavens; and his kingdom  ruleth
indifference by the bulk of mankind. Though  over all.-Sing praises unto God, ye kingdoms of
"the heavens declare the glory of God," in the the earth, to him  that rideth on the heaven of
most solemn and impressive language, adapted to heavens. Ascribe ye POWER to our God; for his
the comprehension of every kindred and every strength is in the heavens. Praise him for his
tribe, yet "a brutish -man,knoweth- not, neither mighty acts, praise him according to his excellent
doth a fool understand-. this."  They can gaze greatness."-If we would enter with'spirit into
upon these resplendent orbs with as little emotion such elevated strains of piety, we must not conas the ox that feeds on the grassi or as. the horse tent ourselves with a passing and vacant stare at
that drags their carcasses along in their chariots. the orbs of heaven, as if they were only so many
They have even attempted to ridicule the science brilliant studs fixed in the canopy of the sky; but
of the heavens, to caricature those who have de- must " consider" them with fixed attention, in all
voted themselves to such studies, and to treat with  the lights in which revelation and science have
an indifference, mingled with contempt, the most exhibited them to our view, if we wish to praise
august productions of Omnipotence. Such per- Godsfor his mighty works, and "according to his
sons must be considered as exposing themselves excellent greatness."  And, for this purpose, the
to that Divine denunciation-" Because they re- conclusions deduced by those who have devoted
gard not the works of Jehovah, neither consider themselves to celestial investigations, ought to
the operations of his hands, he will destroy them, be presented to the view of the intelligent Chrisand not build them up."  If the structure of the tian, that he may be enabled to "speak of the
heavens, and the immensity of worlds and'beings glory of Jehovah's kingdom, and to talk of his
which they contain, were intended by the Creator power."
to adumbrate, in some measure, his invisible perfections,' and to produce a sublime and awful im-           NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
pression on the minds of all' created intelligences,*
it rmust' imply a high- degree of disrespect to- the   Having, in the preceding sketches, considerably
Divinity, willfully to overlook these astonishing exceeded the limits originally prescribed for this
scenes of Power and Intelligence. It is not a department of my subject, I am reluctantly commatter of mere taste' or caprice;, Whether or not pelled to dispatch the remaining sciences with a
we direct our thoughts to such subjects, but an few brief notices.
imperative duty, to which we are'frequently    The object of Natural Philosophy is, to observe
(directed in the word of God; the willful neglect of and describe the phenomena of the material uniwhich, where there is an- opportunity of attend- verse, with a view to discover their causes, and
ing to it, must subject us to all that is included the laws by which the Almighty directs the mo(vein'the threatening- now specified, if there be any  ments of all'bodies in heaven and on earth. It
meaning in language.          -                embraces an investigation of the laws of gravitaThat the great- body of professed Christians are tion. by which the planets are directe'd in their
absolute.strangers to the sublime sentiments which  motions; the lawsby which water, air, light, and
a serious' contemplation of the heavens inspires, heat, are regulated, and the effects they produce
must be owing,; in part, to the minds of Christian in the various states in which they operate; the
parents and teachers niot having been directed to- nature of colors, sounds, electricity, galvanism,
and magnetism, and the laws of their operation;
* See pp. 21, 24.             the causes which -operate in -the production o~




NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.                                      93
thunder, lightning, luminous and fiery meteors, useful Arts, "the wilderness and the solitary
hail, rain, snow, dew, and other atmospherical place are made glad, and the desert rejoices and
pllhenomena.  In short, it embraces all the objects blossoms as the rose."  Cities are founded, and
of Natural History formerly alluded to, with a gradually rise to opulence and splendor; palaces
view to ascertain the causes of their varied ap- and temples are reared; the damp cavern, and the
pearances, and the principles that operate in the rush-built hut, are exchanged for the warm and
changes to which they are subject; or, in other comfortable apartments of a substantial mansion;
words, the laws by which the diversified phenome- ships are built, and. navigated across the ocean;
na of universal nature are produced and regu- thetreasures of one country are conveyed to anlated.  One subordinate use of the knowledge other; an intercourse is carried on between the
derived from this science, is, to enable us to con- most distant tribes of mankind; commerce flourstruct all those mechanical engines which facili- ishes, and machinery of all kinds is erected for
tate human labor, and increase the comforts of facilitating  human labor, and promoting the'
mankind, and all those instruments which tend to enjoyments of man.  And, when the princienlarge our views of the operations of nature. A  ples and the practice of "pure and undefiled
still higher and nobler use to which philosophy is religion" accompany  these physical and me.
subservient, is to demonstrate the Wisdom and chanical operations, love and affection diffuse
Intelligence of the Great First Cause of all their benign influence; the prospect brightens
things, and to enlarge our conceptions of the as years roll on, and man advances, with pleaadmirable contrivance and design which appear in sure and improvement, to the scene of his high
the different departments of universal nature. In destination.
this view, it may be considered as forming a   II. HYDROSTATICS treats of the pressure and
branch of Natural Theology, or, in other words, equilibrium  of fluids.  From  the experiments
a branch of the religion of angels, and of all which have been made in thio oranch of philosoother holy intelligences.                      phy, the following important principles, among
This department of natural science hasgeone- many others, have been deduced:rally been divided into the following branches:-  (1.) That the surface of all waters which have a
I. MECEANICS. —This branch, considered in its communication while they are at rest, will be permost extensive range, includes an investigation of fectly level.'This principle will be more clearly
the general properties of matter; such as solidity, understood by an inspection of the follrwing
extension, divisibility, motion, attraction, and re- figures.  If water be poured into the tube A (fig.
pulsioi —the, law of gravitation, and of central 24), it will run through the horizontal tube E,
forces, as they appear to operate in the motions and rise in the opposite tube B, to the same hight
of the celestial bodies; and on the surface of our at which it stands at A. It is on this principle
globe, in the phenomena of falling bodies, the that water is now conveyed under ground, through
motions of projectiles, the vibration of pendu- conduit pipes, and made to rise to the level of the
lums, etc.,-the theory of machines, the princi- fountain whence it is drawn. The city of Ediuples on which their energy depends; the proper- burgh, a considerable part of which is elevated
ties of the mechanical powers-the lever, the wheel above the level of the surrounding country, is
and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, supplied with water from a reservoir on the Pentand the screw,-and the effects resulting from  landhills,sevwral milesdistant. The water is contheir various combinations. From the investigations of philosophers on these subjects, we learn                 Fig. 24.
the laws by which the great bodies of the universe are directed in their motions; the laws
which bind together the different portions of matter on the surface of the earth, and which regulate the motions of animal, vegetable, and inanimate nature; and the principles on which
cranes, mills, wheel-carriages, thrashing-machines, pile-engines, locomotive carriages, and
other engines, are constructed; by'means of
which man  has been enabled to accomplish
operations far beyond the limits of his own
physical powers.
Without a knowledge of the laws of motion, and
assistance from the combined effects of the mechanical powers, man would be a very limited
being, his enjoyments would be few, and his ac- veyed in leaden pipes down the declivity of the
tive energies confined within a very narrow  hill, along the interjacent plain, and up to the enrange. In a savage state, ignorant of manufac- trance of the castle, whence it is distributed to all
tures, agriculture, architecture, navigation, and parts of the city. If the point A represent the
the other arts which depend upon mechanical level of the reservoir, C D will represent the plain
combinations, he is exposed, without shelter, to along which the water is conveyed, and B the
the inclemencies of the seasons; he is unable to elevation to which it rises on the Castle-hill. On
transport himself beyond seas and oceans, to visit the same principle, and in a similar manner, the
other climes, and other tribes of his fellow-men; city of London is supplied with water from
he exists in the desert, comfortless and unimprov- water-works at the London bridge.  Had the
ed; the fertile soil, over which he roams, is coy- ancients been acquainted with this simple, but
ered with thorns and briers, and thickets, for the important principle, it would have saved them the
naunt of beasts of prey; his enjoyments are little labor and- expense of rearing those stupendous
superior to those of the lion, the hyena, and the works of art, the Aqueducts, which consisted of
elephant, while he is much their inferior in point numerous arches of vast size, and sonletimnes
of agility and physical strength. But, when pi- piled one above another.
losophy has once demonstrated the principles of   Fig. 25 represents the syphon, the action of
Mechanics, and introduced the practice of the which depends upon the pressure of the atmo



0-4:                         THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
Fig. 25       sphere.  If this instrument is again supplied to the hight of the syphon
be filled with water, or any when the process of filling will be again renewed
other liquid, and the shorter It is obvious that unless the water in the reservoir
leg G. plunged to the bot- rises above the hight of the bend of the syphon
tom of a cask, or other vessel E, the well cannot be filled.
containing  the same liquid,   (2.) Any quantity of fluid, however small, map
the water will run out at the be made to counterpoise any quantity, however large
longer leg F, until the vessel This is what has generally been termed the Hybe emptied, in consequence drostatical Paradox; and from  this principle it
r        G of the atmospheric pressure follows, that a given quantity of water may exert
G upon the surface of the liquid. a force several hundred times greater or less, acOn this principle water may cording to the manner in which it is employed
be conveyed  over a rising This force depends on the hight of the column of
ground to any distance, pro- water, independent of its quantity; for its presvided the perpendicular bight sure depends on its perpendicular hight.  By
of the syphon above the sur- means of water conveyed through a very smal.
face of the water in the foun- perpendicular tube, of great length, a very strong
tain does not exceed thirty- hogshead has been burst to pieces, and the water
two or thirty-three feet. On scattered about with incredible force. On this
the same principle, are con- principle, the hydrostatic press, and other engines
structed the fountain at com- of immense power, have been constructed.
mand, the cup of Tantalus, and other entertaining I  (3.) Every body which is heavier than water, r,
devices. The same principle, too, enables us to which sinks in it, displaces so much of the water ad
account for springs which are sometimes found on is equal to the bulk of the body immersed in th.,
the tops of mountains, and for the phenomena of water.-On this principle, the specific gravitiels,
intermittin.q springs, or those which flow and stop or comparative weight, of all bodies are determin.
by regular alternations.                         ed. It appears to have been first ascertained by
The following figure will explain the nature of  Archimedes, and by means of it, he determined
intermitting springs.  Suppose A B a cavity or that the golden crown of the king of Syracuse
receptacle of water formed in the bowels of a hill had been adulterated by the workmen. From this
where the spring is situated, which gradually fills principle we learn, among many other thinlgs, thle
with water like other reservoirs, and that by the specific gravity of the human body; and tlla
interposition of some stratum  of rock or other four pounds of cork will preserve a person weighsubstance, the tube C D, which conveys the water ing 135 pounds from  sinking, so that lie may reto the spring or mouth where it issues-is bent main with his head completely above water.
in the form of a syphon; whenever the reservoir   Hydraulics, which has sometimes been treated
A B is filled as high as the bend of the tube, or as a distinct department of mechanical philosophy,
to the, level of h i, the water will rise in the tube, may be considered as a branch of Hydrostatics.
and begin to flow into the spring, which will con- It teaches us what relates to the motion of fluids,
tinue until the reservoir be exhausted.  While and how to estimate their velocity and force  On
this process is going on, the water in the spring the principles of this science, all machines workwill rise, and as soon as the reservoir is exhausted, ed by water are constructed —as steam-engines,
the water will appear to fall in the well of the water-mills, common and forcing pumps. syphns,
spring, and will continue to fall until the reservoir fountains, and fire-engines.
Fig. 26.
1II. PNEUMATICS. —This branch of philosophy  of flame and animal life, and the germination arnd
treats of the nature and properties of the atmo- growth of all kinds of vegetables.
sphere, and of their effects on solid and fluid bo-   These positions are proved, and illustrated by
dies. From  this science we, learn that air has such experiments as the following:-The general
weight, and presses on all sides like other fluids; pressure of the atmosphere is proved by such exthat the pressure of the atmosphereupon the top of periments as those detailed in Note II of the Apa mountain is less than on the plain beneath; that pendix. The following experiment proves that
it presses upon our bodies with the weight of seve- air is compressible.  If a glass tube, open at one
ral thousand pounds more at one time than at an- end, and close at the other, be plunged, with the
other; that air can be compressed into forty thou- open end downward, into a tumbler of water, the
sand times less space than it naturally occupies; water will rise a little way in the tube; which
that it is of an elastic or expansive nature, and shows, that the air which filled the tube is comthat the force of its spring is equal to its weight; pressed by the water into a smaller space. Th 
that its elasticity is increased by heat; that it is elasticity of air is proved by tying up a blad- 
necessary to the production of sound, the support der, with a very small quantity of air within it




NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.                                           95
ud- putting it under the receiver of'an air-pump,:striking against an obstacle, as,the wall of' a
when it will be seen gradually to ififlate,'until it house, may, like light, be reflected, and produce
becomes of its full size.  A  similar effect would  another sound,-which is called an echo; and that,
take place, by carrying the bladder to the higher after it has- been reflected from  several places,
regions of the atmosphere.  On the compression  it may be collected into one point or focus, where
and elasticity of the air, depends the construction  it will be'more audible than in any other place.'
of that dangerous and destructive instrumeilt, the    The intensity of sound increases or diminishes
Air-gul.  That it is capable of being rarefied by  when the elasticity of the air increases or diminheat, is proved by holding to the'fire a half-blown  ishes, either by heat or by compression.  Hence,
bladder, slightly tied at the neck, whenlit will di- in proportion as the airl is rarefied under the relate to. nearly its ful:l size; and'if -either a faull ceiver of anl air-pump, or in the ascent of lofty
blown bladder, or a thin glass bubble filled with  moun'tains, sound loses its force.  Air communiair, is held to a strong, fire, it "will burst.  The cates its vibrationis: to the sonorous bodies with
elasticity of the air is such, that Mr. Boyle, by  which it  in contact.  Hence a string of an inme'ans of an air-pumnp,, caused it to dilate until it strument causes another stretched beside it to vioccupied fourteen' thousand times the space that it brate, A noise without'makeSthes windows of an
usually does.  That the air isnecessary to sound, apartment to resound, afid the discharge of canflame, animal and vegetable life,: is proved by the nons, and peals of thunder, cause buildings, and
following experiments: —When the receiver of an  even whole villages to shake. Euler tells us of a
air-punip is'exhausted of its air, a: cat, a mouse, man who, by different inflections of'iis voice,
or -abird, placed in it, expires in:a few.moments, made a glass vibrate so as almost to break it.in the greatest agonies.  A bell rung in the same  When the velocity of sound is known, the dissituation produces no sound; and a lighted candle tance of' certain-objects may be determined.  If a
iS instantly extinguished.  Similar experiments flash of a gun be observed, and the number of
prove that air is necessary for the flight of birds; seconds or pulsations which elapse between seeing
the ascenlt of-smoke and'vapors, the explosion of the flash and hearing the report, be counted, this
gunpowder, and the growth of plants; and that number multiplied by 1142, the assumed velocity
all bodies descend equially swift in a place void of of sound per second, will give the distance of the
air; a guinea and a feather being found to fall to observer from  the center of vibration.  If, in a
the bottom of an exhausted receiver at the same thunder storm, I can count five' pulsations, from
instant., - -                                   the instant of seeing the lightning until. the report
On the principles which this science has estab- of'the thunder be heard, the distance of the thunlished have been constructed the' air-pump, the der cloud -will be 1142X5= —5710 feet; that is, an
barometer, the thermometer, the diving-bell, the English mile and 430 feet. Were the thunder to
hygrometer, the condenser, and various other in- be heard within a second of the time of seeing
struments, which have contributed to the comfort the flash, it would indicate that the thunder wtm
of -human life, and to the enlargement of  our'within 380 yards of the observer, and conseknowledge of the constitution of nature.          quently, that he is within the sphere of danger.IV. ACOUSTICS. —This sciencetreats of the na- In estimating such distances 412 seconds, at an
ture, Lse phenomena, and the laws of sound, and  average, may be reckoned for every mile.
tlhe:theory of musical concord and harnony.-          On the principles above stated we may account.rom the experiments which have been made on for the various phenomena of sounds and the dithis subject, we learn, that air is essential to the versified echoes which are heard in various places,
productioni of sound; that it arises from vibra- which both amuse and sometimes puzzle the obtions in the air, communicated to it by vibrations serveys-and on the same principles whispering
of'the sounding body; that these vibrations, or galleries, such as that in St. Paul's church, Lonaerial pulses, are propagated all around in a sphe- don, speaking and hearing trumpets-wind and
rical undulatory manner; that their density de- stringed instruments-the Harmonica Celestina,
creases as the squares of the distances from  the and other acoustic instruments, are constructed.
sounding body increase; that they are propagated    V. OPTIcs.-This branch of philosophy treats
tdgether in great numbers from  different bodies of vision, light, and colors, and of the various
without disturbance or confusion, as: is evident phenomena of visible objects produced by the
from concerts of musical instruments; that water,' rays of light, reflected from mirrors, or transmittimber, and flannel, are also good conductors of  ted through lenses.  From  this science we learn,
sound; that sound travels at the rate of 1142 feet that light flies at the rate' of nearly twelve milin a second, or about thirteen miles in a minute;* li-ons of miles every minute- that it moves in
that the softest whisper flies as fast as the loudest straight lines-that its particles may be several
thunder; and that the utmost limits, within which' thousands of miles distant from  each other-that
the loudest' sounds, produced by artificial means, every visible body emits particles of light from
can be heard, is 180 or 200 miles;t that sound, its surface, in all directions-that the particles of
light are exceedingly small; for a lighted candle
* The velocit:ofrsound  has been somewlat'M.differently will fill a cubical space of two miles every way
its velocity at 1200 feet; the Florentine Academicians at
11i48 feet' the French Academicians at 1172 feetpersecond.  part of its substance; and millions of rays, from
It is reckoned-by some modern philosophers that 1120 feet a thousand objects will pass through a hole not
persecond may be reckoned as a medium estimate. The larger than the point of a needle, and convey to
experiments of Flamstead, Halley,,and Derham, which
were, considered as having been accurately performed, give. mind  an idea of the form, position, and color,
t14~ feet per second, as the: average velocity of sound — of every individual obj'ect-that tile intensity, or
whiili i's sometimesi' modified by the direction of the wind degree of light decreases, as the square of the disand local circumstances...,Xtance from the luminous body increases; that is,
l In thse war between England and Hollanti, in 1672, the at two yards distance fromn a candle, we sihall hav
noise of the guns was heard in those'parts of Wales which at two yards distance from a candle, we shallhave
were estimatedto be two hundred miles.,distant from the only the fourth part of the light we should have
scene of action.,But the sounds produced by volcanoes at the distance of one yard; at three yards disof hich heare stated in uch greater distance; semeinstances talcei, the ninth part; at four yards, the sixteenth
of wisich are stated in Chap. IV, Sect. 2. Several other
facts, in relation'to sound are detailed in Chap. II, Art.' part, and so onl-that glass lenses may be ground
AIcoustiC: Tausanel.                              iltd the following forms: plano-convex, plano-conVOL. II. -7




96                            THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
cave, double convex, double concave, and meniscus, per, who, as early as 1814, had commenced rethat is, convex on one side, and concave on the searches on this subject; but Daguerre. had given
other-that specula, or mirrors, may be. ground up-the idea of being able to bring his methods to
into either a spherical, parabolical, or cylindrical perfection, until about the year 1838, when the
form-that, by means of such mirrors and lenses, effects produced by his art began to excite a conthe rays of light  may be so modified as, to proceed siderable degree.of attention; and as a reward for
either in a diverging, converging, or parallel direc- disclosing the process and publishing it to the
tion, and the images of visible objects represented world, the French government bestowed on the
in a variety of new forms, positions, and magni- inventor and'his partner an annuity of' ten thou.
tudes,-that every ray of white light may be sepa- sand francs (~416 13s. 4d.): M. Arago, when
rated into seven primary colors: red, orange, ye- alluding to this daiseovery,.has the following re
low, green, blue, indigo,; and violet-that- the vane. mark:." No person has ever witnessed the neatgatedcoloring which appears on the -face of na- ness of outline, precision of form, the truth of
ture is not in the objects'themselves', but' in, the coloring, and the sweet gradations of tint, dis.
light iwhich falls upon them-that the rainbow is played by the Camera,.without regretting that an
produced by the refraction and reflectionp of -the imragery so exquisite and so faithful to nature
solar rays-in the drops of falling rain-'that the could not be made to fix itself permanently on
rays of light are refracted, or bent out of their the tablet of the machine-who has not put up
course, when they -fall upon glass, water, and his aspiration that some means might be discoother- mediums-that the light of the sun may be vered by which to give reality to shadows so
collected into- a point-or focus,'and made, to pro- lovely! Yet in the estimation of all, such a wish
ducea.heat-more intense than thatof afurnac.e —  seemed destined to take its place among other
that the rays from visible objects, when reflected dreams of beautiful things-among the glorious
from a concave mirror, converge to a focus, and but impracticable conceptions in which men of
paint an image of the objects before it,. and' that science and ardent temperament have sometimes
when they pass through..a. convex glass, they de- indulged.  This dream, notwithstanding, has just
pict an image behind it.                          been realized."
On these and other principles demonstrated by    Our limits will not permit to give a detail of
this science, the Camera Obscura, the Magic Lan- the process by which the' effect now stated is protern, the Phantasmagoria, the Kaleidoscope, the  duced.  We shall just state the following goeneral
Heliostata, the Micromet6r -Spectacles, Opera outline.-The designs taken by the Daguerreo.
Glasses, Prisms, single, compound, lucernal, and  type are executed upon thin plates of silver plated
solar Microscopes, reflecting and refracting Tele- on copper.  The silver must be of the purest
scopes, and other optical instruments, have been kind, and the thickness of both metals not to exconstructed, by means of which the natural pow- ceed that of a stout card.  Before placing it -in.
ers of human vision have been wonderfully in- the Camera the following operations are requisite:
creased, and our prospects into the.:works of God 1. The plate must be cleansed and highly polish.
extended far beyond what former ages could have ed. For this purpose a little of fine pumice powconceived.                                        der is put into a muslin bag and shaken over the
Connected with the science of Optics, it nmay plate, and it is then rubbed gently with cotton
be proper to notice a late discovery for fixing the dipped in olive oil. Diluted nitric acid is then
images formed by convex lenses, distinguished by rubbed over the plate with cotton, and then rubthe name of the DAG ERREOTYPE.  Almost every bed again with  pumice  and dry cotton; and
one knows the effects produced by the Camera afterward the  plate  is to  be subjected  to a
Obscura. A  convex glass placed in an opening strong  heat. 2. The  plate  has to  receive  a
in a window-shutter in a dark room, or in a box coating  of Iodine.  To  accomplish  this  the
constructed for the purpose, forms, on a white plate is fixed upon a board, and then put into a
screen, placed al its focal distance- a beautiful pic- box containing a little dish with iodine divided
ture of all the objects which are opposite to it, into small pieces, and allowed to remain until it
inltheir exact proportions, symmetry, and colors. is covered with a gold-colored coating, which proBut this picture evanishes the moment the lens cess must be conducted in a darkened apartment
or the screen- is removed. The Daguerreotype~ is 3. The Camera is next placed in the front of the.
an art by which this picture or image may be landscape or. object, and as soon as the focus is
rendered permanent.  It derives its name from M. adjusted, the light is excluded, and the plate put
Daguerre, a member of the F'rench Academy of in, when, in the course of a few minutes, and in..
Fine Arts, who-was in partaership with M. Nei- some cases, in a few seconds, a perfect picture or
design is'obtained.  I have seen a portrait of an
* This is produced by means of lenses, or mirrors, of a individual taken in this way in the course of half
large diameter, called burning-glasses. Bythese instr u-aminute.  4. The plate is next placed over the
ments, the hardest metals, on which common fires, and
even glass-house fisrnaces, could produce no effect, have vapor of mercury to bring- out the image, which
been melted. in a few seconds;.'M, Villette a Frenchman, is -not visible when withdrawn from  the Camera_.
nearly a century ago, constructed a'mirror, three feet eleven The
inches in diameter, and three feet'two inches in focal distance, which melted-cpper ore in eight seconds, iron ore veral minutes.  5. The coating on which the
in-twenty-four seconds, a fish's tooth in thirty-two seconds, design was impressed is, to be removed in order to
ca.st iros in sixteen seconds, a silver sixpence in seven se- preserve it from being decomposed by the rays of
coiids, and t7in inmthree seconds. Thiis imirror condensed the light.  To do this, the plate is placed in a trough
solar rays 17,257 times, a degree of heat which is aboutfurs 
hundired and ninety times greater than conlmnon -fire.s  Mr. containing common water, plunging and withs
Parker, of London, constructed a lens three feet in diameter, drawing it immediately, and then plunging it into
and six feet eight inches focus, which weighed 212 lbs. It a solution of salt and water until the yellow coatmelted twenty grains of gold in four secods, and ten grains ing has disappeared.
of platina in three seconds. The power of burning-glasses
is, as the area of the lees directl, ad th  square of the   Such is a very abridged sketch of the photogefocal distance inversely-or, in, other words, the broader the nica operations of M. Daguerre. When finished
mirror or lens, and the sh rter the focal distarnee, the more in a perfect way, the designs thus taken on the
intense is the heat producedby such instruments. A globuA; I  -plate are exceedingly beautiful and correct, and
lar decanter' of water makes apowerful burning-glass; and  are exceedingly beautiful 
house furniture has been set oa:fire bky incautiously exposing will bear to be inspected with a considerable magit to the rays of the sun.'   nifying power, so'that the most minute.portions




NATURA;L PHILOSOPHY.                                        97
of ithe objects delineated may be perceived; and it distances;  These bodies are therefore called nodhas been discovered that an etching of the design conductors.
can be taken in the common way, and from, that   The following facts, among others, have been
again.any number of electrotype copies can be ascertained respecting this' wonderful agent:
produced. M. Claudet, the patentee of this inven- That all bodies with which we are acquainted
tion at the Adelaide gallery, London, has made possess a greater. or less share- of this fluid-that
several improvements, particularly ill taking like- the quantity usually belonging to any body pronesses.- He is now enabled to take a likeness in duces no sensible effects; but when any surface
one second, and even less-in the twinkling of an becomes possessed of more or less than its natural
eye,:and to give the portraits so made any back- share, it exhibits certain appearances in the form
ground.thatmay be desired.                      of light, sound, attraction, or repulsion,:which
This invention may be considered as still in its are ascribed to the power called electric-that
infancy; but in the course of its improvement, there are two different species of.the electrical
its results may be highly beneficial and extensive. fluid, or at least two different modifications of the
To use the words of Arago: " To copy the mil- same general principle, termed positive and negalions of millions of hieroglyphics, which entirely tive electricity-that positive and negative eleccover to the-very exterior of the great monuments tricity always accompany each other; for if a
at -Thebes, Memphis, Carnoc, etc., would require substance acquire the.one, the body with which
-scores of years and legions of artists. With the it is rubbed acquires the other —that. it moves
Daguerreotype a single man would suffice to bring with  tnhazing rapidity, having been transmitted
to a conclusion this vast labor; and at the same through wires of several miles in length, without
time, such designs shall incomparably surpass taking up any sensible space of time; and therein fidelity, in truth of local color, the works of fore it is not improbable, that were an insulated
the ablest artists."  It is probable, too, that this conducting substance extended from  one contiart may.be applied to taking exact pictures of the nent to another, it might be made to fly to the
heavenly bodies-not only of. the sun, but even remotest regions of the earth in a few seconds of
of the moon, the planets, and the stars. The time * — that it has a power of suddenly contractplated discs prepared. by Daguerre receive impres- ing the muscles of animals, or of giving a shock
siorrs from the action of the lunar rays to such to the animal frame-that this shock may be
an, extent as permits the hope that photographic communicated, at the same instant, to a hundred
charts of the moon, may soon be -obtained. Nor persons, or to any indefinite number who form a
is it perhaps too much to expect that the rays of circle, by joining their hands together-that it
the stars-even of distant nebulb  may thus be may be accumulated to such a degree as to- kill
fixed and-a- delineation of their objects produced the largest animals —-that vivid- sparks of this
which shall be capable of being magnified by fluid, attended_ with a. crackling noise, may be
powerful microscopes.-This invention leads us drawn from  different parts of the human body,.to conclude that we have not yet discovered all when the person is insulated, or stands upon a
the wonderful properties of that LIGHT which stool supported by glass feet-that electricity sets
unnails to us the beauties and sublimities of the fire to gunpowder, spirits of wine, and other inuniverse; and that thousands of admirable agencies flammable substances — that it melts iron wire
and. objects hitherto unknown, may soon be dis- and destroys the polarity of the magnetic needle —
closed to our view through this medium, as we that it augments the natural evaporation of fluids,
advance in our researches and discoveries.      promotes the vegetation of plants, and increases
VI. ELEcrrRIcITY.-This. name has been given the insensible perspiration of animals; and can be
to a science which explains. and illustrates the drawn from  the. clouds by means of electrical
operations of a very subtile fluid, called the electric kites, and other elevated conductors. By means
fluid, which appears to pervade every part of na- of the electrical power, small models of machinery
ture, and to be one of the chief agents employed have been set in action; orreries to represent the
in producing many of the phenomena of the ma- movements of the  planets have been put in
terial world. If a piece of amber, sealing-wax, motion; and small bells have been set ringing for a
or sulphur, be rubbed with a piece of flannel, it length of time; and, in consequence of the knowwill acquire the power of attracting small bits of ledge we have acquired, of the mode of its operapaper, feathers, or other light substances., If a tion in the system  of nature, the lightnings of
tube of. glass,: two or three feet in length, and an heaven have been arrested in their course, and
inch or two in diameter, be rubbed pretty hard, constrained to descend to the earth, without proin a dark room, with a piece of dry woolen cloth, ducing any injurious effects.
beside attracting light substances, it will emit   From  these, and a variety of other facts and
flashes- of fire, attended' with a crackling noise. experiments, it is now fully ascertained, that lightThis luminous matter is.called electricity, or the ning and electricity are identical; and that it is'el,:tfric fluid. If a large globe, or cylinder of -the prime agent in producing -the awful phenog[ass,'be turned rapidly round, and: made to rub mena of a thunder-storm; the lightning being the
against a.cushion, streams and large sparks of rapid motion of vast masses of electric matter,
bluish flame.will be elicited, which will fly round and thunder -'the noise, with its echoes, produced
the glass, attract light bodies, and produce a pun- by the rapid motion of the lightning through the
gent sensation, if the- hand be held to it. This atmosphere.-There can be little doubt that in
glass, with:all its. requisite apparatus, is called-an combination with steam, the gases, and other
electrTical machine. It is found that.this fluid will agents, it also produces many of the terrific pheass along some bodies, and not'along others. The nomena of earthquakes, volcanoes, whirlwinds,
odies- overwhich-:it passes freely are water, and water-spouts,-and hurricanes, and the sublime
most other fluids, except oil-and the- aerial fluids;. coruscations of the aurora b'orealis.-In the opeiron, copper, lead, and in general: all the -metals, rations.of this powerful fluid,-we behold a striksemi-metals, and metallic ores; which are therel lug display of the sovereignty and majestic agency
fore ~cat!ed- conduqtors  of electricity.>  But it will of God. Tn directing its energies, " his way is in
not pass over glass, resin, -wax,- sulphur, silk,'the whirlwind and the storm, and the clouds are
baked -woods, or. dry oolen substances; nor, _:_
through air,: except by fIore, -in sysrks, to short   * see Chap. III, Art. ELEOTRIC TELEGRAPH.




98                         THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
the dust of his feet'; the heavens are covered with  tongue, and lay a piece of silvse, as big as a haifsackcloth, the mountains quake before him, the I crown, above it; by bringing thle outer edges of
hills melt, the earth is burned at his presence, and I these pieces in contact, we shall immediately exrocks are thrown down by hihn."*  It is easy to perience a peculiar and disagreeable taste, like
conceive, that by a few slight modifications pro- that of copper. The same thing may be noticed
duced by the hand of Omnipotence, this powerful with a guinea and a piece of charcoal. If a perfluid might become the agent of producing either son, in the dark, put.a slip of tinfoil upon one of
the most awful and tremendous, or the most glo- his eyes, and a, piece of silver in his mouth,-by
rious and transporting scenes, over every region  causing these pieces to communicate, a faint flash
of our globe.  As it now operaLes, it is calculated  will appear before his eyes.- If a living frog or a
to inspire us rather with awe and terror than with  fish, having a slip of tinfoil pasted -upon its back,
admiration and joy; and to lead our thoughts to a be placed upon a piece of Zinc, by forming a comconsideration of the state of man as a depraved munication between the zinc and tinfoil, the
intelligence, and a rebel against the government spasms of the muscles are excited. These and
of his Maker.!                 similar effects are produced by that modification
Electricity-is rapidly extending its boundaries, of electricity which has been termed Galvanism.
and its influence as an -important agent in the  Three different conductors, or what is called a
arts; and, as yet, we- can form no adequate con- galvanic circle, are requisite to produce such efception of the- results which may flow from the fects.  A -piece- of copper, a piece of flannel,
investigations into its- nature, combinations, and moistened with'water or acid, and a piece of zinc,
applications, which are now making by the scien- laid upon one another, form a- circle; and if this
tific world, or of the powerful effects it may pro- circle be repeated a number of times, a galvanic
duce, when thoroughly wielded by the, hand: of pile orl battery may be formed, capable of giving
genius., It has already been applied to many a powerful shock. The most common and con —
useful purposes-to remove obstructions in the venient form, however, of a battery, is found to
human frame-to cure diseases-to ascertain the be a trough of baked wood, three or four inches
depths of the' sea-'to  produce explosions for deep, and  as many wide.  In  the sides are
effecting mechanical operations, —and for convey- grooves, opposite to each other, into each of
ing intelligence at the rate of 192,000 miles in a which is placed a double metallic plate of zinc
sec.ond. Among its recent applications is the pro- and copper soldered together, and the cells are
~css of copying with perfect accuracy engraved cop- then filled either with salt and water, or with a
perplates, medals, seals, etc.-and of gilding, pla- solution of nitrous acid and water.
ting, and etching, with great beauty and precision.   By means of the galvanic agency, a variety of
This art has been -denominated ELECTrROTYE, and surprising effects have been produced. Gunpowwas discovered by Mr. Thomas Spencer,of Liver- der, cotton, and other inflammable substances
pool, in 1839. It was. also discovered on the have been inflamed-charcoal has been made to
Continent by Professor Jacobi.  The materials -burn, with a most brilliant and beautiful white
recommended by him  for forming the molds on flame-water has been decomposed into its elewhich impressions are taken are fusible metal, mentary parts-metals have been melted and set
wax, and stearine. When a copy is taken from  on fire —fragments of diamond, charcoal, and
any copperplate or medal,- any number of copies plumbago, have been dispersed, as if they had
can be produced equally as good as the first. The been evaporated-platina, the hardest and heaviest
process is simple, but our limits will not permit of the metals, has been melted as readily as wax
to enter into its details. The reader will i'find a in the flame of a candle-the sapphire, quartz,
short description of the process in Chambers' magnesia, lime, and the- firmest compounds in
" Information for the People," No. 57, Art. Elec- nature, have been made to enter into fusion.-Its
tricity, etc., and in the " Practical Mechanic and effects on the animal system are no less surpris.
Engineer's Magazine," vol. i, p. 227.         ing. When applied to a fowl or a rabbit, immeAn important combination of the Electrotype diately after life is extinct, it produces the most
with the Daguerreotype process has lately been strange and violent convulsions on the nervous
discovered, which promises to lead to some im- and muscular system, as if the vital functions
portant results. A Daguerreotype picture can be were again revived: and when applied to:the huproduced in the ordinary way, as formerly de- man body after death, the stimulus has produced
scribed-it can be etched according to the present the most horrible contortions and grimaces in the
process, and from this etching an indefinite num- muscles of the head and face; and the most rapid
ber of electrotype copies can -be obtained. As an movements in the hands and feet.
illustration- of the perfection attendant on this   Numerous experiments which have been made
process, the inventor states that, from a Daguer- both on dead animals and on human subjects,
reotype plate which had on ita sign-board mea- have- led to the conclusion that galvanism possuring 1-10th by 6-100ths of an inch, five lines sesses- some sanative as well as energetic influence
of the inscription can be distinctly read by the on the actions of diseased living beings. It has
aid of a microscope applied to the electrotype been found to effect cures, and to afford relief in
copy. So that, as the author remarks, "xinstead nervous disorders. It'has not only been used to
of a- plate being inscribed as drawn by Landseer, cure the afflicted living, but also' to resuscitate
and engraved by CousAins, it' may, be said, drawn the apparently dead; and in all-cases of suspended
by Light and engraved by Electricity."         animation, from  accidents or otherwise, it has
VII. GALVANISM is intimately connected with been found to be a test of vitality, and the surest
electricity,, though it is generally considered as a criterion of recent death, A celebrated medical
branch of Chemistry. It is only another mode writer on: this subject, in Berlin, strongly recomot exciting electrical- action. In electricity the mends its use in rheumatism, palsies, nervous
effects are produced chiefly by mechanical action; deafness, hoarseness, debility of sight, white swellbut' the effects,-of Galvanism are produced by the ings of the joints, tumors in the glands of the
cJemical action of bodies upon each other. If neck, and several other dcsorders.  It is found
we -take a piece of zinc, and place it auder the that it possesses not only a stimulating power
_.           _ -   -- ---- over the nerves and muscles, but also over the'Nahuu, i. 3.                 vital- forces. M. Spronger, of Jena, gives an ac.




NATURAL PHILOSOPHY                                        99
count of his having restored the sense of hearing 7. Heat weakens the power of a magnet, and the
to 45- persons, by means of this singular agent-  gradual addition of weight increases the magnetic
to four of whom  he also restored the sense of power. 8. The properties of tlhe magnet are not
smelling.-Galvanism has been lately employed as affected either by the presence'or the absence of
a powerful agent for blasting rocks. At Glasgow, air; and the magnetic attraction is not in the
and several other places, its agency has been ap- least diminished by the interposition of ally bodies
plied with g-rat success. At one blast hundreds except iron. A magnet will equally affect the
of tons of stones have been in a moment loosened needle of a pocket compass, when a thick board
from the rock. It is found that dry sand is quite is placed between them, as when it is removed.
sufficient for filling the perforation in the'rock It has been lately discovered, that the violet rays
where the charge is placed, and that the whole of the solar'spectrum, when condensed with a conprocess is unaccompanied with the smallest de- vex glass, and made to pass along a piece of steel,
gree of danger, so that, by this mode of blasting, have the power of communicating to it the magthose accidents which have so frequently happen- netic virtue.
ed to workmen employed in such operations may    The cause which produces these singular probe entirely prevented.                         perties of the magnet has hitherto remained a
The galvanic agency enables us to account for mystery; but the knowledge of the polarity of the
the following, among other facts:-Why porter magnet has been applied to a most important
has a different and more pleasant tasterwhendrulik practical purpose. By means of it, man has now
out of a pewter vessel than out of glass or earthen- acquired the dominion of the ocean, and has
ware,-why a silver spoon is discolored when learned to trace his course through the pathless
used in eating eggs,-why the limbs of people, deep to every region of the globe.  There can be
under: amputation, are sometimes convulsed by little doubt, that magnetism  has an intimate conthe application of the instruments,-why pure nection with electricity, galvanism, light, heat,
mercury is oxydized when amalgamated with tin, and chemical action; and the discoveries which
— why works of metal', which are soldered toge- have been already made, and others to be expect-ther, soon tarnish in the places where the metals ed, from the experiments of Morichini, Oersted,
are joined,-and why the copper sheathing of Abraham, Hansteen, Barlow, Beaufoy, Ampere,
ships, when fastened with iron nails, is soon cor- and Scoresby, promise to throw some light on
roded about the place of contact. In all these this mysterious agent, and on the phenomena of'cases a-galvanic circle is formed which produces nature with which it is connected.
the effects. We have reason to believe that, in   ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.-This is a -new science
combination with the discoveries which modern founded on the connection which is now ascerchemistry is daily unfolding, the agencies of this tained to subsist between Electricity and Magfluid will enable us'to carry the arts forward to- netism.' In the year 1819, Professor Oersted of
ward perfection, and to trace the secret causes of Copenhagen discovered that, when a wire conductsome of the sublimest phenomena of nature.     ing electricity is placed parallel to a magnetic
VIII. MAGNETISM.-This department of philo- needle, properly suspended, the needle will deviate
sophy describes the phenomena and the properties from its original or natural direction. 1. If the
of the;loadstone, or natural magnet. The natural needle be above the conducting wire, and the posimagnet is a hard dark-colored mineral body, and tive electricity goes from right to left, the north
is usually found in iron mines. The following end of the needle will be moved from the observer,
are some of its characteristic properties:-1. It or to the west. 2. If the needle is below the wire,
attracts iron and steel, and all substances which and the electricity passes as before, the north end
contain iroIn in its metallic state. 2. If a magnet of the needle will be moved toward the observer
be suspended by a thread, or nicely poised on a or to the east. 3. If the' needle is in the same
pivot, or placed on a piece of wood, and set to horizontal plane with the wire, and is between the
float in a basin of water, one end will constantly  observer and the wire, the north end of it will be
point nearly toward the north pole of the earth, elevated. 4. If the needle is similarly placed on
and the other toward the south; and hence, these the opposite side, the north end of it will be departs- of the magnet have been called the north and pressed. From these facts M. Oersted concludes,
south poles. 3. When the north pole of one mag- that the magnetical action of the electrical current
net is presented near to the south pole of another, has a circular motion round the wire which conthey will attract each other; but if the north pole ducts it.-When these experiments were com-of "'one be presented to the north pole of another, menced, and repeated, and varied by other phior a south pole to a south, they will repel each losophers, a multitude of new facts were soon
other. 4. A magnet placed in such a manner as brought to light through the labors of Davy,
to be entirely at liberty, inclines one of its-poles Faraday, Ampere,Barlow, Blot, and other experito the horizon, and of course elevates the other menters. Two very important facts were ascer-'above it. This property is called the dipping of tained by Ampere and Davy-that the conjuncthe magnet.' 5. Magnets do not point directly tive wire itself becomes a magnet-and that
north and south; but in different parts of the magnetic properties might be communicated to a'world with a different declination eastward or steel needle not previously possessing them, by'westward of the north: it is.also different at the placing it in an electrical current. The former
same place at different times. In London, and in of these facts is proved by throwing iron filings
most places of Great Britain, the magnetic needle on paper and bringing them under the wire, when
in'1824 pointed about 24 degrees to the west of they will immediately adhere to it, forming a tuft
the north. For more than 160 years previously round it 10 or 12 times the diameter of the wire.
it had been gradually declining from the north to On breaking the connection with the battery,
the west; but seemed then to have begun its de- however, they immediately fall off, proving that
clination to the eastward. 6. Any magnet may the magnetic- effect depends entirely on the pasbe made to communicate the properties now men- sage of the electricity through the wire. The
tioned to any piece of iron or steel. For example, degree' of force' of the magnetic property thus
by gently rubbing a penknife with a magnet, it communicated to the uniting wire, is considered
will be immediately invested with the property of by Sir H. Davy, to be proportional to the quantity
attracting needles, or small pieces of iron or steel. of electricity transmitted through it  Hence tle




100                          THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
finer the wire the more. powerfully magnetic was' and on the lower side from east to west. Tlhis is
it: rendered; and' hence also'a battery of verylarge ascertained to be a uniform  law, and, on these
plates was found to give the strongest'magnetism  principles most of the phenomena of magnetism
to the wire connecting its poles.      -          may be accounted for.
The following'are some of the results of experi-   To complete the view of Ampere's doctrine on
ments which have been made on this subject; —1. this point, it remains only to explain the influence
The deviation. of the magnetized needle is greater of the earth on tile magnet by which the needle
or less, according to the niature of the-conducting- is kept always in one position, nearly coinciding
wire; and copper appears to be of- all metals that with the meridian.  I-Ie maintains that currents
which produces the mBnost powerful.' effects. 2. of electricity, analogous to: those witch circulate
The,intensity of all electrical current is constant round every magnet, are constantly floating round.throughout the whole of a hbmogeneous wire the globe, as the current-of electricity in a galwhatever may be its length. 3.3,  If two homo- vanic apparatus moves in an unbroken circuit
geneous conductors be simultaneously adapted to'from the negative to the p6sitive pole, and from it,
the same galvantic pile-first, the absolute inten- by the connecting wire, iound'again to the negasity: of- the current' decreases in- the inverse ratio tive pole. The direction of these currents he
of the' square root of the length of the wire —and infers to be the same as has been stated with artisecondly.,  iwhen the thickness of: the wires is al- ficial magnets; and it is simply by the attractions
tered, the intensity of the current increases with and repulsions of these~terrestrial currents,' bringtheir diameter to a certain limit, beyond which an ing the currents round the needle to coincide with
increase of'thick'iess no longer -produces. any them, that the latter always points to the north.
change in the intensity of the. urrent. 4. When The cause of these electric currents thus inferred
the conjunctive wires of two distinct galvanic to be constantly circulating round the globe, is,
arrangements are made to'approach each other, as yet, involved in obscurity. They are supposed
magnetic -attractions:and repulsions are observed. to move at right angles to the magnetic meridian,
Two wires of copper, silver, or any other metal, con- or nearly parallel with the equator, on the eastern
n'ecting the extremities-of two galvanic troughs, side of the earth moving from  us, and on the:being placed parallel to each other, and suspended western side flowing toward us. -It is conjectured
so-as to move freely, imrnmediately attract and repel that the arrangement of the materials of the
each other, according as the directions of the cur- globe may be such as to constitute a battery, exrents of electricity flowing through them. are the isting like a girdle round the earth, which, though
same'or different.-On this experiment is founded:composed of comparatively weak materials, may
the most plausible and rational theory of magnet- be sufficiently extensive to produce the effects of
ism, namely, that it arises from the attractions and terrestrial magnetism.  Its irregularity, and the
repulsions of currents of electricity, constantly cir- changes it may accidentally or periodically suffer,
culating round every magnet. This is considered may explain the phenomenon of the variation of
as explaining the.reason why the magnetic needle the compass;-or the general action producing
places itself at right angles to- a wire conducting the currents of electricity may be affected by dii:
electricity, namely, that the electric current pass- ferent causes,- as the motions of the earth, the cur.
ing along the wire may coincide with that circu- rents of the atmosphere, the process of evaporalating round the magnet.                         tion, and the solar heat. It may also be supposed
These, and a great number of other facts, it is that much of the variation depends on the progress
presumed, clearly demonstrate the perfect resem- of oxydation in the continental regions of the
blance, or rather identity, of -electricity and mag- globe.
netism. - Magnetic phenomena are thus, in fact, a   In connection with the principles and phenomeseries of electrical phenomena, and magnetism  na stated above,-by means of a galvanic battery,
may, with: propriety, form a branch of electrici- iron may be temporarily magnetized —in other words,
ty, under the head of Electrical currents.  Cur- endowed with an attractive power, so long as it ik
rents of electricity, according to this theory, are kept in connection with the galvanic apparatus.
essential to the production of magnetic phenome- A magnet of this kind is generally formed in tho
na; but these are not obvious in a common mag- shape of a horse-shoe.; and when suspended so as
inet. M. Ampere has suggested their existence, to present the extremities downward, and when
however, and-has so arranged them  theoretically, the galvanic communication is established, the
as to account for a great proportion of magnetic magnetic power is instantly exerted, aid a bar of
appearances. A magnet, he conceives, to be an iron held to the extraemities will be immediately
assemblage of as many electrical currents moving attracted, and- firmly adlhere. But, on loosening
round it in planes, perpendicular.to its axis, as the connection with the battery, the rmagnetio
there may be imagined lines, which, without cut- power is instantly' dstroyed., and the ball of iron
ting one another, fo'm closed curvesround it. A  falls to the grour;d. Such magneto, which have
permanent magnet, then, may be conceived to be obtained the nr.urre of Electro -mrqnets, have been
a mass of iron or steel round the axis of which elec- thus made, eudowzed with very great attractive
tric currents are continually circulating, and these power, so as to eustain, in some cases, a weight of
currents attract all other electric currents flowing above. 2000 pounds, or nearly a ton. These magin the same direction,:and. repel all others which are nets, like those which possess permanent magnetmoving in an -opposite direction.  One important ism, have opposite poles,,one attracting, and the
circumstance: is always to0'be liept in view, that other repelling.
the electric currents flow round every magnet in    This new  science of Electro-magnetism  has
the same direction in reference to its poles.  If, opened up new and more expansive views to the,for instance, we place a magnet with its north philosophic world, in reference to the powers of
pole pointing to the north, in the usual position Electricity, Galvanism, and Magnetism, and their
of'the magnetic needle, the current of- electricity relation to each other; and in the progress of; the
flows rouetnd it from we'st to east-or in the direc- investigations which are now going forward, we
tion in which:the'planets revolve, and the earth havw  reason to hope that some of the hitherto
on its axis-or on- the western side.of the magnet latent principles which pervade, our terrestrial sys.
it is moving upward, alid  on the. eastern side ternm will be unfolded, and the diversified phenome.
~-townward; on the upper side from west to eastt, na they produce more fully-explained and,illus



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.                                       101
trated. It is probable, too, that'the-. arts will be Moravian priest, named Divisch, who assured him,'improved by the application of the' principles "that he had averted, during a whole summer,
which this science has brought to light; and they every thunder-storm  which threatened his own
have already been applied to machinery to pro- habitation and the neighborhood, by means of a
duce rotatory and impulsive motions.            machine constructed on the principles of electriSuch is a faint outline of some of the interest- city-that the machinery sensibly attracted the
ing subjects which Natural Philosophy embraces. clouds, and constrained them  to descend quietly
Its relation to Religion will appear from the fol- in a distillation, without any but a very distant'lowing considerations:-                        thunderclap."  Euler assures us, that "the fact
1. Its researches have led to the invention of is undoubted, and confirmed by irresistible proof."
macliines, engines, and instruments of various Yea, not only may the, destructive effects of
kinds, which augment the energies, increase the lightning be averted by the inventions of philosocomforts, and promote the general improvement phy, but its agency may be rendered subservient
-of mankind; and these objects are inseparably to human industry, and made to act as a mechaniconnected with the propagation of Christianity cal power. This effect, too, has been partially
through the world. If we admit that, in future accomplished.  About the year 1811, in the vilages, the religion of the Bible will shed its benign lage of Philipsthal, in Eastern Prussia, an attempt
influence over all nations-that the external con- was made to split an immense stone into a multidition. of tlie human race will then be prosperous tude of pieces, by means of lightning. A bar of
and greatly meliorated beyond what it has ever iron, in the form of a conductor, was previously
been —and, that no miraculous interposition of fixed to the stone, and the experiment was attenDeity is to be expected to bring about such desira- ded with the most complete success; for, during
ble events-it will follow, that such objects can the very first thunder-storm, the lightning burst
be accomplished only, in the ordinary course of the stone without displacing it.*
Providence, by rational investigations into the   It is, therefore, probable that, in the future ages
principles and powers of Nature, and' the appli- of the world, this terrific meteor, and other de-cation of the inventions of science to the great structive agents, which now produce so much
objects of religion, and of human improvement, alarm, and so many disastrous effects, may, by
-as I shall endeavor briefly to illustrate in, the fol- the'aid of philosophy, be brought under the con-'lowing chapter.  As the destructive effects of trol of man, and be made to minister to his enjoymany physical agents, in the present constitution ment.
of our globe, are, doubtless, a consequence of the   The electric fluid has also been, in many insin and depravity of man-we have reason to be- stances, successfully applied in curing palsies,
lieve, that, when the economy of nature shall be rheumatisms, spasms, obstructions, and inflammore extensively and minutely investigated, and mation; and it is known to have a peculiar effect
the minds of men directed to apply their discove- on the nervous system.  Lightning has been
ries to philanthropic and religious objects, they known to restore the blind to a temporary enjoywill be enabled to counteract, in a great measure, ment of sight. Mr. Campbell, of Succouth, in
those devastations and fatal effects which are now  Dunbartonshire, who had been blind for several
produced by several of the powers of nature. years, was led by his servant one evening through
The general happiness of all ranks, which will be the streets of Glasgow, during a terrible thunderconnected with the universal extension of Chris- storm. The lightning sometimes fluttered along
tianity, necessarily supposes that this object will the streets for a quarter of a minute without
be accomplished; for, were a dread of destruction ceasing.. While this fluttering lasted, Mr. Campfrom the'elements of nature frequently to agitate bell saw the street distinctly, and the changes
the mind, as at present, no permanent tranquillity which had been made in that part by taking down
would be enjoyed; nor would that ancient predic- one of the city gates. When the storm was over,
tion in reference to this era, receive its full ac- his entire blindness returned.-The following invcomplishment, that "there shall be nothing to hurt stance, stated by Professor Robison, as related by
or destroy in all God's holy mountain, when the one of his friends, is no less remarkable.  One
earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord." evening in autumn, he was sitting with a gentleAnd since miraculous interpositions are not to be man who had the same disorder as the gentleman
expected, to what quarter can we look for those mentioned above, and he observed several lambent
subordinate agencies by which this object is to be flashes of lightning. Their faces were turned to
effected, but to the discoveries'and inventions of the parlor window; and immediately after a flash,
philosophical science?                          the gentleman said to his wife, "Go, my dear,' Science has already enabled usto remedy many make them shut the white gate; it is open, you
of those evils which are the accidental effects of see."  The lady-did so, and'returned; and, after
the operation of physical agents. For example- a little, said, " But how did you know that the
the discoveries of the philosopher, with respect to gate was open?"  He exclaimed, with wonder,
the nature of the electric fluid, have enabled us to " I saw it open, and two men look in, and go
construct conductors for preserving buildings from  away again"-which our friend also had observthe stroke of lightning; and we have every reason ed-the gentleman, on being close-questioned,
to hope, that, in the progress of electric, galvanic, could not recollect having had another glance,
and chemical science, more complete thunder-,nor why it had not surprised him; but of the
guards, applicable to all the situations in which a glimpse itself he was certain, and described the
person may be exposed, will be invented. Nay, appearance very exactly.t
our increasing knowledge of the electric fluid,   It is also possible, that barren deserts might be
and of the chemical agents which concur in its enriched with fertility, and immense portions of
operation, may enable us, to dissipate thunder- the desolate wastes of our globe prepared for the
storms altogether, by disturbing the electricity of support and accommodation of human beings, by
the clouds, by means of a series of elevated artifi- arresting the clouds, and drawing down their eleco
cial conductors. This is not only possible, but       -
has already been in some degree effedted.~ The   * See Monthly Magazine, vol. xxii, p. 169.
celebrated Euler informs us, in his" Letters to a   f Sup. to Ency. Brit., 3d edit., Art. Tkuaieer-written by
German Princess," that he corresponded with a the late Dr. Robison.




102                            THE CH!RISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
trical virtue and their, watery treasure, by means signs of infernal power.  So that ignorance. of
of an extended series of elevated metallic conduc- the laws and phenomena of nature has led even
tors.  What has been nowstated, is only one in- Christians to commit-acts of injustice and horrid
stance out of many which might be produced, of cruelty. -For, let it be remembered that it was
the extensive and beneficial effectswwhich may be Chr;istian magistrates and ministers, under a preproduced,: in future' ages, bly' the application of tended zeal for the honor of God, who sanctioned
the discoveries of natural science.                 such cruel and unrighteous decrees.  This con2. A knowledge of Natural Philosophy enables sideration, viewed in connection with many oth.
us to detect pretended miracles, and to, discriminate ers, tends to show, that the Christian revelation,
between those phenomena which are produced by  considered abstractly by itself, without a referthe powers of nature, and the supposed effects of ence to the visible system  of the universe, is not
diabolical influence.  It has been chiefly oving to  sufficient for allthe purposes for which it was in.
ignorance of the principles of natural science, tended; as, on the' other hand, the. study of the
that mankind, in a!' ages, have been so easily im- works of nature is not sufficient of itself to lead
posed upon by pretenders to supernatural powers. the mind to the true knowledge of God, without
It is owing to the same cause, that superstitious  the.aid of the discoreries derived from  the sacred
notions and vain alarms have spread their influ- oracles. For, although the Bible has been in the
ence. so extensively among the lower ranks of the hands of Protestant Christians ever since the Repopulation of everycountry.-  The pretended mi- formation, yet it is only since the light of modern
racles by which Pagan and PNpish priests endea- science began to diffuse its influence, that the suvor- to support'the authority'of their respective perstitions of the dark ages, and the vulgar notions
religious systems, and every species of'degrading  respecting witchcraft, necromancy, and other spesuperstition, vanish into smoke, when examined  cies of infernal agency, began' to evanish, even
by the'light of modern science; and there can be from the minds of Christian teachers; as is evino question, that an enlightened Missionarywould, dent from' the writings of many eminent divines
in many instances, findthe principles and the in- who flourished during the 16th and. 17th centus
strumeits:of natural philosophy, important aux. ries., As the two revelations which God has given
iliaries in undermining the-fabric-,of heathen ido- throw  a mutual luster on each other, the one
latry and priestcraft.  They tend to dissipate a must always be considered as incomplete without
thousand'idle terrors which haunt and agitate the the other.  Both are necessary, in order " to make
human mind; to detect a thousand kinds of im- the man of God perfect," and to enable him  to
posture by. which it has been held in cruel bond- prosecute, with intelligence and success, the great
age; and to prevent the perpetration of those deeds objects of religion; and the Christian minister
of cruelty which have uniformly marked the" who affects to despise the'aids of science in the
reign of Superstition.*  Had our forefathers con- cause of religion has yet much to learn with
nected a knowledge of this subject -with their respect to some of the grand bearings of the Chrisstudy of the  Scriptures, they would not' have  tian system.
brought upon themselves that indelible, disgrace    3, The investigations of natural philosophy unwhich now attaches to their memories, on account fold to us the incessant agency of God, and the
of their having Condemned and' burned at the plans by which his wise and benevolent designs in
stake thousands of unhappy women, accused of  the system  of nature are accomplished.  From
crimes of which. they could not possibly have. the immeasurable globes of heaven, down to the
been guilty.t  In New kEngland, toward the close minutest atoms, we'perceive a regular chain of
ofthe 17th century, the witchcraft frenzy rose so causes and effects, conspiring, in a thousand diffehigh, that the execution of witches became a ca- rent modes, to accomplish the purposes of infinite
lamity more dreadful than the sword or the pesti- wisdom and goodness.  The operation of central
lence.  Not only old women, but children of ten  forces, and of the law of gravitation on the earth,
years, were put to death; young girls were strip- and in the heavens-the hydrostatical laws which
ped' naked, and the marks of witchcraft searched  regulate the pressure and the motion of fluidsfor upon their bodies with most indecent curiosity;, the chemical properties of the atmosphere, its unand those spots of the scurvy.which'age impresses dulatory, refractive, and reflective powers -v-the
upon the bodies of old men were taken for evident motion of the rays of light, and the infinite variety'
____________________   -..of effects they produce-the process of evaporation-the agencies of electricity andgalvanism* Mr. Douglas, in his " Hints on Missions," suggests, that tion-the agencies of electricity and galvanismNatural Philosophy -might'be' an, important auxiliary to
Chrfstian Missionaries. ~ "All the ancient'war weapons action of acids and alkalies, and of the rrinutest
ofvictory,' excepting miracles, are at their disposal; and particles of matter upon each'other,-ought to be
new ifstruments of still greater potentcy, which the science viewed as so many modifications of the agency
of the latter days has been accumnulating'for universal revo- of D
lution'of the,.mind are ready tobe brought into action, upon f Deity, and as manifestations of his wisdom, in
a scale- of overpowering magnitude. Even the single re-. carrying forward  those  plans which regard'ti.e insource which is lost may yet be recompensed by.equivalents, terests of his universal kingdom; just as we conand a substitute, in many'respects, may be found for mnira  sider the rise and fall of empires, the revolutions
eles. The first effectof a miracle is, to.ouse the attention, of na     circulation ofth  Scrtres
and tto overawe opposing prejudices; thesecond; to afford a  tions, and the circulation of the Scr'tOres
proof of religion'of which it is a sealing accompaniment. —  in heathen lands, as so many acts- of his moral
Thie first object might be gaised by the natural magic of  - I. administration as the Governor of mankind. For,
perimental philosophy; and as to the second, the difference let it be carefully remembered, that all these phyin.the- proof from miracles, lies rather in-its being more cir- sialencieshave    ltimately a moral and intelcuitous, than in.its being less conclusive at ihe present day,l and intelthan in the times of the Apostles." Mr. Moffat, missionary lectual bearing; and  are essentially connected
from Africa, lately expressed to the author sentiments simi- with every other part of God's providential prolar to the above, and intimated his ardent desire that he cedure.  Though we may be apt to consider them
might be furnished, before his return, with. an apparatus for     ma
the purpose of expanding the minds of heathensconverts in as so many detached and insulated pieces of mathe knowledge of nature..'       chinery, with which we have little conoorn, or
t It has been calcu!atedthat, i:Germnouy alone, the num- may even disdain to notice their mode of opera.
her of victims that, suffered for the supposed crime ofwitch- tion; yet, in the all-comprehensive mind of Him
craft from 1484-the date of the bullf Pope Innocent VIII,      in       -co       ensive mind of 
against witchcraft-until.the beginning of the eighteenth  who takes in, at one glance, the whole chain of
uen ury,considerably exceeds 0ote hstsded thosusand!   causes and effects, they are as essentially coln




iCHEMISTRY.                                         103
nected with his ultimate purposes, and the eternal neficent designs which appear,n all his arrangedestiny of man, as are the revelations of his meats-to guard us against erroneous conceptionm
word. —Were a single principle or. motion which of his providential procedure-and to furnish us
now  animates the system  of nature to cease- with important auxiliaries for extending the-influwere the agency of electricity, for example, or the ence of his religion through the world-nlust -alprinciple of evaporation, to be destroyed -the ways be interesting to every Christian who wishes
physical constitution of our globe would instant- to enlarge his intellectual views, and to make
ly be deranged; nature would be'- thrown into progress in the knowledge of God.
confusion; and the sentient and intellectual beings
that now inhabit the earth would either be de-                   CHEM I ST R Y.
stroyed, or plunged into an abyss of misery. If
therefore we admit, that the moral agency of God    This science, which is intimately related to tho
is worthy of our contemplation, we ought to precedjng, has for its object to ascertain the ingreconsider his physical operations also as no less dients, or first principles, of which all matter is
worthy of our study and investigation; since composed-to examine the compounds formed.by
they form the groundwork of all his other mani- the combination of these ingredients-to investifestations.                                      gate those changes in natural bodies, which are
There is nothing, however, which so strikingly  not accompanied with sensible motion, and ths,
characterizes the bulk of mankind, and even the nature of the power which produces these comrn
great mass of the Christian world, as that apathy  binations and changes.
and indifference with which they view the won-   Within the limits of the last half century, the
ders of creation which surround them.  They  empire of Chemistry has been wonderfully excan look on all that is grand and beautiful and  tended.  From  an obscure and humble place
beneficent in nature, without feeling the least sen- among the objects of study, it has risen to a high
timent of admiration or of gratitude to that Being and dignified station among those sciences which
who is incessantly operating within them  and improve and adorn the human mind. No longer
around them; and they are disposed to consider confined to the paltry and mercenary object of
the experiments of philosophers, by which the searching for the philosopher's stone, or of furwonderful agency of God is unvailed, as only so nishing a little amusement, it now  extends its
many toys and amusements for the entertainment sway over all the arts which minister to the cornof children. They would prefer the paltry enter- fort and improvement of social life,.and over every
tainmenlts of a card-table, of a ball-room, or of a species of animate and inanimate matter, within
gossiping party, to the inspection of the nicest the range of human investigation.  There is
pieces of Divine mechanism, and to the contem- scarcely any science so immediately conducive
plation of the most august scene in nature. How- to social improvement and human comfort. To
ever lightly some religionists may be disposed to whatever art or manufacture we turn our attentreat this subject, that spirit of indifference with  tion, we find that it has either been created by
which the visible works of God are treated must chemistry, or is indebted to its discoveries for
be considered as flowing from  the same depraved some of its greatest improvements; and to whatprinciple, which leads multitudes to reject the re- ever process in the material world we direct our
velations of the Bible, and to trifle with their investigations, the principles of this science, as
everlasting interests.  "Man," says Rollin, "lives deduced from  modern experiments and discovein the midst of a world of which he is the sove- ries, are capable of being applied. " The forms
reign, as a stranger, who looks with indifference and appearances," says Sir Humphrey Davy, " of
upon all that passes in it, and as if it were not his the beings and substances of the external world,
concern.  The universe, in all its parts, declares are almost infinitely various, and they are in a
and points out its Author; but, for the most'part, state of continued alteration. Even the earth itto the deaf and blind, who have neither ears to self, throughout its whole surface, undergoes mohear, nor eyes to see. One of the greatest services difications.  Acted on by moisture and air, it
that philosophy can do us, is to awaken us from  affords the food' of plants; an immense number
this drowvsiness, and rouse us from this lethargy, of vegetable productions arise from apparently the
which is a dishonor to humanity, and in a man- same materials; these become the substance of
ner reduces us'below the beasts, whose stupidity  animals; one species of animal matter is convertiS the consequence of their nature, and not the ed into another; the most perfect and beautiful of
effect of neglect or indifference. It awakens our the forms of organized life ultimately decay, and
curiosity, it excites our attention, and leads us, as are resolved into inorganic aggregates; and the
it were, by the hand, through all the parts of na- same elementary substances, differently arranged,
ture, to induce us to study and search out the are contained in the inert soil; or bloom, and
wonderful works of it."                         emit fragrance in the flower; or become, in anliSin`ce, therefore, the science of natural -philo- mals, the active organs of mind and intelligence.
sophy is-onversant about the works of the Al- In artificial operations, changes of the same order
mighty, and its investigations have a direct ten- occur: substances having the characters of earth,
dency to illustrate'the perfections of his nature, are converted into metals; clays and sands are
to unveail the plan of his operations, to unfold the united, so as to become porcelain; earths and allaws by which he governs the kingdom of uni-. kalies are combined into glass; acrid and corroversal nature, and to display the order, symrmetry, sive matters are formed from tasteless substances;
arid proportion, which reign throughouit the whole colors are fixed upon stuffs; or changed, or made
-— it would be needless to enter into any further to disappear; and the productions of the vegetaprocess of reasoning, to show that thestudy of it ble, mineral, and animal kingdoms, are converted
is connected with the great objects of religion.- into new forms, and made subservient to the purWhatever studies tend to raise our: minds to the poses of civilized life.-To trace, in detail, those
Supreme Ruler of all worlds-to expand our diversified and complicated phenomena; to arviews of his infinite knowledge and wisdom-to  range them, and deduce general laws from their
excite out gratitude andsour admiration of the be- analogies, is the business of Chemistry."** Belles Lettres, vol. iv.                  * Elements of Chemical Philosophy.




104                         THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
Chemists have arranged the general forms of might be converted into a fluid, and even into a
maztter into the four following classes: —The' first gas, were they submittedto the action of avery
class consists of SOLIDS; which form the principal  high temperature. This substance is called senparts of the globe, and Which differ'from  each sible caloric, when it produces thile sensation of
other in hardness, color, opacity, transparency, heat; and latent caloric, when it forms an insendensity, and other properties.- The second class sible part of the substance of bodies.  One of
consists of fluids,- such as water, oils,.spirits, etc., the principal effects of caloric is the expansion of
whose parts possess freedom  of motion, and bodies. All bodies, with a very few exceptions,
require great mechanical force to make them  are capable ofexpansion by means of heat; the
occupy a smaller. space. The third class compre- gases* being the most expansive, and solids the
hends ELASTIC FLUIDS, or GASES, which exist freely  least susceptible of expansion.  The expansion of
in the atmosphere; but may be confined by solids gases or ally aeriform substance is illustrated by
and:fluids, and their properties examined.  Their the experiment of a half-blown bladder held before
parts are highly movable, compressible, and - ex- a fire, as stated under the article Pneumatics, p. 94,
pansive; they are all transparent;'they present The  expansion of solids is illustrated  by thE
two or three varieties of color;'and they differ following process: When the iron rim of a cartgreatly in density. The futrth class comprehends wheel is to be put on, it is first heated to a
ETHEREAL SUBSTANCES, which are known to us:only considerable degree.  When hot, the circle is
in-their'states of motion, when aciing upon our somewhat larger than when cold, and thus easily
organs of sense, and which are not susceptible of slips round the wheel; but, as it'cools, the circle
being confined:.:  Such are the rays of light, and decreases, and firmly binds together the woodradiant heat, which are incessantly in motion, work of which the, wheel is composed.  In
throughout the spaces that intervene between our reference to fluid bodies the same fact is exemglobe,' and the  sun and  the' stars.-Chemists  plified in the Thermometer —thle  mercury or Spiri'divide the substances in nature also into SIMPLE -of wine in which rises or falls in proportion to the
and  COMPOUND.  SIMPLE SUBSTANCES are  those quantity of heat which is applied to the instruwhich have never yet been  decomposed, nor ment. —Other effects of heat are liquefaction, as
formed by art. COMPOUND SUBSTANCES are those when ice is converted into water-vaporization, as
Which arecformed by the union of two or more when water is converted into steam —ignition, as
simple substances.  The following  are all the when bodies by heat are made to produce flamesimple' substances with which we are at present and evaporation, when substances send off vapor
acquainted:- CALORIC, LIGHT, OXYGEN, NITROGEN, from  their surfaces at temperatures below  the
cARBON, HYDROGEN, SULPHUR, PHOSPHORUS, the boiling point.  The heat of the sun and other
METALS, and some of the EARTHs.-All that I causes produce this effect every day over the
propose under this article is simply to state some whole surface of the globe. An immense quantity
of the properties of two or three of these simple of vapor is thus continually rising from  the sur
substances.                                      face of the land and seas, which is either formed
CaLORIC, or elementary fire, is the name now  into'clouds, or condensed into rains or dewgiven by chemists to that element or property  which process is of mostessential service through..which, combined with vairious bodies, produces out the whole economy of the physical constitution
the sensation of heat while it is passing from one of our globe.-All bodies are, in a greater or lesi
body to another. TThis substance appears to per- degree, conductors of caloric.  Metals and liquidA
vade the whole system of nature. There are six are good conductors of heat; but silk, cotton
different sources from  whence Caloric may be wool, wood, etc., are bad conductors of it.  Foe
procured.  It maybe produced by combustion, in example, if we put a short poker into the fire at
which process the oxygen gas of the atmosphere  one end, it will soon become hot at the other; but
Is' decomposed, and caloric, one of its component this will not happen with a piece of wood of tile
parts, set at liberty-by friction, or the rubbing same length, and under the same circumstances.
of two substances against each Other-by percus- A person with a silken purse, containing metal
sion, as the striking of steel against a piece of coin, may stand so near the fire, as to make the'
flint-by the mixture of two or more substances, as metal almost too hot to touch, though the temwhen sulphuric acid is poured upon water or perature of the purse will apparently be scarcely
magnesia-by electricity and galvanism.  The dis- altered.  If a hand be put upon a hot body, part
charge of an electric or galvanic battery, will of the caloric leaves the hot body and enters the
produce a more intense degree of heat than any hand, producing the sensation of heat. On the
other means whatever. But the prIncipal, and contrary, if a hand be put on a cold body, as a
probably the original source of caloric, is the SUN, piece of iron, or another colder hand, part of the
which furnishes the earth with a regular supply  caloric contained in the hand leaves it to unite
for the support and nourishment of the animal with the colder body, producing the sensation of
and vegetable tribes. From  this source it moves cold.  In short, caloric is diffused throughout all
at the rate of'192,000 miles, in a second of time; bodies, and enters into4every operation in nature;
for it has been already stated, that the sun sends and, were it not for the influence of this subtile
forth rays of heat'which are distinct from  those fluid, there is reason to believe that the whole
which produce illumination, and which accom- matter of the universewould be condensed into a
pany them  in their course through the ethereal solid mass.
Pghteehrealons.id
regions.'                                          OXYGEN is a very pure, subtile, and elastic sub.
Caloric is the cause of jfluidity, in allsubstances stance, generally diffused throughout nature; but
which are capable of becoming fluid.  Acertain is never found unless in combination with other
portion, or dose of it, reducesa solid body to the substances. It is one of the most important agents
state of an incompressible fluid; a larger portion in nature; there being scarcely a single process,
brings it to the state of an aeriform  or  aseous whether natural or artificial, in which oxygen has
fluid. Thus, a certain portion of caloric reduces not some important share. When combinedwith
Thus, ~ erti~ ~prti -'n of calori   edu'esno sy]it
ice to a state of water; a larger portion converts caloric it is called oxygen gas, which forms one of
it into steam or vapor.  There is reason to believe, the constituent parts of the atmosphere. It is a
that the hardest rocks, the densest metals, and permanently elastic fluid, transparent, colorless,
every solid suostance on the face of the earth, and destitute of taste and smell; 100 cubic inchea




CHEMISTRY. -                                          1:05
of it weigh 33'9153 grains, that is, nearly34 grains.;  a striking proof does this afford of-the infinite
And as the -same bulk of common air weighs comprehension of the Divine Mind, in foreseeing
30-8115 grains under the same circumstances, the  all the consequences of the elelnents of nature,
specific gravity of oxygen is reckoned 1007 that and in directing their numerous combinations in
of cbmmon- air being reckoned 100, though  sucha manner as to promote the happiness of
some chemists have adopted 1-1I1 as its specific animated beings!
gravity compared with atmospheric air.  In this    NITROGEN, or azote, is a substance geierally
state, it forms the principle of combustion: pro- diffused throughout nature, and particularl- inl
ducing the most rapid defligration of all combus- animal bodies.  It is not to be found in a solid or
tible substances.  If -a lighted taper be let down  liquid state, but, combined with caloric, it fornus 
into a jar of oxygen gas, it burns with such'splen- nitrogen gas, which is one of the ingredients of
dor that the ey e- can scarcely bear the glare of the atmosphere.  It enters extensively into comlight, and at the same' time produces a much  binationwith various substances; it is an abunldgreater heat than when burning in common air. ant element in animal-matter; and its existence in
If a steel wire, or a thin file, having a sharp point, such large quantity is a chief distinction between
armed with a piece of wood in inflammation, be the constitution of the substances which compose
introduced into a jar filled with this gas, the steel animal and vegetable matter.  Its specific gravity
will take fire, and its combustion will continue  is 0-9748, which is lighter than common atmosproducing a most brilliant phenomenon.  It has pheric air, and therefore ascends in it.' Were it
been proved, by numerous experiments, that this heavier it would accumulate to such- a degree in
gas is so essential to combustion, -that no sub- our apartments as to be pernicious and even destance -will burn in common air which has been  structive to our health and existence.  It is illncapreviously deprived of its oxygen.  It is also es- pable of supporting either flame or animal life.
sential to the support of animal life; so that man, This is proved -by introducing an animal, or a
and all the inferior ranks of animated nature, burning candle, into a vessel full of this gas; in
may be said to depend upon this fluid for their which case, the animal is suddenly suffocated, and
existen~e.  Its basis gives the acid character to all the candle instantly extinguishied.  It is this gas
mineral anld vegetable salts; and the calcination  which is expelled from the lungs at every expiraof metals is altogether effected by their union  tion, -and rising over our heads,'soon' enters into
with oxygen.  It constitutes the basis both of the new  combiniations.  Though' it is destructive to
atmosphere which' surroulnds the earth, and of the animal life, it appears to be favorable to plants,
water which forms its rivers, seas, and oceans. It which vegetate freely when surrounded with nipervades the substance of all the vegetable tribes,' trogen.
and enables them to perform their functions; and,    HYDROGEN  is another elementary substance,
in combination with the different metals, serves abundant in nature, and, when united to caloric
the most important purposes in the useful arts. forms hydrogen gas.- It is one of'the constituent
In the operation of this elementary principle, we parts of water; for it has been completely demollnperceive a striking display of the agency of the strated by experiment, that water is composed of
Creator, and of trhe`' admnirable means;which his 85 parts by weight of oxygen, and 15 of hydrowisdom has contrived for preserving in due order gen, in every hundred parts of the' fluid.  This
the system  of'; nature.  And as this wonderful gas was formerly known by the name of inflansubstance is so essentially necessary to animal mable air.  It is distinguished among miners by
and vegetable existence, everything is so arranged  the same of fire-damp; it abounds in coal-mines,
as to produce a regular supply of it,- notwith- and sometimes produces the most tremenldous exstanding its incessant changes, and the multifari- plosions.*  It is incapable by itself of supporting
ous combinatlions into which it is continually  combustion, and cannot be breathed without the
e.ntering..most imminent danger.' It is the chief constituOne of the most extraordinary effects of oxygen  ent-of oils, fats, spirits, ether, coals, and bitumen;
appears,'when it is combined, in a certain propor- and is supposed to be one of the agents which
tion, with nitrogen, so asuto form  the gaseous'produce the igrtesfatui, and the northern lights. It
oxide of nitrogen, or what is commonly called is the lightest of all ponderable bodies, being from
nitrous oxide.  This gas consists of 63 parts ni- twelve to fifteen' times lighter than common air
trogen, and 37 oxygen,by weight. When inhaled  A  hundred cubic inches of it weigh about 2M
into thelungs, it produces an extraordinary ele- grains.,On account of its great levity, it is used
vation of the animal spirits, a propensity to leap- for filling air balloons.  In contact with atmoilg and running, involuntary fits of laughter, a sperie air, it burns with a pale blue color. When
rapid flow of vivid ideas, and a thousand delight- mixed with oxygen gas, it may be exploded, like
ful emotions, without' being accompanied with gunpowder, with a violent report.  Carburetted
any subsequent feelings of debility.' This cir- hydrogen gas, which is carbon dissolved by'hydrocumstance shows what a variety of delightful or gen, is that: beautiful gas which is now employed
pernicious- effects.might flow from. the slightest in lighting our streets, shops, and manufactories.
change in' the coistitutioin of the atmosphere,           —' 
were. the hand of the tAlmighty to interpose ill   It appears from the First Report of the "Children's Em
ployment Commission," appointed by Parliament in 1842,
altering the proportion of its constituent parts; that, at the very least, 1500 lives have beensacriiced in
for-atmospheric air is composed of-79 parts of and about the Tyne and Weir collieries in the neighbor.
nitrogn, and 21 of oxygen, which i s net a very  hood of Newcastle within the last 40 years, chieflv by thl:e
ditffenell, proportion  from  the -above. i Another explosions of hydrogen gas which have taken slace in thle
coal-mines. To counteract such effects, Sir H. Davy, in
gas, called nitric oxide,- composed of 56 parts oxy- 1815, displayed his ingenuity by the invention of his Safety
gen, and 44 nitrogen, produces instanlt suffocation. Lamp-which is made of wire gauze, and has this particular
in fall animals that attempt to breathe it.\.  One of property, that the miner may move about-witll it, snd even
work by its light in time midst of those explosive mixtures
the most corrIosive acids, the nitrous- acidor aqua- which have so often proved fatal, when entered with a coinfortis, is composed of 75 parts oxygen  and 25 mon lamp or candle. But the want of accuracy in some of
ipasrts nitrogen; -so that we iare every'rmoment the manufacturers of the gauze with which the instrument
breatlg    a certain sulbstance, which in tnoter  is constructed-and the carelessness of the miners in usilng
breathing    it-have frequently prevented its beneficial effects from becombination, would produce the most dreadful in realized. For a particular description of this lamp, see
pain, and cause our imnmediate destruction. What "Diffasion of Kuowledge,:' Sets. II, V, and the Appendix.




'] 06                         THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
CARBON is another simple substance extensively  of saltpeter'in Paris detected it in the ashes of sea
diffused throughout nature.- It-is found pure-and weeds. It resembles chlorine in some of its prosolid only in the diamond; but it may be procured perties, and is derived from a source which also
in the state of charcoal, by burning a piece of supplies chlorine, both of them  being of marine
wood, closely covered with sand, ian a crucible. origin.  It may be procured' by drying' and powCarbon enters into the composition of bitumen dering common sea weed, and heating it with
and pit coal, and of most animal and some mine- sulphuric  acid.  A  violet-colored  vapor rises,
ral substances; and it forms' nearly the whole of which, if received in a cool vessel, will condense
the' solid basis of all vegetables, from  the most on its sides, and will form  scaly crystals of a
delicate flower to the stately oak. It is also a somewhat metallic luster. These crystals are the
component part of sugar, and of all- kinds of wax, substance in question; and from  the violet color
oils, gums, and,resinls. It combines with iron in'of its vapor it is called iodine. Its specific gravity
various  proportions, and the results are, cast-iron is 3,084; it melts at a heat a little above that of
and steer. Black lead is a composition of nine boiling water; at the temperature of 350~ it boils
parts of carbon to one of iron;. and- is  therefore and evaporates in a violet-colbred vapor. It stains
called a carburet. of iron. Carbon is-indestructible tile fingers yellow, and consumes the cork of the
by age, and preserves -its identity in'all-the com- vial in which it is contained.  Its smell is disbinations into which it enters-Carbonic acid gas agreeable, its taste acrid, it destroys vegetable
is a,co-bination of carboln and oxygen. It is colors, and it possesses poisonous properties, It
found in a state of:combination with lime, form- has the property of forming. a beautiful blue
ing limestone, marble, and chalk; and may be color, when mixed with a little powdered starch,
separated from them by heat; or by means of the and diffused through cold water; and hence iodine
mineral acids. This.gas, which was formerly and starch are used by chemists as mutual tests
called fixed air, is found in mines, caves, the bot- of each other's presence, even inll the most minute
toins of. wells, wine cellars, brewers' vats, and in quantity.
the -neighborhood of lirnekilns.  It is'kilown to   SULPHUR is a substance which has been known.riners  by the name of choke-damp, and too fre- from  the earliest ages.  It was used by the anquently runs on.deadly errands.  It extinguishes cients in medicine, and its fumes have, for more
flame and animal life., It is the heaviest of all the than 2000 years, been employed in bleaching
gases; being nearly twice the weight of common wool.  It is found combined with many mineral
air, and  twenty times the weight of hydrogen. substances, as arsenic, antimony, copper, and
It may therefore be poured from one vessel to most of the metallic ores.  It exists in many
another; and a lighted taper is instantly extin- mineral waters,'and in combination with vegetaguished by pouring a small. quantity of it over ble and animal matters, but is most abundant in
the flame..'It is a powerful antiseptic, or preser- volcanic countries, particularly in tile neighboryer from putrefaction.  Meat which has been hood of Vesuvius, Etna, and.Hecla in Iceland. It
sealed up in it (says Mr..Parkes), has been known is a solid, opaque, combustible substance, of a
to have preserved its texture and appearance for pale yellow color, very brittle, and almost without
more. than twenty years. There is no- substance taste or sriell. Its specific gravity is nearly twice
of more importance in civilized life than the dif- that of water: it is a non-conductor of electricity,
fe-rent forms of Carbon. "In nature," says Sir and, of course, becomes electric  by friction.
H. Davy, " this element is constantly active in an When heated to the temperature of 1700 of Fahimportant series- of operations.  It is evolved in renheit's thermometer, it rises up in the form of
fermentation and combustion, in Carbonic acid; a fine powder, which is easily collected in a proit is- separated from  oxygen in the organs of per vessel, and is named the flowers of sulphur.
plants; it is a principal element in animal struc- It is insoluble in water, but may be dissolved in
tures; and is found -in different forms in almost oils, in spirit of wine, and in hydrogen gas.
all the products of organized beings."           When sulphur is heated to the temperature of
CHLORINE is a gas of a greenish color.  It is 302~ in the open air, it takes fire' spontaneously
fatal to animal life, if breathed undiluted with and burns with a pale blue flame, and emits a
common air, but it does not, like nitrogen and great quantity of fumes of a strong suffocating
carbonic acid gas, extinguish combustion.  A  odor. When heated to the temperaturei of 5700,
candle burns in it with a red flame; and it pos- it burns with a bright white flame, and emits a;sesses thle remarkable property of setting fire to vast quantity of fumes. Wheh these fumes are
many of the metals, even at the common temper- collected, they are found to consist entirely of sulature of the air,'when introduced, into it beaten phuric acid; so that sulphur, by combustion, is
out into thuin leaves or reduced to filings-such as converted into an acid. It is the base of several
copper, tin, arsenic, zinc, and antimony.  It has compound  substances.  It unites with oxygen,
the property of destroying all vegetable colors. If hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, the alkalies, the
a vegetable blue, for instance, be exposed to its metals, and some of the earths.  This substance
action, the color is not changed to a red, as it is of great importance in medicine, as it is found
would be by an acid,-nor to a green, as it would to penetrate to the extremities of the most minute
be by an a.lkali,-but it is totally destroyed.  On vessels, and to impregnate all the secretions.  It
this accounlt Clilorine has-been in-troduced as a is also used in the arts, particularly in bleaching
powerful agent in the art of hblaching;  for if un- and'dyeing; it forms a very large proportion of
bleached linens be properly exposed to its action, gunpowder; and one of its most. common but
the matter which gives them  their gray color is not least useful properties, is that of its combusti.
destroyed. But if applied in its pure state, and bility, by.which, with the help of a tinder-box,
not sufficiently diluted, it invariably' destroys the light is almost instantaneously produced. As this
strength and texture of the linens. The specific substance has not yet been decomposed, it is congravity of this gas, when free from watery vapor sidered by chemists, in the meantime, as one of
is 2'5, common air being 1' and 100 cubic inches the simple substances.
of it weigh about77 grains.'    PHOSPHORUS is another simple combustible
IoDINE  is the namle of an undecompounded substance, but is never found in a pure state in
principle or element, in chemistry. It remained  nature.  It is commonlly united to oxygen in the
undiscovered until 1812, when-a -manufacturer state of phosphoric acid, which is found in differ



CHEMISTRY.                                          107
ent animal, vegetable, and mineral substances. size from three to seven inches., All the exterior
It was first discovered by Brandt, a chemist of surface of the animal was bristled with thick obHamburgh, in the year 1667, and afterward by long tubercles, shining like so many diamolnds;
the Honorable Mr. Boyle, in 1679. It was for- and these seemed to be the principal seat of its
merly obtained by a disgusting process; but is wonderful phosphorescence.
now  extracted from  the bones of animals, by    Such is a brief description of the principal eleburning them, and then reducing them to a fine mentary substances, which, in a thousand diversipowder, and afterward pouring sulphuric acid fled forms, pervade the system of nature, and proupon them.  This substance, when pure, resem- duce all that variety which we behold in the atbles bees' wax, being of a clear, transparent, yel- mosphere, the waters, the earth, and the various
lowish color; it is insoluble in water; it may be processes of the arts.  It is probable that some of
cut with a knife, or twisted to pieces with the these substances are compounds, though they have
fingers; and it is about double the specific gravity not yet been decomposed. Yea, it is possible, and
of water.  Its most remarkable property is its not at all improbable, that there are but two, or at
very strong attraction for oxygen, from  which most three elementary substances in nature, the
circumstance it burns spontaneously in the open various modifications of which produce all the
air at the temperature of 43~; that is, it attracts beauties and sublimities in the universe. Perhaps
the oxygen gas from  the atmosphere, and heat caloric, oxygen, and hydrogen, may ultimately be
and flame are produced.  It gradually consumes found to constitute all the elementary principles
when exposed to the common temperature of air, of nature.-Without prosecuting this subject furemits a whitish smoke, and is luminous in the ther, I shall conclude this article with a few curdark; for this reason it is kept in vials of water; sory reflections, tending to illustrate its connecand as the heat of the hand is sufficient to inflame tion with religion.
it, it should seldom  be handled except under   The remarks which I have already thrown out
water. At the temperature of 990 it melts; it in reference to Natural Philosophy will equally
evaporates at 2190, and boils at 5540.  When apply to the science of Chemistry; and thereheated to 1480 it takes fire, and burns with a very fore do not require to be repeated.  In addition
bright flame, and gives out a large quantity of to  these, the  following  observations may be
white smoke, which is luminous in the dark: at stated:the same time it emits an odor, which has some   1. This science displays, in a, striking point of
resemblance to that of garlic; and this smoke, view, the wisdom and goodness of God, in producwhell collected, is proved to be an acid. It burns ing, by the tmost simple means, the most astonishing
with the greatest splendor in oxygen gas, and, and benevolent effects. All the varied phenomena
when taken internally, it is found to be poison- we perceive throughout the whole system of subous. If any light substance, capable of conduct- lunary nature are produced by a combination of
ing heat, be placed upon the surface of boiling six or seven simple substances.  I formerly adwater, and a bit of phosphorus be laid upon it, verted to the infinite variety which exists in the
the heat of the water will be sufficient to set the vegetable kingdom.* About 56,000 different spephosphorus on fire. If we write a few words on cies of plants have already been discovered by bopaper, with a bit of phosphorus fixed in a quill, tanists. All these, from the humble shrub to the
when the writing is carried into a dark room  it cedar of Lebanon, which adorn' the surface of the
will appear beautifully luminous.  If a piece of globe, in every clime, with such a diversity of
phosphorus, about the size of a pea, be dropped forms, shades, and colors, are the result of the
into a tumbler of hot water, and a stream of oxy- combinations of "four or five natural substances
gen gas forced directly upon it, it will under -caloric, light, water, air, and carbon." "When
water display the most brilliant combustion that we consider," says Mr. Parkes, " that the many
can be imagined. All experiments with phospho- thousand tribes of vegetables are not only all
rus, however, require to be performed with great formed from  a few simple substances, but that
caution.  This substance is used in making phos- they alli'enjoy the same sun, vegetate in the same
phoric match-bottles, phosphoric oil, phosphoric medium, and are supplied with the same nutritapers, and various phosphoric fire-works.  Phos- ment, we cannot but be struck with the rich ecophorized hydrogen gas is produced by bits of phos- nomy of nature, and are almost induced to doubt
phorus remaining some hours in hydrogen gas. the evidence of those senses with which the God
It is supposed to be that gas which is seen hover- of nature has furnished us. That it should be
ing on the surface of burial-grounds and marshes, possible so to modify and intermingle a few simknown in Scotland by the name of spunkie, and pie substances, and thence produce all the variety
in England by that of will-o'-the-wisp.          of form, color, odor, etc., which is observable in
Some animals, as the glow-worm and the fire-fly, the different families of vegetables, is a phenomeand fish in a putrescent state, exhibit phosphores- non too astonishing for our comprehension.cent qualities.  M. Peron describes a singular Nothing short of Omnipotence could have proinstance of this kind in an animal which he calls vided such a paradise for man."+
the pyrosoma atlanticum, which he observed in his," Soft roll your incense, herbs and fruits and flowers,
voyage from Europe to the Isle of France.  The  In mingled clouds, to Him whose sun exalts,
darkness was intense when it was first discovered;  Whose breath perfumes you, and whose pencil paints."
and all-at once there appeared at some distance, as                                     THOISON.
it were, a vast sheet of phosphorus  floating on    What an admirable view is here opened up of
the waves, which occupied a great space before the economy of Divine wisdom, and of the benefithe vessel.  When the vessel had passed through cent care which has been taken to secure the
this inflamed part of the sea, it was found, that comfort and happiness of every living creature;
this prodigious light was occasioned by an im- and how ungrateful a disposition must it indicate
mense number of small animals, which swam  at in rational beings to overlook such benevolent ardifferent depths, and appeared to assume various rangements!  It is highly probable, that, in all the
forms.  Those which were deepest looked like other worlds dispersed throughout the universe,
great red-hot cannon balls, while those on the                                               _surface resembled cylinders of red-hot iron. Some            * See p. 34.
of them  wore caught, and were found to vary in              t Chemical Catechism, chap. ix.




10Q8~~ THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
an infinite diversity of scenery exists, and that no Who could Jaave imagined, a century ago, that an
one globe or system  exactly resembles another; invisible substance is contained in a piece of coal,
and yet it is probable, that th'e primary'elements capable of producing the most beautiful and
of matter, or the few simple substances' of which  splendid illumination —that this substance may
our world is composed,:may be of the same na- be conveyed, in a few moments, through pipes. of
ture as those'which form the constituent partsof several miles in length-and that a city, contain
every other system;! and& may give  birth to all the ing several hundred thousands of inhabitants, may
variety which exists throughout thewide'.-extent be instantlylighted up by it, without the aid of
of creation, and to all the changes and revolutions either wax, oil, or tallow?  Who -could have imthrough which the different. systems may pass, agined that one of the ingredients'of the air we
during every period of infinite duration.        breathe is the principle of combustion-that a
2. From this science-w6 have every reason to rod of iron' may be made to burn in it with a
conclude that matter is indestructible.  In the va- brilliancy that dazzles the eyes-that a piece of
rious changes that take: place in material sub- charcoal may be made to burn with a white and
stances, the particles:of matter are not destroyed,  splendid light, which is inferior only to the solar
but only assume new forms, and enter into new  rays-and that the diamond is nothing more than
combinations. When a piece of wood, for exam-  carbon in a crystallized state, and differs only in a
ple,'is burned' to ashes; none of'its' principles are slight degree from a bit of common charcoal?destroyed; the elementary substances of which it Who could have surmised, that a substance would
was composed are only separated  from  one an- be discovered, of such a degree of levity, as would'
other, and forme'dinto ntew compounds.. Carbon, have power sufficient to'buoy up a number of
as already stated, appears to be indestructible by men.to the upper parts of the atmosphere, and
age, and- to preserve its essential properties, in enable'them to swim, in safety, above the region
every mode: of its existence.  That Being, indeed, of tlhe clouds?  These are only specimens of still
who created matter at first, may reduce it to no- more brilliant discoveries which will, doubtless,
thing'when:he pleases; butit i is highly Improba-  be brought to light by the researches of future
ble. that his power will'ever be interposed to pro- generations. We have reason to believe, that the
duce this effect; or that any particle of matter investigations of this science will in due time,
which now exists, will ever be annihilated, into enable us to counteract most of the diseases inci.
whatever new or varied combinations it may en- dent to the human frame; and to prevent many
ter. When any particular world; or' assemblage of those fatal accidents to which mankind are now
of material existence, has remained in its original exposed. DAvy's safety lamp has already preserved
state for a certain period of duration, and accom- many individuals from destruction, when working
plished all the ends it was intended to subserve in' in coal mines; and thousands, in after ages, will
that state, the materials of which it is composed be indebted to this discovery, for security from
will, inall probability, be employed for erecting  the dreadful explosions of hydrogen  gas. And,
a new system, and establishing a new -series of we trust, that the period is not far distant, when
events,, in which new' scenes, and new  beauties specific antidotes to the diseases peculiar to the
and sublimities will arise from  new and varied different trades and occupations in which mancombinations.'For the Creator does nothing in kind are employed will be discovered; and the
vain.' But to annihilate, -and'a:an to create, health and vigor of the mass of society be prewvouid be operating  in vain'; and we uniformly served unimpaired, amidst all the processes in
find, that iini all the arrangements of Deity, in the which they may be engaged.
present state of things, Nature is frugal and eo-    In fine, the rapid progress of chemical discovenomiceal in all her proceedings; so that there is ry carries forward our views to a period, when
no process, when thoroughl y   investigated, that man, having thoroughly explored the powers of
apfpears unnecessary or superfluous.             nature, and subjected them, in some measure, to
F romn the fact, that matter appears to be inde- his control, will be enabled to ward off most of
structible, we may learn, that the Creator, with  those physical evils with which he is now annoythe self-same materials'which'now exist around ed, and to raise himself, in some degree, to the
us;, may, after'the general conflagration, new- dignity and happiness he enjoyed before moral
model'and arrange the globe we inhabit, so as to evil had shed its baleful influence on our terrestrial
make a more gloriousworld to rise out of its system.  Such a period corresponds to many of
ashes; purified from' those physical evils which the descriptions contained in the Sacred Oracles
nowexist; and fitted for the ac'commodation either of the millennial state of the church; when social,
of renovated men, or of -other-pure intelligences. domestic, moral, and intellectual improvement
From the same fact combined with the considera- shall be carried to the utmost perfection which
tion of tbe infinite diversity of effects which the our sublunary station will permit; when wars
simple substances of nature are capable of pro- shall cease; when the knowledge of Jehovah shall
dticing, we may be enabled to form a conception cover the earth; when every man shall sit under
of the' ease with which the Creator riay new- his vine and fig-tree, without being  exposed
model our bodies, after they have been dissolved to the least alarm; and when there shall be no -
in the dust; land how, from the same origihal thing to hurt nor destroy throughout the church
atoms, he may construct and adorn them  with of the living God.  And, therefore, we ought to
more glorious forms, and more delightful and ex- consider the various discoveries and improvequisite senses than they now possess.            ments now going forward in this, and other deIn short, the rapid progress which chemical partments of science, as preparing the way for the
science is now  making, promises, ere long, to introduction of this long-expected and auspicious
introduce improvements among  the human race, era.
which will expand their views of the agency of
God, counteract.'many  physicalevils, and pro-: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
mote, to an extecntwhichh has never yet: been experienced, their social and domestic enjoyment.-    The general object Of both these sciences is, to
The late discoveries of Chemistry tend to con- investigate and describe the structure and econovince us, that the properties and:l'wers of natu- my of the animal frame.-Anatomy dissects dead.iu substances are only beginning to be discovered. bodies. Physiology investigates the functions of




ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.                                     109
those that are hlving. The former examines the ing of the body. The skull is composed of 10
fluids, muscles, viscera, and all the other parts of bones, and about 51 are reckoned to belong to the
the human body, in a state of rest; the latter face, the orbits of the eyes, and the jaws in which
considers them in a state of action.-         the teeth are fixed. There are seldom more than
The parts of the human body have been dis- 16 teeth in each jaw, or 32 in all.-The number
tinguished into two different kinds-solids and of bones in a human body is generally estimated
fluids. The solid parts are, bones, cartilages, liga- at about 245; of which there are reckoned, in the
ments, muscles, tendons, membranes, nerves, arte- skull, head, and face, 61; in the trunk, 64; in the
ries, veins, hair, nails, and ducts, or fine tubular arms and hands, 60; and in the legs and feet, 60.
vessels of various kinlds. Of these solid parts, The bones are provided with ligaments, or hinges,
the following compound organs consist: the brain which bind and fasten them together, and prevent
and cerebellum, the lungs, the heart, the stomach, them from being displaced by any violent motion;
the liver, the spleen, the pancreas, the glands, the and, that the ligaments may work smoothly into
kidneys, the intestines, the mesentery, the larynx, one another, the joints are separated by cartilages,
and the organs of sense-the eyes, ears, nose, and or gristles, and provided with a gland for the setongue. The fluid parts are, the saliva, or spittle, cretion of oil, or mucus, which is constantly exphlegm, serum, the chyle, blood, bile, milk, lympha, uding into the joints; so that every requisite is
urine, the pancreatic juice, and the aqueous humor provided by our Benevolent Creator, to prevent
of the eyes.  The human body is divided into pain, and to promote facility of motion. "tIn
three great cavities - the head; the thorax, or considering the joints," says Dr. Paley, " there is
breast; and the abdomen, or belly. The head is nothing, perhaps, which  ought to *move our
formed of the bones of the cranium, and incloses gratitude more than the reflection, how well they
tlhe brain and cerebellum. The thorax is com- wear. A  limb shall swing upon its hinge, or
posed of the vertebrae of the back, the sternum, play in its- socket, many hundred times in an
and true ribs; and contains the heart, the pericar- hour, for sixty years together, without diminution
dium, the breasts, and the lungs. The abdomen is of agility; which is a long time for anything to
separated from the thorax by means of the dia- last, for anything so much worked as the joints
phragm, which is a fleshy and membranous sub- are."
stance, composed for the most part of muscular   The MUSCULAR SYSTEM.-A muscle is a bundle
fibers. This cavity is formed by the lumbar ver- of fleshy, and sometimes of tendinous fibers. The
tebree, the os sacrum, the ossa innominata, the false fleshy fibers compose the body of the muscle; and
ribs, the peritoneum, and a variety of muscles. the tendinous fibers the extremities. Some musIt incloses the stomach, intestines, omentum, or cles are long and round; some plain and circular;
caul, the liver, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, and uri- some have spiral, and some have straight fibers.
nary bladder.-Without attempting any technical Some are double, having a tendon running through
description of these different parts, which could the body from  head to tail; some have two or
convey no accurate ideas to a general reader, I more tendinous branches running through, with
shall merely state two or three facts in relation various rows and orders of fibers. All these, and
to the system of bones, muscles, and blood-vessels, several other varieties, are essentially requisite for
as specimens of the wonderful structure of our the respective offices they have to'perform in the
bodily frame.                                  animal system. The muscles constitute the fleshy
The BONES may be regarded as the propwork or part of the human body, and give it that varied
basis on which the human body is constructed. and beautiful form we observe over all its surface.
They bear the same relation to the animal system, But their principal design is, to serve as the organs
as the woodwork to a building. They give shape of motion. They are inserted, by strong tendinand firmness to the body; they support its various ous extremities, into the different bones of which
parts, and prevent it from  sinking by its own the skeleton is composed; and by their contracweight; they serve as levers for the muscles to act tion and distention, give rise to all the movements
upon, and to defend the brain, the heart, the of the body. The muscles, therefore, may be
lungs, and other vital parts from external injury.. considered as so many cords attached to the bones;
Of the bones, some are hollow, and filled with and the Author of Nature has fixed them accordmarrow; others are solid throughout; some are ing to the most perfect principles of mechanism,
very small; others very large; some are round, so as to produce the fittest motions in the parts
and othersfiat; some are plane, and others convexk for the movements of which they are intended.
or concave;-and all these several forms are re-   One of the most wonderful properties of the
quisite for the situations they occupy, and the muscles is, the extraordinary force they exert, alrespective functions they have to perform.-The though they are composed of such slender threads,
vsine, or back-bo'ne, consists of 24 vertebrae, or or fibers. The following facts in relation to this
small bones, connected together by cartilages, ar- point, are demonstrated by the celebrated Borelli,
ticulations, and ligaments; of which 7 belong to in his work, "De Motu Animalium."  When a
the neck, 12 to the back, and 5 to the loins. In man lifts up with his teeth a weight of 200 pounds
the center of each vertebra, there is a hole for the with a rope fastened to the jaw-teeth, the muscles
lodgment and continuation of the spinal marrow,  named Temporalis and Masseter, with which peowhich extends from the brain to the rump. From  ple chew, and which perform this work, exert a
these vertebra the arched bones called ribs pro- force of above 15,000 pounds weight.  If any
ceed; and seven of them join the breast-bone on one hanging his arm directly downward, lifts'a
each side, where they terminate in cartilages, and weight of 20 pounds, with the third or last joint
form the cavity of the thorax or chest. The five of his thumb, the muscle which bends the thumb,
lower ribs, with a number of muscles, form the and bears that weight, exerts a force of about
cavity of the abdomen, as above stated. The three thousand pounds. When a man, standing
spine is one of the most admirable mechanical upon his feet, leaps or springs upward to the hight
contrivances in the human frame. Had it con- of two feet, if the weight of such a man be 150
sisted of only three or four bones, or; had the holes pounds, the muscles employed in that action will
in each bone not exactly corresponded, and fitted exert a force 2000 times greater; that is to say, a
into each other, the spinal marrow  would have force of about three hundred thousand pounds
been bruised, and life endangered at every bend- The heart, at each pulse or contraction, by which




110                         THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
it protrudes the blood out of. the arteries into the ranged, and its functions interrupted. The arteveins, exerts a force of above a hundred thousand ries into which the blood is forced, branch in
pounds.'  Who can contemplate this. amazing every direction through the body, like the, roots
strength of the muscular system, without admira- and branches of a:tree; running through the subtion of the power and wisdom of the Creator, stance of the bones, and every, part of the aninlal
who' has indued a bundle of threads, each of them  frame, until they are lost in such fine tubes as to
smaller than a hair, with suchan astonishing de- be wholly invisible. -Inthe parts where the artsgree of mechanical forced- There.-have been ries are lost to the sight, the veins take their
reckoned about 446,muscles in theX human body, rise; and, in the commencement, are also imperwhich have been dissected and distinctly descri-  ceptible.
bed; every one of which is. essential to the per-   REsPIRATION.-The organs of respiration are
formance of some one motion or other, which the lungs. They are divided into five lobes; three
contributes to our ease and enjoyment; and, in of which lie on the right,'and two on the left side
most instances, a great number.-of them is re- of the thorax.  The substance of the lungs is
quired to perform their different functions atthe chiefly composed of infinite ramifications of the
same time. It has been, calculated, that about trachea, or windpipe,' which, after gradually be.
a hundred muscles are employed every time we coming more and more minute, terminate in little
breathe.-" Breathing with ease," says Dr., Paley, cells or vesicles, -which have a free, communica" is a blessing of every moment; yet, of all oth- tion with one another. At each inspiration, these
ers, it is that which we possess with the least con- pipes and cells are filled with air, which is again
sciousness. A man in an asthma is the only man discharged by expiration. In this manner, a cirwho knows. how to.estimate it." -              culation of air, which is necessary to the exisThe HEART and BLOOD-VESSELS. —The heart is tence of men and other animals, is constantly
a hollow muscular organ, of a conical shape, and kept up as long as life remains. The air-cells of
consists of four distinct cavities. The two largest the lungs open into the windpipe, by which they
are called ventricles, and the two smallest auricles. communicate with the external atmosphere. The
The ventricles send out the blood to the arteries; whole internal structure of the lungs is lined by a
the auricles receive it from the veins. The heart transparent membrane, estimated at only the thouis inclosed in the pericardium, a  nembranous bag, sandth part of an inch in thickness; but whose
which contains a quantity of water or lymph. surface, from its various convolutions, measures
This water lubricates the heart, and facilitates all fifteen square feet, which is equal to the external
its motions. The heart is the general reservoir surface of the body. On this thin and extensive
of the blood. - When the heart contracts, the membrane innumerable veins. and arteries are disblood is propelled from the right ventricle into the tributed, some of -them  finer than hairs; and
lungs, through the, pulmonary arteries, which, through these vessels all the blood of the system
like all the other arteries,. are furnished with is successively propelled, by a most curious and
valves that play easily forward, but.admit not the admirable mechanism.  It has been computed
blood to return toward the heart. The blood, that the lungs, on an average, contain about 280
after circulating through tile lungs, and having cubic inches, or about five English quarts of air.
there been revivified by coming in contact with At each inspiration, about forty cubic inches of
the air, and imbibing a portion of its oxygen, re- air are received into the lungs, and the same
turns into the left auricle of the heart, by the quantity discharged at each expiration.  On the
pulmonary vein. At the same instant, the left supposition that twenty respirations take place in
ventricle drives the blood into the aorta, a large a minute, it will follow that, in one minute, we
artery which sends off branches to supply the inhale 800 cubic inches; in an hour, 48,000; and
head -and arms. Another large branch of the in a day, one million one hundred and fifty-two
aorta descends along the inside of the backbone, thousand cubic inches —a quantity which would
and detaches numerous ramifications to nourish fill seventy-seven wine hogsheads, and would
the bowels and inferior extremities. After serv- weigh fifty-three pounds Troy. By means of
ilg the most remote extremities of the body, the this function, a vast body of air is daily brought
arteries are converted into veins, which, in their into contact with the mass of blood, and comnmureturn to the heart, gradually unite into larger nicates to it its vivifying influence;'and, therebranches, until the whole terminate in one great fore, it is of the utmost importance to health,
trunk, called the vena cave, which discharges that the air, of which we breathe so considerable
itself into the right auricle of the heart, and com- a quantity, should be pure and uncontaminated
pletes the circulation.  Each ventricle of the with noxious effluvia.
heart is reckoned to contain about one ounce, or   In respiration, the air meets the blood in the
twvo table spoonsful of blood. The heart contracts lungs, and part of the oxygen of the atmosphere
4000 times every hour; and, consequently, there is absorbed by it, and imparts to it its red color.
passes through it 250 pounds of blood in one Part of the oxygen is also converted into carbonic
hour.:  And'if the mass of blood in a human acid by combining with carbon, or charcoal, in
body be reckonied at an average at twenty-five the lungs. In every instance, air which has been
pounds, it will follow, that the whole mass of blood respired loses a part of its oxygen; the quantity
passes through the heart, and consequently through varies at different times, according to the operathe thousands of ramifications of the veins and tion of certain'external agents. It is reckoned
arteries, ten times every hour, -or about once every that, upon an average, a man under ordinary cirsix minutes. We may acquire a rude idea of the cumstances consumes 45,000 cubic inches, or
force with which the blood is impelled from the 15,500 grains of oxygen, in 24 hours. A quanheart, by considering the velocity with which tity of carbonic acid is at the same time produced,
water issues from, a syringe, or from the pipe of which is generally somewhat less than the oxygen
a fire-engine. Could we behold'these rapid mo- consumed, and may be reckoned at 40,000 cubic
tions incessantly going on within us, it would inches in 24 hours. It has been found that in the
overpower our minds with''astonishment, and human species different individuals consume difeven with terror. We should be'aptto feel alarm- ferent quantities of oxygen, and of course return
ed on making the smallest exertion, lest'the paits different quantities of carbonic acid. The breath
of this delicate machine should be broken or de- expired has been shown to contain from 6 to 8 per




ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.'                                        111
eent; of carbonic acid  It has been found that together: the arteries and veins lik'e rivulets, conthe'nitrogen of' the air inspired'is  sometimes re- vey life and iealth throughout:' the: heart, placed
turned lin full volume, and sometimes is partially  in, the center, is the focus where the' bloods colretained and disappears.- On the whole, as respi- lects, or the acting power by means of, which itration is one of the most important functions of circulates and is preserved: the lungs, by means
animal life, on which our very existence depends, of another power draw in the external air, and
so we may plainly perceive,-:from the above and expel. hurtful vapors: the stomach and intestines
other circumstances, with what:a variety of other are the  magazines where everything  that is
functions dit is connected, and: on what:a variety  required for the daily supply is prepared: the
of minute and-invisible processes its operations brain, that seat of the soul, is formed in a manner
depend.                                          suitable to the dignity of its inhabitant: the senses,:..DIGESTION.-This process is performed by the which are the soul's ministers, warn it of all
stomach, which is a memrbranous and muscular that  is necessary either for its pleasure or use..
bag, furnished with two. orifices. By the one, it'Adorable Creator! with what wonderful art hast
has a communication with a gullet, and' by the thou formed us!  Though the heavens did not
other, with the bowels. The food, after being exist to proclaim  thy glory-though there were'
moistened by the saliva, is received into  the no created being upon earth but myself, my own
stomach, where it is still further diluted by the body might suffice to convince -me that thou art a
gastric juice, which has the power of dissolving  God of unlimited power and infinite goodness."
every kind of animal and vegetable substance.   This: subject suggests a variety of moral and
Part of it is afterward absorbed by the lymphatic religious reflections, but the limits to which I am
and lacteal vessels, and carried-into the circulating  confined will permit me to state only the followsystem, and converted into blood for supplying ing:that nourishnment which the perpetual waste of   1. The- economy of the human frame, when
our bodies demands.                              seriously contemplated, has a tendency to excite
-PERSPIRATION is the evacuation of the juices of admiration and astonishment, and to impress us
the body through the pores of the skin.- It has with a sense of our continual dependence on a Subeen calculated that there are above three hundred perior Power.  What an immense multiplicity of
thousand millions of pores in-the glands of the skin machinery must be in action, to enable us to
which covers the body of a middle-sized -man. breathe, to feel, and to walk! Hundreds of bones
Through these pores more than one-half of what of diversified forms, connected together by various
we eat and drink passes off byinsensible perspira- modes of articulation; hundreds of muscles to protion. If we consums eight pounds of- food in a duce motion, each of them acting in at least ten
day, five pounds of it are insensibly discharged by'different capacities (see p. 36); hundreds of tenperspiration. During a night of seven hours' dons and ligaments to connect the bones and
sleep, we perspire about forty ounces, or two muscles; hundreds of arteries to convey the blood:
pound~ and a half. At an average, we may esti- to the remotest part of the system; hundreds of'
mate the discharge from  the surface of the body, veins to bring it. back to its reservoir the heart;
by sensible and insensible perspiration, at from  thousands of glands secreting humors of various
hal]f an ounce to four ounces an hour.  This is a kinds from the blood; thousands of lacteal an&
mostwonderful part of the animal economy, and  lymphatic tubes, absorbing and conveying nutriis absolutely necessary to our health, and even to ment to the circulating fluid; millions of pores),
our very eiistence. When partially obstructed, through which the perspiration is continually
colds, rheumatisms, fevers, and other inflamma- issuing; an infinity of ramifications of nerves, diftory disorders, are produced; and were it' com- fusing sensation throughout all the parts of this;
pletely obstructed,  the vital functions would be exquisite machine; and the heart at every pulsa —
clogged and impeded in their movements, and tion  exerting a force of a hundred thousand,
death would inevitably ensue.'       pounds, in order to preserve all this complicated}
SExNsATION.-The nerves are generally consider- machinery in constant operation!  The whole of
ed as the instruments of sensation.  They are soft this vast system of mechanism mupt be in actioni
white cords which proceed from  the brain and before we can walk across our apartments!  We
spinal marrow. They come forth originally by admire the operation of a steam-engile, and the
pairs.  Ten pair proceed from  the medullary  force it exerts. But, though it is constructed of
substance of the brain, which are distributed to the hardest materials which the mines can supply,.
all parts of the:head and neck.  Thirty pair pro- in a few months, some of its essential parts are
ceed from. the spinal marrow, through the verte- worn and deranged, even although  its action;
brte, to all the other parts of the body; being forty  should be frequently discontinued.  But the aniin.all. These nerves, the ramifications of which mal machine, though constructed, for the most,
are'infinitely various and minute, are distributed part, of the softest and most flabby substances,.
upon- the' heart, lungs, blood-vessels, bowels, and can go-on without intermission in all its diversimuscles, until they terminate on the skin or ex- fled movements, by night and by day, for. the
ternaI covering of the body.. Impressions of ex- space,of eighty or a hundred years! the heart givternal objects are; received by the brain from the ing ninety-six thousand strokes every twenty-'four.
adjacent organsof sense, and the brain exercises hours, and  the whole mass of blood rushing:
its commands over the muscles and limbs by through a thousand pipes of all sizes every fourmeans of the nerves.                             minutes!  And is it man that governs these nic&
Without prosecuting these imperfect descrip- and complicated movements?  Did he set the
tions further, I shall conclude this very -hasty  heart' in motion, or indue it with the muscular
sketch with the following summary of the parts force it exerts?  And when it' has ceased to beat,
of the body, in the words of Bonnet.-" The bones, can he command it again to resume its functions?
by their joints and solidity, form  the foundation  Man knows neither the secret springs of the
of this fine machine: the ligaments are strings machinery within him, nor the half of the purwhich unite the parts together: the muscles; are poses for which they serve, or of the movementl,
fleshy substances, which act -as elastic springs to they perform.'Can anything  more strikin4y
put them  in imotion: the nerves, which: are dis-..
persed over the. whole. body,: connect all the parts       Contemplation of Nature, vol i, p. 64
VoL. II.-8




1:12                        THE. CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
demonstrate our dependence every moment, on a to such varied and voluntary movements, 3r couald
Superioe  Agent, andi that' it is." "in God iwe'live we contemplate theml in anly other machine, we
and move and have our being.??  Were a single should be lost in wonder and' astonishment.
pin of the machinery within us, and over which   Beside these voluntary' motions, there are a
we have- no control,. either broken or deranged,:a thousand important functions which have no dethousand movements might instantly be interrupt- pendence upon our will..Whether we think of
ed,, and our bodies left to crumble.into the dust.  it or not, whether we be sleeping or waking, sitIt was considerations of this -kind_ that led the ting.or walking —the heart is incessantly exerting
celebrated physician Galen, who-was a skeptic.in its muscular power at the. center of the system,
his- youth, publicly to acknowledge' that a.Sun- and sending'off streams.of blood through hunpreme Inteligence must have: operated in ordain- dreds of pipes; the lungs are continually expanding the laws by': which living beings are con- ing and- contracting their thousands of vesicles,
structed. And he wrote his. excellent- treatise, and imbibing the vital principle of-the air; the
"On the uses of- the parts of the -human- frame," stomach is grinding the food; the lacteals- and
as a solemn.. hymn e to the,'Creator of the.world.: lymphatics are extracting nourishment for the':1 first endeavor from His.worl s," he says, "to  blood; the liver -and kidneys drawing off their
~know myself, and. afterward by, the same means secretions; and the perspiration issuing from milto show him to others; to inform them how;great lions of pores. These, and many other important
is, his: wisdom, his goodness, his power."' The functions with which we are unacquainted, and
late Dr. Hunter.:has observ.ed, that Astronomy over which we have no control,' ought to be reand -'Anatomy are -the studies which present, us garded as the immediate agency of the Deity
with the most striking view of the two most won- within us, and should excite our incessant admiraderful-.attributes of the Supreme Beiig.' The first tion and praise.'of- these: fills,the mind,with' the" -idea of his mi-   There is one peculiarity in the constitution of
mensity, ain the largeness, distances, and number our animal system, which we are apt to overlook,
oft the heavenly bodies; the'last astonishes us and for which we are never sufficiently grateful;
with. his intelligence and art, in the variety and and that is, the power it possesses of self-restoration.
delicacy of animal mechanism.         -        A wound heals up of itself; a broken bone is made
2..The study of the aniimal economy has a firm again by a callus; and a dead part is separatepowerful tendency to excite emotions of gratitude. ed and thrown off. If all the wounds we have
Man is natura]ly'a thouglhtless- and ungrateful ever received were still open and bleeding afresh,
creature. These dispositions are partly owing to to what a miserable condition should we be reignorance of the wonders of the human frame, duced?  But by a system of internal powers, beand of the admirable economy of the visible yond all human comprehension as to the mode of
world; and this ignorance is owing to the want their operation, such dismal effects are effectualof. those specific'instructions which ought to be ly prevented. In short, when we consider, that
communicated by parents and teachers, in con- health depends upon such a numerous assemblage
nection with religion.  For there is no rational of moving organs, and that a single spring out of
being.,who is acquainted with the structure of his action might derange the whole machine, and put
animal system, and reflects upon it -with the least a stop to all -its complicated movements, can we
degree of attention,. but must feel a sentiment of refrain from joining with the Psalmist in his pious
admiration and-gratitude. The science which un- exclamation, and grateful resolution, " How prefolds to us the economy of our bodies, shows us, cious are thy wonderful contrivances concerning
on what an infinity of springs and- motions and me, O God! how great is the sum of them! I will
adaptations, our life- and comfort depend. And praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully
when we consider, that all these -movements are made. Marvelous are thy works, and that my
performed without the least care or laborious ef- soul knoweth right well."
fort oil our -part, if we be'not altogether brutish,   Omitting the consideration of several other deand"insensible of our dependence on a Superior partments' of science, I shall, in the meantime,
Power, we must be filled with emotions of grati- notice only another subject connected with relitude toward Him "whose hands have made and gion, and that is
fashioned us, and who giveth us life, and breath,
and all things."  Some ofthe motions to which I                 H I T O R Y.
have -adverted depend upon our will; -and -with
what celerity do they obey its commands?, Be-   History embraces a record and description of
fore we call rise from our chair, and -walk across past facts and events in reference to all the naour apartment,.a hundred muscles must be set in tions and ages of the world, in so far as they are
motion';:every one of these must.be relaxed or known, and have been transmitted to'our time.cbnstricted, just to a certain degree, and no more; As Natural Historycontains a record of the opeand'all must act harmoniously at tilesame instant rations of the Creator in the material world, so
of time; and. atthe command, of the soul, all these Sacred and Civil History embraces a record of his.movements.are instantaneously performed. When transactions in the moral and intellectual world,
I- wish to lift my hand to my head, every part of or, in other words, a detail of the plans and operathe body requisite. -to produce the effect is put in tions of his Providence, in relation to the inhabit.
motion:' the. nerves are braced, the muscles are ants of our globe.
stretched% or relaxed, the bones play in their soc-   During the period of 3500 years from the creakets, and the whole animal- machine concurs in tion of man, the Sacred History contained in the
the action, as if every nerve and muscle had heard Old Testament is our only source of information
a sovereign and resistlesR call'-When I wish, the in reference to the'state of mankind, and the
next moment, to extend my hand to my foot, all events which happened to the human race throughthese. muscles are' thrown into a-different state, out that long interval. From- the creation of
and a new set are brought alolg- with, them into; Adam  to the Deluge-a period'of about 2000.
action; and thus we miy' vary, every moment, years, according to the Septuagint chronologythe, movements of the muscular system-, and' the we have no authenticated account of what hapmecnanical actions it produces, by a simple change pened to the inhabitants of the world, but that
in our volition'. Were we: not daily accustomed which is recorded in the first eight chapters of the




HISTORY.                                        113
book of Genesis. And during a period of 1500 hold the righteousness of the supreme Ruler o" the
years after the flood, the Sacred Histoiy  is still world, and the equity of his administration in the
our only sure guide as to the events which took  judgments which have been inflicted on wicked
place among the nations of the earth. This his- nations; and the improbability, nay, the impossitory, however, relates. chieflyto the inhabitants of -bility of men being ever restored to moral order
Judea, and the surrounding- nations,-so that. the and happiness, without a more extensive diffusion
greater portion of the history of man, in reference' of the blessings of the gospel of peace, and a
to all the other nations of the world, remains to  more cordial acquiescence in the requirements of
be learned in a futurestate. The Old Testament the divine law.
records carry down our views of the. history of   Such being some of the benefits to be derived
man to the period of the Jewish captivity, and to from history, it requires no additional arguments
about a hundred years- posterior to that event, to show that this branch of knowledge should octhat is, to within four or five hlundred years of casionally form a subject of study to every intelthe Christian era. -About this period Civil Histo- ligent Christian. But in order to render the
ry becomes definite and authentic, and fills up, study of-history subservient to the interests of reinl sortie measure, the chasm which is, left in the ligion, it is not enough merely to gratify our curiSacred History, so that, from this period'down- osity and imagination, by following out a succesward to the present time - with the exception sion of memorable events, by tracing the progress
of the New Testament records-we are indebted of armies and of battles, and listening to the
to civil or profane history, written by men of dif- groans of the vanquished'and the shouts of conferent nations, for all our knowledge of the trans- querors, This would be to study history merely
actions of'mankind and of the events which have as skeptics, as atheists, or as writers of novels.befallen them during the bypast period of 2500 When we contemplate the facts which the histoyears.                                         rian presents to our view, we ought to raise our
Civil history has been divided into Ancient and eyes to Him who is the Governor among the naModern History. Ancient history stretches- back tions, "who doth according to his will in the
as far as the authentic records of nations can armies of heaven and among the'inhabitants of
carry us; but we have no records to be, depended the earth," and who overrules the jarring interests
upon, separate from Revelation, which can carry  of mortals, for, promoting the prosperity of that
us farther back in the lapse of past ages, than kingdom which shall never be moved. We should
about a thousand years before the Christian -era. view the immoral propensities and dispositions of
This department of historic record comprehends mankind as portrayed in: the page of history, as
the history of the Egyptians —the Assyrians and evidences of the depravity of our species, and as
iBabylonians - the' Jews and Phenicians- the  excitements to propagate, with unremitting enerMedes and Persians-the Scythians and Celts —the gy, the knowledge of that Religion, whose subCarthayenians,-and particularly the history of lime doctrines and pure precepts alone can counthe-Greeks and of the Romans, which forms by teract the stream of human corruption, and unite
far the larger portion of ancient history, extend- all nations in one harmonious society. We should
ing from the building of Rome in the.year 753 view the contests of nations, and the results with
before Christ, to the subversion of the Roman which they are accompanied, as guided by that
empire in the 6th century of the Christian era, a invisible -hand which "mustereth the armies to
period of about 1300 years.-Modern history  the battle;" and should contemplate them either
commences where ancient history ends, aboubtthe as the accomplishment of Divine predictions,ns
6th or 7th century, and comprises the history of the inflictions of retributive justice, as paving the
France, Germany, Britain, Spain, Portugal, Italy, way for the introduction of rational liberty and
and other countries in Europe, together with social happiness among men, or as ushering in
what is known in modern times respecting the that glorious period, when " the knowledge of the
events which have happened in the kingdoms of Lord shall cover the earth," and the nations shall
Asia and Africa, and in the settlements of Aus- learn war no more.
tralasia and America. In reference to all such
historical records, it is deeply'to be lamented that
Athey contain little else than details of wars,
slaughters and devastations; and chiefly present to    Thus I have taken a very cursory survey of
our view  pictures of extortion, assassinations, some of those sciences which stand in a near relawholesale robberies, the destruction of empires, tion to the objects of Religion; and which may
the burning of cities, and the desolation of pro- indeed be considered as forming so many of its
vinces.  From  these records, however, we may  subordinate branches. There are many other delearn such instructions as the following: —    partments of knowledge, which at first view do
Through the medium of sacred history we learn  not seem to have any relation to Theological scithe period and the manner of man's creation;-  ernce; and yet, on a closer inspection, will be
the, reason of his fall from the primitive state of found' to be essentially connected with the several
integrity in which he was created, and the dismal subjects of which I have been treating. For exconsequences which ensued; —the various "move- ample-some may be apt to imagine that Arithmerenrits'of providence in order to his recovery, tic, Geometry, Trigonometry, and other branches
and. the means by which human redemption was of Mathematics, can have no relation to the'leadachieved;- the manner in which the Gospel was at ing -objects of Religion. But if these sciences
first promulgated, the countries into which it was had never been cultivated, the most important discarried, and the'important effects it produced.- coveries of astronomy, geography, natural philoThrough the medium of civil history we learn the sophy, and chemistry, would never have been
deep. and universal depravity of mankind, as ex- made; ships could not have been navigated across
bibited in the'-Wars, dissensions, and ravages which  the ocean; distant continents,'and the numerous
have desolated our fallen race in every period and  "isles of the sea," would have remained unexin every land; we learn the desperate wickedness plored,' and their inhabitants left to grope in the
of the human heart in the more private' acts of darkness of heathenism; and most of those inferocity, cruelty, and injustice, which in all ages struments and engines by which the condition of
nen.llhave perpetrated upon'each other;-we be- the human race will be gradually meliorated, and




.114                          THE CHRISTIAN, PHILOSOPHER.
the influence of Christianity extended, -would  follow-that Sermons, Lectures, systems of Dinever have been invented. Such is the depend- vinity, and:Religious Periodical- works, should
ence of every branch of useful knowledge upon  embrace occasional illustrations of such subjects,
another. that were any one portion of science, for the purpose of expanding the conceptions of
which has a practical tendency, to:be discarded, it professed Christians, and of enabling them  to
would prevent to a certaint degree. the improve-  take large and comprehensive views of the perment of every other.  And conisequenitly if any  fections and the providence of the Almighty.one science can be shown to have a connection  It is much to be regretted, that so many members
ws-ith religion, all the rest must likewise, stand in- of the Christian church are absolute strangers to
a certain relation to it.  It must, therefore, have  such studies and contemplations;  while the time
a pernicious effect on:the minds of the mass.-of and attention that might have been devoted to
the Christian world, wheli preacheirs lin their ser- such exercises, have in many cases been usurped
mons endeavor to- undervalue scientific   know- by the most groveling affections, by foolish purledge, by attempting to contrast- it with the doc- dsuits; by.gossipilng chitchat, and slanderous contrines of Revelation.  It would -be just as reason- versation. -Shall;  the most trifling  and absurd
able to attempt to contrast the'several doctrines, opinions  of ancient:and modern  heretics  be
dunties, and facts recorded in' the,New- Testament, judged worthy of attention, and occupy a place
with each other, in-order-to determine'their rela- in Religious journals, and even in discussions
tive importance, and to show  which:of them  from the- pulpit; and shall "the mighty acts of
*might be altogether overlooked and discarded.- the Lord," and the visible wonders of his power
Th6e series of facts and of divine revelations com- and wisdom, be thrown completely into the shade!
prised in the Bible; the moral and political events To survey with an eye of intelligence the widewhich- diversify the history of nations; and the  extended theater of the Divine operations-  to
physical operations that are going on among the  mark the agency of the Eternal Mind in every
rolling worlds on high, ald  in  the  chemical object we behold, and in every movement within
changes of the invisible atomns of matter-are all us and around us, are some of the noblest attainparts of one comprehensive   system, under the di- ments of the rational soul; and, in conjunction
rection of the Eternal Mind; every portion of  with every other Christian study and acquirewhich must hlave a certain relation to the whole. ment, are calculated to make "the man of God
Anld therefore, instead of attempting to degrade one  perfect, and thoroughly  furnished unto  every
pa:rt of the Divine fabric, in order to enhance an- good work."  By such studies we are, in some
other, our duty-is to take an expansive view of measure, assimilated to the angelic tribes, whose
the whole, and to consider the symmetry and  powers of imitellect are forever employed in such
proportion of its parts, and their mutual bear- investigations;  and are gradually prepared  for
ings and relations, in so far as our opportu- bearing a part in their immortal hymn —"  Great
lities and the limited faculties of our minds will and marvelous are thy works, Lord God Almighty;
permit.                                             just and true are thy ways, thou Killg of Saints!
If the remarks which-have been thrown out in  Thou art worthy to receive glory and honor and
this -chapter, respecting the connection of the Sci- power; for thou hast created all things, and "or
ences with Religion, have any foundation, it will thy pleasure they are and were created."
CH A P T E R    III.
THE RELATION WHICH THE INVENTIONS OF HUMAN ART BEAR TO THE
OBJECTS OF RELIGION.
IN this chapter I shall briefly notice a few phi- of this art, and its application to the diffusion of
losophical and mechanical inventions, which have knowledge, a new era was formed in the anlnals.an obvious bearing on Religion, and onl the gene- bf the human race, and in the progress of science,
ral propagation of Christianity among the nations. religion, and morals. To it- we are chiefly inThe first, and perhaps the most important of
lhe inventions to which I allude, is the ART OF dividuals; beside Laurentius, chiefly by one Fatst, commonPRINTING.. This art appears to have been invented  ly called Dr. Faustus; by Schoeffer, and by Guttenberg. It
(at least in Europe) about the-year 1430, by one  appears that the art, with many of its implements, was
-Laurentius, or Laurence Koster, a native of Haer-  stolen from Laurentins by one of his servants, whom he had.in, a town in Holand.  Asher, a  waking in     I bound by an oath to secrecy, who fled to, Mentz, and first;lem, a town in Holland.  As he was walking in a commenced the process of printing int that city. Here the
vwood near the city, he began to cut some letters art was improved by Fanst and Schoeffer, by their invention
aupon the rind of a beech tree, which, for the sake of metallic, instead of Cooden types, which were first used.
of-grat~ifyinlg his fancy, being impressed 1on paper, IWhen Faust was- in Paris, disposing of some Bibles he had
ofgratifying hisapy, being impressed on paper,  rinted, at the low price (as was then thought) of sixty
he printed one or two lines   aa specimen for his crowns, the number, and uniformity of the copies he posgrand-children to follow. This having succeeded, sessed, created universal agitation and astonishment. Inhe meditated greater things: and, first of all, in- formations were  given to the police against him as a magi.
vcian, his lodgings were:searched, and a great nunmber of.vented a more glutinous writing-ink, because he copies being found, they;were, seized; the red ink with
found,- the common ink, sunk and spread; and- which they were embellished was said to be his blood: it
thus formed whole- pages of wood with letters was seriously adjudged that he was in league with the
cut upon them.*  Byw the gradual improvemenlt I Devil; and if he had not fled from the city, most probably
cut upon. them.   B  te, gradul Am ovementi he would have shared the fate-of those whom ignorant and':  superstitious judges, at that time, condemned for witch* I am aware that- the honor of this invention has been craft. From this circumstance, let us learn to beware how
claimed by other cities beside. Haerlem, particularly by i we view the inventions of genius, and how we treat-those
Mtrasburg, and Moentz, a city of Germanyt; and by other i.-  whose ingenious contrivances may afterward. be the means




ART OF PRINTING.                                             115
debted for our deliverance -from  ignorance and lof the globe, and to sanctify and' reform men- of
error, and for the most of those scientific discove — all nations, and kindreds, and tongues, is- acceleries and improvements in the arts which distin- rated in its movements, and directed in its course
guish the period in which we live.- Without its through the nations, by the invention of the'Art
aid, the Reformation from Popery could scarcely  of'Printing; and ere long it will distribute among
have been achieved; for had the books of Luther, the inhabitants of every land, the " Law and the
one of the first reformers, been multiplied by the Testimony  of the Most High," to guide their
slow  process of hand-writing and copying, they  steps to the regions of eternal bliss.  In short,
could never have been diffused'to any extent; and  there is -not a more powerful engine in the hand
the influence of bribery and- of' power might have  of Providence, for diffusing the knowledge of the
been sufficient to have arrested their progress, or nature and the will of the Deity, and for accormeven to have erased their existence.  But, being  plishing the grand objects of Revelation, than the
poured forth fiom  the press in: thousands at a art of multiplying books, and of conveying intime, they  spread over -the nationsof Euro pe,, telligence  through- the medium  of the  press.
like an inundation, and with a rapidity -which  Were no such art inll existence, we cannot conneither the authority of princes, nor-the schemes ceive how an extensive and universal propagation
of priests and cardinals, nor the bulls of popes, of the doctrines of Revelation could be effected,
could counteract or suspend.,;To this noble in- unless after the lapse of an -indefinite number of
X ention it is owing that- copies of. the Bible have  ages.  But with the assistance of this invention,
been multiplied to the extent of many millions- in its present' improved state, the island of Great
that ten thousands of them  are tog be -found in  Britain alone; within less than one hundred years,
every Protestant country-and that the poorest could  furnish a copy of the Scriptures to every
individual who expresses a desire for it, may be inhabitant of the world, and could defray the exfurnished with the "Word of Life," which will pense of suchan undertaking, with much more
guide him to a blessed immortality.  That Divine  ease, and with a smaller sum, than were necessalight.which is destined to illuminate every region  ry to finish the political warfare in which we were
lately engaged.
of enlightening and meliorating mankind.-See Appendix,    These considerations teach us that the ingeniNote IX.  -                                          ous inventions of the human mind are under the
Various improvements have been made of late years in
the art of -Printing. The art of Stereotyping, which was direction and control of the Governor of the
invented by  Mr. Ged. of Edinburgh, in 1725, but was not world-are intimately connected with the accombrought into general use until after the beginning of the pre- plishment of the plans of his providence; and
sent century-is now extensively used, both in Great Britain have a tendency, eltser directly or indirectly, to
and America, in the printing of such books- as have an ex-.ensive circulation. When a page is intended to be stereo-  promote, over every region of the earth, the protyped, the types ae, in the first instance, put up in the usual gress and extension of the kingdom  of the Reway; but instead of being carried to the press, the page is deemer.  They also show us from what small beplastered over with liquid stucco to the thickness of about
half'an inch, so that a level cake is formed on the surface  s te most magnificent o r
of the types. As soon as the stucco hardens, the cake is Divine economy may derive their origin.  Who
separated from the types, and on- being turned up, shows a could have isnagiLned that the simple circumstance
complete  mold-like representation of the faces of the of a person amusing himself by cutting a few lettypes; and there being no longer any use for the types, they ters on the bark of a tree, asd impressing them
are carried off and distributed. After the cake is hardened,
by putting it into an oven, it is next laid in a square iron on paper, was intimately connected with the menpan, at the bottom of which is a movable- plate, upon tal illumination of mankind? and  that the art
which the mold is placed, with its face downward. The which sprung from  this casual plocess was despan is then immersed in a pot of molten lead, and when the
lead has run into the mold side of the cake, and formed a tined  to be the principal mean of illuminating
thin plate all over, there is produced the perfect appearance  the nations, and of conveying to the ends of the
of the faces of the types on which the stucco was plastered. earth the " salvation of our God?"  But "He
The stereotype plates:, thus prepared, are next taken to the who rules in the armies of heaven and amon
printing-office and made ready for the press, by placing them
on iron or wooden blocks, so that both plate and block make the inhabitants of the earth," and who sees " the
up the exact hight of a page of real types.-In this manner end  from  the beginning,"  overrules the  most
any number of copies of a book may be printed at any time, minute movements of all his creatures, in subwithout again incurring the trouble and expense of re-setting   to his ultimate designs, and s
the types, as is necessary.to be done in printing new edi-tions.    hambers' "Edinburgh Journal" is regularly ste. self in this respect to be "wonderful in counsel
reotyped in this way. The types being putup onthe premi-  and excellent in working."
ses of the publishers, are sent off in pages to a stereotype    The MARINER'S COMPASS.-Another invention
founde'y, where two sets of plates are molded. One set which has an intimate relation to reliion,  is the
of plates is kept for use in Edinburgh, and the other sent in
a box, by the Royal Mail or Steam vessel, to London, where Art of Navigation and the invention of the MARIit is immediately subjected to a steam press, and in a few  NER'S COMPASS.  Navigation is the art of conducthours made to produce 20,000 or more printed sheets.  ing a ship through  the sea from  one port to
Steam-printing-which is now coming in general use- 
appears to have been first introduced by Mr. Konig, a German, about 1804. The " Times" newspaper, of November ticed in the early ages of antiquity by the Phe28, 1814, appears to have been tie first ever printed by ma- nicians, the Carthaginians, the Egyptians, the
chinery propelled.by steam, and the numbers of that paper Romans; and other nations of Europe and Asia.
have been thrown off by thile same-process ever since. A
machine of this description, -with one cylinder, throws off But they had no guide to direct them  in their
from 900'to 1200 sheets in'an hour on one side, requiring two voyages, except the sun in the day-time, and the
boys,,one-to lay on the paper, and another toreceive it when stars by night.' When the sky was overcast with
printed. -A machine'with two cylinders throws off at the
rate of from 1600 to 2l00 an hour, requiring two' boys to lay clouds, they were thrown into alarms, and durst
on the sheets, and two to take them of-exclusively for not venture to any great distance from the coast,
newspapers. A  machine similar to  that usei by  the  lest they should be carried forward in- a course
" Times," with 4 printing cylinders, requiring the atten- opposite to that which they intended, or be driven
dance of 8 bos., throws off about 4000 sheets an hour. By              ocs,  or unknown sho. 
the erection oa such steam presses, the three grand requi- against  idde,
sites, speediness of execution, quantity, andceheapness of danger and difficulty of" the navigation of the anlabor, are secured to an extent which could scarcely have cients on this account may be learned from  the
been anticipated in a preceding age, ani which is calculaed deliberations, the  great - preparations, and  the
to supply the exigencies of the times in which we live,  lr o  h       er  eros,      n th
when knowledge of every description is rapidlyl diffusing  alarms of Homer's heroes, when they were about
itself among.ll ranks of the community'       -.  to cross the AEgean sea, an extent of not more




116                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
than 150 miles; and the expedition of the Argo- tion, and constructed an instrument, by the help
nauts under Jason, across the sea of Marmora of which the mariner can now direct his course
anld the Euxine, to the island of Colchis, a dis- to distant lands, through the vast and pathless
tance of only four or five hundred  miles, was ocean.  The following figure  gives a general
viewed as a most wonderful exploit, at which  representations of the mariner's compass.
even the gods themselves were said to be amazed.                      Fig. 27.
The same thing appears from  the narration we
have in the Acts of the Apostles,'of Paul's voy-N
age from Cesarea to Rome..   "When," says Luke, 
"neither sun nor stars in many days appeared,  
and no'small tempest'lay on us, all hope that we,      
should be saved' was then' taken: away."  Being
deprived of these gufides, they were tossed about
in the'Mediterranean, not knowing whether they  
were' carried to north,-south, east, or'west. So
that the voyages of antiquity consisted chiefly in    W 
creeping along the coast, and seldom_ venturing
beyond sight of land: they could not, therefore,
extend their excursions by, sea to distant contilients and nations; and henc e the greater portion
of the terraqueous globeand its inhabitants were
to them altogether:unknio;wn.  It was not before    l
the invention of the mariner's compass that distant voyages could be undertaken, that extensive-oceans could  be traversed, and an- intercourse carried on between remote' continents and    In consequence of the discovery of this instruthe islands of the ocean.                         ment, the coasts of almost every land on the surIt is somewhat uncertain at what precise period  face of the globe have been explored, and a reguthis noble discovery was made; but it appears lar intercourse opened up between the remotest
pretty evident that the mariner's compass was not regions of the earth. Without the help of this
commonly used in navigation before the year noble  invention, America, in  all probability,
1:420, or only a few years before the invention of would never have been discovered by the eastern
printing.a  The.loadstone, in all ages, was known nations, the vast continent of New Holland, the
to have the-property of attracting iron; but its numerous and interesting islands in the Indian
tendency to point toward the nofrth and -south  and Pacific oceans, the isles of Japan, and other
seems to have been unnoticed until the'beginning  immense territories inhabited by human beings,
of' the twelfth century.  About that time, some would have remained as much unknown and uncurious persons seem  to have amused theinselves explored as if they had never existed.  And as
by making to swim,- in a basin of water, a load- the nations of Europe and the western parts of
stone suspended on a piece of cork; and to have Asia were the sole depositories of the records of
remarked, that,: when left at liberty, one of its Revelation, they could never have- conveyed the
extremities pointed to the north.  They had also blessings of salvation to remote countries, and to
remarked, that,- when a piece of iron is rubbed unknown tribes of mankind, of whose existence
against the loadstone, it acquires also the property  they were entirely ignorant.  Even although the
of -turning toward the north, and of attracting  whole terraqueous globe had been sketched out
needles and filings of iron.  From one experiment before them, in all its aspects and bearings, and
to another, they proceeded to lay a needle, touched  ramifications of islands, continents, seas, and
with the magnet, on two small bits of straw float- oceans, and the moral and political state of every
ing on the water, and to observe that the needle tribe of its inhabitants displayed to view, without
invariably turned its-point toward the north. The a guide to direct their course through the billows
first use' they seem to have made of these experi- of the ocean, they could'have afforded no light
ments, was to impose upon simple people by the and no relief to cheer the /distant nations "who
appearance of magic.'  For example, a hollow  sit in darkness and in the shadow  of death."
swan, or the figure of a mermaid, was made to Though the art of printing had been invented;
swim- in a basin of water, and to follow a knife though millions of Bibles were now prepared,
with-a bit of bread upon its point, which had  adequate'to the supply of all the "kindreds of
been- previously rubbed on the loadstone.  The the heathen;" though ships in abundance were
experimenter convinced them  of his power, by equipped for the enterprise, and thousands of miscommanding, in this way, a needle laid on the sionaries ready to embark,'and to devote their
surface.of the water, to turn its point from. the lives to the instruction of the Pagan world; all
norith to the east, or in any other direction.  But would be of no avail, and the " salvation of God"
some geniuses,- of,more sublime and reflective could never be proclaimed to the ends of the
powers of mind, seizing upon- these hints, at last world, unless they had the mariner's compass to
applied these experiments todthe wants of naviga- guide their course through the trackless ocean.
In this invention, then, we behold a proof of
* The invention of the compass is- usually'ascribed to the agency of Divine Providence in directing the
Flavio Gioia, of Amalfi, in Campania, about the year 1302;s to subserve the most imand the Italians are strenuous in support of this claim. Others affirm that Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, having made a portant designs, and contemplate a striking specijourney to China, brought back the invention with him in men of the "manifold wisdom  of God."  When
1260  The French:also lay claim to the honor of.this in- the pious and contemplative Israelite reflected on
vention, from the circumstance that all nations distinguish the reclaration of the prophets,that "the glory
the North~ point of the card by a                                 ofler:de. lis; and,:t with
equal reason, the English have laid claim to the same honor, of Jehovah should be revealed, and that all flesh
from the name coipass, by which most nations have agreed should see it together," —from the state of the arts
to distinguish it. But whoever were the inventors, or at Which then existed, e must have felt mny difiwhatever period this instrument was first constructed, it doesny dl
not appear that it was brought into g'eneral use before the culties in forming a conceptioh - of the maner in
period meationed in-'the text.                    which such predictions should be realized. "Tho




TELESCOPES.                                            117
great and wide sea," now termed the Mediterra- comprehending within  its  vast - circumference
iealn, formed the boundary of his view, beyond  thousands of suns, and ten thousands of worlds,
which he was unable to penetrate. Of.the conti- all arranged in majestic order, at immense disnents and " the isles afar off," and of the far more tances from  one another, and all supported and
spacious oceans that lay  between, he had  no governed "by Him who rides on the Heaven of
knowledge; and how  "the ends of the earth"  heavens," whose greatness is unsearchable, and
were.to be reached, he could form no conception; whose understanding is infinite.
and, in the midst of his perplexing thoughts, he    The telescope has also demonstrated to us the
could find satisfaction only in the firm belief that literal truth of those scriptural declarations which
"4 with God all things are possible."  But now we assert that the stars are "innumerable."  Before
are enabled not only to contemplate the grand  the invention of this instrument, not more than:designs of the Divine economy, but the principal about a thousand stars could be perceived by the
means by which they shall all, in due time, be unassisted eye in the clearest night.  But this inaccomplished, ill consequence of the progress of vention has unfolded to view not only thousands,
science and art, and of their consecration to the but hundreds of thousands, and millions, of those
rearing and extension of the Christian church.    bright luminaries, which lie dispersed in every
The two inventions to which I have now ad- direction  throughout the boundless dimensions
verted, may, perhaps, be considered as among the of space. In the Mlilky Way-a whitish zone or
most striking instances of the connection of hu- circle which surrounds the heavens-more than
man art with the objects. of Religion.  But there ten millions of stars mnight be distinguished by
are many other inventions which, at first view, means of the best telescopes. And the higher the
do not appear to bear so near a relation to the magnifying and illuminating powers of the teleprogress of Christianity, and yet have an ultimate scope are, the more numerous those celestial orbs
reference to some of its grand and interesting  appear; leaving us no room to doubt, that countobjects.                                           less myriads more lie hid in the distant regions
The TELESCOPE. —We might be apt to think, of creation, far beyond the reach of the finest
eon a slight view of the matter, that there can be glasses that can be constructed by human skill,
no immediate relation between the grinding and and which are known only to Him " who counts
polishing of an optic glass, and fitting two or the number of the s4tars, and calls them  by their
more of them  in a tube-and the enlargement of names."
our views of the operations of the Eternal Mind.   In short, the telescope may be considered as
Yet the connection between these two objects, serving the purpose of a vehicle for conveying us
and the dependence of the latter upon the former, to the.distant regions of space.  We would concan be fairly demonstrated.-The son of a specta- sider it as a wonderful achievement, could we
ele-maker of Middleburg in Holland, happening  transport ourselves two hundred thousand miles
to amuse himself in his father's shop, by holding from the earth, in the direction of the Moon, in
two glasses between his finger and his thumb, and  order to take a nearer view  of that celestial orb.
varying their distances,perceived the weathercock  But this instrument enables us to take a much
of the church spire opposite to him, much larger nearer inspection of that planet than if we had
than ordinary, and apparently much nearer, and actually surmounted the force of gravitation, traturned upside down.  This new wonder excited versed the voids of space, and left the earth 230,-the amazement of the father; he adjusted two  000 miles behind us. For, supposing such a jourglasses on a board, rendering them  movable at ney to be accomplished, we should still be ten
pleasure; and thus formed the first rude imitation  thousand miles distant from that orb. But a tealeof a perspective glass, by which distant objects scope which magnifies objects 240 times, can.
are brought near to view. Galileo, a philosopher carry our views within ONE thousand miles of the
of Tuscany, hearing of the invention, set his Moon; and a telescope, such as Sir W. Herschel's
mind to work, in order to bring it to perfection. 40 feet reflector, which magnifies 6000 times,
He fixed his glasses at the end of long organ- would enable us to view the mountains and valpipes, and constructed a telescope, which he soon lays of the Moon, as if we were transported to a
directed to different parts of the surrounding hea- point about 40 miles from her surface.*  We call
vens. He discovered four moons revolving round
the planet Jupiter-spots on the surface of the   * Though the highest magnifying power of Sir W. Her.
Sun, and the rotation of that globe around its schel's large telescope, which is now dismantled, was estiaxis-mountains and valleys in the Moon —and  mated at six thousand times, yet, it does not appear that he
ever applied this power with success, when viewing the
numbers of fixed stars where scarcely one was moon and the planets. The deficiency of light, when using
visible to the naked eye.  These discoveries were so high a power, would render the view of these objects less
-made about the year 1610, a short time after the satisfactory than wvhen viewed with a power of only a thou-.first invention  of the telescope. ~ Since that pa. sand times. Still, it is quite certain, that if any portions of
the moon's surface were viewed through an inslrument of
riod, this instrument has passed through various such a power they would appear as large (but not nearly so
degrees of improvement, and, by means of it, ce- bright and distinct) as if we were placed about 40 miles dis.
lestial wonders have been explored in the distant tant from that body. The enlargement of the angle of vispaces of the universe, which, in former times  sion, in this case, or the apparent distance at which the.spaces                            of th universe, which, informoon would be contemplated, is found by dividing the
were altogether concealed from mortal view.  By  moon's distance-240,000 miles, by 6000, the magnifying
the help of telescopes, combined with the art of power of the telescope, which produces a quotient of 40-the
measuring the -distances and magnitudes of the number of miles at which the moon would appear to be
eavenly  bodises, our views of the Grandeur of placed from the eye of the observer. Sir W. Herschel ap* heavenly bodies, our views of the Grandeur of  pears to have used the highest powers of his telescopes only,
the Almighty, of the plenitude of his Power, and or chiefly, when viewing some very minute objects in the
of the extent of his universal Empire, are extended region of the stars. The powers he generally used, and
far beyond what culd  have been concaived in  with which he made most of his discoveries, were,!227, 460,
754, 932, and occasionally 2010, 3168, and 6450, for the purformer ages.  Our prospects  of the range of the pose of making experiments of their effect on double stars,
divinem   operations are no longer confined iwithin etc.
the limits of the world we inhabit; we can now   -Lord Oxmantown, now Earl of Rosse, after a labor of
plainly perceive, that the kingdom of God. is -not about three years, completed in 1845 the construction of his
plainly pereive, that the kingdom of Godta is   - reflecting telescope, which is of much larger dimensions
only" an everlasting  dominion," but that it ex- than the 40 feet telescope of Herschel. The casting of this
tends through. the unlimited regions of space, speculum took place in April, 1842. The metal is 6 feet




11                            THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER
view the magnificent system'of theplanet Saturn, liquids, so small that fiftythousand of them would
by means of this instrument,'as distinctly, am if we not equal the size of a mite; and yet each of these
had performed a journey eight hundred millions of creatures is furnished with a mouth, eyes, stomiles' in the direction of that globe;- which, at the mach, "blood-vessels, andotherorgans for the per-.
rate of 50 miles an hour,. would require a'period  formance of animal funcitions.  In a stagnant
of more.than. eighteen hundred iyears to accomr- pool, which is covered with a greenish  scum
plish. By the telescope, we can -contemplate the during the summer months, every drop of tile
region of the fixed stars, theirarrangemeiint:into water is found'to be a world teeming. with thousystems, and their immense numbers,:.With the sands of inhabitants. The moldy substance which
same distinctness and amplitude of view, as if we usually adheres to damp bodies, exhibits a forest
had actually. taken a fliglit'of ten hundred thou- of trees and plants, where the branches, leaves,
sand millions of miles into those unexplored and  and fruit, can be plainly distinguished.  In a
unexplorable regions, which could not be accom" word, by this admirable instrument we behold the
plshhed in several millions ofe years, though our same Almighty hand which rounded the spacious
motion wete. as rapid as a'ball- projected from a globe on which we. live, and the huge masses of
loaded cannon. We would justly consider it as a the planetary oibs, and directs them in their rapid
nobli endowment forenabling us to take an ex- motions through the sky,-employed, at the same
tcnsivq survey of the,works of God, if we had the moment, in rounding and polishing ten -thousand
faculty of transporting ourselves to such immense minute transparent globes in the eye of a fly;
distances -from  the sphere we nowQoccupy; but and boring and  arranging veinss and arteries,
by,  means, of the telescopic tube, we.may take and  forming.and  clasping  joints and  claws,
necarly the same ample views of the dominions of for the movements of a mite!  We thus learn the
the Creator, without stirrin a   foot from  the admirable and astonishing effects of the Wisdom
limits of our terrestrial abode.  This instrument of God,and that the Divine Care and Benevolence
may, t       herefore, be considered as a providential are as much displayed in the construction of the
gift bestowed:upon. mankind, to serve, in the smallestinsect, as in the elephant or thile whale,
mqantime, as  a temporary substitute, for those or in those ponderous globes which roll around us
powers of rapid flight with. which the seraphim  in the sky.  These, and thousands of other views
are endowed, and for those guperior faculties of which the microscope exhibits, would never have'mInotion with which man himself may be invested, been displayed to the human mind, had they not
when he arrives at the- summit of moral per- been opened up by this admirable invention.,fcction:.'                                          In fine, by means of the two instruments.to
The MicRoscoPE.-The Microscope is another which I have now adverted, we behold Jehovah's
instrument, constructed  on similar principles, empire extending to infinity on either hand.  By
which has greatly expanded our views of the the telescope we are presented with the most
"'manifold wisdom  of Gbd."  This instrument, astonishing displays of his'omnipotence, in the inmwhich discovers to us small objects invisible to mense number, the rapid motionlls, and the inconthe naked eye, was invented soon after the nven- ceivable magnitude, of the celestial globes; —and
tion  and *improvement of the telescope.  By. by the microscope,.we behold, what is still more
means-of this optical contrivance, we perceive a inconceivable, a displayof his unsearchable wisvariety of wonders.in almost every object in the dom. in the Divine mechanism, by which a drop
animal, the vegetable, and the mineral kingdoms.'of water is peopled with myriads of inhabitants —
We perceive that every particleof matter, how- a fact, which, were it not subject to ocular deevel minuite, has' a determinate form-that the monstration, would far exceed- the limits of human
very scales on the skin'of: ahaddock are all beau- conception or belief.  We have thus the most
tifully interwoven, and variegated,like pieces of striking and sensible evidence, that, from the irnnetwork,'which no art can imitate-that the measurable luminaries of heaven, and.from  the
points of the p!rickles of vegetables, though mag- loftiest seraph that stands before the throne of
nified a thousand times, appear as sha-rp and well God, down to this. lower world, and to the smallpolished as to tihe naked eye-that every particle est microscopic animalcule that eludes the finest
of the'dust on a moth or a butterfly's wing, is- a glass-HE is everywhere present, and, by his
beautiful and regularly organized feather-that power, intelligence, and agency, animates, supevery` hair of our head is a'hollow  tube, with  ports, _and directs the whole.  Such views and
bulbs and'oots, furnished with a variety of threads contemplations naturally lead us to advert to the
and, filaments —-and that the pores in our skin, character of God, as delineated'by the sacred
through which' the sweat' and perspiration flow, writers, that" He is of great, power and mighty
are so numerous and minute, that-a grain of sand in strength;" that "His understanding is infinite;"'would cover a hundred and twenty-five thousand  that "His works are wonderful;" that "' His opeof them. We perceive animated beings in certain  rations are unsearchable, and past finding out;"
and they must excite the devout mind to join
with fervor in the language of'adoration and
diameter, 5/ inches thick at'the edges, and 5 inchies at the praise
praise —
ceinter,'and its weight is about three tons. Its composition
is copper and tin —l6 parts of copper'to 57 Y of tin. The  When thy amazing works, O God!
price of the copper alone is. reckoned at about E100. By    My mental eye surveys,
grinding and polishing, its thickness was reduced Y or 1-10  "cTransported with the view I'm lost
inch, It is formed into a telescope Of 50,feet focal length.  In wonder, love, and praise."
Thecasting of this immense speculum, with allthe opera.   STEAM NAvAION.-e might have been apt
tions connected with it, were adcomplished without.any ac.   STEAM NAVIGATION.-We might have been apt
cident, and with a degree of success beyond "expectation. to suppose, that the chemical experiments that
This speculum has a reflecting surfa'ce of 4071 square inches, were first made to demonstrate the force of Steam
while that of Herschel's 40. feet telescope had only 1811s a mechanical aget, could have little relation t
as a me chanical    a     Ign,~cu d have little relation to
square inches on its polished surface; so that the quantity
of light refleted  from thi  speculums consideraly more  theobjects of Religion, or.even to the comfort of
of igh relets ~ fomthie speculum is considerably more
than double that of Herschetps largest reflector. This cer. human life and society.  Yet it has now been aptainlyforms one of themost-noble and' splendid'instruments plied to the irpelling  f ships and large boats
of the'kind'that have ever bee/n coistructedi-and it is: not along rivers and seas, in oosition to both wind
along rivers and seas, in opposition to both wind
improbable that. by its assistance, further interesting disco 
veries may be made in'the regions of the stars.    and tide, and with a velocity which, at an average,
ee Appendix, Note X.'                    exceeds that of any other mode of conveyance by




STEAM  NAVIGATION.                                               119
water.  And -we have no reason' to believe that Panama which connects North and South Amerithis invention  has hitherto  attained its highest ca, and the isthmus of Suez, which separates the
state of pcrfection; but that it is still susceptible  Mediterranean  from  the Red sea, were cut into
of such improvements, both in-point of expedition  wide and deep canals (which we have no doubt
and of safety, as may re-nder  it by far the most will be accomplished as soon as civilized  nations
comfortable and speedy conveyance between dis- have access to perform  operations in these territotaut lands, for transporting the volume of inspi-  ries), every country inll the world could then be
ration, and- the heralds of the gospel of peace, to  reached from  Europe, in nearly a direct line; or,
" tile ends of the earth."  By the help of his com- at most, by a gentle curve, instead  of the long,
pass, the mariner is enabled to steer his course in  and dangerous, and circuitous route which muist'
the midst of the ocean, in the most cloudy days, now be taken, in sailing for the eastern parts of
and in the darkest nights, and to transport his  Asia, and the north-western  shores of America.
vessel from one end of the world to another.  It By this means, eight or nine thousand  miles of
now  only remains, that navigation be rendered  sailing would be saved in a voyage from  England
safe, uniform, and expeditious, and not dependent to Nootka Sound, or the peninsula of California;
on adverse winds or the currents of the ocean; and more than six thousilhd miles in passing from
and titere is every reason to expect, as the art of London to'Bombay in the East Indies; and few
propelling vessels by the force of steam  proceeds  places on the east would be farther distant from
toward perfection, that these desirable objects will each  other by water than  15,000 miles; which
be fully attained.  Even at present, as the inven-  space might be traversed at the rate stated in
tion now Stands, were a vessel fitted to encounter the preceding  note, in  a period of about fifty
the waves of the Atlantic, constructed of a proper days.*
figure and curvature, with a proper disposition of    But we have reason to believe, that when this
her wheels, and having room where fuel can be  invention,combined with other mechanical assiststowed  in sufficient qurantity for the voyage, at ances, shall approximate nearer to perfection, a
the rate of ten miles an hour, she would pass from  much more rapid rate of motion will be effected;
the shores of Britain to the coast of America, in  and the advantages of this, in a religious, as well
less than thirteen days;-and, even at eight miles as in a commercial point of view, may be easily
an hour, the voyage could be completed in little  appreciated;  especially  at the  present  period,
more. than fifteen days: so that intelligence might when  the Christian world, now  aroused  from
pass and repass between the eastern and western  their slumbers, have framed the grand design of
Continents within the space of a single month-a  sending a Bible to every inhabitant of the globe.
space of'time very little mlore than'was requisite,' When the empire of the Prince of Darkness shall
eighty years ago, for conveying intelligence be- be shaken  throughout all its dependencies, and
tween Glasgow and London.  The greatest dis- the nations aroused to inquire  after light, and
tanlce- at which any two places on the globe can  liberty, and divine knowledge-intelligence would
lie from  each other is about 12,500 miles; and  thus be rapidly communicated over every region,
therefore if a direct portion of water intervene  and  between  the'most distant tribes.  "Many
between them, this space could be traversed in  would run to and fro, and knowledge would be
fifty-four or sixty days.*  And, if the isthmus of  increased."   The ambassadors of the Redeemer,
-_   _         ___-    with the Oracles of Heaven in their hands, and
* The above statements were written in 1823, when the  the words of salvation in their mouths, would
first edition of this work was published, and were then con- quickly be transported to every clime, " lavitlg
sidered as somewhat extravagant anticipations, which wereg  gospel to preach to every nation,
scarcely'expected to be realized, at least in the present age.
It is but within the last few years that one of our most dis- and kindred, and tongue, and people."
tinguished philosophers and engineers, Dr. Lardner, de-    AIR BALLOONS.-Similar remarks may be apnounced the scheme of attempting to cross the Atlantic by  plied to the invention of air balloons.  We have
means of steam  as an enterprise altogether impracticable.
But the navigation of the Atlantic, by means of steam ve            me pous  people wise have  mourned
sels, for several years past, has been regular, and almost as over such inventions, and lamented  the folly of
common as with ordinary sailing vessels;-and the rate of mankind in studying their construction atnd witmotion has been even greater than what we anticipatel    essi   their exhibition.  Such dispositions.eneThe Great Westes9sl was among the first steam vessels that
crossed the Atlantic from Britain to America, in 1878, and rally proceed from a narrow  range of thought and
accomplished the voyage, in safety, in about 13 days, having a contracted view of the Divine economy and aron board above a hundred passengers.  Since that period rangemelats in the work of redemption.  Though
other vessels, as the Acadia, Britannia, Caledonia, Colum: the perversity of mankind has often applied useful
bia, etc., have regularly performed voyages to and from the
shores of America and- Great Britain, and, except in the  inventions to foolish and even to vicious purposes,
case of the Prsesident,t they have all been accomplisherd yet this forms no reason why such inventions
without any serious accidents,-so that, the practicability  should be decried; otherwise the art of printing
and the utility of steam navigation across the ocean mayl arts might be regarded as
now be considered as fully established. Voyages by steam
axe likewise now regularly performed to Lisbon, Cadiz, and inimical to the human race.  We have reason to
along the Mediterranean,. as far as Alexandria, and fronm  believe that air balloons may yet be brought to
Bombay to, Suez along the Arabian and the Red sea-and  such perfection as to be applied to purposes highly
therefore we have reason to expect that, il the course of a
very few years every sea and ocean on the surface of the beneficial to the progress of the hluman mind, and
globe will be traversed by steam vessels, promoting a rapid  subservient, il some degree, for effecting the purintercourse between all the nations, tribes, and families of poses of Providence in the enlightening and renothe earth.-The rate of motion at-which such vessels are
impelled. across the Atlantic may Ibe deduced from the following facts. The fist voyaae of the Britannia, which
sailed on the 4th July, 1840, from Liverpool to Halifax, was and Halifax-the average time employed in the passage is
accomplished in 12 days, 10 hours; and her return homeward  found to be as follows: Outward voyage to Halifax 1:3 lays,
ooccupied only 10 days. Tlhe outward voyage of the Colanm- 6 hours: —Homewanrd to Liverpool 11 days, 6 hours. It thus
bia, which sailed friom  Liverpool,- May 19, 1842, was per- appears that intelligence may now pass and repass between
formed in 11 days, 22 hours, and her voyage home from tHali  Britain and the continent of America in 23 or 24 days, or
thx in 9 days, 17 hours. Her voyage from:Boston, in the little more than 3 weeks, so that it is possible a person might
United States, including a stoppage of 6 hours at Halifax to receive an answer to a communication sent to Americ(a in
land and take in passengers and nsails, was performed in 11 less than 3aY weeks. At this rate, 15,000 miles-or thle
days, 6 ihours, from that city to Liverpool..Of 28 voyages greatest distance between any two places on the gsrb  by
of the Acadia, Britannia, Caledonia, and Columbia, per- water, might be traversed in about 50 days.
farmed in the years 1840, 1841, and 1842, between Liverpool' See. Appendix, Note XI.




120                -         THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER;
vation of mankind.  For this purpose, it'is only  came thither to proclaim.*  Such a scene (and it
requisite that some contrivance, or chemical or may probably be realized) would present a literal
mechanical principles, be  suggested, analogous to fulfillment of the prediction of " angels flying
the sails or rudder of a ship, by which they may  through the midst of" the aerial "heaven, having
be moved in any direction, without being directed  the everlasting gospel to preach to them  that
solely by the course of the wind; and there can  dwell.upon the earth, and -to every kindred and
be little doubt that such-a contrivance is possible nation."'
to be effected.  It requires only suitable encour-    That the attention of the philosophical world
agement to be given to ingenious experimental is presently directed to this subject, and that we
philosophers, and a sufficient sum- of money to have some prospect of the views above suggested
enable them to prosecute their experiments on an being soon realized, will appear from the following
* xtensive scale. To the wantof such prerequisites notice, which some time ago made its appearance
t is chiefly owing that the hints on this subject, in the London scientific journals:-A prize being
hitherto suggested, have either failed of success or offered for the discovery of a horizontal direction
have never been carried into execution.  A more in aerostation, M. Mingreli of Bologna, M. Piesimple and expeditious pficess for filling balloons tripoli of' Venice, and M. Lember of Nuremberg,
has lately been-effected,-the use of -the parachute, have each assumed the merit of resolving this
by which a person may detach himself from  the problem. It does not appear that any one of these
balloon, and descend to the earth, has been sue- has come forward to establish, by practical expecessfully tried,-the lightning of heaven has been  riment, the validity of his claim; but a pamphlet
drawn from the clouds, and:forced to act as amne-'has lately been reprinted in Paris (first printed at
chanical power in splitting.immense stones to  Vienna) on this subject, addressed to all the learnpieces,-the atmosphere has been analyzed into its ede societies in Europe.  The following passage
component parts, and the wonderful properties of appears in the work: "'Professor Robertson prothe ingredients of which it is composed exhibited  poses to construct an aerostatic macbhie, 150 feet
in their separate state;-and why then should we in diameter, to be capable of raising.72,954 kiloconsider it as at all improbable that the means of grams, equivalent to 149.,037 lbs. weight (French).
producing a horizontal direction in aerial naviga- To be capable of conveying all necessaries for
tion may soon be discovered?  Were this object the support of sixty individuals, scientific characonce effected, balloons might be applied to the ters, to be selected by the academicians, and the
purposes of surveying and exploring countries aerial navigations to last for some months, explohitherto inaccessible, and of conveying the mes- ring different hights and climates, etc., in all seasengers of divine mercy to tribes of our fellow- sons.  If, from  accident or wear, the machine,
men, whose existence is as yet unknown.            elevated above the ocean, should fail in its func.
We are certain that every portion of the inhab- tions, to be furnished with a ship that will insure
ited world must be thoroughly explored, and its the return of the aeronauts.'"
inhabitants visited, before the salvation of God can    Of late years, the attention of several scientific
be carried fully into effect; and for the purpose gentlemen has been directed to the improvement
of such explorations, we must of course resort to  of aerial navigation, and it is the opinion of many
the inventions, of human genius in art and sci- that the problem of giving to balloons a horizontal
ence. Numerous tribes of the sons of Adam are, direction has been in some measure solved. About
doubtless, residing in regions. of the earth with  the year 1837-some plans of this description were
which we have no acquaintance, anddto which we laid before a committee of the Royal Society, and
have no access by any of the modes of convey- an association,was attempted to be formed for exance presently in use. More:than one half of the ploring the- continent of Africa by means of a
interior parts of Africa and' Asia, and even of large balloon which was to be constructed for this
America, arewholly unknown to the inhabitants of special purpose; but after the projectors had prothe civilized world.  The vast regions of Chinese ceeded a certain length, the scheme was allowed
Tartary, Thibet, Siberia, and the adjacent districts; to drop, for want of patronage and support.  In
the greater portion of Africa, and the continent         
of New Holland; the extensive isles of Borneo,   * In this point of view, we cannot but feel the most poig.
Sumatra, New G~uinea, and Japan, the territory  nant regret at the conduct of the Spaniards, after the disco-,  very of America, toward the natives of that country. When
of the Amazons, and the internal parts of North  those untutored people beheld the ships which had conveyed
America, remain, for the most part, unknown  Columbus and his associates from the eastern world, tlh
and unexplored. - The lofty and impassable ranges dresses and martial order of his troops, and heard their muwh sic, and the thunder of their cannon, they were filled with
of mountains, and the deep and rapid rivers, which  astnishment and wonder at the strange objects presented to
intervene between us and many of those regions, their view;-they fell prostrate at their feet, and viewed them
together with the savage and; plundering hordes as a superior race of men. When Cortez afterward entered
of mPen and the tribes of ravenous beasts through  the territoriesof Mexico, the same sentiments of reverence
and admiration seemed to pervade its inhabitants. Had
which the traveler must push his way-present pure Christian motives actuated the minds of these advento European adventurers barriers which they can- turers, and had it been their ruling desire to communicate
not expect to surmount, by the ordinary modes to those ignorant tribes the blessings of the Gospel of peace,
of conveyance, for a lapse;of' ages. But, by hal- and to minister to their external comfort, the circumstance
p oe os    of.-  ages.  i.  now stated would have been highly favorable to the success
loons constructed with an apparatus for directing  of missionary exertion, and would have led them to listen
their motions, all such obstructions would at once with attention to the message from Heaven. But, unfortube surmounted.  The most impenetrable regions, nately for the cause of religion, treachery, lust, cruelty, self.
hemmed in bystreams and marishness, and the cursed love of gold, predominated over
now hemme~d in by streams and marshes: and lofty every other feeling, affixed a stigma to the Christian name,
mountains, and a barbarous: population, would be and rendered them curses instead of blessings, to that newly
quickly laid open; and cities and nations, lakes discovered race of men. It is most earnestly to be wished,
and: rivers, and fertile plains, to which we are now  that, in future expeditions in quest of unknown tribes, a few
intelligent and philanthropic missionaries were appointed to
entire strangers, would soon burst upon the view. direct the adventurers in their moral conduct and inter.
And the very circumstance that the messengers courses with the people they visit, in order that nothing in,
of peace and salvation descended upon such-un- consistent with Christian principle make its appearance
known tribes from  the regio;n of the clouds,  might' The uniform manifestation of Christian benevolence, purity,
and rectitude, by a superior race of men, would win the af.
arouse their minds and excite their attention and fections of a rude people far more effectually than all the
regard to the message of divine mercy which they pomp and ensigns of military parade.




:AIR  BALLOONS.                                           121fihe year 1840, Mr. Green, the most celebrated    Should any one be disposed t0 insinuate, that
aeronaut' of modern times, who has performed  the views now stated on this subject are chimeriseveral hundreds of aerial voyages, proposed mak- cal and fallacious, I beg leave to remind them,
ing a voyage in a balloon from  the American to  that not more than twenty years ago, the idea of
the European continent, across the Atlantic.  In  a large vessel, without oars or sails, to be navi'
order to convince the scientific public of the prac- gated against the wind with the rapidity of twelve
ticability of his propelling or directing a balloon, miles an hour, would have been considered as
causing it to ascend or descend, without discharg- next to an impossibility, and a mere fanciful
ing either gas or ballast —and in a tranquil atmo- scheme, which'could never be realized.  Yet we
sphere, to move horizontally and in any direction  now  behold  such vehicles transporting  whole
-he commenced  a series of important experi- villages to the places of their destination, with a
ments, at the Polytechnic Institution,'Lonlldon, degree of ease, comfort, and expedition, formerly
which excited -considerable attention, and created  unknown, and even crossing in safety the wide
a great sensation, among the curious in scientific  Atlantic ocean.  And'little more than fifty years
matters.  The machinery made use of by Mr. G. have elapsed, since it would have been viewed as
consisted of two propellers attached to a spindle, a still more chimerical to have broached the idea,
rudder, a guide-line, and several appendages.  The  that a machine might be constructed, by which
propeller appears to have been somewhat like two human beings might ascend more than two miles
sails of a'windmill which were whirled round with  above the surface of the earth, and fly through
a rotatory motion, and which' were intended to the region of the clouds at the rate of seventy
produce an effect both on the horizontal progress miles an hour, carrying along with them  books,
of'the balloon and likewise ill elevating and de- instruments, and  provisions.   Yet both  these
pressing it.*  The practicability of Mr. Green's schemes have been fully realized, and, like many
plans appears to have been admitted by many  other inventions of the human intellect, are doubtscientific gentlemen; and although he has never less intended to subserve some important ends in
yet attempted his daring aerial excursion across the economy of Divine Providence.*
the Atlantic, yet it is well known that he performed, along with Mr. Mason, in the great Nassau ball oonan aerial voyage from England' across   * Balloons were first constructed in the year 1783, by
sau balloon, an aerial voyage from England' acr)Oss Messrs. S. & J. Montgolfier, paper manufacturers at Anthe German sea to'Weilburg in Germany, one of nonay, in France. A sheep, a cock, and a duck, were the
the most daring\ and extensive voyages hitherto  first animals ever carried up into the air by these vehicles.
attempted, -and which was accomplished without At the end of their journey, they were found perfectly safe
and unhurt, and the sheep was even feeding at perfect ease.
the least danger.  The possibility of an aerial ex- The first human being who ascended into the atmosphere in
cursion across the Atlantic may perhaps be ad- one of those machines, was M. Pilatre de Rozier. This
mitted; but its expediency,- in the meantime, may  adventurer ascended from amidst an astonished multitude
justly be called in question.      -                assembled in a garden in Paris, on the 15th October, 1783,
in a balloon, whose diameter was 48 feet, and its hight'As the invention now stands, the balloon, under about 74; and remained suspended above the city about
the direction of such an experienced aeronaut as four hours. M. Lunardi, an Italian, soon after astonished
Mr. Green, might be rendered subservient to many  the people of Scotland and England, by his aerial excur
)motntpross  ariuaryi ga gene- sions, Dr. G. Gregory gives the following account of his first
important purposes, particularly in taking a gene- ascent:-" I was myself a spectator of the flighlt of Lunardi,
ral survey of unknown countries.  Suppose a bal- and I never was present at a sight so interesting and subloon, properly equipped for -the purpose, were to  lime. The beauty of the gradual ascent, united with a sen.
be elevated either on the eastern or ~the western  timent of terror on account of the danger of the man, and
shores of Africa, so as to pass nearly over the the novelty an grandeur of thdel whicatole appearman was so over
central parts of that continent,-by taking ad- come with the spectacle, that she died upon the spot as the
vantage of the monsoons, or trade-winds, which  balloon ascended; several fainted; and the silent admiration
blow for a certain'period in the same direction —of the anxious multitude was beyond anything I had ever
the general aspect and character of this country,   Balloons have generally been made of varnished silk, and
with which we are at present so little acquainted, of the shape of a globe or a spheroid (see fig. 28), from
might be laid open to view, at least as to its more  thirty to fifty feet in diameter. They are filled with hydro.
prominent and'general features.  The extent of gen gas, which, as formerly stated, is from twelve to fifteen
*rominet and g     eneral times lighter than common air: and they rise in the atmo.
its lakes-the direction and magnitude of its rivers sphere on the same principle as a piece of cork ascends from'-the ranges of mountains with which it is diversified-its deserts, forests, and cultivated fields —                       Fig. 28
the positions and magnitude of its cities-the
characteristics of its inhabitants, and the probable
amount; of population-with several other parti-                        *5ti
eulars-might all be deduced by an intelligent
aeronaut, when passing across such a country at' 
a proper elevation, beside havihg an opportunity
of performing a variety of electric, magnetic, and
other scientific experiments, for enlarging our,                      a      i,'V&b
knowledge of the principles and processes of na-.
ture.  In the same manner the Chinese Empireof which we know so little —might be extensively
surveyed, and our knowledge of that interesting
and populous region of the globe rendered more
definite and expansive.  In both these cases, and
Several others,' the course of the periodical windsl
might be rendered subservient to the success of
the enterprise.
the bottom of a pail of water. The aerial travelers are seat.
The reader will find an account of Mr. Green's experi. ed in a basket below the balloon, which is attached to it by
meats in the Polytechnic Journal for January and February, means of cords.-The Parachute (see fig. 29) is an inven1840, and likewise in the No. of theMirrTr for Arpril, etc., tion, by which the voyager, in cases of alarm, may be
1840, vol. 35, with an Engraving of the proposed balloon.    enabled to desert his balloon in mid-air, and descend with




122                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
AcousTIc  TUNNELS. —B    means of the invert- end of a long beam of timber, its beating will be
tions just now adverted. to, wherl brought to per-'distinctly heard, on applying the ear to the other
fection, mankind may -be -enabled- to transport end, though it could not be heard at the same disthemselves to every region of the globe, with a - tande through the air.  In l" Nicholson's Philomuch greater degree of rapidity than has hitherto  sophical Journal" for February  1803, Mr. E
been attained. B. y the help of the microscope, we  Walker describes a simple apparatus, connected
are enabled to contemplate the:invisible.worlds of with a speaking trumpet, by means of which, at
life, and by -the telescope we can penetiate.into  the distance of 171  feet, he' held a, conversation
regions far. -beyond the range of the, unassisted  with another in whispers, too low  to be heard
eye.  By the arts of Writing and.Priktingwe can  through the air at that distance.  When the ear'
communicate our sentiments, after -a certain lapse  was placed in a certain position, the words were
of time, to every quarter, of.the world.  In the  heard as if they had been spoken by an invisible
progress of human, knowledge and improvement,  being within the trumpet.  And what rendered
it would obviously be of considerable importance, the deception still more pleasing, the words-were
could we extend the rangeof the human voice, and  more distinct, softer, and more musical, than if
communicate intelligence to -the distance'of a they hadhbeen spoken through the air.
thousand miles, in the course of two Lvr three'About. the year 1750, a merchant of Cleves,
hours; or could we hold an occasional' conversa-. named Jorissen, who had become almost totally
tion with a friend at the distance of twenty' or deaf, sitting one day near a harpsichord while
thirty  miles.  From  experiments which  have. some one -was playing, and having a tobacco-pipe
lately been made, in reference to the conveyance  in his mouth, the bowl of which  rested acciof sound, we have some' reason to believe -that dentally against the body of the instrument, he
such. objects may not be altogether unattainable.  was agreeably and unexpectedly surprised to hear
It has been long known that wood is a good con- all the notes in the most distinct manner.  By a
ductor of sound.  If a watch- be laid on the one  little reflection and practice, he again obtained
the use of this valuable sense: for he soon learned,
out injury to the ground. They resemble an umbrella, but -by means of a piece of. hard wood, one end of
are of far greater extent. With one of these contrivances, which he placed against his teeth, while another
twenty-three feet in diameter, M. Garnerin, having detached 
himself from his balloon, descended from a hight-of more person placed the other end oa his teeth,-to keep
than 4000 feet, and landed without shock or accident,  up a conversation, and to. be able to understand
The above representation (fig. 28) exhibits a view of a  whisper.  In this way, two persons who have
Mr. Grien's balloon, when he ascended from St. James's stopped their ears may converse with each other
Park, London, on the occasion of the coronation of George
ark, TheLondon, o the balloon was nearly of the oronation of   when they hold a long stick, or a series of sticks, beIV. The form of the balloon was nearly of the shape of a
pear; it was.composed of stripes of variegated silk; and over tween their teeth, or rest their teeth against them.
this was thrown an envelope of net-work, which, passing The effect is the same, if the person who speaks
down, served as a support to the car in which the aeronaut rest the stick against his throat or his bret, or
was placed. It may give the reader who has never seen a
balloon, a general idea of its form and of the mode'in which. when one rests the stick which he holds in his
aerial!navigation is performed.                    teeth against some vessel into which the otherFig. 29.''Fig. 30.    speaks; and the effect will'be the greater, the
more the vessel is capable of tremulous motion.
These experiments demonstrate the facility with
which the softest whispers may be transmitted.
Water, too, is. found to be a good conductor of
sound. Dr. Franklin assures us, that he has heard
under water, at the distance of half a mile, the
sound of. two stones struck against each other.
It has also been observed, that the velocity of
sound is much greater in solid bodies, than in the
air. By a series of experiments, instituted for
the purpose of determining this point, Mr. Chladni
found that the velocity of sound, in certain solid
bodies, is 16 or 17 times as great as in air.
But what has a more particular bearing on the
object hinted at above, is the experiments, lately
made by M. Blot, "on the transmission of sound
through solid bodies, and through air, in very
long tubes."  These experiments were made by
means of long cylindrical pipes, which were constructed for conduits and aqueducts, to embellish
the city of Paris.' With regard to the velocity of
sound, it was ascertained that "its transmission
through cast-iron is 1012 times as quick as through
air.  The pipes by which he wished to ascertain
at what distance sounds are audible were 1039
yards, or nearly five furlongs in length.  M. Biot
Figs. 29 and 30 represent the: parachute of M. Garnerin, was stationed at the one end of this series of pipes,
and the apparatus connected witlh it. In fig. 30 is shown a and  r Martina gntleman who assisted  n the
cylindrical box, about 3 feet, in hight an d 2 in diameter, and Mr. Martin, a gentleman who assisted in the
which was attached by a straight,pole, to a truck or disc at experiments, at the other.  They heard the lowest
the top, and from this was suspended a large sheet.of linen  voice, so as perfectly to distinguish the words, and
somewhat similar to an umbrella. M. Garnerin stood in the      a conversation on all the subjects of
box, and the form the machine assunied on his descent is  to   up
shown in fig. 29. When first cut froin the balloon, it descend. the experiments.  " I wished," says M. Blot, " to
ed with great velocity, and those who witnessed its progress determine the point at which' the human voice
considered his destruction inevitable; but after a few se. ceases to be audible, but could not accomplish it:
conds, the canvas opened and the-resistance was'so great, words spoken as low as when we whisper a secret
that the apparatus diminished in its speed, until, on its ar- words spoken as low as when we whisper a secret
rival near the earth, it was not greaterthan would have re. in another's ear were heard and understood; so
suited from leaping a hight of two feet...'that'not to be heard, there was lAt one resource9
thtnot to be heard, there was ] t one rosoureet




ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS.                                       123
diat of not speaking at all. —This mode of convers- experiment wanting to convince us, that the ordifng with an invisible neighbor is so'singular, that' nary tones of the human voice may be conveyed
we cannott help being surprised, even though ac- to at'least twenty times that distance. We are
quainted with the cause. Between a question and'just now acting on a similar principle in distribuanswer, the interval was not greater than was ting illumination through large cities. Not above
necessary for the transmission-of sound. For Mr. 40 or 50 years ago, the idea of lighting our apartMartin and I, at the distance of 1039 yards -this ments by an invisible substance, produced at ten
time was about 512 Seconds."  Reports of a pis- miles distance, would have been considered as chitol -fired at one end occasioned a:'considerable merical, and as impossible to be realized, as the idea
explosion at the other. The air was driven out of two persons conversing together, by articulate
of the pipe with sufficient force to give the hand sounds, at such a distance.  It appears no more
a smart blow, to drive light substances out of it to wonderful, that we should be able to hear at a disthe distance: of half a yard, and:to extinguish a tance of five or six miles, than that we should be
candle, though it-was 1039 yards distant from the enabled to see objects at'that distance by the telcplade where the- pistol was fired. A detailed ac- scope, as distinctly as if we were within a few
count of these experiments may be seen in Nichol- yards of them. Both are'the effects of those
son's Phil. Jour.for October, 1811.-Don Gautier, principles and laws which the Creator has interthe'inventor of the Telegraph, suggested also the woven with the system of the material world; and
method of conveying articulate sounds to a great when man has discovered the mode of their opedistance. He; proposed to build horizontal tun- ration, it remains with himself to apply them to
nels, widening at the remoter extremity, and found his necessities. What the telescope is to the eye,
that, at the distance of 400 fathoms, or nearly half acoustic tunnels would be to the' ear; and thus
a mile, the ticking of a watch could be heard far those senses on which our improvement in knowlbetter' than close to the ear. -He calculated, that edge and enjoyment chiefly depends, would be
a series'of such tunnels would convey a message gradually carried to'the utmost perfection of
900 miles in an hour.                            which our station on earth will permit. And as
From'the experiments now  stated, it appears to the expense of constructing'such communicahighly probable that sounds may be conveyed'to tions of sound, the tenth part of the millions of
an indefinite distance. If one -man can' converse money expended in the twenty-one years' war in
with another at the distance of nearly three quar- which we were lately engaged, would, ill all proters of a mile, by means of the softest whisper, there bability, be more than sufficient for distributing
is'every reason to believe that they could hold a them, in numerous ramifications, through the
conversation at, the distance of 30 or 40 miles, whole island of Great Britain.  Even although
provided the requisite tunnels were constructed such a project were partially to fail of success, it
for this purpose. The latter case does not appear would be a far more honorable and useful national
mnore wonderful than the former. Were this undertaking, than that which now occupies the
point fully determined by experiments conducted  attention-of the despots on the continent of Euon a more extensive scale, a variety of interesting rope, and might be accomplished with far less exeffects would follow, from a practical application penditure, either -of blood or of money.  Less
of the results. A person, at one end of a large than the fourth part of a million of pounds would
city, at an appointed hour, might communicate a be sufficient for trying an experiment of this
message, or hold a conversation with his friend, at kind, on an extensive scale; and such a sum is
another; friends in neighboring, or even in dis- considered as a mere item, when fleets and armies
tant towns, might hold an occasional correspon- are to be equipped forcarrying'destruction through
dance by articulate sounds, and recognize each sea and land. When will the war-madness cease
other's identity by their tones of voice. In the its rage!  When'will men desist from the work
case-' of sickness, accident, or death, intelligence of destruction, and employ their energies and
could thus be instantly communicated, and the their treasures in the cause of human improve.
tender" sympathy of friends immediately  ex- ment?  The most chimerical projects that were
changed.  A clergyman sitting in his own room, ever suggested by the most enthusiastic visionary,
in Edinburgh, were it at any time expedient, are' not half so ridiculous and degrading to the
mnight' address a congregation in Musselburgh or character of man, as those ambitious and despotic
Daikeith, or even in Glasgow.'He might preach schemes, in which the powers of the earth in all
the same sermon to his own church, and the next ages have been chiefly engaged.-But on this
hour to an assembly at forty miles distant. And topic it is needless to enlarge, until more extended
surely there could be no valid objection to trying experiments shall have been undertaken.
the effect of an invisible preacher on a Christian    ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHs.-The electric and galaudience.  On similar principles, an apparatus vanic powers have been lately employed in transmightbe constructed for augmenting the strength mitting telegraphic signals through wires to any
of the human voice, so as to make it extend its assignable distance.  More than 13 years ago, Sir
"force to an assembled multitude, composed of fifty H. Davy, Dr. Ritchie, and several others, formed
or a hundred thousand individuals; and the utility the idea  of constructing an electrical telegraph!;
of such a power,'when the mass of mankind are and in 1837, the model of an apparatus for this
once thoroughly aroused to attend to rational and purpose Was exhibited by Mr. Alexander to the
religious instruction, may be easily conceived. Society of Arts, in Edinburgh. Professor Wheat"In short, intelligence respectinglevery important stone, of King's College, London, lately made
discovery, occurrence, and event, might thus be considerable improvements in the construction of
communicated, through the extent of a whole these instruments, particularly in the reduction
kingdom, within the space of an hour after it had of the number of wires requisite in such an appalaken place.                                     ratus. —The general principle on which such an
Let none imagine that such a project is either operation is founded, is, that of causing the galchimerical or impossible. M. Biot's experiment is vanic current to deflect a needle poised on a cenlecisive, so far as it goes; that the softest whisper, ter; and, by certain arrangements, the needle is
without any diminution of'its intensity, may be made to point to any letter on a dial plate. Procommuticated to the distance of nearly three fessor Wheatstone's apparatus consists of two
quarters of a mile; aid there is nothing but actual small galvanic troughs or batteries; four lengths




124                          THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
of copper wire; an object resembling a -brass violent thunder-storm —which rends in pieces the
clock, withea small opening or dial on the surface sturdy oak, and strikes whole herds of cattle lifesufficient to show a single letter at a time; close less to the ground-which displays its terrific
by this an upright pivot of, brass about 3 inches energy in the awful: phenomena of volcanoes,
high, having, a circular top inscribed. with the hurricanes, and earthquakes —that the same agent
letters of -the alphabet all round,  and from each is now, by human art, rendered subservient to the
letter a spike pointing outward. The whole:stands conveyance of swift intelligence from one place
on a table, except'the wires, which, being four to another, and. to many other useful purposes in
miles in length, and warped in numberless convo- society-and, perhaps,- ere long, its destructive
lutions through the vaults of the college, are ob- energies may be completely counteracted by the'servable only at their extremities,;in connection'contrivances of human ingenuity, when its nawith the apparatus.  Thegalvanic property gene- ture and properties, and- its mode of operation,
rated in the batteries is made to proceed along the shall be more completely unfolded.  Antd, it is
wires, and in its passage-tb affect the mechanism  not unlikely, as the investigations of philosophy'
in the apparatus now described. The letters can proceed, that new principles may be discovered in
be. exposed at'the rate of two in every second. A  the system  of nature, more wonderful than any
gentleman who witnessed: its performance, says, that have yet comewithin the reach-of our knowl" A  lady'turning the. capstan With her finger, edge, which may both enlarge our views of the
"brought into view the word LO N D ON, in the operations of the Creator, and be applicable to
time it could be uttered letter,by letter, although manifold  beneficial purposes in the economy of
the idea had to travel through 4 miles of wire." human society.
The capabilities of the principle' of this instru-   RAxLwAYs.-The. mode of traveling.by means
ment have been tested:on the line of the Great of railways, which has been lately introduced into
Western Railway. In September, 1839, the-wires Great Britain and many other countries, is anof the electric telegraph were carried to Drayton, improvement no less wonderful and beneficial to,a distance of 15 miles from London, and the ex- society than that of steam  navigation, and properiment was attended with complete success. To mises to promote the general intercourse of mansuch a question as the following, —" How many kind, and the conveyance of political and commerpassengers started from.Drayton by the 10 o'clock cial intelligence to an extent and with a velocity
train?" the answer could- be transmitted from the which former ages could never have anticipated
terminus to Drayton and back in less than two    It appears that, so early as the year 1676, coals
minutes.  The wires of communication  pass were carriedfrom the mines near Newcastle-uponthrough a hollow iron tube about an inch and a Tyne to the banks of the river, by laying rails of
half'in diameter, which is fixed about 6 inches timber exactly straight and parallel, on which
above the ground, parallel with the railway, and large carts, with four rollers fitting the rails, and
about two or three feet distant from it; and it is drawn by horses, could convey at once four or
(probable that, by this time, they have been car- five caldrons of coals. About a century afterried forward.the whole length- of the railway, ward, an iron railroad was constructed at the
which extends to Bristol, a distance of' 117 miles. Sheffield colliery. But the first railway resemIn-:transmitting the electric influence through bling those now in use, as a public thoroughfare
wires-however great the distance —the time oc- for the conveyance of goods and passengers, was
cupied in the transmission-is nearly the same, for the "Stockton and Darlington Railway," which
there is reason to believe that' it' flies with the was completed only, in 1825, and was the first
same velocity as light, whose'rate of:motion is which was attended with complete success. Sevenearly two hundred thousand miles in a second. ral years, however, elapsed before steam locomoWere wires extended from Britain to China, on tive engines were adopted. This noble triumph
the one hand, and to America, on the other, intel- of art, in the swift conveyance of goods and pasligence could be transmitted to those regions in as sengers, was first practically exhibited at the
short a time as in conveying it across a garden or opening of the "Liverpool and Manchester Raila large hall. It is hard to say to, what extent way," on the 15th September, 1830,- when it was
signals may, in point of fact, be communicated found that trains of carriages could be conveyed;
in this way, in the course of the improvements at the rate of 25 or 30 miles an hour. Since this
which are now going forward. Were the nations period, railways have been distributed- throughof Europe living in perfect amity and peace, and out almost all the populous districts of our country.
in a friendly communication with each other,   The rails on which the wheels of the engines
telegraphs of this description might be ramified and carriages move are all made of iron. At first
throughout the whole extent of the continent, it was supposed that malleable iron rails were to
from north to south, and from east to west; and  be preferred; but it is now understood that cast-'
the expense of constructing them would be but a iron rails, if properly made, will endure all the
slight'item, compared with the sums expended in tear and wear to which they are in general subuseless parade, in-warfare, and in schemes of jected.  Each individual rail is about 12 feet in
folly. - They might, at any rate,'be spread in dif- length,. and- 6 inches in depth at the two ends.
ferent directions throughout the island of Great Their thickness is about one inch, and the upper
Britain, or, at least along the great thoroughfares surface on which the wheel is to run, about two
leading toward the metropolis; and offices estab- inches, so as to project laterally like the cross top
lished at different stages for communicating and of the letter T.' They are pinned together at
receiving intelligence-with prices affixed corres- their extremities, and are supported at intervals
ponding to the distance from which the intelligence of every three feet. The supporters on some
is conveyed. It. is easy to see that such a rapid lines of railroad consist of stone sleepers sunk
communication of intelligence-in numerous in- into the ground; but it is generally: admitted that
stances, which our limits will not permit us to transverse bars of wood sunk in the ground are
specify-might be highly beneficial to the inter- preferable, as both lines of rail are thus kept from
ests of general society.''          separating or shifting, and as stone sleepers preThus it appears that the same  physical`princi- sent too unyielding a base to the rolling of the
pie or agent which produces,the forked and fire- wheels. In order to keep' the wheels on the rails,
ball lightnings, and all the dread phenomena of a they are. furnished with thin edges, which dip or




RAILWAYS.                                      125
the outside. The wheels of the locomotive have with water and fuel, the tender weighs about 7
a diameter of about 4 feet; the diameter for the tons; it can carry 700 gallons of water, and eight
wagon or carriage-wheels is generally from 30 to hundred weight of coke —which will form a sup36 inches.  The locomotive is now generally ply for a trip of 30 or 40 miles.
placed upon six wheels; the front and hind pair   The expenses incurred in the construction and
being smaller than those in the middle; these management of railways are very considerable.middle ones being the wheels upon which, by the All inequalities of surface in the line proposed
action of cranks'from the engine, the whole mass must be removed-low parts filled up by embankis propelled. A chimney rises in front, and a ments-high parts reduced-eminences which it
standing place behind is allotted for the engineer, would be impossible or too expensive to level,
who conducts and regulates the machine. The must be perforated by tunnels, and over dells and
barrel-like object next the engineer consists of a rivers viaducts require to be thrown, consisting, in
furnace or fire-box, and the heat generated in it some cases, of numerous arches. Beside, a preby the consumption of coke, is conducted thence vious survey must be made-the land over which
through a great number of tubes in the cylinder, it is to pass must be purchased sometimes at an
and finally escapes at the chimney. By means exorbitant price-an act of parliament must be
of lever handles affecting the mechanism, the en- procured-and various petty and vexatious oppo.
gineer can at pleasure produce or stop the motion sitions, arising from the avarice and obstinacy of
as effectually as a coach-driver could set off, or landed proprietors, must be overcome, which not
arrest the progress of his horses. Immediately unfrequently add to all the other expenses. It has
behind the locomotive is a carriage called the ten- been estimated that, at an average, ~30,000 per
der, which is loaded with fuel, and has a tank mile may be considered as a moderate outlay in
round its sides containing water. The weight of the construction of railways throughout most
a locomotive, supplied with its proper quantity parts of Great Britain. The London and Birof water and fuel, is about 12 tons. When filled mingham railway-a line extending 112 milescost much more; its whole expense amounted to one: to the other by strong iron hooks, and to preseveral millions of pounds. The least expensive vent them  from shocks against each other, the
railway we have yet heard of, is that between various carriages are provided with projecting
Dundee and Arbroath, the average expense of rods on springs cushioned at the outer extremiwhich per mile is estimated not to exceed ~8000. ties. From one hundred to a thousand passengers
The cost of a locomotive is about ~;1700, and it are thus conveyed, at one time, from one city or
seldom wears longer than two years without un- town to another; and it is a universal rule that
dergoing an extensive repair. Ordinary locomo- no servant or officer shall on any account take a
tives evaporate 77 cubic feet of water per hour; fee from passengers, on pain of instant dismissal.
those on the Great Western railway about 200   About 50 railways have been completed in the
cubic feet. The evaporation of one cubic foot United Kingdom of Great Britain up to 1842.per hour produces a mechanical force of nearly 2 The following are some of the principal lines-in
horse power; consequently we may ascertain the England-The Liverpool and Manchester Railpower of a locomotive by multiplying by 2 the way, 32 miles in length, which cost ~46,000 per
number of cubic feet which it evaporates in an mile; the London and Birmingham Railway, 11212
hour.  An ordinary sized locomotive exerts a miles long, connecting the metropolis with the
power of 150 horses; a horse upon a common center of England, in which are several long and
road cannot draw for any length of time more expensive tunnels, and which cost above ~50,000
than 15 hundred weight, while on a railway it per mile; the Grand Junction Railway, 79 miles in
will pull with equal ease ten tons, which is thir- length, connecting the London and Birmingham
teen times the amount; and therefore the power line to that of Liverpool and Manchester, and
of a locomotive such as is usually employed, is also to a railway proceeding northward to Lan-e
equal to a draught of 1462 tons.             caster, which cost ~21,859 per mile, forming an
The railways in most parts of Britain consist important thoroughfare obliquely-across the counof two tracks, suitable for trains going in opposite try; the Manchester and Leeds Railway, 50 miles
directions; in America, Belgium, and other places, in length; the Midland Counties, North Midland
they consist generally of but one track.  On and Great North of England railways, connectmost of the lines there are slow trains for goods ing the great seats of trade in Northumberland,
and 2d class passengers-fast trains, taking only Durham, Yorkshire, and Derbyshire, with the
1st and 2d class carriages-some lines have mail London and Birmingham line; the Newcastle and
trains which proceed at more than usual speed, Carlisle Railway, 61 miles long; the Great Wesand stop at fewer places by the way. The 1st tern Railway, 117 miles long; which cost~53,241
class carriages are covered-the 2d class carriages per mile, and which connects London with Brisare open at the sides-and the 3d class carriages tol and with smaller tributary lines opening up
are entirely open, in some of which the passen- the west of England; the South-Western Railgers are obliged to stand during the journey,  way, 77 miles long, connecting London with
arising from a principle of avarice in the propri- Southampton.-The principal lines of railway
etors, and a foolish design of compelling, if possi- in Scotland are-The Edinburgh and Glasgow
ble, the lower classes to select the 1st and 2d class Railway, about 46 miles long, on which are sevecarriages., The carriages for goods are open on ral beautiful and extensive viaducts, which was
trucks, on which the articles are piled; and for opened in the beginning of 1842; the Glasgow
cattle there are open trucks with a railing round and Ayr Railway, about 40 miles long; the Glasthe sides.: All the carriages in a train-amount- gow, Paisley, and Greenock, 2212 miles long; the
lng in some cases to twenty -or thirty-are linked.  Dundee, Newtyle, and Cupar-Angus railways,




126                           THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
about 17 miles long; the Dundee- and Arbroath railroads has enabled the landed proprietor to bring
Railway, 17 miles in length; and the Ariroath to a high state of cultivation extensive districts of
and Forfar Railway, 15 miles long.':Beside- these' land which would otherwise have remained barren
several others are projected, to connect:Edinburgh and useless.  But such advantages are as nothing,
and Newcastle,  on the' one.:hand, and with Dun-  when compared with the increased diffusion of
dee, Montrose, and Aberdeen,' on the other., And useful knowledge which must follow from a cheap
we trust the period is not -far distant, when'every and rapid conveyance over the British Empire,
part of our countryshall b'e.intersected with these and over all those countries that have adopted
cheap and.expeditious  modes of conveyance.- similar modes of communication and transport.The most prosperous of all the lines is that of the Man is thus brought into juxta-position with his
London and Birmingham; the weekly revenue of fellow-men; time and space are shortened, and
which- is upward of ~16,000'; thewIeekly revenue cities a hundred miles distant may be considered
of the Grand Junctiol, which joins it, is ~900.-  as nearly adjacent, since they can be reached in
Iin the "Railway Magazine," July, 1842, the fol- the course of three or four hours. Friends, re-.
lowing calculation -is given of a late weekly latives, and correspondents can thus visit each
return' of 40' railways.- 1431 miles in length.- other though at a distance, without much loss of
"Number of passengers on 25 railways, 289,819; time or money-communicate information, and
consequently the total for the week, on the whole, interchange "'brotherly kindness and affection."
must be about 400,000. The receipts for phssen- During the summer months, those confined in
gers on 39 railways, ~74,938   15s. 6/d..; ditto for towns have an opportunity of taking excursions
goods on 33 railways, ~17,826- 4s. 7'-d.; total, into the country for health and recreation, with~92,765 Os. 1/ 2d. This is an average of ~64 Os. out any. serious interference with the demands of
/d. per mile, per week.' The'traffic; therefore, business. Letters, newspapers, and periodicals of
*is at the rate'of about four millions a year, and all descriptions, can be conveyed with a speed
carrying fifteen millions of passengers."'      which, formerly, could nei.ther'have been effected
The velocity with which railway trains gene- nor anticipated.  In certain cases, a letter may be
rally proceed, is from 20 to 25 miles per hour; written, sent through the Post-office, and delivered
but onl some of the English railways it is much at the distance of 20 miles, in the course of a
more rapid. The lines upon which the'trains tra- single'hour.  Frorn Liverpool a letter may be disvel with the greatest speed are as follows:-Ave- patched to London, a distance of more than 200
rage speed exclusive of stoppages-Northern and miles, and an answer received in the course of the
Eastern Railway 36 miles per hour; Great Wes- same day. As ignorance, superstition, and foolish
tern Railway 33; London and" Brighton 30; New-' prejudices, are the companions of those who live
castle and North Shields 30; Midland Counties 29; in retired districts, and. seldom  go beyond the'
Northland 29; London and Birmingham  27 — At view of the smoke of their father's chimneythe ordinary rate of speed, a. journey from  Lon- so, when the great body of our fellow-men have
don to Liverpool by the mail train-a distance of an opportunity of taking extensive excursions
about 210 miles-is performed in about 9 hours; through the country, we may expect that their
and when railways shall be extended from  the minds will be expanded, their conceptions enSouth to Edinburgh, the journey from that city larged, and their views of nature and human
to London may be accomplished in less tha:n 18 society rendered more definite and extensive, so
hours; so that a person'-mayleave Edinburgh at 6 that they shall be enabled to take in ideas and
in the morning, and take supper' in London the portions of knowledge of which they were formersame evening.- a journey which' not long ago,:ly ignoraht.  "Many shall run to and fro, and
occupied' nearly a fortnight.,               knowledge:shall be increased."  Beside, the freTraveling on railways is.0'n the whole attend- quent intercourse of man with his fellow-men'of
ed with less danger than in stage-coaches or any every grade has a natural tendency to promote
other mode of conveyance. The personal injuries friendship, esteem, and mutual.affection. Civiiiand loss of life, which have occurred chiefly on zation can alone be promoted by the frequent sothe English railways, are, without almost an ex- cial intercourse of human beings; and wherever
ception, to be attributed, either to'the ignorance this intercourse exists, reciprocal benefits will
and carelessness of the engine drivers, or to the always ensue; and such an intercourse among
imprudence and recklessness of those who have all ranks is now facilitated and promoted by the
- been the victims of accidents. Were men of su- invention and formation of railways.
perior intelligence and prudence -always employed    It is likewise obvious that Christianity and the
to direct the motions: of the'trains, and were the Christian virtues may, by such improvements in
public at large to attend to the restrictions and traveling, be promoted and extended. "As in
regulations prescribed in reference to railways, water face answereth to face, so doth the heart of
almost every accident might be prevented. On man to man."  In communicating religious inthe Dundee and Arbroath Railway, which has struction, admonition, and reproof, or in adminisbeen in operation for four years, scarcely'an acci- tering comfort under affliction, in most instances,
dent has ever occurred to any of the passengers, the presence and countenance of a friend, and the
and those few which have happened on that line living voice-breathing "words that burn," and
were entirel'y owing to the folly and imprudence which soothe or pierce the heart-generally proof'those who-were the victi-ms.                 duce a deeper and more permanent impression,
The utility "of Railway communication, when: where personal intercourse is obtained, than the
properly conducted, must be obvious to all. In a same sentiments communicated by letter. "For
commercial country, such- as ours, the rapid con- as iron sharpeneth iron, so a man sharpeneth the
veyance of goods of all descriptions friom one town countenance of his friend." We can also conceive
to' another, is an object of peculiar importance. many cases in which the labors of a minister of,
Even in agricultural'districts, the, formation' of religion, and of a Christian missionary, may be
—. -           t. -          -  greatly facilitated and rendered successful',v a
The number': ~   rapid conveyance from one place to another, -nd
The number of passengers booked for Edinburgh, at the   he
several stations, on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, on where missionary and other philanthroic associathe 9th of August, 1842 —the day of the Highland Society's tions would be more numerously attended and
exhibltlon-amounted.to'4883.                    patronized by Christians having a cheap and cx,




MILLENNIAL.ERA.                                       127
peditious conveyance to. the places in which they  workmanship, to devise curious works in gold,
are' held. In short, were such modes of'traveling and in silver, and in brass."  And when the fabric
introduced into every country, we should quickly.of the New Testament Church is to be reared,
hear of what is passing in all parts of the world, and its boundaries extended, artificers of every
-and, learn the aspect of the Divine dispensations description, adequate for carrying on the different
toward all nations; we should learn, without loss parts of the work, are raised up, and inspired with
of time, the result of all the missionary enterprises the spirit of their respective departments-some
which have been undertaken for the conversion with the spirit of writing, printing, and publishand renovation of the heathen world, and be in ing; some with the spirit of preaching, lecturing,
readiness -to send forth, by a speedy course, other and catechising; some with the spirit of fortitude,
missionaries wherever they were wanted, to spread to make bold and daring adventures into distant
abroad the fame of the Redeemer, and the know- barbarous climes; and others with the spirit of
ledge of that Revelation which points out the way literature, of science, and of the mechanical arts
to a blessed immortality.                       -all acting as pioneers "to prepare the way of
In the preceding sketches.I have presented a the Lord," and as builders for carrying forward
-few specimens of the relation which the inven- and  completing  the fabric  of the'Christian
tions of human ingenuity bear to religious objects. Church.
*I intended to have traced the same relation in   2. All the mechanical contrivances to which I
several other instances: in the invention of the have adverted, all the discoveries of science, and
electrical machine, the air-pump, mills, clocks, all'the useful inventions of genius which may
and watches, gas-lights, chemical fumigations, hereafter be exhibited, ought to be viewed as preinventions for enabling us to walk upon the water, paring the way for the millennial era of tho
to-prevent and'alleviate the dangers of shipwreck, church, and as having a certain tendency to the
-etc. But as my prescribed limits will not permit melioration of the external condition of mankind
further enlargement, I trust that what has been during its continuance. We are certain, from the
already stated will be sufficient to establish and very nature of things, as well as from scriptural
illustrate my general position.  From this subject prediction, that, when this period advances toward
we may learn. —                                the summit- of its glory, the external circum-.1. That the various processes of art, and'the stances of this world's population will be comfortexertions of human ingenuity, are under the:spe- able, prosperous, and greatly meliorated, beyond
cial direction of Him  who arranges all'things what they have ever been in the days that are
"-according to the counsel of his will."  As "the past-" Then shall the:earth yield her increase,
king7s heart is in the hand of the Lord, and as and God, even our own God, shall bless us."
the rivers of waters he turns.it whithersoever he "Then shall he give the rain of thy seed, that
pleases," so all' the varied schemes and move- thou shalt sow the ground withal; and bread of
ments of the human mind, the -discoveries of the increase of the earth, and it shall be fat and
science, and the diversified experiments of mne- plenteous: in that day shall thy cattle feed in
chanicsj chemists, and philosophers, are directed large pastures. The oxen likewise, and the young
in such channels as may issue in the accomplish- asses that ear the ground, shall eat savory proment of His eternal purposes, in respect to the vender, which hath been winnowed with a shovel
present and future condition of the inhabitants of and with the fan."  "And the inhabitant shall
our world. This truth is. also plainly taught us not say, I am sick."  " They shall build houses
in the records of Inspiration.  " Doth the plow- and inhabit them; and they shall plant vineyards,
man plow all day to sow?  Doth he open and and eat the fruit of them. They shall not build,'break the clods of his ground?  When he hath and another inhabit; they shall not plant, and
made plain the face thereof, doth he not cast another eat: for as the days of a tree are the days
abroad-the vetches, and scatter the cummin,* and of my people, and mine elect shall long enjoy the
cast in the wheat in the principal rplace], and the work of their hands. They shall not labor in
barley-in the appointed place, and the rye in its vain, nor bring forth for trouble; for they are the
proper place?  For his God doth instruct him to seed of the blessed of the Lord, and their offspring
discretion, and doth teach him. This also cometh with them."  "The seed'shall be prosperous; the
forth from the Lord of hosts, who is wonderful in vine shall give her fruit, and the ground shall give
counsel, and excellent in working."'Agricul- her increase, and the heavens -shall give their
ture has, by most nations, been attributed to the dew." " The evil beasts shall cease out of the
suggestions of Deity; for "'every good and perfect land: and they shall sit every man under his vine,
gift cometh down from the Father of lights."  It and under his fig-tree; and none shall make him
is he who hath taught men to dig from the bowels afraid." " For wars shall cease to the ends of the
of the earth, iron, copper, lead, silver, and gold, world; and the knowledge of the Lord shall cover'ard to apply them to useful purposes in social life, the earth, as the waters cover the sea."-*  Disand, who hath given them "wisdom  and under- eases will be, in a great measure, banished from
standing" to apply the animal and vegetable pro- the world, and the life of man extended far be-'ductions of nature to the manufacture of cloths, yond -its present duration —agriculture will be
linen, muslin, and silk, for the use and- the orna- brought to perfection-commodious habitations
ment of man.  For "all things are of God." erected for the comfortable accommodation of all
"Both riches and honor come from him, and he ranks-cities built on elegant and spacious plans,
reigneth over all, and in his hand is power and adapted-to health, ornament and pleasure; divested
might, and iiI his hand it is to make great, and of all the'filth, and darkness and gloom, and nar
to give strength to all."  When the frame of the row lanes, which now disgrace the abodes of men
Mosaic Tabernacle and all its cuiious vessels -were — roads will be constructed on improved princito be constructed, the mind of Bezaleel- " was fill- pies, with comfortable means of retreat for shelter
ed with the Spirit of God, in wisdom and under-. and accommodation at all seasons; and convey-standilrg, and in-knowledge, and in all manner of ances invented for the ease, and safety, land rapid
conveyance of -persons and property from  one
M Vetches is a kind- of seed frequently sown in Judea, for
the use of cattle; and:cuanmin is the seed of a plant some-    Psalm lxvii. 6; Isaiah. xxx. 23, 24: xxxiii. 24; Ixv. 21-23
what like fennel.                                Zech., viii..12; Micah, iv. 4, etc.
VOL. II.-9




128                          THE'CHRISTIAN  IrHILOSOPHER.
place to another. Either the climates of the- earth I of his hands, it will be effected either by machi
will be meliorated by the universal cultivation' of nery for drawing off the electricity of a stormy
the soil, so that storms and' tempests,-thunders cloud, or by the invention of thunder-guards,
and lightnings, shall no longer produce their pre- which shall afford a complete protection from  its
sent ravages; or chemical and mechanical contri- ravages. In these, and numerous other instances,
vances will be invented to ward off their destrue- the inventions of men, under the guidance of the
tive effects. The landscape of the' earth will be Spirit of Wisdom, will have a tendency to remove
adorned with vegetable and architectural beauty; a great part of the curse which has so long hung
and, instead of horse-racing, demoralizing  plays, over our sinful world. And since the inventions
routs and masquerades, boxing and bull-fights- of human skill and ingenuity for the melioration
artificial displays of scenery will be exhibited, of mankind, and for the swift conveyance of inmore congenial to the' dignity of rational, reno- telligence, have of late years been rapidly increasvated, and immortal minds., For", the knowledge ing, at the same time when the Christian world is
of the Lord,'-' and the " beauties of holiness," will roused to increased exertions in disseminating the
pervade men of all:-ranks'., and ages, " from  the Scriptures throughout all lands, when general
least even to the greatest.-"*:             knowledge is increasingly diffused, and when the
Now, as we have no reason to expect any mira- fabric of; Superstition and Despotism  is shaking
culous interference, we: must regard' the past and to its foundations, —these combined and simultathe future useful:inventions' of philosophy and neous movements- seem plainly to indicate, that
mechanics, as having a bearing on'this glorious that auspicious era is fast. hastening on, when
period) and a\ tendency to promote the improve- "the glory of Jehovah shall be revealed, and all
ment and the felicity -of those who shall live flesh shall see it together," when "righteousness
during -this eta of Messiah's'reign. - If diseases and -praise shall spring forth before all nations,"
are to be generally abolished, it will be owing to  and when "Holiness to the lord," shall be. in,,the. researches of the scientific physician in dis- scribed onz all the pursuits, and implements, and
covering certain antidotes against every disorder, employments of men.
and' to the practice of temperance, meekness,   Lastly, If the remarks suggested above be wellequanimity, and every other mean of preserving  founded, we may conclude, that the mechanical
the vigor of the animal frame.' For vicious pas- and philosophical inventions of genius are worthy
sions and pursuits are the source- of numerous of the attentive consideration of the enlightened
disorders which, along with the anxieties, per- Christian, particularly in the relation they may
plexities, and remorse which accompany them, have to the accomplishment of religious objects.
gradually prey upon the human frame, and cut He should contemplate the experiments of scienshort the period of human existence-while the tific men, not {as a waste of time, or the mere
regular exercise of faith, love, hope, joy, and gratification of an idle curiosity, but as embodyother Christian graces have an evident tendency  ing the germs of those improvements by which
to promote both health and longevity.  If the civilization, domestic comfort, knowledge, and
earth is to produce its treasures in abundance, moral principle, may be diffused among the naand with little labor, it will be owing in part to  tions.  To view  such objects with apathy and
the improvement of agricultural science, and of indifferenco, as beneath the regard of a religious
the instruments by which its operations are con- character, argues a weak and limited understand.
ducted.  If the lightnings of heaven shall no ing, and a contracted view of the grand operatione
longer prove destructive to man and to the labors of a superintending Providence.
CHIAPTER IV.
SCRIPTURAL DOCTRINES AND FACTS ILLUSTRATED FROM'THE SYSTEM OF
NATURE.*
WrrHour spending time in any introductory  just interpretation of Scripture, and the facts of
observations on this subject, it may be remarked  physical science; and on this principle the followin general,                                       ing canon is founded, which may be considered
as an infallible rule for Scripture interpretation,
I. —That Scientific Knowledge, or an acquaintance namely,-That no interpretation of Scripture ought
with the System of Nature, may frequently serve to be admitted which is inconsistent with any well,as a guide to the true interpretation of Scripture.  authenticated facts in the material world.  By well
It may be laid down as a universal principle,
that there can be no real discrepancy between a those diseases which now prey upon the human frame, and
cut short its vital action, will be in a great measure extirpated. Both these effects may be viewed (without suppos+ The various circumstances above stated, may be consi. ing any miraculous interference) as the natural consequence
dered as the Inatural resuslts of a state of society on which of that happiness and equanimity which will flow from the
he. light f- science and of revelation has diffused its full in- practice of Christian virtues, from the enlargement of ous
finuece, and where the active powers of the human mind are knowledge of the principles of nature, and from the physical
invariably directed by the pure principles and precepts of enjoyments which such a state of society will furnish.
Christianity. That the duration of human life, at the era   * Under this head it was originally intended to embrace
referred to, will be extended beyond its present boundary, an elucidation of a considerable variety of the facts recordappears to be intimated in somei of the passages above ed inthe Sacred History, and of the allusions of the inspired
quoted, particularly the following: —"(As the days of a tree writers to the system of Nature; but as the volume has al.
u4lul be the days of my people; and. mine elect shall long ready swelled beyond the limits proposed, I am reluctantly
esijoy the work of their hands."' And if the life of man will compelled to confine myself to the illustration of only two oM
be thus protracted to an indeifinite period,'it will-follow' that  three topics




DEPRAVITY:OF MAN.                                      129
authentieated facts, I do not mean the theories of of the creation, which refer to the creation of the
philosophers, or the deductions they. may have fixed stars, are not to be understood as referring
drawn from them, nor the confident assertions or' to the time when they were brought into existplausible reasonings of scientific men in support ence, as if they had been created about the same
of any prevailing system of Natural science; but time with our earth; but as simply declaring the
those facts which are universally admitted, and fact, that, at what period soever in duration they
the reality: of which every scientific inquirer has were created, they derived their existencefrom God.
it in his power to ascertain; such as, that the earth That they did not all commence their existence at!
is not an extended plane, but a round or globular that period, is demonstrable from  the fact, that,'
body, and that the rays of-the sun, when con- within the space of 2000 years past, and even
verged to a focus by a large convex glass, will set within the space of the last two centuries, new
fire to combustible substances. Such facts, when stars have appeared in the heavens, which previascertained, ought to be considered as a revelation ously did not exist in the concave of the firmafrom God, as well as the -declarations of his word. ment; which, consequently, have been created
For they make -known to us a portion of his char- since the Mosaic period; or, at least, had underacter, of his plans and of his operations.-This gone a change analogous to that which took place
rule may be otherwise expressed as follows:- in our globe, when it emerged from a chaotic state,
Where a passage of Scripture is of doubtful mean- to the form and order in which we now behold it.
inq, or capable of different interpretations, that inter- Consequently, the phrase, "God rested from all
pretation ought to be preferred which will best agree his works," must be understood, not absolutely,
with the -established discoveries of science. For, or in reference to the whole system of nature, but
since the Author of Revelation and the Author merely in relation to our world; and as importof:-universal nature is one and the same Infinite ing, that the Creator then ceased to form any new
Being, there must exist a. complete harmony be- species of beings on the terraqueous globe.-The
tween the- revelations of his-Word, and the facts same canon. will direct us in the interpretation of
or, relations which are observed in the material those passages which refer to the last judgment,
*universe.  To suppose the contrary, would" be to and the destruction of the present constitution of
suppose the Almighty capable of inconsistency; our globe..When, in reference to these events, it
a supposition which would go far to shake our is said, that "the stars shall fall- from heaven,"
confidence in: the theology of Nature, as well as that "the powers of heaven shall be shaken," and
of Revelation.   If, in any one instance, a Record that "the earth and the heaven shall flee away,"
claiming to be a revelation from heaven, were our knowledge of the system of nature leads us
found to contradict a well known fact in the ma- to conclude, either that such expressions are mereterial.world; if, for example, it asserted in express ly metaphorical, or that they describe only the
terms, to be.literally understood, that the earth is appearance, not the reality of things.  For it is
aiquiescent body in the center of the universe, or impossible that the stars can ever fall to the earth,
that the moon is no larger than a mountain-it since each of them is of a size vastly superior to
would be a fair conclusion, either that the revela-' our globe, and could never be attracted to its surtion is not Divine-or that the passages embody- face, without unhinging the laws and the fabric
lug such assertions are interpolations-or that of universal nature. The appearance, however,
science, in reference to these points, has not yet of the "heaven fleeing away," would be produced,
arrived at the truth. The example,.we are aware, should the earth's diurnal rotation, at that period,
is inapplicable to the Christian revelation, which be suddenly stopped, as will most probably haprests securely on its own basis, and to which sci- pen; in which case, all nature, in this sublunary
ence is gradually approximating, as it advances in system, would be thrown into confusion, and the
the amplitude of its views, and the correctness of heavens, with all their host, would appear to flee
its deductions; but it shows us how necessary it -away.'is, in. interpreting the Word of God, to keep our   Now,.the scientific student of Scripture alone
eye fixed upon his Works; for we may rest as- can judiciously apply the;canon to which I have
sured, that truth in the one will always correspond  adverted; he alone can appreciate its utility in the
withfact in the other.                          interpretation of the sacred oracles; for he knows
To illustrate the rule now laid down, an exam- the facts which the philosopner and the astronople or two may be stated.-If it be a fact, that mer have ascertained to exist in the system  of
geological research has ascertained that the mate- nature; from the want of which information many
rials of the strata of the earth are, of a more an — divines, whose. comments on Scripture have, in
cient date than the Mosaic account of the com- other respects, been judicious, have displayed
mencement of the present race of men-the pas- their ignorance, and fallen into egregious blunders,
sages in the first chapter of Genesis, and other when attempting to explain the first chapters of
parts of Scripture, which refer to the origin of: Genesis, and several parts of the book of Jobur- world, must be explained as conveying the which have tended to bring discredit on the oracles
idea, that the earth was then' merely arranged into of heaven.
its present form  and order, out of the materials,
which previously existed, and which had been cre- II.-The System of Nature confirms and illustrates
ated by the Almighty at a period prior in dura-   the Scriptural Doctrine of the DEPRAVITY OF MAN.
tion. For Moses nowhere asserts that the materials of our globe were created or brought into   In the preceding parts of this volume, I have
existence:out of nothing, at the time to which his stated several striking instances of Divine benevohistory refers; but insinuates the contrary. "For lence, which appear in the construction of the orthe earth," says he, prior to its present constitu- gans of the animal system, in the' constitution of
tion, "twas without form and void," etc.-Again, the earth, the waters, and the atmosphere, and in
if it be a fact that theuniverse.is indefinitely ex- the. variety of beauties and sublimities which adorn
-tended, that, of many millions- of vast globes the face of nature; all which proclaim, in language
which diversify the voids of space, only two or which can scarcely be mistaken, that the Creator'three have any immediate' connection  with the has. a special regard to the happiness of his creaearth-then it will appear most reasonable to con- tures.  Yet the Scriptures uniformly declare, that
elude,'tha those expressions in the Mosac history  man has fallen from  his primeval state of inuacldd,~th' thse epresion in he Naa  Y




130                          THE'HRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
cenbe, and has violated the; laws -of his;Mker;i existencei the earth-was turned into a habitatio
that "his heart is deceitful above all things, and  of demons; the long period to which his life was
desperately wicked;" and -that "'destruction and protracted, only served to-harden him in his wickmisery are in his ways."- Observation and expe- edness, and to enable: him- to carry his diabolical
rience also demonstrate, that a meoral:disease per- schemes to their utmost extent, until the social
vades, the -whole:humand family,, from  the most *state of the human race became a scene of un-savage to the most civilized tribes of' mankind;! mixed depravity and misery.  And:the physical
which has displayed its virulence in those wars effects of the punishment of this univefsal defecand devastations which have, in all ages, convulsed':tion from God, are presented to our view in every
the world; and which daily displays itself in those. -land, and will remain'to-all ages,:as a visible me-'acts. of injustice, fraud, oppression, malice; tyra-" morial tiat man has rebelled against the authority
ny,-. and:cruelty, which are' perpetrated'in, every' of his Maker.*-country, and among all' the ranks even of civilized'   2. The existence of volcanoes:and the terrible ralife. That a world. inhabited by moral agents of vages they produce,'bear testimony to the state of'this' des'cription,'would.display,'in' its physical man as a depraved':intelligence.   A  volcano is a
constitution, certain indications of its Creator's mountain generally of an immense size, from
displeasure,.is what we should naturally —expect,' whose summit issue, fire, smoke, sulphur, and
from.a — consideration of those attributes'of his torrents of melted lava.t Previous:to an eruption,
nature with which we  are acquainted.,.Accord-: the:smoke, which is continually ascending from
iigly we find, that, amidst all the evidences of be- the crater, or'opening in the top, increases and:nevolence which our globe' exhibits, there are not shoots up to an immense hight; forked lightning
-wanting crtain:.displays of c"-the wrath of Heaven  issues - from  the ascending column; showers of'against the ungodliness - and unrighteousness of  ashes are thrown out to the distance of forty or
men," in order-to arouse'them to a sense of'their fifty miles; volleys of red-hot stones are dis-: guilt, and to inspire them with reverence tand awe charged to a. great hight  in:the air; the sky ap-of that Being whom-'they have offended. The pears thick and dark; the.luminaries of heaven
following facts, among:many others, may be con- disappear;- and these terrible forebodings are -acsidered as corroborating this. position.           companied with thunder, lightning, frequent conIn the first place, The present state of the interior cussions of the:earth, and dreasdful subterraneous
strata of the earth may be considered as'a.pre- bellowings.' When these alarming appearances
sumptive evidence, that a moral revolution has have continued sometimes-'four or five months,
taken- place since man was:placed -upon'the globe. the lava begins to -make'its appearance, either
When we penetrate into the interior recesses of the boiling over the top, or forcing its way through
earth, we find its different strata bent in the most the side'of the mountain.  This fiery deluge of
irregular forms; sometimes lying horizontally, melted minerals rolls down the declivity of the
sometimes  projecting  upward, and -sometimes mountain, forminga- dismal flaming stream, some-'downward, and thrown into confusion; as if some times fourteen miles long, six miles broad, and
dreadful concussion had spread its ravages through 200 feet deep.:In its course it destroys orchards,
every part of the solid crust of our globe. This vineyards, corn-fields,-and villages; and sometimes
is visible in every region of the earth.. Wherever cities, containing twenty thousand inhabitants,
the miner "penetrates among his'subterraneous  have been swallowed up and consumed.  Several
recesses, wherever the fissures and caverns of the other phenomena, of-awful sublimity, sometimes
earth are explored, and wherever the mountains accompany these eruptions.  In the eruption of
lay bare their rugged,:cliffs, the marks-of ruin,: Vesuvius, in 1794, a shock of an earthquake was
convulsion, and disorder, meet-the eye of the -be-': felt; and, at the same instant, a fountain of'bright
holder.  Evidences of these facts are: to be-found fire, attended with the blackest smoke and a loud
in the records of all intelligent travelers and geo-: report, was seen to issue, and to rise to a great
logists who have visited Alpine'districts, or ex-' hight from  the cone of the mountain; and was?plo'red  the- subterraneous regions of the-earth;,-soon succeeded by fifteen other fiery fountains,
of which I have already stated a few-instances in all in a direct line, extending for a mile and -a
the article G(eology. —These -facts seem evidently' half downward.  This fiery scene was accompa-'to indicate, that the- earth is not now in'the same -nied with the loudest thunder, the incessant restate in which it' originally -proceeded from  the ports of which, like those of a numerous heavy
-hand of its Creator; for such a scene of disrup-. artillery, were attended by a continued hollow
~tion and derangement appears incompatible with  murmur, similar to that of the roaring of the'that order, harmony, and beauty, which are appa- ocean during a violent storm.  The houses in
rent in the other departments of nature. We'dare Naples, at: seven miles distance, were for several'not assert, that such -terrible.convulsions' took' hours in-a constant tremor; the bells ringing, and
place by chance, oriindependent of the will of the, doors and windows -incessantly rattling and shakCreator; nor dare we insinuate, that they were ing.  The murmur of the prayers and lamentathe effects of a random display of Almighty power; tions of a numerous population added to the horand, therefore, we are necessarily led to infer,'
that a moral cause connected wilth the coinduct of:It is not meant here to insinuate that all the dislocations
and irregsilarities found in the strata'of'the earth are to be.the rational inhabitants of the' globe, must have  attributed to the action of the deluge; but'it can scarcely be
existed, to warrant so awful an interposition of called in'question, that certain'traces of the effects of this
Divine Power; for'te fate- of the animated'beings catastrophe are to be found in most countries. The simple
whfich ~thlen~ peopled'the' earth, was involved  in thefact recorded in Revelation, that "the fountains of the great
which~...he -pe- eoveite.        - deep'were broklen-up, and tlheflood-gates ofthe heavens open.
Consequences which must have attended this ter- ed" —that'" the stormnof rain continued upon the earth forty
rible catastrophe.' The volume of Revelation on days and forty nights,"' and that-the earth was covered with
this point, concurs-withthe deductions of reason  water for nearly the space of a whole year-could not but
hand assigns a cnaurswihe deductd tof warrant the  produce a very sensible and extensive effect upon the solid.and-assigns    ause'adequate to-warrant thespro- pacts of the- globe, though it-may be difficult in some in-duction of such an extraordinary efiect. "It The stances to'distinguish some' of'the effects produced by
wickedness of man'was GREAT -upon the -earth; Noah's flood from those which were the result of previous ca.
the — earth -was- FILLED UWITH VIOLENcE;'every pr-'tastrophes. At-any rate, the sacred historian is explicit in deeclaring it'was,'because the wickedness of man wasgreat,'
posse and desire of mans'heart'was ONLY  EVIL that s"a flood of waters' Was brought ueon the earth.
CONTINUALLY."  Manihad frustrated the end of'his  "t See page 58




DEPRAVITY OF MAN.                                      131
rors -:of the scene. All travelers who:have wit-, the largest of whichwe have any record, dwindles
nessed these eruptions seem to be at a loss to find into insignificance, when we think of the probawords sufficiently emphatic to express the-.terrors ble subterranean fires ifmmediately beneath  the
of the scene. "One cannot form a juster idea," whole of these and other South-Sea islands. The
says Bishop Berkley, "of the noise emitted by the whole of Hawaii (Owhyhee),: covering a space
mountain, than by imagining a mixed.sound of 4000 square miles, is a complete. mass of lava
made up of the raging of a tempest, the murmur or other volcanic matter in various' stages of deof a troubled sea, and the roaring of thunder and composition. Perforated with innumerable aperartillery, confused altogether. Though we heard tures in the shape. of craters, it forms a hbllow
this at the distance of twelve miles, yet it was cone over one vast furnace, situated in the heart
very-terrible."  In 1744, the flames of Cotopaxi, of a stupendous submarine mountain rising from
in South America, rose 3000 feet above the brink the bottom of the sea. When we contemplate
of the crater, and its roarings were heard at the such awful and overwhelming phenomena, the
distance of six hundred miles. " At the port of workmanship -of Him who laid the foundations
Guayaquil, 150 miles distant from the crater," of the earth, and who superintends the operation
says Humboldt, "we heard day and night'the of all its elementary principles, we have reason
noise of this volcano,- like continued discharges to exclaim, "Let the nations say unto God, how
of'a battery, and we distinguished these tremen- terrible art thou in thy works.! Let all the earth
dous sounds even on the Pacific- ocean."       fear Jehovah; let all the inhabitants of the world
The most terrific and- extraordinary volcano stand in -awe of him!"
yet known is that of Kirauea, lately discovered   The ravages produced by volcanoes are in proin Hawaii, one of the Sandwich islands. When portion to the terror they inspire. In the eruption
the crater of this volcano first bursts upon the of Etna in 1669, the stream of lava destroyed, in
sight, there is an appearance presented of an im- forty days, the habitations of 27,000 persons; and,
mense plain below, 15 or 16 miles in circumfe- of 20,000 inhabitants of the city of Catania, only
rence, and from 200 to 400 feet below its original 3000 escaped.  In the year 79, the celebrated
level, covered with-.hillocks of lava, and vast floods cities' of Pompeii and Herculaneum were corn
of burning matter in a state of terrific ebullition, pletely overwhelmed and buried under ground-by
moving to and fro its fiery surge and flaming bil- an'eruption of Vesuvius, and the spots on which
lows. Mr. Ellis, Who beheld this volcano, states they stood remained unknown for 1600 years.
that, around the edge, or from.the surface of the Since that, period, about forty eruptions -have
burning. lake,'there arose no fewer than 51 coni- taken place, each of them  producing the most
cal islands of varied form  and size, containing as dreadful ravages. But the volcanoes of Asia and
many craters.  Twenty-two- were constantly America are still more terrible and destructive
emitting columns of gray smoke or pyramids of than those of Europe. The volcanic mountain
brilliant flame, and several of these at the same Pichincha, near Quito, caused, on one occasion,
time vomited from their ignited mouths streams the destruction of 35,000 inhabitants. In the
of lava which rolled in blazing torrents down year 1772, an eruption of a mountain in the
their black indented sides into the boiling mass island of Java destroyed forty villages, and sevebelow. The roar and noise emitted from  these. ral thousands of the inhabitants; and in October,
several craters resemble the sounds of a mighty 1822, eighty-eight hamlets and above 2000 persons
steam-engine-a whole lake of fire appearing in were destroyed in the same island, by a sudden
the distance-billow after billow tossing its mon- eruption from  a new  volcano.  The eruption
strous bosom in the air, and throwing forth its from  Tomboro. in the island of Sumbawa, in
fiery spray to the hight of 40 or 50 feet-forming 1815, was so dreadful that all the Moluccas, Java,
a scene most awfully grand and terrific-flames Sumatra, and Borneo, to the distance of a thoubursting forth from  the largest cone, red-hot sand miles from  the mountain, felt tremulous
stones, cinders, and ashes propelled to a mighty emotions, and heard the report of explosions.
bight with immense violence, and'appalling floods In Java, at the distance of 340 miles, the clouds
of lava boiling down the sides over the surround- of ashes from the volcano produced utter darkness.
ing scoriae. Mr. Stewart and a party from  the   Volcanoes are more numerous than is generally
Blonde frigate visited this volcano in 1825.- -The imagined. They are to be found in every quarfollowing is only a very small part of his descrip- ter of the world, from the icy shores of Kamtstion: —"At night, splendid illuminations were chatka to the mountains of Patagonia. Humboldt
lighted up; the volcano began roaring and labor- enumerates forty volcanoes constantly burning
ing with redoubled activity. The confusion'of  between Cotopaxi and the Pacific ocean; twenty
noises was prodigiously great —rolling from one have been observed in the chain of mountains
end of the crater to the other, sometimes seeming that stretches along Kamtschatka; and many of
to be immediately under us, when a sensible tre- them  are to be seen in the Philippines, the Momor of the -ground took place, and -then again luccas, the Cape de Verd, the Sandwich, the Larushing to thoe farther end with incalculable velo- drone, and other islands in the Indian and Pacific
city. - The whole air was filled with the tumult, oceans. It is stated in vol. 6th of Supp. to Encyc.
and soon after flames burst from a large cone Brit., that about 205 volcanoes are known, innear which we had been in the morning. Red- eluding only those which have been active within
hot stones, cinders, and ashes were also propelled a period to which history or tradition reaches.
to a great liight with immense violence, and Europe contains 14; and, of the whole number,
shortly after the molten lava came boiling up and it is computed that 107. are in islands, and 98 on
flowed down the sides of the cone and over the the great continents.
surrounding scorie, in two -beautiful  streams,   Can we then suppose that so many engines of
glittering with indescribable brilliance. At: the terror and destruction, dispersed over every quarsame -time, a whole lake of fire opened -in a more ter of the globe, are consistent with the conduct
distant part; this could not have been less than of a benevolent Creator toward an innocent race
two riles in circumference; and its action was of men?  If so, we must either admit that the
more horribly sublime than anything I ever ima- Creator had it not in his power, when arranging
gined to exist, even in the ideal visions of un- our terrestrial system, to prevent the occasional
earthly things."  This fiery volcano of Kirauea, action of these dreadful ravages; or, that he is




132                          THE: CHRISTiAN PHILOSOPHER.
indifferent' to the hIappiness of his innocent' off- tremendous concussion. Its effects were traced
spring.  The former  admission' is in6consistent from W. Longitude 560 in the northern part of
with the idea of his. Omnipotence, anid the latter the tropics, to W. Longitude 910, comprehending
with the idea of his universal' Ben evolence. It is an-extent, from east'to west, of 350, passing along
not, therefore, enthusiasm,ibut the fairest deduce. Cuba, Louisiana, and part of the United States.
tion of reason to conclude, that they'are- indica-   To suppose that the human beings who' have
tions -of God's displeasure against a race of trans-' beenvictims to the ravages of earthquakes and
gressors who have apostatized from his laws. -   volcanoes, " were sinners above all those who
3. The same reasoning will apply to the tava- dwelt around them," would be the hight of imges produced by Earthquakes. - Next to volcanoes, piety and presumption. But the fact, that thouearthquakes are the most terrific phenomena of sands of rational beings -have  been swept from
-nature, and are even- far more destructive to man, existence, in a manner so horrible and tremendous,
and to the labors of his hands.' An earthquake, seems plainly to indicate, that they belonged to a
which consists in a sudden motion of the; earth, race of apostate intelligences, who had violated
is generally preceded byma rumbling sound, some- the commands- of their Creator. Such visitations
times like that of a number' of carriages driving are quite accordant to the idea of man being in
furiously along -the pavement of a street, some-  the condition of a transgressor; but, if he were
times like the rushing noise of a mighty wind, *an innocent creature, they would be altogether
and, sometimes like the, explosions, of artillery.  unaccountable, as' happening under the governTheir effect on the surface of the earth is various. ment of a Being of unbounded benevolence.
Sometimes it is instantaneously heaved up in a   4. The phenomena of thunder-storms, tempests
perpendicular direction, and sometimes it assumes and hurricanes, and the ravages they produce, are
a kind' of rolling motion,'from side to side.-The also presumptive proofs that man is a depraved inravages which earthquakes have produced are ter- telligence. In that season of the year when Narible beyond description; and are accomplished ture is arrayed in her most beautiful attire, and
almost in a moment. In n1692, the city of Port- the whole terrestrial landscape tends to inspire the
Royal, in Jamaica, was destroyed by an earth- mind with cheerfulness-suddenly a sable cloud
quake, in the space of twp  minutes, and the emerges from  the horizon-the sky assumes a
houses sulik into a gulf forty fathoms deep. -In baleful aspect-a dismal gloom envelops the face
1693, an earthquake happened in Sicily, which of Nature-the lightnings flash from one end of
either destroyed or greatly damaged fifty-four the horizon to another-the thunders roll with
cities and an incredible number of villages.  The awful majesty along the verge of heaven, until at
city of Catania was utterly overthrown; the sea length they burst over head in tremendous exploall of a sudden began to roar; Mount-Etna to sions,  The sturdy oak-is shattered and despoiled
send forth immense spires of flame; and, imme- of its foliage; rocks are rent into shivers; and the
diately a shock ensued, as if all the artillery in grazing herds are struck into a lifeless group.
the world had been discharged. The birds flew  Even man is not exempted from  danger in the
about astonished; the sun was darkened; the midst of this appalling scene. For hundreds in
beasts ran howling from the hills; a dark cloud of every age have fallen victims either to the direct
dust covered the air; and though the shock did not stroke of the lightning or to the concussions and
-last three minutes, yet nineteen thousand of the conflagrations with which it has been attended.
inhabitants of the city perished in the ruins. This In tropical countries, the phenomena of thundarshock extended to a circumference of 7000 miles. storms are more dreadful and appalling than in
Earthquakes have been producing their'ravages our temperate climate. The thunder freqwsnl'ly
in various parts of the world, and in every age, continues for days and weeks in almost one i.Cresand are still continuing their-destructive effects.  sant roar; the rains are poured down in torrents;
Pliny informs us, that twelve cities in Asia Minor and the flashes of lightning follow each ot')0,r in.were swallowed up in onenight. In the year so rapid a succession, thatthe whole atmo phere
115,' the city of Antioch, and. a great part of, the and the surrounding hills seem to be in a'blaze.
adjacent country, were buried by an earthquake. In some instances, the most dreadful effect- have.
About 300 years after, it was again destroyed been produced by the bursting of an electrical
along with 40,000 inhabitants; and, after an in- cloud. In 1772, a bright cloud was observed at
terval of only 60 years, it was a third time over- midnight to cover a mountain in the island of
turnled, with the loss- of not lessthan 60,000 souls. Java; it emitted globes of fire so luminous that
In 1755, Lisbon was destroyed by an earthquake, the night became as clear as day. Its effects were
and it buried under its ruins above 50,000 inhabi- astonishing.  Everything was destroyed for seven
tants. The effects of this terrible earthquake leagues around; houses were demolished; plantawere *lt over the greater part of Europe and tions buried in the earth; and 2140 people lost
Africa, and even in the midst of the Atlantic their lives, beside 1500 head of cattle, and a. vast
ocean; and are calculated to'have extended over a number of horses and other animals.*
space of not less than four millions of square   Is it not reasonable, then, to conclude, that such
miles.. In August, 1822, two-thirds of the city awful phenomena as storms,volcanoes,and earth.
of Aleppo, which contained' 40,000 houses, and quakes are so many occasional indications of the
200,000 inhabitants, were destroyed by an earth- frown of an offended Creator upon a race of transquake, and nearly 30,000 inhabitants were buried gressors, in order to arouse them to a sense of their
under the ruins.-eOn the 7th May, 1842, at 5 apostasy from  the God of.-heaven?  EWe cannot
o'clock in the evening, the townof Cape.Haytien, conceive that such physical operations, accompain the island of St. Domingo, was totally destroy- nied'by so many terrific and destructive effcets,
ed by an earthquake, and ten thousand of the in- are at all compatible~with the idea, that man is at
habitants-forming two-thirds of the population-  present in a paradisiacal state, -and possessed of
perished in- the catastrophe. The towns of St. that moral purity in which he was created   Such
Nicholas and Port Paix, were also tumbled into appalling displays of Almighty power are  in
ruins, and mast if not all towns on the north side complete unison with the idea, that man is a
of the island, in some of which multitudes of the transgressor, and that; the present dispensations
inhabitants were. destroyed, amounting in all to
about 20,000 human beings, who perished in that  * Enecyc. Brit.,'Art. Cosd




THE RESURRECTION ILLUSTRATED.                                        133
fi-:God-are a mixture of mercy and of judgment; of several hundred years.'It has been calculated,
butifhe belong to an innocent'race of moral in- that, during the Russian campaign of 1812, in-.telligences, they appear quite anomalous, and are eluding men, women, and children, belonging to
altogether inexplicable, on the supposition, that a the French and Russians, there were not less than
Being of infinite benevolence and rectitude directs five hundred thousand human victims sacrificed to
-the operations of the physical and moral world; the demon of war. It is probable, that the demore especially when we.consider the admirable struction produced among the human race, by the
care which is displayed in the construction of convulsions of nature, since       commencement
animal bodies, in order -to prevent pain, and to of time (the deluge only excepted), does not
produce pleasurable sensations. When man was amount to above four or five millions of lives; but
first brought into existence, his thoughts and were we to take into account the destruction of
affections, we must suppose, were in unison with human life produced by ambition, tyranny, opthe will of his Creator; his mind was serene and pression, superstition, wars, devastations, murders,
unruffled; and, consequently, no'foreboding ap- and horrid cruelties, in every period of the world,
prehensions of danger, would, in such, a state, it would, doubtless, amount to several- thousands
take possession of his breast. But -after he had of millions; So that, amidst the most terrible disswerved from the path of primeval' rectitude, and plays of the displeasure of God against the sins,
especially after the Deluge had swept away the in- of men, mercy is mingled with judgment; and
habitants of the Antediluvian world, the consti- while man is the greatest enemy and destroyer of
tution of the earth and the atmosphere seems to his own species, benevolence is the prominent feahave undergone a mighty change, corresponding ture of all the arrangements of the Deity in the
to the degraded state into which he had fallen; so physical world. For although-he is great in power
that those very elements which may have for- he is slow  to anger, and "hiis tellder mercies
merly ministered to his enjoyment-by being are over all his works."  The evils which flow
formed into different combinations —now  con- from  the operation of the elements of nature
spire' to produce terror and destruction.        ought not to be considered as the inflictions of
- The same important conclusion might have avenging justice, but as the kind admonitions of
been deduced, from  a consideration of the im- a benevolent Father, who willeth not that any
mense deserts of marshes and barren sands which should perish, but that all.should come to repenare dispersed over the globe —the vast and fright- tance-and who has displayed his love to the huful regions of ice around the poles-the position man race in such a wonderful manner that " he
of the mineral strata, and the vast disproportion gave his only-begotten- Son, that whosoever bewhich the extent of the dry land bears to the ex- lieveth on him might notP-'erish buit have everpanse of the ocean,-all which circumstances, lasting life."*
-and many others, in conjunction -with the facts.
and many others, in  conjunction with the fa~cts'  III.-The Discoveries which have been made in the
above stated, conspire to show, that man no longer
sta-nds in the. rank ofE a pure intelligence; and.   System of Nature illustrate the Doctrine of the
RESURRECTION OF THE DEAD.
that his habitation corresponds, in some degree,
to his state of moral degradation. By overlook-   The doctrine of a Resurrection from  the dead,
ing this consideration, St. Pierre and other Natu- at first view, appears to involve in it a variety of
ralists have found themselves much at a loss, difficulties and apparent contradictions.  That a
when attempting to vindicate the wisdom  and complex organical machine, as the human body
equity of Providence, in the physical disorders is, consisting of -thousands of diversified parts for
which exist in the present constitution of our the performance of its functions, after it has been
globe.. The circumstance, that man is a fallen reduced to atoms, and those atoms dispersed to
creature, appears the only clue to guide us in un- " the four winds of heaven "- should be again
raveling the mysteries of Providence, and to ena- reared up with the same materials, in a new and
ble us to perceive the harmony and consistency of more glorious form,-is an idea which seems to
the Divine operations in the system  of nature; baffle'the human comprehension;'and, in all proand no other consideration will fully account for bability, would never have entered the mind of
the disorders which exist in the present economy man, had it not been communicated by Divine
of our world.   -                                Revelation. Accordingly we find, that the philoBut it is a most consoling consideration, that, sophers of antiquity, though many of them  beamidst all the physical evils which abound, the lieved in the doctrine of a future state, never once
benevolence -and mercy of God are admirably dreamed that the bodies of men, after they had
blended with the indications of his displeasure.- been committed to the dust, would ever again be
Thunder-storms and tempests contribute to the reanimated: and hence, when the Apostle Paul
purification of the atmosphere; and volcanoes are proposed this doctrine to the Athenian philosoconverted into funnels for vomiting up those fiery phers, they scouted the idea, as if it had been the
materials which produce earthquakes, and which revery of a madman.  And, indeed, without a
might otherwise swallow up whole provinces in strong conviction, and a lively impression, of the
one mighty gulf. In the ordinary course of things, infinite power and intelligence of God, the mind
such phenomena are more terrific thandestructive; cannot rely with unshaken confidence on the deand are calculated.rather to rouse -an unthinlking claration of a future fact so widely different from
world to consideration, than to prove the instru- all the obvious phenomena of nature, and from
ments of human destruction.  Compared with the. everything that lies within the range of human
miseries which men have voluntarily inflicted on experience. "If a man die," says Job, "shall he
ovee another, the destructive effects of the elements live again?  There is hope of a tree, if it be cut
of nature dwindle into mere temporary and tri- down, that it will sprout again, and bring forth
fling accidents.  We have reason to. believe, that
a-much greater destrtlction of human beings has   * The facts stated in this section are expressed, for the
been produced by two or three of the late battles most part, in the author's own words, for the sake of corntn modern Europe, such as those of Waterloo, pression.-His authorities are, Goldsmith's Natural History,
3orodino, and Smolensko, than lhas been produced Humboldt's Travels, Brydon's Tour, Sir W. Hamilton's Ob,
~Boaheero~in ast~orms, erhukadvlservations, Raffle's History of Java, Encyc. Brit., Arts. Etna,
byl.all the electrical storms, earthquakes, and vo0l- rtiolc, Eartloquake, &ntioc, Cloued- Ellis's Polynesian
calic eruptions, which have raged  for the space Researches, etc.




134                          THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.,
boughs like a plant. But man dieth and wasteth binations, which are infinitely diversified, it still
away; yea, mnan giveth up the ghost, and where. preserves its identity  In:- the state of carbonic
is he?"  When the mind, however, is frequently acid, it exists. in union with earths and stones in
exercised in contemplations on the'stupeidous unbouinded  quantities:; and-, though buried for
works of the Almighty, it must feel an impressive thousands of years beneath immense rocks, or in
conviction, that "nothing can be too hard for the center of mountains, it is still carbonic acid:
Jehovah."  When we endeavor-to draw aside the for no sooner is it disengaged from its dormitory,
vail which conceals many of -the scenes of nature: than it rises with all the life and vigor of recent
from the vulgar eye, we perceive a variety of ope- formation, not in the least impaired by its torpid
rations and analogies, which tend —to assist us in inactivity during the lapse of,ages. The beams
forming a conception, not o nly of the'possibility of the theater at Herculaneum were converted intoof a resurrection, but also of the manner in which charcoal (which is one of the compounds of carit may probably be effected,, when the power of boin), by the lava which overflowed that city du.
Omnipotence is interposed.'                ring an eruption of mount Vesuvius; and, during
The transformation of insects affords us a beau- the lapse of 1700'years, the charcoal has remained
tiful illustration of this subject.- All the butter- as entire as if it had been formed but yesterday,
flies which we see fluttering about in the summer and it.will probably continue so to the end of the
months were originally caterpillars.  Before they world. In addition to these facts, -it may be stated
arrive at that highest stage of their'existence, they that provision has been. made for the restoration
pass through four different transformations. The of the fallen leaves of vegetables which rot upon
first'state of a butterfly is that of an egg; it next the ground,. and to a. careless observer, would apassumes the; form of a loathsome crawling worm; pear to be lost forever. It has-been shown by exafter remaining some time ini-this state, it throws periment that, whene-Ver the soil: becomes charged
off- its caterpillar skin, languishes, refuses to eat, with such matter, the oxygen of the atmosphere
ceases -to move, and: is shut up, as it were, in a combines-with it, and converts it into carbonic
tomb. In this-state, the animal'is termed a chrys- acid gas. The consequence of which is, that this
alis: it is covered with a thin crust or shell, and lvery same carbon is, in process of time, absorbed
remains, sometimes for six or, eight months, with- by a new race of vegetables, which it clothes with
out motion, and apparently without life.  After a new foliage, and which is itself destined to unremaining its allotted time in this torpid' condi- dergo similar putrefaction and renovation to the
tion, it begins to acquire new life and vigor; it end of time.*
bursts its imprisonment, and comes forth a but-   These facts, and others of a similar description,'terfly, with wings tinged with the most beautiful which might have been stated, demonstrate, that
colors. It mounts the air, it ranges from flower one of the constituent parts of animal bodies reto flower, and seems to rejoice in its new and mains unalterably the same amidst all the revolusplendid existence. How very different does it tions of time, and all the changes and decomposiappear in this state, from what it did in the pre- tions which take place in the system of nature;
ceding stages of its existence!  How unlikely did and, consequently that though' human bodies may
it seem, that a rough, hairy, crawling worm, which  remain in a state of putrefaction for ages, in the
lay for such a length of time, in a death-like tor- earth and in the waters, yet their component parts
por, and enshrouded in a tomb, should be reani- remain unchanged, and in readiness to enter into
mated, as it were, and changed into so beautiful a new and more glorious combination, at the coma' form, and indued with such powers of rapid mand of that INTELLIGENCE, to whom all the prinmotion! Perhaps the Change to be effected on the ciples of nature, and all their diversified changes,
bodies of men, at the general resurrection, may are intimately known; and whose voWEsR is able
not be greater, nor more wonderful in its nature, to direct their combinations to the accomplishment
than are the changes-which take place from the of his purposes.-Though such considerations as
first to the last stage of a caterpillar's existence.-  these may have no weight on certain unreflecting
In such transformations, then, we behold a lively minds, that never met with any difficulties in the
representation of the death and resurrection of a economy either of Nature or of Redemptionrighteous man. "A little while he shall lie in the yet, the man of deep reflection, who has frequently
ground, as the seed lies in the bosom of. the earth; had his mind distracted with the apparent improbut he shall be raised again, and shall never die bability of the accomplishment of certain divine
any more."                                       declarations, will joyfully embrace such facts in
There is another illustration, taken from a con- the economy of nature, as a sensible support to his
sideration of the chemical changes of matter, faith in the promises of his God; and will resign
which has a still more direct bearing on the doe- his body to dust and putrefaction, in the firm hope
trine of a resurrection. We know, that sub- of emerging from the tomb to a future and more
stances which are invisibly incorporated with air, glorious transformation.
water;, and other fluids; and which seem to be destroyed, may be made to reappear in their original IV.  The Discoveries of Science tend to illustrate
form, by the application of certain chemical re-the Doctrine of the GENERAL CONFLAGRATION.
agents. For example, put a small piece of solid    We are informed, in the Sacred Oracles, that a
camphor into a vial half filled-with alcohol or spi- period is approaching, when "the elements shall
rit of wine-in a short time the- camphor will be melt with fervent heat, and the earth, and the
dissolved in the fluid; and- the spirit will be as works that are therein, shall be burned up."
transparent as at first. If water be now,added, it Science has ascertained certain facts in the conwill unite with the ardent spirit, and' thee camphor stitution: of nature, which lead us to form  some
will be separated and'fall to the bottom of the conception of the manner in which this awful
vial. In this way the camphor may be nearly all catastrophe may probably be effected, and also of
recovered as at first; and, by distillation, the alco- the ease with which it may be accomplished, when
hol may also be separated from the water, and ex- the destined period shall:have arrived.  It was
hibited in a separate state.'I have already noticed formerly stated (pp. 32,105), that the atmosphere,
that carbon which forms an essential part of all
animal and vegetable substances, is found to be   * Parke's Chemical Cathecism, p. 266, and the additiona
not only indestructible by age, but in all its com- Notes.




GENERAL CONFLAGRATION.                                        135
or the air we breathe, is a compound substance, wherein dwelleth righteousness."  Whether, after
composed of two very different and opposite prin- being thus renovated, it shall be allotted as the resdples, termed oxygen and nitrogen.  The oxygen, idence of the redeemed inhabitants of our world,
which forms about a fifth part of the atmosphere, is beyond our province at present to determine.
is now ascertained to be the principle of flame: a But if not, it will, in all probability, be allotted as
lighted taper, immersed in this gas, burns with a the abode of other rational beings, who may be
brilliancy too great for the eye to bear; and even transported from  other regions, to contemplate a
a rod of iron or steel is made to blaze under its new province of the Divine empire, or who may
anergy.                                          be immediately created for the purpose of taking
The modern infidel, like the scoffers of old, possession of this renovated world. For we have
scouts the idea of the dissolution of the world, and reason to believe that the energies of Creating
of the restitution of the universe, because all Power will be continually exerted, in replenishing
things continue as they were from the beginning  the boundless universe, throughout all the ages
of the creation; not knowing the Scriptures, nor of infinite duration; and that no substances, or
the Power of God; and not considering the prin- worlds, which God has created, will ever be sufciples and facts in tlie system of nature, which  fered to fall into annihilation-at least, that the
indicate the possibility of such an event. But,, original atoms of matter will never be destroyed,
from  the fact now stated, we may learn, how  whatever new forms they may assume, and howeasily this effect may be accomplished, even in ever varied the combinations into which they may
conformity with those laws which now operate in enter.
the constitution of our globe. For, should the    The above are only a few  examples out of
Creator issue forth his Almighty fiat-" Let the many which were intended to be specified, of the
nitrogen of the atmosphere be completely sepa- illustrations which the system  of nature affords
rated from the oxygen, and let the oxygen exert its of the doctrines and facts of' Revelation, but the
native energies without control, wherever it ex- narrow limits of this volume prevent further entends;"'-from what we know  of its nature, we largement.
are warranted to conclude, that instantly a uni-   It was also intended to follow up the preceding
versal conflagration would commence throughout discussions with particular illustrations of the folall the kingdoms of nature-not only wood, coals, lowing topics:-The views which science affords
sulphur, bitumen, and other combustible sub- of the incessant energies of Creating Power-the
stances, but even the hardest rocks and stones, changes and revolutions which appear to have
and all the metals, fossils, and minerals, and water happened, and which are still going on in the disItself, which is a compound of two inflammable talt regions of the universe, as tending to amplify
substances, would blaze with a rapidity which our views of the grand and multfarious objects over
would carry destruction through the whole ex- which Divine Providence presides —the connection
panse of the terraqueois globe, and change its of science with a future state-the aids which the
present aspect into that of a new world:-at the discoveries of science afford, in enabling us to
same time, all the other laws of nature might still form a conception of the scenes of future felicity
operate as they have hitherto done since the crea- -of the employments of the heavenly inhabittion of the world.                               ants, and of their perpetual advances in knowledge
I do not mean positively to assert, that this is and happiness, and in their views of the perfecthe agent which the Almighty will certainly em- tions of Deity*-the moral relations of intelligent
ploy for accomplishing this terrible catastrophe beings to their Creator, and to each other; and the
(though I think it highly probable), since Infinite physical grounds or reasons of those moral laws
Power is possessed of numerous resources for ac- which the Deity has promulgated, for regulating
complishing its objects, which lie beyond  the the conduct, and for promoting the harmony and
sphereof our knowledge and comprehension. But order of intelligent agentst —illustrations of the
I have brought forward this fact, to show with  allusions of the Sacred writers to the system  of
what infinite ease this event may be accomplished, the material world-the simultaneous progress of
when Almighty Power is interposed. By means science and religion, considered as an evidence of
of the knowledge we have acquired of the consti- the connection of the one with the other-the
tution of the atmosphere, and by the aid of chem- moral effects of the study of science in connection
ical apparatus, we can perform experiments on a with religion-replies to objections and insinuamnall scale, similar in kind, though infinitely infe- tions which have been thrown out against the idea
rior in degree, to the awful event under considera- of combining the discoveries of Science with the
tion. And, therefore, we can easily, conceive that discoveries of Revelation, &c. But, as illustraHe who formed the expansive atmosphere which  tions of these, and various other topics connected
surrounds us, and who knows the native energy  with them, would occupy several hundreds of
of its constituent principles, may, by a simple vo- pages, they must, in the meantime, be postponed.**
lition, make that invisible fluid, in a few moments, the cause of the destruction of the present
constitution of our world, and, at the samne time,   * Several of these subjects, along with many others, are
the maeans  of this subsequent renovation.  For, fully illustrated in the author's volume, entitled, "The Phithe   easocn                                     losophy of this subsequent renov  Statione."
as fire does not annihilate, but only changes the   t Thlese and a variety of kindred topics are illustrated at
forms of matter, this globe on which we now  considerable length in my work entitled "The Philosophy of
tread, and which bears the n alks of ruin and dis- Religion; or, an illustration of the Moral Laws of the Uni.
upture inl several parts of its structure, may come verse, on the principles of reason and Divine Revelation"'rupture in severalparts''of its structure, may come- in which an original and popular train of thought is prosecu.
forth from  the flames of a general conflagration, ted, and the different topics are enlivened with illustrative
purified from, all its physical evils, adorned with  facts derived from the scenery of nature and the moral hisnew beauties; and sublimities, and rendered a fit tory of mankind.
abitation fo pure intelligences either of our own       Several of the topics alluded to in this paragraph wil l;e
habitation for pure intelligences; either of our own found more or less illustrated in the author's volumes, eatispecies or of another order.  Fer though "the tied "Celestial Scenery" —and "The Sidereal Heavens" —in
heavens," or the atmosphere, "shall be dissolved, which "Sthe incessant energies of Creating Power"-the
anld the elements melt with fervent heat;" 1" yet,"  changes and revolutions which have happened and are still
going forward in the distant regions of the universe —the
says the apostle Peter,,' we, according to his doctrine of a plurality of worlds-and many other kindred
promise, look for new hleavens and a new earth, topics, are particularly elucidarated.




CH-APTER V.
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS:WHICH MIGHT RESULT TO CHRISTIAN SOCIETY, FROM
CONNECTING THE DISCOVERIES OF SCIENCE WITH THE OBJECTS OF RELIGION.
f-The VARIETY OF TOPICS which would be intro- ances which diversify its surface. And, if we
duced into Christian Instructions,- by connect- were favored with a nearer view of these mlaj-estic
ing them with the mhifestations-of Deity in the orbs, we should, doubtless, behold a similar variety
system of Nature, WOULD HAVE Ar TENDENCY TO  in every part of their internal arrangements.ALLURE THE ATTENTION OF THE YOUNG TO RELI- The surface of the moon presents a variegated
0IouS SUBJECTS, and'to afford Mental Entertain- prospect of mountains and vales, but so very difIment, and Moral Instiuction, to intelligent minds ferent in their form, position, and arrangement,
of every description.                         from what obtains on the surface of our globe,
that it would exhibit a scenery altogether new
N6VELTY and vARIETY appeartobe essentially re- and uncommon to' an inhabitant of this world,
quisite in order to rouse the attention, not only of were he placed on the surface of that planet
the. more ignorant, but even of the more intelli- Every comet too is distinguished from another, by
gent class of mankind, and to excite them to make its magnitude,- the extent of its atmosphere, the
progress in the path of intellectual and moral length of its blazing tail, the rapidity of its moimprovement.  The principle of curiosity, which tion, and the figure of the curve it describes
appears at a very early period of life, and which around the sun. With regard to the fixed stars,
variegated scenery and novel objects tend to sti- which are distributed, of every size, and in every
mnulate and to gratify-so far from being check- direction, through the immensity of space, our
ed and decried, in a religious' point of view, as senses as well as the declaration of an inspired
some have been disposed to doj ought to be en- writer, convince us, that in point of brilliancy,
couraged and cultivated in the:-minds both'of the color, motion, and magnitude, " one star differeth
old and of the young.- As it is:a principle which  from another star in glory."  Almost every NeGod. himself has implanted in our natures, for bula of the 3000 which have been discovered, difwise and important purposes, it requires only to fers from another in its figure, extent, brightness,
be chastened, and directed in a proper channel, in and general appearance; and the motions of
order to become one of the most powerful auxi- double and treble stars, as to the periods of their
liaries in the cause of religion, and of intellectual revolutions, are as diversified as those of the
improvement. To gratify this principle, and to planets-some of them  revolving around their
increase its activity, the Creator has adorned our centers in 30 or 40 years, others requiring 400,
globe with a combination of beauties and sub- and even 1600 years to finish their circuits-some
limities, strewed in endless variety over all its dif- of them diffusing a bluish light, others a red, and
ferent regions. The hills and dales, the mountains others a brilliant white.
and plains; the seas, the lakes, the rivers; the    And as the system of nature in all its parts,
islands of every form  and'size which diversify presents a boundless variety of scenery, to arouse
the surface'of the ocean;.the bays, the gulfs, and the attention, and to gratify the desire for novelty,
peninsulas; the forests, the groves, the deep dells, so the revelation of God, contained in the Sacred
and towering cliffs; the infinite variety of trees, Records, displays a diversified combination of the
plants, flowers, and vegetable productions of every most sublime and interesting subjects and events.
hiue, so profusely scattered over the face of nature; Were we to form an opinion of the compass of
the diversified productions of the mineral king- Divine Revelation, from  the range of subjects to
dom; the variegated coloring spread over the face which the minds of some professing Christians
of nature; together with the many thousands of are confined, it might all be comprehended within
different species of animated beings which tra- the limits of five or six chapters of the New Tesverse the air, the waters, and the earth-afford  tament; and all the rest migllt be thrown aside,
so many stimuli to rouse this principle into exer- as'a dead weight upon the Christian system. But
cise, and to direct the mind to the contemplation here, as in all the other displays of the Almighty,
of the Creator. And, as the earth displays an Divine Perfection and Providence are exhibited in
endless diversity of objects, so the -heavens, in so the most diversified aspects. Here we have refar as they have been explored, exhibit a scenery corded a history of the creation and arrangement
both grand and variegated.'There is not'a planet of our globe-of the formation of the first human
in the Solar System  but differs from another, in pair-of their primeval innocence, temptation,
its magnitude, in its distance from  the central and fall-of the arts which were cultivated in the
luminary about which it revolves, in the velocity first ages of the world-of the increase of human
of its motion, in the extent of the circle it de- wickedness-of the building of the ark-of the
scribes around the sun, in the period of time in drowning of the world:by a universal deluge-of
which' its revolution is completed, in its rotation the burning of Sodom by fire from the clouds —
round its own axis, in the number of -moons with of the origin of languages-of the dividing of the
which it is attended, in the inclination of its axis Red sea-of the journeying of the tribes of Israel
to the plane of its orbit,: and the diversity of sea- through the deserts of Arabia-of their conquest
sons which results from this circumstance; in the of the promised land, and their wars with the nadensity of its atmosphere, and the various appear- tions of Canaan —of the corporeal translation of
(136)




AMPLITUDE OF THE DIVINE EMPIRE                                   137
Elijah from earth to heaven-of the manifestation dom of Providence and of Grace before the minds
of the Son of God in human flesh" the benevolent of those whom  we profess to instruct?  Why
miracles he performed, and the triumphs he ob- should we confine our views to a few points in
tained over all the powers of hell,' and -earth.-We the Christian system, to a few stones in thef fabric of
aref here presented with the most interesting and the Divine operations, when "a wide and unboundaffective narratives, elegies, dramatic:poems, and ed prospect lies before us? "  Why should we not
triumphal songs,-with views of society in the rather attempt to rouse the moral and intellectual
earliest agea of the world, when the lives of men energies of mankind, from the pulpit, from  the
were prolonged to nearly a thousand years,-with  press, in the-school-room, and in the family circle,.splendid miracles performed in the land of Egypt, by exhibiting the boundless variety of aspect
in the wilderness of Horeb, and in the " field of which the Revelations of Heaven present, and the.Zoan," when "the sun and moon stood still in holy tendencies of devout contemplation on the
their habitation;" when the waters of the great Works and the Ways of God-that they may
deep were divided, and mountains shook and  learn, with intelligence, to "meditate on all tile
trembled " at the presence of Jehovah,"-with works of the Lord, and to talk of all his doings?"
the glorious marching of a whole nation through -By enlarging and diversifying the topics of rethe Arabian deserts, under the guidance of a ligious discussion, according to the views now
miraculous pillar of cloud and fire, —with the stated, we have it in our power to spread out an'visits of celestial messengers, and the visible intellectual feast to allure and to gratify every
symbols of" a present Deity,"-with prophetical variety of taste,-the young and the old, the'delineations' of'the present and future condition learned and the unlearned, yea, even the careless
of the race of Adam, with descriptions of the and the ignorant, the skeptical and the dissipated,
Power, Wisdom, Love, and Majesty of the Al- might frequently be allured by the selection of a
mighty,: and of his operations in Heaven and judicious variety of striking and impressive obEarth, -with — the results and bearings of the jects and descriptions, to partake of those mental
Economy of Redemption,-with Divine Songs, enjoyments which might ultimately issue in the
Odes, and Hynms, composed by angels and in- happiest results.  The man of an inquisitive turn
spirdd' men, —with': maxims of moral. wisdom, of mind, who now throws aside everything that
examples of sublime eloquence, of strength of has the appearance of religion, on account of its
reasoning, and of manly boldness of reproof-  dullness, might have his curiosity gratified amidst'with Proverbs, Parables, Allegories, Exhortations, such a variety as that to which I allude; and, from
Promises,- Threatenings, and  Consolatory Ad- perceiving the bearing of every discussion on the
dresses,-In short, we have here detailed,'in the great realities of religion and a future state, might
greatest variety-History, Antiquities, Voyages, be led to more serious inquiries after the path
YTravels,  Philosophy, Geography, Natural - and that leads"to immortality. In a word, to associate
Moral Science, Biography, Arts, Epic Poetry, Epis- and  to amalgamate, as- it were, the arts and
tiles, Memoirs, Delineations of Nature, Sketches sciences, and every department of useful knowof Human Character, Moral Precepts, Prophesies, ledge with Divine subjects, is to consecrate them
Miracles, Narrations, Wonderful'Providences, to their original and legitimate ends, and to preMarvelous Deliverances, the Phenomena of the sent religion to the eyes of men in its most subAir, the Waters, and the Earth; the Past, the Pre- lime, and comprehensive, -and attractive form,
sent, and the Future Scenes of the World-all corresponding to what appears to be the design
blended together in one harmonious system, with-' of the Creator, in all the manifestations -he has
out artificial order, but with a majesty and given of himself, in the System of Nature, in the
grandeur, corresponding to the style of all the operations of Providence, and in the Economy of
other Works of God, and all calculated to gratify Redemption.
the principle of curiosity-to convey "reproof,
correction, and instruction in righteousness," and II. —Byconnecting Science with Religion, Christians'' to make the man of God perfect, and thoroughly    would be enabled to take AN EXTENSIVE SURVEY OF
furnished to every good work."                    TE KINGDOM OF GoD.
And as the scenes of Nature, and the scenes of
Revelation, are thus wonderfully diversified, in    How very narrow and limited are the views of
order to excite the attention of intelligent beings, most professors of religion respecting the univerand.to gratify the desire for variety, so we have sal Kingdom  of Jehovah, and the range of his,every reason to, believe, that the scenes, objects, operations!  The views of some individuals are
and dispensations which will be displayed in the confined chiefly- within the- limits of their own
heavenly world, will be incomparably more grand parish, or at farthest, extend only to the blue
and diversified. When we consider the immensity mountains that skirt their horizon, and form the
of God's Universal Kingdom, "'and the numerous boundary of their sight.  Within this narrow
systems, and worlds, and beings comprehended  circle, all their ideas of God, of religion, and of'within its vast circumference, and that the energies the relations of intelligent beings to each other,
of Creating Power may be forever exerted in are chiefly confined. There are others, who form
raising new worlds into existence-we may rest as- an extensive class of our population, whose ideas
sured, that the desire of variety and of novelty in are confined nearly to the county in which they
holy intelligences, will be. completely gratified reside, and to the adjacent districts; and there are
throughout an endless- succession' of existence; few, comparatively, whose views extend beyond
and that-the most luxuriant imagination, in it's the confines of the kingdom to which they belong
boldest excursions, can never go beyond the real- -though the whole island in which we reside is
ity of those scenes of diversified grandeur which less than the-two-thousandth part of the globe we
the Heaven of heavens will display. — inhabit. Of the vast extent of this earthly ball,
Now, since the Book of Nature and the Book, of. its figure and motions, of its continents, seas,
of Revelation, since all the. manifestations of -the islands, and oceans; of its volcanoes and ranges
Creator in heaven and earth, are characterized by of mountains, of its numerous and diversified
their sublime and diversified aspect-we would climates.and landscapes; of the various nations
ask, why should we not be imitators of God, in and'tribes of mankind that people its surface, and
displaying the diversified grandeur of his King- of the moral government of God respecting them,



138                       - THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
they are almost as completely ignorant as the which direct the rolling worlds above, and maruntutored Greenlander, or the roving: savage. —  shal all the angelic tribes —organizing, arranging,
With regard to:the objects which lie!beyond the: and governing  the countless- myriads of animated
boundary'of our World, they have. no precise: an  -existence. which people the surface: of a muddy
definite conceptions. When the moon is" tialk- pool. He. can speed his course.from one of these
ing in brightnessft through the heavens, they  departments of Jehovah's kingdom  to another,
take the advantage of' her light to prosecute their until, astonished: and overwhelmed with the order,
journeys;'and, when. the sky  is overcast'with the grandeur, and extent: of. te. wondrous scene,
clouds, and they are' anxioiis to travel a few miles he is constrained to: exclaim,  "Great and marto their destined homeos, they will lift up their vlous  are thy works, Lord  God Almighty!"
eyes to the heavens to see if any of the stars are "Thine' understanding is infinite!"' The limits
twinkling' through the gloom,thatt their footsteps of thy-dominions are "past finding out!'
may be-directed.. by their glimmering rays  Be-    By taking such extensive surveys of the empire
yond this,they seldom soar. What:may be the'of Jehovah, -we are enabled to perceive the spirit
nature of the vast assemblage- of shining- points and references. of those sublime passages in the
which adorn the canopy of their habitation, and sacred writings which, proclaim  the majesty of
the, ends they are destined to accomplish in- the God and the glory of his kingdom. -Such. pasplan of the Creator's operations, they' consider as sages are-diffusely.scattered through the inspired
no-part- of their province to inquire.           volume, and have evidently an extent of reference
Thei minds, fair Science never taht to stray  far beyond what is generally conceived by the
Fa he      r Words,he Sor Worlds,!rMilky W ay."  great mass of the Christian world. The following
\.... may suffice as a specimen:How'very. different in point of Variety, of-   "Thine, 0 Lord! is the greatness and the glory'
grandeur, and of extent, are the.'views of-tlie' man and the majesty; for all ih heaven'and earth is
who connects. all:-the different departments of thine!  Thine'is the kingdom, O Lord!  Thou
knowledge, and. the discoveries of science, with art exalted above all, thou reignest over all, and
his prospects of God's Universal Dominions and in thline hand- is power and might.-Behold, the
Government!  With his- mental, eye he can tra- heaven and the. heaven of heavens is the Lord's;
verse the different regions of the earth, and pene- the earth also, with all that therein is. -Ascribo
trate into the most distant and retired recesses ye greatness to our God; for there is. none like
where'human beings have their residence, He unto the God of Israel, who rideth upon the heaoan contemplate and adore the conduct of Divine vens in his strength, and in his excellency in the
Sovereignty, in leaving so many nations to grope sky. Thou, even thou art Lord alone; thou hast
amidst the darkness of. Heathen idolatry,-he can made heaven, the heaven of heavens, with all
trace the beams of the Sun of Righteousness, as their.host; the earth and all things that are
they gradually arise to illumine the benighted  therein; the sea and all that is therein; and thou
tribes of men,-he can direct his prayers, with  preservest them  all, and the host of heaven worintelligence and fervor,' ino behalf of particular shipeth thee. —He divided the sea by his power;
kindreds and people,-he can devise, with judg- by his spirit he hath garnished the heavens: Lo!
meut and discrimination, schemes for carrying  these are only parts of his ways; but how  ittle a
the "salvation of God" into effect,-he can re- portion is heard of him, and the thunder of hie
alize, in some measure, to-his mental sight, the power who can understand?  The Lord hath
glorious and happ-y scenes which will be displayed  prepared his throne in the heavens, and his kingin the' future ages of'time, when.l"'the kingdoms dom ruleth over all.-0  Lord our God! how exof. this world- shall become the kingdoms of our cellent is thy name in. all the earth! who hast set
Lord,. and of his Christ," and when. the "ever-.thy glory above the heavens.  When I consider
lasting gospel" shall be published, and its bless- thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon
ings distiibuted among all who dwell upon the.and' the stars which thou hast ordained; what is
face of the earth.  He can bound from  this!man that thou art mindful of him!-His kingdom
earth  to the planetary' worlds, and survey- far is an everlasting kingdom; honor and majesty are
more spacious. globes, peopled with a higher'before him; all the inhabitants, of the earth are reorder of intelligences, arranged  and superintended  puted as nothing, in'his sight, and he doth accordby the same Almighty Sovereign, who "doth ac- ing to his will in the armies of heaven and among
cording to his will among the inhabitants of the the inhabitants, of the earth.-He measures the
earth." -He can wing his -way beyond the visible waters in the hollow of his hand; he ineteth. out
region of the sky, until he find himself surrounded  heaven with a span, and' comprehendeth the dust
on everyxhand With suns an-d'systems of worlds, of the earth.in a measure.-'He sitteth upon the
rising to view, in boundless perspective, through- circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are
out the tracts of immensity - diversified with as grasshoppers.-I have made the earth and crescenes of magrnificenc'b, and with beings of every  ated man upon it; 1, even  my hands, have
order-all under'the government and, the wise stretched out the heavens, and all their host have
direction of Him who "rules anmong the armies I commanded.-Thb Most High dwelleth not in
of heaven,'" andwho "preserveth them all," and temples made with hands; for' the heaven is his
whom the "host of heaven-Worsip"''and adore. He throne and the earth is his footstool. With God
can soar be.yond them all to the Throne of God, is awful' majesty.-Great things -doth He which
where angels and archangels, cherubim and ser- we cannot comprehend;  yea, the Lord sitteth
phim, celebrate' the praises:'of their Sovereign  King forever. —Praise'ye the Lord in the heavens;
Lord, and stand ready to announce his will by praise him  in the hights:  praise -him, all his
their rapid flight to the most distant provinces of angels; praise ye him, all his hosts. Praise him,
his empire. ITe can descend from that lofty emi- sun and moon; praise him,,all ye stars of light;
nence to this terrestrial world, allotted for his praise him, ye heaven of heavens. Praise him,
temporary abode, anid survey another unbounded ye kings of the earth, and all people, princes,
province of the empire of God,' in those living and judges of the earth; both young men and
worlds which lie hid from  the.unassisted sight, maidens; old men and children-let them  praise
and which the microscope alone can descry.  He the name of the Lord; for his name alone is excan here perceive the'same Hand and Intelligence cellent, his glory is above' the earth and heaven'




AMPLITUDE, OF, THE'DIVINE  EMPIRE.                                 I-c9.These sublime descriptions of the supremacy dispositions.  We spend whole hours in )oisterons
of God and of the grandeur of his kingdom, must disputations about metaphysical subtleties in re1conviilce every reflecting mind of the inconceiva- ligion, and questions " which gender strife-rather
bl magnificence and extent -of that dominion  than godly edifying:" but " to speak of the glory
".which ruleth over all."  It is quite evident that of God's kingdom, and to talk of his'roWe;R,'"
we can never enter, with. intelligence, into the with the view of " making known to the sons of
full iimport and the grand reference of -such. ex- men his -mighty works," is a duty which remains
alted  language employed  by inspired writers, yet to be, learned by the majority of those who
unless we take into vie-w all the discoveries -which profess the religion of Jesus. Even sincere Chrisscience has made, both iii the earth and in the. tians, while "'taking sweet counsel together,"heavens, respecting the variety and extent of the when conversing about the love of Christ, and
dominions- of the.Creator.' If the ".kingdom  of " the deep things of God," and when endeavoring
the Most High" were as limited in its range as to cheer each other's spirits with the comforts of
most Christians seem to conceive, such descrip-'religion-seldom  or never advert to the visible
tious might'be considered as mere hyperboles of works of God, and the displays of his power andl
bombast, or.extravagant declamation, which far beneficence, as manifested in creation, from Which
exceed the bounds of s" truth and soberness." But they might derive additional comfort and -support
we -are certain that the conceptions and the lan- to their faith, hope, and joy, and more expansive.guage of mortals can never go beyond the:reality views of the perfections and character of their
of what actually exists within the boundless pre- Father and their friend. And how  can they be
cincts of Jehovah's empire; for " who can utter supposed to be qualified to enter into the spirit of
the mighty acts of the Lord?" or "who can such exercises, and to proclaim to others " the glo-'show forth all his praise?"'The language'and -rious majesty of God's kingdom," unless such sub.
descriptions to which we have now adverted seem  jects be illustrated in minute detail, and proclaimed
to have had a prospective reference to later and, with becoming energy, both from  the pulpit and
more enlightened times, when more extensive from,-the press?  These powerful engines, whel.
prospects of God's dominions would be opened up conducted with judgment and discrimination, are
by the exertions of the. human intellect.  And capable of producing on the mass of mankind a
were we to search all the records-of literature, in tone of thinking and an enlargement of concepancient or modern times, we should find no de- tion on such subjects which no'other means can
-scriptions nor language of such a dignified nature easily effect; and it is to be hoped that more preas -to express the views and feelings of an en- cise and luminous details, and more vigor'and anlightened Christian philosopher, when he contem-n imation will soon.be displayed in this respect than
plates the sublimity and extent of Divine -opera- in the ages that are past.
otions —except those which are to, be found in the   There is a certain principle of selfishness which
inspired volume-the strength, and majesty,;and pervades the minds of many professed religionists,:comprehension of which -no human language can  which leads them  to conclude that, if they can'ever exceed.                                    but secure their own personal salvation, they need
Again, by familiarizing our minds to such ex- give themselves no trouble about the glory and'tended prospects of God's universal kingdom, we extent of the kingdom of the Most High. "What
shall be qualified and disposed to comply with the need we care," say they, "about nations in the
injunctions of Scripture, which represent it as an far-distant parts of the world, and about the plaimperious duty to communicate to the minds of nets and the stars? our business is to attend to the
others such elevated conceptions. This duty is en- spiritual interests bf our souls."  Such persons'joined in numerous passages of sacred Scripture, seem neither to understand in what salvation realparticularly in the book of Psalms: " Declare his ly consists, and what is conducive to their spiritglory among-the heathen, and his wonders among ual interests, nor to appreciate those tempers and
all people.-I will extol thee, my God, 0 King.- habits which will qualify them for the enjoyment
One generation shall praise thy works to another, of eternal life. It forms'but a very slender eviand shall declare thy mighty acts. —I will speak dence of their possessing-any spark of Christianiof the glorious honor of thy majesty, and of thy ty at all, if they wish to rest satisfied with the
wondrous works.-And men shall speak of the most vague and groveling conceptions, and if
might of thy terrible acts, and shall declare thy  they-do not ardently aspire after a more enlarged
greatness. All thy works shall praise thee, 0  view of the attributes of God, and the glory of
Lord; and thy saints shall bless thee.  They shall his empire, and of whatever may tend to expand
speak of the glory of thy kingdom, and talk of thy their conceptions of the" inheritance of the saints
power; to make known to -the sons of men thy in light."-  We have often been astonished at the'mighty acts, and the glorious majesty of thy king- opinions of some of those who move in a higher
dom!l"*  When we look around us in the world, sphere of intelligence, who seem to consider it as
and in the visible. church, and mark  the concep- a matter of pure indifference whether or not Christions and the conversation of the members of re- tians should attain to the highest conception in
ligious societies, we need scarcely:say how little their power of the God whom  they worship, and
*this ennobling duty is attended to by the mass of of his boundless dominions; because they con-'those'who bear the Christian name. -We hear ceive that such views are not essentially connect.
abundance of idle chat-about the fashions and the- ed with salvation! But we would ask such perpoliitics of the day; about balls, horse-races, court sons how they came to know that such views are
etiquette, theatrical amusements, contested elec: not connected with salvation! Though. they may'tions, the squabbles of corporations, sectarian con- not haVe beeneessential to the salvation of men in
tention's, and ecclesiastical" feuds.  We'listen to the dark ages that are past, or to obscure tribes of'slanderous conversation, and hear abundance  of people at present, who have no access to the proper
mean, and base, and uncharitable  insinuations sources of information, yet, since God, in the'-against our neighbors; which indicate the opera- course of his providence, which guides all human:tion of malice,:hatred, envy, and other malignant inventions and discoveries, has disclosed to us a
far more expansive view of the "glory of his
-     k -   ingdom,"'? than former ages could obtain, for the' Psalm cxlv. and xovi, 3,4.        purpose of illustrating the revelations of his worl,




140                          THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
who will dare to assert that the man who has- ac- wide extent of the globe on which:we- dwell, its
cess, by his studious efforts, to' contemplate this diversified scenery, and the numerous tribes of
wondrous scene;, and to. display' its grandeur to human beings and other-animated existences, visiothers, and yet willfully shuts his eyes on the di- ble- and invisible, which people its different pro.
vine glory therein displayed,: does not- thereby vinces. -We must explore the vast regions of the
hazard the Divine displeasure?  In this point of planetary system, and compare the bulk of the
view, the following passage deservesa serious con-\'earth,, large as it is, with:somre of those more
sideration: "because they regard' not theworks magnificent globes which would contain within
of the Lord, nor the operations- of his hands, he their circumference a thousand worlds as large as
shall destroy them, and not build- them up."  We ours. We must next wing our-way, in imagina-.have-no hesitation in admitting that-persons may. tion, over a space which a cannon ball, flying five
have obtained salvation who never -saw.more of  hundred miles every -hour, would not traverse in
the sacred writings than what is contained in the -ten hundred thousand years,- until we arrive- at
gospel of Mark, or in one of Paul's epistles;' but the nearest fixed stars, and-find- ourselves in the
what should we say.f the man who had access center of- thousands of systems and- worlds, arto all <the: revelations of heaven we'now possess, ranged at immeasurable distances from  one an-'and yet confined his- attention-solely to a chapter other.  We must pass from onenebula, or cluster
or two -in the New  Testament,.and'would,' not of. systems, to another; continuing'our excurdeign to- look into any other part-,of the- inspired -sions as far as the eye-or the telescope can direct
volume?  We should not:hesitate at -once to pro-  our view; and, when the aid of artificial instrunounce. that such a person was grossly deficient ments begins to fail, Our imagination must stillin.his duty,-and. devoid of that reverence and sub.- take- its flight far beyond the boundaries of mortal
mission which are due to the oracles of God.-And  vision, and add system  to- system, and nebula to
if it be admitted. that the person who has access to nebula, through -the boundless regions of space,.the Bible, and-who refuses to peruse-its important.until we arrive at the grand center of the unicontents, is guilty of a criminal neglect, we do verse, the Throne of God, around which all
not see how the man who has -free access to the worlds and beings revolve, where" thousands of
other volume of God's revelation, and, views it as thousands " of bright intelligences "minister to
a matter of mere indifference whether he look  Him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stand
into it or, not, can be deemed in this respect en- before Him." —We must consider all this magnitirely.innocent.  If it be understood that we shall ficent assemblage of objects, not merely as so
be judged according to the light and privileges we many masses of inert matter, or as a grand rareeenjoy, and the' use we make of them  in our im- show, to dazzle-the eyes of a few hundreds of hu.
provement in the knowledge of God-we would man spectators, -but as destined for purposes
deem it a hazardous position for any one to sup- worthy of the plans and the intelligence of Him
port," That inattention to the visible glories of who is "the only wise God,"-as peopled with
the kingdom of God, and.t the" declaration of his numerous orders of intelligent beings, whose
wonders among the people,' is a matter either of physical and moral economy is superinrtended and
indifference or-of trivial importance."          directed by Him  who, at the same time, iules.For, let it be considered further, that on -the amidst the tumults of human revolutions, and
extent of our views respecting the universal- kingdom  governs the living myriads which people a drop
of God, depends our conceptions of the majesty and of water.
glory of the Creator himself. We become acquaint-   In this way, then, do we come to acquire the
ed with the nature of God only in- so far as- he most extensive views of the -amplitude and glory
has manifested himself to us' by external opera- of the kingdom of the Most High; and it is only
tions,* and in so far as we form just conceptions by the same process of thought that we can ever
of these operations. If we conceive his empire attain the most exalted conceptions of the attrias included within the bounds of eighty or ninety butes of its Almighty Sovereign.  For our views
thousand miles, our conceptions of the Sovereign  of the Sovereign of the universe must always corof that empire- will be circumscribed within near- respond with our views of the extent and Imagnily the same limits. The mind of every reasona- ficence of those dominions which sprungfrom  his
ble man must indeed: admit the abstract proposi- Creating Hand, and over which he every moment
tion, "That the - Divine Being.:is infinite, and presides.  His essence must forever remain imconsequently fills all-space with his presence." —  perceptible to finite minds; for He is " the King
But this infinity, in our view, is; nothing more Eternal,' Immortal, and Invisible, dwelling in that'
than a vague conception of -empty space, extending a Light which no man can approach unto, whom no
little way beyond the sphere of his visible operations. man hath seen, or can see."  From his nature, as
The mind must have some material, visible, or a spiritual uncompounded substance, and from his
tangible objects to rest upon, and to guide it in immensity, as filling infinite space with his presits excursions when it would attempt to form the ence, it appears impossible, in the very nature of
most definite and comprehensive conceptions of things, that the glory of his perfections can be
an infinite, eternal, and invisible.existence. For, displayed in any other way than through the mehowever much we may talk'about purely spiritual dium of the visible operations of his hands, or' in
ideas, it is quite evident, from the nature of things, the dispensations, of his providence toward parand from  the very constitution of man, that we ticular worlds or classes.of intelligences.' And. if,
can have no ideas at-all Without the intervention  in the future world,: the souls of good men shall
of sensible: objects. A And therefore, if we would enjoy a more glorious display than at present of
wish to form  the most sublime conceptions of the attributes of JDeity,- it will be owing chiefly to
God himself, we must endeavor, in the first place, their being placed in more favorable circumstances
to take. the most- extensive views which science than they now are for contemplating this display;
and revelation exhibit of his vast dominions. We to their faculties being more invigorated; and
must endeavor to form some adequate idea of the every physical and moral impediment to their exercise being completely removed; so as to enable
* Here I include the manifestation of Deity as ex- m to perceive more clearly than they now do
hibited both in Divine Revelation'and in the system of the unbounded displays he has given of his infi-.
Nature.                                nite Power, Wisdom, and Benevolence. And, if




RANGE OF DIVINE PROVIDENCE.                                    141
we expect to be introduced to this state of enlarged  dispensations toward the various nations of the
vision when we pass from the scenes of mortality, earth; and therefore we must have recourse to the
it cannot be a matter of mere indifference, even annals, memoirs, chronicles, and other records of
now, whether or not our minds be prepared for the history of nations, down to the period in which
such exalted employments, by endeavoring to form  we live; otherwise we could never contemplate
the most ample conceptions of the attributes of the continued series of events in the Divine econGod which can be obtained through the medium  omy toward the inhabitants of our world. Unof his Word, and by a contemplation of the va- less men of learning and of observation had reriety and magnificence of his Works.           corded the prominent facts which have occurred in
In the prospect of that world where we hope to the history of nations, for 1700 years past, we
spend an interminable existence, it must also be must have remained almost as ignorant of the disinteresting to ascertain, whether or not the do- pensations of God toward our race, during that
minions of the universal Sovereign present such  period, as the inhabitants of the planet Saturn;
a6n extent of empire, and such a variety of objects, and unless we study the events thus recorded ill
that new scenes of wonder and glory may be ex- the writings of the historian, and contemplate
pected to be displayed in continual succession, for their various aspects and bearings in the light of
the contemplation and entertainment of holy be- Divine Revelation, we must still remain ignorant
ings, while eternal ages are rolling on. And, on of the grand movements and tendencies of Divine
this point, the discoveries of science (onfirm and Providence. This single circumstance shows, in
illustrate the notices of heavenly glory and felici- the clearest light, thatit is the intention of God,
ty recorded in the inspired Volume, and lead us to that we should learn the operations of his Provirest with full assurance on the prophetic decla- deuce from the researches of Science and of Hisration, that " eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, tory, as well as from  the records of Revelation;
nor hath it entered into, the heart of man to con- and that the Scriptures, though they contain every
caive, the things which God hath prepared for supernatural discovery requisite to our happiness,
them that love him."                           are not of themselves sufficient to present us with
a connected view of the prominent dispensations
1II.-By connecting the Discoveries of Science with of Heaven, from the Creation to the period in
Religion, the minds of Christians would be enabled which we live.
to take a more minute and comprehensive survey    From the science of Geography, we acquire a
of the OPERATIONS OF PROVIDENCE.             knowledge of the extent of the surface of the
earth-of the various tribes of human inhabitProvidence is that superintendence ancr care ants with wnich it is peopled-of the physical
which God exercises over all creatures and events, aspect of the different climates they inhabit-of
in order to accomplish the eternal purposes of his their arts, manners, customs, laws, religion, vices,
will. In Creation, God brought the universe out wars, and political economy: and, consequently,
of nothing, and arranged all its provinces and in- we can, in these and similar respects, trace some
i.abitants into due order. By his Providence, he of the aspects of Divine Providence toward them
upports and governs all the movements of the in relation to their present and future condition.
material system, and the sensitive and rational From the same source, we learn the number of
beings with which it is peopled. It is evident, human beings which the Governor of the world
that, in proportion as our views of the Creator's has under his direction at one time, which is
Dominions are extended, our views of his Provi- nearly a thousand millions, or about four hundred
dence will, to a certain extent, be proportionably  times the number of the inhabitants of Scotland.
enlarged. For, wherever worlds arnd beings ex- From the data afforded by this science, we may
ist, there will God be found preserving, sperin- also form an estimate of the number of'disembotending, and governing the movements of all died spirits that have passed from this world since
creatures and events. It is chiefly, however, in the creation, and are now under the superintenthe world in which we reside, that the diversified dence of the Almighty in the invisible state, which
dispensations of Providence can  be distinctly  cannot be much less than 145,000 millions; and,
traced. Now, an acquaintance with the promi- on similar grounds, we may also learn the number
nent parts of the different branches of knowledge of rational beings that are coming forward into
to which I have already adverted, would enable us to existence, and passing into the eternal world every
take a particular and comprehensive view, not only  day, which is at least 68,000, and consequently
of the ways of God to man, but also of his ar- nearly 50 during each passing minute,-every inrangements in reference to all subordinate crea- dividual of which the Supreme Disposer of events
~tures and events.                              superintends at his entrance into life; and, at his
From the Inspired History of the Old Testa- departure from  it, directs to his respective and
ment, we can trace the prominent lines of the dis- eternal state of destination. Hence it follows,
pensations of God toward man, particularly in that, could we take a view of the whole system
regard to the Israelites and the surrounding na- of animation on our globe with the eye of Omtions-from  the Creation to a period about 400 niscience, or even with the penetrating glance of
years before the coming of Christ. But in order an angelic being, we should behold every hour,
to perceive the further progress and bearings of thousands of human and other animated beings
these. lines until the commencement of the New  incessantly emerging into existence, and thouTestainent economy, we must have recourse to sands, at the same time, departing into an unseen
the most authentic records of profane history. world, under a vast diversity of circumstances;
From  the era of the birth of Christ to near the and this succession and exit of lhuman beings will
close of the first century, we can acquire, from  incessantly go forward from age to age, until all the
the Evangelists, and the History of the Apostles, designs of Providence in relation to our world be
a particular account of the life of Christ, of the fully accomplished. All which  circumstances,
events which preceded and accompanied the fin- and many others of a similar kind, must be taken
Ishing of the' work of redemption, and of the pro- into account, in order to our forming a compregress of the Gospel through Judea, and the adja- hensive conception of the numerous bearings,
cent countries. But, after this period, we have no and the incessant agency of a Superintending
inspired guide to direct us in tracing the Divine Providence.




T4-2                         THE. CHRISTIAN- PHILOSOPHER..
From lNatural History,, we:learn the immense desire of every living thing.  The earth is full of
number and variety of tile subordinate tribes of thy. riches, O0 Lord! -so is the great and wide set,
animated.beings which  inhabit.the  different wherein are things creeping.innumerable, both
regions of earth, air, and sea-their-economy and great and small beasts. These all wait upon thee,
instincts-their -modes of existence, and. the man- and thou givest them  their meat in due season
ncr in which the: Creator provides for theirvari- That:which thou givest them they gather: Thou
ous necessities.'From  an:acquaintance with the openest thine -hand, they are filled with good."History of the Arts and Mechanical Inventions, we     O, Lord, thou-.preservest man and beast! How
learn  the gradual manner in which God directs excellent is thy loving-kindness!  Therefore the
tlc movements'of the:human mind, in making children of men shall put their trust under the
those improvements and discoveries which have a shadow of thy. wings. They shall be abundantly
bearing upon the'accomplishment of his eternal satisfied with the fatness of thy house" * (of the
plans of mercy,. and'which tend'to: enlarge our table thou'hast spread in thy world for all thine
views of the amplitude and  the glories.of. his offspring), "and thou shalt make them drink of
kingdom.- - From  Natural'Philosophy and Chemis- the river of thy pleasures."  One excellent prac.
try, we loarn-the secondary causes or subordinate tical effect which might flow from such conte!nlaws by which the Almighty.supports and directs: plations would be to inspire us with feelings of
the natural constitution of the world-the won- humanity toward.the inferior order of animals,
derful manner in which/ our- lives -are Ievery mo- and to prex snt us from wantonly and unnecessanient supported-and..the agencies-by which fire, rily torturing, or depriving them  of existence
air, light, heat, and fertility are distributed-through. For, -since the Creator and Preserver of all has so
the globe, for promoting the comfort and happi- curiously organized their bodies, and fitted them
ness." of everything that lives."-From Anatomy for the different regions in which they reside, and
-and Physioloqy, we. learn how  "fearfully and so carefully provided for all their wants, it must.wonderfully we are made and preserved' —that be His will that they should enjoy happiness acour health and comfort depend upon the. regular cording to the extent of their capacities; and,
action' of a thousand organical parts and. functions therefore, they ought to be considered as neces-'over- which we have no control-/and that our sary parts of our sublunary system.-Another
very existence every moment is. dependent on practical lesson we may derive from such surveys,
the superintendence of a Superior Power, "in is, to.place an unshaken dependence upon God
whoseo hand our breath is, and whose are all our, for our temporal subsistence, while we, at the.ways.'".   same time, exert all our faculties in the line of
By an occasional study, then, of the subjects to active duty.  "Blessed is the man:wlho tlrusteth in
which we have now alluded, we might gradually him; for there is no want to them that fear him.
expand our conceptions of the' range and opera- The young lions, may.suffer hunger, but they that
tions of Divine Providence.  Every geographical fear the Lord shall not want any good thing."exploration.of a new-region of the globe-every He who decks the lily of the vale, and spreads out
s~cientific improvement and discovery-every use- a plentiful table to the fowls of heaven, to the
ful invention-every eruption of a volcano-every beasts of the forest, to the creeping insect, and
shock of an earthquake —every  hurricane,, and even to the microscopic animalcule, will never
storm, and tempest-every battle of the warrior-  fail to supply the necessary wants of those who.every revolution among the nations-and every "'do His will, and hearken to the voice of His.detail in the newspapers we daily read, would lead commandments."  And if at any time we be
us to form  some conceptions of the:providential found destitute of daily food, and pining away in.purposes of Him whois the Supreme Disposer of penury and squalid disease, we have too much
all events.-Even the arrangements of Divine reason to conclude, that in one way or another,
Wisdom, with regard to the economy of the lower'either our deviation from the path of rectitude, or
*animals, ought not to, be overlooked in such a our distrust of Divine Providence, or our want. of
survey. When we consider -the immense num- prudence and economy, has procured for us these
ber. and variety of animated beings —that there things.
are 600 species of quadrupeds, every species con-   I have said, that it'is chiefly in the world In
taining, perhaps, many millions of individuals; which we dwell that the dispensations of Provi4000 species of birds; 3000'species of fishes; 700'dence can be distinctly traced. But -we must,
speies of reptiles; and'44,000 different kinds of'nevertheless, admit, that the care-and suDelinteninsects, beside many thousands of species alto- dence of God' are as minutely exercised in the
gether invisible to tfne unassisted sight-when we distant regions of the universe, as in our terresconsider that the structure-and organization of all trial sphere; though we are not permitted, at prethese different species are different from  each -sent, to inspect the-particilar details of Hisproceother, and exactly adapted-to their various situa-' dure in reference to other orders of iitelligences.
tions and modes of existence, and that their mul- We are not, however, -altogether ignorant of
tifarious wants in'regard to food and: habitation, -some prominent features of the  physical and
are all provided for, and  amply supplied by Him, moral economy of other worlds, in consequence
who, at the same time., arranges and governs the of the discoveries ot Modern astronomical science.
affairs of ten thousand worlds-we'must be lost   With respect to their physical economy, we bein astonishment,. at,the. greatness of the Intelli- hold a striking variety in the Divine arrangements
gence which formed them, and.at the exuberance We-perceive one planetary world surrounded by
of that bounty which spreads so full a table for so
immense an assemblage of living beings!'And'This and several other similar passages, may be consid
were we transported to other worlds, we should, -ered as -more especially.applicable.to the bounty of Provi
doubtless, behiold still more ample displays of Di- deuce which God has provided for all his creatures. The
vine Beneficence.      -         X                practice of spiritualizing such passages, as it is termed,
We_ ae. hee. pesened'wit' aste-  has a tendency to caricature Scripture, and to twist it from
We are here presented with a striking commen — its precise and sublime references, to accord with the vague
tary on such passages'of the Sacred Volume -as fancies of injudicious minds. The literal meaning of Scrip.
these: "The eyes of'all look unto thee,' O'Lord! ture is always the most appropriate, emphatic, and sublime,
but it may, in some cases, be used-by way of accommomda
and thou. givest themri their meat- in due season. tion, in illustrating divine-subjects- when -it is applied with,Thou openest thy hand liberally, and satisfiest the judgment and discrimination.




RANGE  OF DIVINE: PROVIDENCE.                                 143s
two splendid and magnificent rings, one of'them  even such general views:afford some-scope to the
204;000, and the other 184,000 miles-in diameter, conteraplative mind, for forminig elllargei conipstretching across its celestial canopy from one end tions of the Grandeur and Diversity of'the Disof the heavens to another-moving with iaajestic pensations of God, in the worlds which roll in the
grandeur around its inhabitants' every ten hours, distant-regions of soace.
and diffusing a light equal to several thousanids of   With regard to "their moral economy —we may
moons like ours-which maybe' considered as a rest assured, that the prominent outlines of it are
visible and permanent emblem of the Majesty and materially the same as of that economy which
Glory of their Cireator. We perceive, connected relates to the inhabitants of our world. The funwith' the same globe, seven moons all larger than damental principles of the moral laws given to
ours, of different magnitudes, and placed at dif- men, and which it is the great object of Revelaferent distances, and revolving in different periods tion to support and'illustrate, are, "Thou shalt
of time around that- spacious-world.  The diver- love the:Lord thy God with all thy heart and unsified aspects of these rings, as viewed from the derstanding," and," Thou -shalt love thy neighbor
different regions of -the planet at different times, as- thyself."  On these two commandmlents hang
and-the vaiiety of appearances produced by the all the Law and the Prophets. —Now we must at
alternate rising,'setting, culmlination, and frequent once admit from the Nature of the Divi.ne Beinlg
eclipses, and other aspects of the moons, -must and-from  the relation in which rational beings
present to the inhabitants a very grand, and diver- stand to Him, and to one another,-that the Creasified, and magnificent scene of Divine operation.* tor has enacted these laws, as the great governing
On the'other hand, we behold another planetary principles by which the actions of all intelligences
globe destitute' both of rings and moons, but in heaven, as well as upon earth, are to be directwhich- has'the starry heavens presented to- view  ed. For the governor of the world can never be
nearly in the same aspect in which we behold supposed to issue a law-to any order of rational
them. - We perceive a third globe much larger creatures, which would permit them to hate their
thian.them both, capable of containing 200 times Creator, or to hate those whom  he has formed
the number of the inhabitants of our world-ac- after his own image. Such a supposition would
companied in its course. with four moons to be.inconsistent with the-eternal rules of rectitude,
diffuse light -in the absence of the sun, and' to and with the perfections of Deity; and the fact
diversify the aspect of its sky. In' some of these supposed (if it could exist), would introduce conworlds,- the succession of day and night is accorn- fusion and misery throughout the whole intelliplished within the space of ten hours; in others, gent universe. And, therefore, we must necessathis revolution- is not completed until -after the rily admit, that the laws to which I now advert,
adpse of twenty-four hours, or of as many days. are binding upon all the rational inhabitants which
In'some, the days and nights are nearly equal on exist throughout Jehovah's dominions; and' that
every part of their surface, and they have little it is by these that the moral order of all the PrMnvariety of seasons; in others, the- variety in the cipalities and Powers of Heaven is preserved and
length of' the:days and the vicissitudes of the sea- directed.  In those worlds where there is no
sons, are nearly the same as those we: experience change in the succession of their inhabitants-or,
in our- terrestrial, world. ArOund some, there in other words, where there is no death,- or where.
appears a dense atmosphere, while others are en- they are not produced by any process analogous4
vironed with atmospheres more rare and transpa- to generation, but have a fixed and permanent,
rent. Some move in the vicinity of the sun, and residence -there will be no need for morab
enjoy- an.abundant effllux of light and heat, while precepts corresponding to the fifth and seventlh
others are removed to the distance of eighteen' commandments of our moral law; and, in those,
hundred millions of miles from that central lumi- worlds where property is common, and the bounn
nary. Some finish the revolution of their year in ties of the Creator are equally enjoyed'by all,.
a few months; while others require twelve, thirty, there will be no necessity for a law correspondingw
or even eighty of our years to complete their an- to the eighth commandment; but the general prin...
nual round.  Some appear adorned with majestic ciples on which these laws are founded, will be.
mountain scenery, and others'seem to have great applicable to all the other circumstances and rela —
changes occasionally taking place in their atmo- tions which actually exist: so that the prinoip.le,
spheres, or on their surfaces. There are four and spirit, and essence of our religion, must- be
planetary bodies lately discovered, which, there is'common to all the holy inhabitants of the unllb
every reason to believe, once formed the compo, verse. And, therefore, it will follow, that every,
nent parts of a larger globe; but, by some mighty intelligent being that is animated and directed bycatastrophe in the dispensations, of Heaven, it such principles and affections, will be. qualified,
appears to have been'burst asunder, into the frag-' for holding delightful intercourse with. all holy- 
merits we.'now behold. If the general proposi- beings throughout the universe of God, in wnhattion: illustrated in Section II of the:preceding -ever'province of the Creator's empire he may;
chapter be admitted, such a,fact would seem to hereafter be placed; and, to qualify us for such,
indicate, that a moral revolution has taken place harmonious and affectionate intercourses,.is one
among the' intelligent beings who had originally great end of the Salvation exhibited iil!the- Gosbeen placed. in those regions; and that their fate pel.- So that, although we cannot, in our present
was involved -in the dreadful shock which burst state, acquire a minute and comprehenisive. knowasuniider the globe they inhabited, just as the fate ledge of the moral history of other world&sof the
of'the Antediluvians was involved in the shock special interpositions or manifestations of'Deity
by which -the solid crust of our'.globe was dis- in relation to them, or of the means by which
rupted& atfthe period of the universal deluge.  they are carried forward in moral and intellectual
These are some outlines in the economy of Pro- improvement-yet we can trace the general prinvidence which we can trace- with regard to the ciples or laws which form the basis of their moral
arrangements of other worlds; but beyond: such and religious -economy. For, as the laws of opgeneral aspects we are-not permitted'to penetrate, tics, and the principle of gravitation, pervade- the
so long as we sojourn n tabernacles of clay. But whole material system, as far -as the universe isvisible to our unassisted vision —so, the principle.
* See the Frontispace,''Fig.' 7.    of supreme love to God, and sincere affectioau t,
VOL. II. —10O




144                         THE. CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.,,
fellow-intelligences, must pervade the intellectual unfitness for passing a  sound judgment on any
universe wherever it extends;.;and, if any. intelli- subject that is laid before himn-and'that the Ian
gent agents beside men have violated these laws, who has taken  excursions through the wi(test
they must experience pain', and misery, and disor- range. of thought, accompanied with a corrender, analogous to those which are. felt by.the, in- poending improvement of his moral powers, will
habitants of our apostate-world..'      always be the most liberal and candid illn his deciThus I have endeavored to show, that the com- sions on the moral and intellectual qualities of
bination of Science'with Religion, would tend to others.  To these maxims, few.exceptions will
expand our views of Divine'Providence-in the generally be found. —In forming an enlightened
various arrangements of -God, in.relation to the judgment in regard to any action or object, it is
human race,'and'to the- subordinate tribes of sen- essentially requisite, that we contemplate it in all
sitive beings —,and in reference to some of the pro- itsdifferent features and aspects, and in all its
rminentiifeatures of his administration in: distant minute circumstances, bearings, and relations.worlds.' And,. therefore, though the Christian We would not hesitate for a moment to deternli no
ought never tc! overlook.the ways of Providence who is best qualified to give an accurate descripiin relation to. himself, and to his spiritual:and do- tion of a city,-he who has only viewed its spires
mestic concerns, yet it would argue a selfishness from a distance, while in rapid motion in his chaand..a sottishness, altogether inconsistent with the riot- or he who has:minutely suirveyed all Its
noble and expansive-spirit of Christianity, to over- streets, lanes, squares, public edifices, and surlook all the other parts of the Theater of Divine rounding scenery, in every variety of aspect; or,
Dispensations, when a very slight degree of labor who appears most likely to form the most accuand research might be instrumental in unfolding rate and enlightened judgment in relation to anlly
them'to his view                              particular kingddm, - he who has just skirted
along a few miles in one of its coasts, or he. who
1V.-The connection of Science with Religion would has traversed its length.and breadth in all direc-'have a tendency to induce upon Christians A tions, and mingled with every class of its inhabitSPIRIT- OF LIBERALITY,'f CANDOR, and of Accu- ants. On the same principle it must be admitted,
RACY IN JUDGING OF THE OPINIONS AND ACTIONS that he who has viewed religion in all its aspects
OF MEN, and of THE DIVINE PROCEDURE AND OPE- and bearings, who has taken the mest extensive
RATIONS.''                 survey of the manifestations of God, and of the
habits and relations of men, is the best qualified
Who is the most Candid and Liberal Being in to pronounce a candid and accurate decision on
the universe? God.-And why is God to be con- all the' intellectual and moral cases that may
sidered as the most Liberal- Intelligence that ex- colne before him.
ists?  Because Hie embraces a minute, a full, and   If the spirit of the abo 6-stated sentiments be
comprehensive view  of all the' circumstances, founded on reason and on fact, it will follow that,
connections, relations, habits,' motives, tempta- the more we resemble God in the amplitude of
tions, modes of thinking, educational biases, phy- our intellectual views and benevolent affections, the
sical affections, and other causes, that may influ- more candid, and liberal, and, accurate will out
once the sentiments or the conduct of any of his judgments be in reference to all tile actions, ohcreatures. -Who, among created  intelligences jec'ts, and relations we contemplate. On the othel
may be viewed as endowed, with. these qualities in hand, the main who is confined to a narrow range
the next degree?'The. loftiest seraph that God of thought and prospect, is continuallyblundering
has created, who.has:winged his way to numerous in the estimates he forms, both in respect to phyworlds; and; taken the most extensive survey of sical facts, to general principles, and to moral acthe- dispensations of the Almighty, and of all tions. He forms a premature and uncharitable
oreatures and events.- -Who, among the sons of opinion on every slander and report against his
men, is the most illiberal and inaccurate in judg- neighbor. He condemns without hesitation, and
ing of opinions, of persons, and of things?  The throws an unmerited odiunl on whole bodies of
man who has lived all his days within the smoke men, because one or two of their nunmber may
of his father's chimney, or within the confines of have displayed weakness and folly. He hates and
his native village-who has. never looked beyond despises men and their opinionls, because they bethe range of his own religious party — whose long not to his political or religious party. He
thoughts have always run in one narrow track-  pronounces his decisions on the motives of men
whose reading has been confined to two or three with as much confidence as if he had surveyed
musty volumes, which have lain for ages on the their hearts with the eye of Omniscience. He
same smoky shelf —who cares for nothing'either cannot hear an objection against his favorite opinin the heavens or the earth, but in so far as it ions with patience, nor an apology for any set of
ministers to his convenience, his avarice, or his principles but his own. He is arrogant and dogsensual enjoy,ment-who will admit no sentiment'matical in his assertions, and will make no conto be true, but what he. may have., heard broached cessions to the superior wisdom of others. He
by his parson - and whose conversation seldom  sets himself, with violence, against every proposal
rises beyond mere gossiping chit-chat, and the for reformation in the church, because his foreslanderous remarks which are circulated among fathers never thought' of it, and because such " inhis-neighbors. Such characters are entirely un- novations" do not suit his humor and preconceivqualified for forming a correct judgment, either ed opinions. I-He decides, in the most confident
of the sentiments and the actions of men, or of tone, on what God can and cannot do,;as if he had
the works and -the ways of God;. for they are taken the gauge of infinite perfection; and he
completely destitute of the requisite data whereon frets at the Divine dispensations when they do not.to form a rational decision in relation to either of exactly quadrate with his own humors and selfish
these subjects.'  views.
It may be admitted as a kind,of axiom, in our   With regard to the operations of the Most Iigh
estimate of human character, that, in proportion he also forms. the most foolish, and vague, and
to the ignorance, and tie narrow range of view, contradictory conceptions. Tell him of the vast
which characterize any individual, in a similar dimensions of the planetary system, of the men
proportion will be-:his want of candor, and his and animals that live on the opposite side of the




EXPANSION  OF -INTELLECTU.AL VIEWS.                             145
globe, of the annual and diurnal motion:of the nobleness and liberality of mind, and an accuracy
earth-that this world and- its inhabitants1 are in judging ofthings human and divine, which no
moving through the regions of space many thou- other person can possess.. He does not hastily
sands of'miles every hour-that one of the planets take up an evil report against his.neighbor; forhe
is' so large that'it would contain 1400 worlds as considers how unfounded such reports often are,
spacious as ours-that, another is flying through and.how, much they-,are -owing to the insinunthe tracts -of immensity at the rate of a hundred ations, of envy or of malice. And, when he
thousand miles an hour-and that light is darted can no longer doubt of an evil action being subfrom the sun at a velocity of 192,000-niiles: ini a stantiated against any one, he does not triumph
moment of time, —he will stare at -you with as- over him  in the language of execration; for,-he
tonishment at such extravagant assertions,. and considers all the circumstances, relations, feelings,
will sooner believe the stories of giants 100 feet and temptations with which he may have been
-high, and of.,fairies that can enter in -crowds: surrounded; he considers, that he himself is a frail
through the: keyhole- of his:door. -Instead of sinful creature, and might possibly have fallen in
frankly acknowledging that "he is ignorant of a similar way, had he been placed in the same
such subjects, and of the grounds of such con- situation. He does not trumpet forth the praises
clusions-Lthat those that have studied them with of a man who has performed one brilliant benevointelligence are best capable of judging — that, if lent deed, as if he were a character to be admired
true,,they -must fill us with admiration of the and eulogized-while the general -course of his
glory of'God —but that, as he has! hitherto had no life is marked with vice, and an utter forgetfulopportunity of examining such matters, he must ness of God and Religion; nor does he fix a stigsuspend his assent until he inquire into the reasons ma of immorality upon the person who may have
which can be given for such amazing deductions;" acted foolishly or sinfully in one or two instances, 
instead of such concessions, which are the dic- while the general tenor of his conduct has been
ates of'modesty and of common sense, he- will marked by purity and rectitude: for, in both cases
tell you at once, without: hesitation, and without he considers, that it is not an isolated action, but
a blush at his presumptuous decisions, that "it is general habits which determine the character of
all extravagance, and folly, and idle' romance, con- any individual. He esteems the Wise and the
traryto Seripture, and reason, andcommon sense;*" -Good, and holds friendly intercourse with them,
and will not hesitate to brand you as a heretic, for to whatever political or religious party they beendeavoring- to break loose "his intellectual tram- long. He can bear, with affability and candor, to
mnels!- thus tacitly declaring that he is far-better have his opinions contradicted, and can differ from
qualified to pronounce a decision on such topics his neighbor in many disputed points, while, at
than all the philosophers and'divines, and all the the same time, he values and esteems him. He
brightest geniuses who have appeared in the world will not brand a man as a Heretic or a Deist, befor ages past; though he will at the same time cause he takes a view of some dogmas in Theoloadmit, that he never gave himself the trouble to gy in a different light from what he himself does;
examine into such matters!     -              for he considers the difference of habits, studies,
His views of the providential dispensations of pursuits, and educational prejudices, which must
God are equally partial and distorted. If disease, have influenced his opinions; and makes due alor poverty, or misfortune, happen to his neighbor, lowance for the range of thought to which he may
especially if he had withdrawn from the religious have been accustomed. He is always disposed to'
party to which he belongs, it is considered as a attribute the actions of others to good motives,
penal judgment for his error and apostasv. If when he has no proof to the contrary. He uses
prosperous circumstances attended his family or no threats nor physical force to support his opin-.iS religious party, it is viewed as a sign of Di- ions, or to convince gainsayers; for he knows
vine approbation. He seldom views the hand of that no external coercion can illuminate the mind,
God, except in uncommon occurrences, and then, and that the strength of arguments, and the force
he imagines that a miracle is performed, and that of truth, can alone produce conviction. He is
the wheels of nature are stopped in order to, ac- convinced how ignorant he is, notwithstanding all
complish the event. He seldom looks beyond the his study, observations, and researches, and presses
precincts of his own church or nation, to observe forward, as long as he lives, to higher degrees of
the movements of' the Divine footsteps toward knowledge and of moral improvement.
other tribes of his fallen race. He overlooks the   He is an active promoter of every scheme that
traces of Divine operation which are every mo- tends to enlighten and meliorate mankind, and to
mient to be seen above and around him —and yet, extend the knowledge of salvation to the ends of
in the midst of all such partial and contracted the earth;:for he considers that it is not by miraviews', he will sometimes decide on the Wisdom  clcs, but by the subordinate agency of intelligent
and Rectitude of the Ways of God, with as much beings, that God will effectuate the illumination
confidence as if he had entered into the secret and the moral renovation of our apostate race.'eoulncils of the Eternal, and surveyed the whole He views the special agency of God in all the
plan of his procedure.'           movements of the Scientific, the Religious, and
Such are:a few prominent outlines of the cha- the P6litical world, and perceives Him  accomracter of thousands, whose names are enrolled as plishing his purpose, in the inventions of human
miembers of the'visible church —whose illiberality genius, and in the economy of the minutest inand:self-conceit are owing to the contracted no- sect, as well as in the earthquake, the storm, and
tions they have formed o'f God and of Religion. the convulsions of nations; for he- considers the
And, surely, it must appear desirable to every smallest atom, and the Hosts of Heaven, as equalenlightened Christian, that every proper mean ly directed by Eternal Wisdom, and equally neshoueld be used to prevent rational immortal be- cessary in the universal chain of creatures and
ings from  remaining enchained in such mental events.  He displays a becoming modesty inll
thraldom.'-  speaking of the ways and the works of God.
On the other hand, the man who-takes an en- When he meets with any dark and afflictive dislightened  view of all the works and dispensations pensation in the course of Providence, he does
of Cod, and of all the circumstances and: rela- not fret and repipe,-but is calm and resigned, contions of subordinate beings, necessarily acquires a scions that he perceives only a small portion of'




1046                          THE, CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
the chain of God's dispensations,'and is, therefore, minds with a larger proportion of this sI irit.
unable to form a just-comparison of the connec- And, if diversified and occasional discussions on
tion'of any one part with the whole. When he  the -topics to which we have adverted would
contemplates'the depraved and wretched condition  have a tendenc;y, to produce  this desirable effect,
of the greater part of the world, at- presenit, and  it is. obvious, that such branches of knowledge
for thousands of years'past, notwithstanding'the as. are calculated. to enlarge the capacity of the
salvation which has -been achieved-`;for sinners mind, and to throw a light over the revelations
of mankind, he is far froom arraigning the Divine  and the works of God, should no longer be over.
goodness and rectitude, in leaving so many nations  looked -in the range of our religious contempla"to walk in their own ways;" for he knows not tions.
what relation this_,dismalt scene may bear, what
influence it may have, -or what important impres- V,-The extensive range of thought which the diversions it may produce, on'Worlds and beings with   sified objects in Nature present, WOULD  HAVE A
which we are at present unacquainted.               TENDENCY TO INSPIRE US WITH A SPIRIT OF PIETY
He is cautious in pronouncing decisively re-    AND PROFOUND HUMILITY.
specting the dispensations of God, in regard to
the universe at large.  He does not, for example,   It is owing, in many instances, to want of ate
assert, with the utmost confidence, as some have  tention to the impressive displays of Wisdom and
done,. " that there never was, and never will be, Omnipotence ill the material world, that our pious
to all the ages of eternity, such a bright display  feelings and devotional exercises are so cold and
of the Divine Glory as in the Cross of Christ."  languid. We stalk about on the surface of the
He admires and: adores the Condescension anid the  earth, and pass from. one day to another, without
Love of God, in the plan of Salvatiol which the  reflecting on the grand and complicated machiGospel exhibits, and feels an interest in it far be- nery around  us, which is carrying us along
yond that of any-other special manifestation of  through the regions of space, and from  one porDeity; but he dares not set limits to the-Divine  tion of duration to another, as if the mighty enerAttributes and Operations.  He considers himself  gies of the Eternal M:ind, exerted in our behalf,
at present, with regard to the grand system of the  were unworthy of our acknowledgment or reUniverse, in a situation similar to that of a small gard. How few, for example,. reflect, when they
insect on one of the stones of a magnificent edi- open their eyes in the morning, and perceive the
fice, which sees only a few hairbreadths around' it, first beams of the. rising sun, that, since they lay
and is altogether incapable of surveying the sym- down to sleep, the Divine Power has been exerted
metry, the order, and beauty of the structure, and  in carrying them  more than four thousand miles,of forming an adequate conception of the whole. round to the eastward, in, order that they might
He considers that he has never yet surveyed the  again be cheered with the morning light; and
millionth part of Jehovah's empire, and, there- that, during the same period, they, along with the
fore, cannot tell what the Eternal Sovereign has earth and -its vast population, have been carried
been pleased to exhibit. in its numerous provinces; forward 476,000 miles from that portion of space
and, least of all, can he ever presume to dive into  which they occupied seven hours before? *  Or,
the depths of interminable ages, and boldly declare  if they have no idea of the motion of the earth,
what the Almighty will, or will -not do, through  and attach no belief to such an opinion, how is it
eternity to come. He, therefore, views it as pre- they do not reflect, that, after night has thrown its
sumption, while he has no dictate of revelation  shades around them, the sun, and ten thousand
for his war-rant, to pronounce decisively, either on  other vast globes, must move several hundreds of
the'one side or on the other, of such a deep and  millions of miles, before their eyes can again beimportant question, which seems -above the reach  hold the light of day!  Either the one or the
of the loftiest seraph. to determine.*  In short, he  other of these cases must be the fact; and, in
endeavors to take a view of all the manifestations  either case, there is presented to our view, a disof Deity within his reach, from  every source of  play of the Omnipotence and the Superinteninformation which lies before him, and as far as dence of Him in whom we live and move, which
his limited faculties will permit. He does not call demands our gratitude, our admiration, and praise.
in question the discoveries of Science, because  And can it ever be supposed, that such reflecthey bring to his ears most astonishing reports of  tions, combined with all the other excitements to
the Wisdom  and Omnipotence of. Jehovah; and  reverence and gratitude, will not tend to elevate
of the boundless extent of his Kingdom; -but re- our contemplations, and to raise our pious feelings
joices to learn, that the grandeur of his dominions to a higher pitch of devotion?  Whether the
is actually found to.correspond with the lofty de- Psalmist entertained  any views of this kind,
scriptions of Divine Majesty'and: Glory recorded  when he composed the ninety-second Psalm, we
in the Volume -of Inspiration, and is thereby.inspired with -nobler hopes of the glory and felicity  When it is here said that we ale carried "more than
of that heavenly world where he expects to spend  4000 miles round to the eastward" during the hours of sleep
an endless existence.                             -the author refers to the diurnal motion of the earth from
- If, thten, such be some- of the-. features in the  west to east. The rate of this motion is different to the
character of the enlightened Christian; if liberali- inhabitants of different latides. At the Equator the inhsabitants are carried at the rate of 1038 miles an.our, and
ty and candor, and accurate investigation, mark  if 7 hours be allowed for nightlyv repose, they are carried
the judgments he pronounces on the sentiments round 7266 miles during sleep. those who live in the 524
and the.actiosns of men, and on the works and the  degree of latitude, as the inhabitants of places near Lon.
of- God  an  isuh iew anfeligsdon, move at the rate of 637 miles an hiour; and, conse
ways of God; and if such. views and feelings quently,'in the course of 7 hours, are carried round 4459
ought to be considered -asmore congenial to the  miles. The inhabitants of Greenland, in lat. 69, during the
noble and benevolent spirit of our religion, than  same time, move only 2570 miles; and, were there any in.
the narrow and distorted notions of a coaitracted  habitants at the 88th degree of latitude, or within two de.
mind,-it must bgrees of the polar points their motion, during 7 hours, would
mind, —it -must be an object much to be desired,t not exceed 252 miles.-When it is said we are carried for.
that the mass of the Christian world be led into  ward during the same time, 476,000 miles, the reference is
such trains of thought, as might imbue their to the annual motion of the earth, which is at the rate of
sixty-eight thousand miles'every hour, and consenuently'See Appendix-. ot.                  t 476,000 miles during the 7 hours supposed to be allotted to
S ee Appendix, Note XII.              sleep.




..PIETY  AND HUMILITY;                                147
cannotl enrtainly- determine; but- I presume, the ed by him without a pause, ancd a visible stop in
pious ahd contemplative mind, when. awakening his discourse- - and the tenor of his philosophical
rfomnthe' slumbers of the night, under' such im- and theological writings is in complete uniso-n
pressions, might sing the first part of that song with these traits of character.-Sir ISAAC NEWof praise with peculiar emphasis and'delight- TON, too, whose genius seemed to know no limits
"It is a good thing to -give thanks" to Jehovah, but those of the visible universe, was distinguish.
and to sing praise tb thy name, O thou Most ed by his modesty, humility, and meekness of temHigh! to showy forth- thy loving-kindness in the per. He had such a humble opinion of himself,
morning. For-thou, Lord, hast made me glad that he had no relish of the applause wnich was
through thy work' (-or thy powerful energy),- so deservedly paid him. He would have let others
"I will triumph in the works of thy hands.. O run away with the ~glory of his inventions, if his
Lord! HOW' GREAT ARE THY WORKS-! and thy friends-and countrymen-had-not been more jealthoughts" (or contrivances) " are very deep! A  ous of his honor than he was himself. He said a
brutish man knoweth not, neither doth a fool un- little before his death, "I do not know what I may
derstand this." i                            appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have
An extensive acquaintance with nature and been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore,
science, combined with Christian principle, would and diverting myself in now and then finding a
also induce profound humility. The man.who has pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, while
made excursions through the most- diversified the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered beregions of thought, is deeply sensible of the little fore me."
progress he has attained,, and of the vast and un-   The same sentiment might have been illusbounded field of divine science which still remains trated from the lives of Bacon, Locke, Dr. Boerto be explored. When he considers.the immense haave, Hervey, Nieuwentyt, Ray, Derham, the
variety of sublime subjects which the Volume of Abbe Pluch6, Bonnet, and other eminent characInspiration exhibits, and of which he has obtained ters, who devoted their stores of knowledge to the
but a very' fain-t and imnperfect glimpse-the com- illustration of the Christian system. For an exprehensive extent, and the intricate windings of tensive knowledge of the operations of God has
the operations  of Providence, and the infinite a natural tendency to produce humility and venenumber of beings over which it extends-the am- ration; and wherever it is combined with pride
plitude and magnificence of that glorious universe and arrogance, either among philosophers or diever which Jehovah presides, and low small a vines, it- indicates a lamentable deficiency, if not
portion of it lies open to- his minute inspection —  a complete destitution, of Christian principle, and
he is humbled in the dust at the view of his own of.all those tempers which form the bond of union
insignificance; he sees himself to bea very babe among holy intelligences. After the attention of
in knowledge; and, as it were, just emerging Job had been directed to the works of God, and
from the gloom of ignorance ~ into the first dawn- when he had contemplated the inexplicable plie.
ings of -lightand intelligence. He feels, the full nomena of the Divine agency in the material
force and spirit of the p.oet's sentiment —     world, he was ashamed and confounded at his for-'Much learning shows -how little mortals know."  mer presumption; and, in deep humility, exclaimed, "I have heard of thee by the hearing of the
When he considers the comprehensive extent of ear; but now mine eye seeth thee; wherefore I
the Divine law and its numerous bearings on abhor myself, and repent in dust and -ashes."-In
every part of his conduct, and on all the diversi- accordance with what has been now stated, we
fled relations in which he stands to his God, and find, that the most exalted intelligences, who, of
to his fellow-men; and when he reflects on his course, possess the most extensive views of the
multiplied deviations from that eternal rule of works and providential arrangements of God, are
rectitude; he is ashamed and confounded in the represented as also the most humble in their depresence of the Holy One of Israel; and on a re- portment, and as displaying the most -profound
view of his former pride and self-conceit, is con- reverence in their incessant adorations.  They
strained to adopt.the language of Agur and of'"fall down before Him who sits upon the throne;
Asaph-" Surely I am  more brutish than any and cast their crowns before the throne, saying, Thou
man, and have not the understanding of a man." art worthy, O Lord, to receive glory, and honor,
"So foolish was I, and ignorant, I was as a beast and power; for thou hast created all things, and
before thee."  He views the meanest and the for thy pleasure they are and were created."most ignorant of his species, as but a very few  Their moral conduct evinces the same lowly temdegreys, below him in the scale of, intelligence, per of mind. They wait around the throne, in
and sees no reason why he should glory over his the attitude of motion, and wings outspread,
fellows.                                     ready to fly, on the first signal of their Sove,
This sentiment might be illustrated from the ex- reign's will; they " do his commandments, hear.
ample of some of the most eminent men in whose kening to the voice of his word," and do not
minds science and religion were -combined. The disdain to perform  important services, in our
Honorable Mr. BOYLE was the most unwearied wretched world, to the meanest human being who
and successful explorer of the works of God, in is numbered among "the heirs of salvation."  In
the age in which he lived, and all his philosophi- like manner,. were we indued with the grasp of incal pursuits were consecrated to-the service of tellect, the capacious minds, the extensive knowReligioni. Among the excellent.traits in his cha- ledge, and the moral powers which they possess,
racter,:HUMLITY was the most conspicuous. "He we would also display the same humble and revehad ahout him," says Bishop Burnet, "all that rential spirit, and feel ashamed of those emotions
unaffected neglect -of pomp in -clothes, lodging, of vanity and pride, which dispose so many of the
furniture} and equipage, Which agreed with his human family to look down with contempt on
grave and serious course of life," and was cour- their fellow-mortals.
teous and condescendingto. the meanest of his
follow-men. "He:had," -says the, same author,
the profoundest veneration for the great God of
heaven and earththat ever: I  observed in any per-  If the leading train of sentiment which' person. The very name. of God was never mention- vades' this volume be admitted, the following,




148                         THE  PCHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS may be. dedUced:-That, il, nature; —that seminaries shauld be established for
conducting the. religious instruction of the young, the occasional instruction of young persons, from
the works of God- in the material world, and. the the age of fifteen to the age of twenty or thirty,
most striking discoveries which have.been  made or upward, in.all those popular branches of natuas. to their magnitude,. variety, and- mechanism, ral. and moral science which have a tendency to
should be frequently'exhibited to their view,'in- enlarge the. capacity of their minds, and to exminute detail; as illustrations of the attributes of pand their conceptions of the incessant agency
the Deity, and of those descriptions of his nature of God;-and that the Ministers of Religion, in
and operations contained in: the Volume of Inspi- their public instructions, should frequently blend
ration;-that the books put into, their hands should their discussions of divine topics with illustration3
contain, among other.subjects, popular and strik- derived from  the scenes of Creation and Proviing descriptions of;the facts and -appearances of dence,
A-P P E N D I X:
aONTAININO
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.,oTrs I, p. 22.-Illustration of the rate of Motion in the Heavenly Bodies, on the supposition that the
earth is at rest.
THmE distance'of the sun is about 95 millions lions of miles distant from the earth; consequentof miles; consequently, the diameter of the cir- ly, its daily circuit round our globe would meacle he would describe around the earth would be sure more than 125,000,000,000,000 miles.  This
190 millions, and its circumference 597,142,857, sum, divided by 86,400, the number of seconds in
which forms the extent of the circuit through a day, would give, 1,454,861,111, or somewhat
which he would move in 24 hours, if the earth more than one thousand four hundred millions of
were at rest. This number, divided by 24, gives miles, for its rate of motion in a second of time,24,880,952, the number of miles he would move a motion, which, were'it actually existing, would,
in an hour; and this last number divided by 60, in all probability, shatter the, universe to atoms.
gives 414,682, the number of miles he would    The unlearned reader may, perhaps, acquire a
move in a minute. The nearest star is reckoned more distinct idea of this explanation in the folto be at least 20,000,000,000,00, or twenty bil- lowing figure:Fig. 32.
F
Let the small circle A, in the center, represent 95 millions of miles; the line B D the diameter of
the Earth, and the circle B C D E the orbit of the the orbit he would describe; and the circle B.C
Sun, on the supposition that he moves- round the ID E the circUmference; along which he would
earth every:24 hours.'' The line A Bw ill repre- move every day, or -597 millions of miles, which
sent the distance.of the Sun -from  the Earth, or is somewhat more than three times the diameter




APPENDIX.                                         14.9
If the line A F represent the distanceof the near- when full, cork it up, so that no air can enter at
est star, the circle F G HI  I, will represent the top. While it remalins corked no water will rtllI
circuit through which it would move every 24 out,'being prevented by the attmospheric pressure,
hours, if the earth were at rest. It is obvious but the moment it is uncorked, the water will
from the figure that since the stars areat a greater issue from  the small holes in the bottom by tile
distance from the earth than the sun, the circle pressure of air from, above. —Tlhe same experithey would describe around the earth would,'be meat -may be made by taking a tubl,, G HII, Fif
larger in proportion, and, consequently, their ve- 3,* 7 or 8 inches long, and about three-fourtis
locities would be proportionably more rapid; since of an inch diameter, having a small hole on each
they would move through their larger circles in side, I K.  When filled with water and corkled
the same time in which the sun moved through no water will run'out, but when the cork is rehis narrower sphere. But, the supposition that moved the water will run out at I and K, illusthe earth is the center of all the celestial motions, trating the lateral pressure of the atmosphere.
and that. the different stars are daily moving   The pressure of the atmosphere explains a vaaround it with different velocities, and the slowest riety of common phenomena. When we take a
of these- motions so inconceivably rapid, is so draught of water out of a basini or a. running
wild and extravagant, that it appears altogether in- stream, we immerse our mouths in the water, anl
consistent with the harmony of the universe, with make a vacuum by drawing in the air; the pressure
the wisdom  and intelligence of the Deity, and of the atmosphere upon the external surface of
With all the other arrangements he has made in the water then forces it into thle mouth. The
the system of nature.                           same cause explains the process of a child sucking its mother's breasts-the action of a boy's
sucker in lifting large stones-the rise of water
in pumps-the effects produced by cements-the
NoTE II, pp. 31-94.- Experimental Illustrations firm  adhesion of snails and periwinkles to rocks
of the Pressure and Compressibility of the Atmo- and stones-the scarcity of water in the time of
sphere-The Diving-Bell, etc.                  hard frosts-and the fact, that a cask will not run
by the cock, unless a hole be opened in some
The pressure of the atmosphere is most strik- other part of the cask.
ingly illustrated by means of the air-pump. But   The following experiment illustrates the comas few persons, comparatively, possess this instru- pressibility of air, and at the same time the prinment, the following experiments, which any per- ciple on which the Diving-Bell is constructed.
son may perform at pleasure, are sufficiently con- Let A  B, Fig. 1,   represent a large tumbler,
vincing on this point. Take a common wine- nearly filled with water.  Place a piece of cork
glass, fill it with water; apply a piece of paper on the surface of the water, and over the cork an
over the mouth of the glass; press the paper to ale-glass, C D, with its mouth downward: then
the rim of the glass with the palm  of the hand; push the glass perpendicularly down toward the
turn the' glass upside down; withdraw the hand  bottom of the tumbler, and the cork will appear
from the paper; and the water will be supported swimming a little above the bottom-indicating
by the pressure of the atmosphere. That it is that there is no water above it in the ale-glass,
the atmospherical pressure, and not the paper, but only air, which prevents the entrance of the
which supports the water, is evident; for the pa- water.  If the water in tile tumbler be supposedper, instead of being pressed down by the weight to represent the water of a river or of the sea, the
of the water, is pressed upward by the pressure of ale-glass will represent the diving-bell in which a
the atmosphere, and appears concave, or hollow in person may sit with safety in the depths of the
the middle. If the flame of a candle be applied sea without being immersed in the water, provided
to the paper, it may be held for an indefinite fresh air be supplied. A small quantity of water
length of time, close to the paper, without setting will be found to have entered the ale-glass, and
fire to it. The same fact is proved by the follow- the deeper it is plunged in any vessel the higher
ing experiment:-Take a glass tube, of any length, will the water rise within it; which proves the
and of a narrow bore; put one end of it in a basin compressibility of the air within the glass.
of water; apply the mouth to the other end, and    The diving-bell has been much used of late in
draw out the air by suction; the water will im- recovering valuable articles'rom  the wrecks of
mediately rise toward the top of the tube; and if ships that had sunk in deepwater, and inblowing
the finger or thumb be applied to the top of the up such wrecks as are sunk near the mouths of
tube, to prevent the admission of air, and the tube rivers, and form impediments to navigation-by
removed from the basin of water, the water in the means of powder ignited by the electric spark,
tube will be supported by the pressure of the at- Major General Pasley has been employed for a
rmosphere on the lower end. Again: —Take a wine- considerable time past in blowing up the wreck
glass, and burn a small bit of paper in it; and of the Royal George man-of-war, which founwhile the paper is burning, press the palm  of the dered  at Spithead, near Portsmouth, in 1783.
hand upon the mouth of the glass, and it will ad- Many of the valuable articles belonging to this
here to the hand with considerable force. In this largest vessel of the British navy have thus been
case the pressure of the atmosphere will be sen- recovered.  Five or six divers have been consibly felt; for it will sometimes require a conside- stantly employed, and no serious accidents have
rable force to detach the glass from the hand.   occurred. On the 20th June, 1842, 3065 cubic
The following experiment will also illustrate feet, or 61 loads of timber had been brought up
the pressure of the atmosphere. Take a tin ves- from  the wreck, beside 219 pigs of iron ballast,
bel about 6 or 7 inches long and 3 in diameter, weighing 32 tons, 17 cwts. One of the best
with its mouth about'a quarter of an inch wide, divers sent up 19 pigs or nearly 3 tons in one
as E F-in Fig. 1.* Pierce a number of small holes day. Most of the iron and brass cannons have
in its bottom, about the diameter of a common  thus been got up; and during the first 6 or 7
sewing needle. Plunge the vessel in water; and months of 1842 more than four thousand pounds
The figure referred to is in- "Mental Illumination," p.  * "Mental Illumination," p. 93,.fig. 3.
93 ig.2.                                                  t Ibid., p. 93, fig. 1.




150                        THE CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
of powder have been expended in these opera- least 20 billions of miles, then this distance may
tions.-Dr. Payerne has lately invented a method be' otherwise expressed, by saying, that the numfor producing pure air, in, -such' experiments, fit ber of miles which' intervene between us and
for the respiration of'man, and for supporting these bodies is more than a hundred times greater
flame without communication'with- the external than the number of moments which have elapsed
air, which he has frequently successfully exhibited since the creation; and, by a similar comparison,
in London, in the diving-bell of tthe Polytechnic it will be found, that the number of cubical miles,
Institution-; and on the 2d September, 1842, he within the limits of the planetary system, is 132,put his'invention to the test by- descending at 000,000,000,000,000, or, one hundred and thirtySpithead, along with' Major Pasley, to the' depth two thousand billions of times greater than the
of 75 feet,'when the water- stood only 6 inches number of moments in 5828 years.
high at the- bottom  of the' bell. The air they   It has been computed, that the earth, supposing
breathed in the bell was perfectly good; -and the it a solid globe, contains about 30,000,000,000,whole apparatus for'p'urifyiig it was contained in I000,000,000,00,000,000,000, or thirty quintillions
a case not larger'than a common portable writing- of grains of sand, supposing a hundred grains of
desk, which requires 6nly the turning of a small sand to be equal in length to an inch, and, consewinch occasionally, and no science on the part quently, a million of such grains for every cubiof the person in charge. When the diving-bell cal inch. If we use this number as a standard
is once filled with compressed air, either by let- for estimating'the numbel of cubical miles con,
ting it escape from vessels previously filled- With trained within the space which intervenes between
it, or by'four men pumping for less than half-an- us and the nearest stars, we shall find that the
hour, no more' pumping ism necessary, as the air number of cubical miles comprehended within this
in the bell never requires to be changed. In the space is more than ten thousand millions of times'common mode of working the'diving-bell, on the greater than the number of the grains of sand
contrary, a powerful pump, manned by 6 or 8 contained in the globe on which we dwell.
men, would "be required, as at Spithead, which   Though the human mind can form no definite
must be kept constantly at work the whole time conceptions of such numbers and magnitudes,
that the men are down in the diving-bell; and yet it may be useful occasionally to ruminate on
this incessant pumping is so laborious, that from  such subjects; as it is the only, or at least the prin12 to 16 men, working in two reliefs, are neces- cipal mode by which limited minds like ours can
sary for the purpose of expelling the water.- approximate to an idea of the infinity of the CreSuch inventions as that now stated may be ap- ator. And if an image of infinity is presented to
plied to many practical and beneficial purposes, the mind in the spaces comprehended within the
and perhaps to purposes more diversified and ex- limits of our system, how overpowering the contensive than we can, in the meantime, anticipate. ception of innumerable systems, to-which ours
bears no more proportion than a drop of water to
the mighty ocean!  How ineffably glorious must
be the attributes of that Incomprehensible Being
Novm III-On the ideas of Magnitude, Motion, who pervades-every part of this vast universe,
and Duration, as -expressed by numbers. See and who continually superintends all its minute
p. 39, 41, etc.                              and diversified movements!
In the pages referred to and in other parts of this
work some very large numbers are expressed in
figures. Some readers have insinuated, that it NoTE IV, p. 58.-On the means by which it may prowould have been better to express such numbers   bably be ascertained whether the Moon be a habiin words.' The author, however, is of a different   table world.
opinion; because, to some readers, not much acquainted with. Numeration, a thousand trillions   About the year 1818, the Author published in
would convey.nearly the same idea as a thousand the Monthly Magazine, a few observations on the
nonillions, though the one number contains 58 surface of the Moon, in which a few remarks
places of figures, and the'other only 22. It is were offered on this subject. The following is
chiefly the number of figures, or ciphers, in such an extract-from that communication: —
large- sums, that leads us to form a comparative   "If we be ever to obtain an ocular demonstraestimate of their value or extent. Our ideas of tion of the habitability of any of the celestial.magnitude and extension, conveyed  by such orbs, the Moon is..the only one where we can exnumbers, must, of course, be.very vague and un- pect to trace, by our telescopes, indications of the
defines  If we have-been accustomed to travel- agency of sentient or intelligent beings; and I
ing we have a tolerably clear conception of a am pretty much convinced, that a long-contillued
1undred, and even of a thousand miles; but we series of observations on this planet, by a number
have no clear nor adequate conception of a body, of individuals in different places, might comor of -a portion of space, ten hundred thousand, pletely set at rest the question,'Whether the
ten hundred millions, or ten hundred billions of Moon be a habitable world.' Were a vast ntummiles in extent.  The mind, however, may be bher of persons, in different parts of the world, to
assisted in its conceptions, and in its comparative devote themselves to a particular survey of the
estimate of different numbers, by fixing on some Moon —were different portions of her surface alparticular number as a standard. If, according lotted to different individuals, as the object of their
to the common reckoning, we;suppose, that 5828 particular research-were every mountain,. hill,
years have - elapsed since the commencement of cavern, cliff, and plain, accurately inspected —and
time, the numbers of seconds, or moments, in every change and modification in the appearance
this period, will amount to 183,913,782,212, or of particular spots carefully marked and repreone; hundred  and eighty-three thousand, nine sented in a series of delineations, it might lead to
hundred and thirteen millions, seven hundred and some certain conclusions, both as to her physical
eighty-two thousand, two hundred and twelve, constitution, and her ultimate destination. It can
which is less than a fifth part of a billion. If the be demonstrated, that a telescope which magnidistance of the,nearest stars from the earth be at fies 100 times, will show a spot on the Moon's




APPENDIX.                                       151
surface, whose diameter is 1223 yards; and one NOTE V.-Remarks on the pretended discovery of a
Which magnifies 1000 times, will, of course, ena-           Lunar'Fortification.
ble -us to perceive. a portion of her surface, whose
size- is only 122 yards;- and, consequently, an   The British public, not long ago, was amused
object,. whether natural or artificial, of no greater by the announcement of a discovery said to have
extent than one of our large edifices (such as St. been made by Professor Frauenhofer of Munich
Paul's cathedral, London), may, by.such an in- This gentleman was said to have discovered aforstrument, be easily distinguished. Now, if every tification in the Moon, and to have distinguishet
minute point on the lunar surface were accurately several lines of roads, supposed to be the work of
marked by numerous observers, it might be ascer- the lunar inhabitants. It is scarcely necessary to
tained whether any changes are taking place, say, that such announcements are obviously -reeither from physical causes, or from the opera- mature. To perceive distinctly the shape of an
tions of intelligent agents. If a large forest were object in the Moon, which resembles a fortifica.
cutting down —if a city were building in an open tion, it is requisite, that that object be of a much
plain, or extending its former bounsdaries-if a larger size than our terrestrial ramparts. Beside,
barren waste were changing into a scene of although an object resembling one of our fortificavegetation —or, if an immense  concourse of tions were perceived on the surface of the Moon,
animated beings were -occasionally assembled on there would be no reason to conclude, that it
a particular spot, or shifting from one place to served the same purpose as fortifications do among
another —such changes would be indicated by us. We are so much accustomed to war in our
certain modifications of shade, color, or motion; terrestrial- system, and reflect so little on its diahoand, consequently, would furnish a direct proof lical nature, that we are apt to imagine that it
of the agency of intelligent beings analogous to -must form a necessary employment even in other
man, and of the Moon being a habitable globe. worlds. To be assured that a fortification existed
For although we -may never be able to distinguish in the Moon for the same purposes as with us,
the inhabitants of the Moon (if any exist), yet if would indeed be dismal tidings from  another
we can trace those effects which can flow only world; for it would be a necessary conclusion,
from the operations of intelligent agents, it would from such intelligence, that the inhabitants of
form a complete demonstration of their existence, that globe are actuated by the same principles of
on the satne ground on which a Navigator con- depravity, ambition, and revenge, which have includes an unknown island to be inhabited, when fected the moral atmosphere of our sublunary
he perceives human habitations and cultivated world. With regard to the pretended discovery
fields.                                        of the lunar roads, it may not be improper to re"That changes occasionally happen on the mark, that such roads behooved to be at least 400
lunar hemisphere,:next the earth, appears from  feet broad, or ten times the breadth of ours, in
the observations of Herschel and: Schroeter, parti- order to be perceived as faint lines through a telecularly from those of the latter. In the Transac- scope which magnifies a thousand times; which
Lions of the Society of Natural Philosophy at is a higher power, I presume, than Frauenhofer
Berlin, Schroeter relates, that, on the 30th De- can apply with distinctncss to any of his telescopes.
Eember, 1791,' at five o'clock, p. m., with a seven It is not at all likely that the lunar inhabitants are
feet reflector, magnifying 161 times, he perceived of such a gigantic size, or employ carriages of
the commencement of asmall crater on the south- such an enormous bulk, as to require roads of
west declivity of the volcanic mountain in the such dimensions, since the whole surface of the
Mare Orisiumn, having a shadow of at least 2"-5. Moon is only the thirteenth part of the area of
On the 11th January, at twenty minutes past five, our globe.
on looking at this place again, he could see neither   Schroeter conjectures the existence of a great
the new crater, nor its shadow. Again, on the 4th city to the north of Marius (a spot in the Moon),
January, 1792, he perceived, in the eastern crater and of an extensive canal toward Hygena (anof Helicon, a central mountain, of a clear gray  other spot), and he represents part of the spot
color, 3" in diameter, of which, during many named Mare Imbrium, to be as fertile as the Camyears' observations, he had perceived no trace. pania. See Edin. Phil. Jour., No. 21, for July,'This appearance,' he adds,'is remarkable, as 1824. Similar remarks to those now stated will
probably from the time of Hevelius, the western apply to these conjectures of Schroeter. We are
part of Helicon has been forming into its present too apt to imagine, that the objects we perceive in
shape, and Nature seems, in that district, to be the Moon must bear a certain resemblance to
particularly  active.'-In making such minute ob- those with which we are acquainted on the Earth;
servations as those to which I allude, it would be whereas there is every reason to believe, from the
proper, along with an inspection of the' Moon's variety we perceive in nature, that not one world
luminous disc, to mark the appearances of dif- resembles another, except in some of its more
ferent portions of her dark hemisphere, when it is prominent and general arrangements. The moon
partially enlightened by the reflected light from  bears a general resemblance to the Earth, in its
the earth, soon after the appearance of new' moon. being diversified with mountains and valleys; but
These refarches would require a long-continued the positions and arrangement of these objects in
series of the most minute observations, by nume- the Moon, and the scenery they exhibit, are marous observers in different regions' of the globe, terially different from what appears on the surface
which could be effected only by exciting, among of the terraqueous globe.
the bulk of mankind, a general'attention to such
investigations. But were this object accomplished, and were numerous observations made from
the tops of mountains, and in the serene sky of    NOTE VI, P. 89.-On a Plurality o Worlds.
southern climes, where the powers of the telescope
are not counteracted by dense vapors, there can   The doctrine of a plurality of worlds is now
be little doubt that direct proofs would be obtain- admitted as highly probable, both by philosophers
ed, that the Moon is a habitable world; or, at and by enlightened divines. But it has been adleast, that the question in relation to this point mitted by many  persons on grounds that are too
would be completely set at rest."              general and vague, and, consequently, a full' con



1-5'52.                      THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
Fiction. of its truth, is seldom producedlin the mind. ends; but, in the case supposed, there would be
In different parts of the preceding volume, I have  no proportion between the means and the end
all along taken- it for granted., because I consider The means ere indeed great and astonishing;.bu
it as susceptible of a moral demonstration  The  no. end appears to justify such a display of crefollowing heads' of argument;, "were they. fully  ating energy. —The Psalmist, when he contemillustrated, would go far to'carry demonstration  plated the heavens, was so affected with the idea
to the mind on this subject; namely, lThat there  of the immense population of the universe, that he
are numerous bodies:in thei universe of a bulk  seems to have been almost afraid.lest he should be
sufficient to contain myriadspof intelligent beings, overlooked amidst the immensity of beings that
and to afford them ejoqyment-that there appears, are under the superintendence of God: "When.I
in the constitution of many of-these bodies,. a  consider thy heavens —what is man that thou art
variety of arrangements evidently adapted to this  mindful of him!"' There would be no propriety
end —that, in relation to the planets of our system, nor emphasis in this exclamation, if the heavenly
there are many  circumstances' which bear a strik- orbs were devoid of inhabitants; for, if no intelliing resemblance to the constitution -of our globe  gent beings exist beside man, and a colony of anand its appendages.; They have-annual and; diur- gels, it- would not appear.wonderful that.the
nal motions, moors, atmospheres, mountains, and Creator should exercise. a particular care over the
vales- that light, and heat, and color, appear to be one-half of his intelligent offspring.  But if we
distributed throughout the regions of immensity.; conceive the universe as composed of tell thouand that these'agents can- have a relation only to sand times ten, thousand worlds peopled with
the. necessities ahnd-.the happiness. of' organized myriads of intellectual beings of various orders,
intelligences-that every part'of nature, so far as the sentiments of admiration implied in the pasour'observations on the. surface of this globe ex- sage is extremely natural and emphatic, and contend, appears to.exist solely for the sake of sen- veys to us an impressive idea of the Intelligence,
tient beings-that this doctrine is more worthy of the Beneficence, and the Condescension ef the
the Infinite Creator, and gives'us a moreglorious Founder and Governor of all worlds.
and magnificent idea of' his nature, than to suppose his benevolent regards confined to the globe
on..which we dwell. When these and a variety
of: other arguments are considered, in connection      NOTE VII, p. 96.-The Daguerreotype.
with the Wisdom and other attributes of the Deity,
they amount not only to a high degree of -proba-   The only deficiency in the pictures produced
bility, but to something approaching to a moral by means of the process discovered by Daguerre
demonstration.  But to illustrate these arguments is, that they do not represent objects, in their nain minute detail, so as to- make a convincing im- tural colors, as exhibited by a convex lens in a
pression on the mind, would require a volume of dark chamber.  It is not unlikely, however, that
a considerable size. The Author flatters himself even this perfection may soon be attained.  It
he has some original thoughts on this subject, has been just now (Sept. 1842) stated in the pubwhich may probably see the light, should the pre- lic journals, that Mr. Isenrig, a painter at Munich,
sent work meet with public acceptance.  There has announced, that he has discovered a process
is no work in our language, which takes an ex- by which, through the daguerreotype, he ean detensive view  of this subject, in connection with pict all the objects in nature with the brilliancy
thi' attributes of Deity and the intimations con- of the colors, so as to bear comparison with the
tained in Divine Revelation.  Fontenelle's "Plu- finished productions of the first artists.-If this
rality of Worlds," contains a number of ingenious announcement be correct, we may soon expect to
reasonings; but he treats the subject in too light have all the most interesting views of the scenery
and flippant a manner, and without the least re- of nature and the operations of' art depicted with
ference  to a. Supreme Intelligence.  The cele- an accuracy and a beauty, which have hitherto
brated Huygens, in his "Cosmotheoros," instead been unattainable by the most celebrated artists.
of attempting to prove the doctrine of a plurality
of' worlds, takes it for- granted, and indulges
chiefly in conjectures respecting the organical
structure and faculties of their inhabitants.*     NOTE VIII, p. 99.-Electro-3lagnetic Machines.
That the Scriptures are silent on this head, has
been assumed by some as a presumptive argu-   The possibility of moving small pieces of
ment that this doctrine was without solid founda- mechanism  by the action of the electro-magnetic
tion.: I'have already endeavored to show that power has been known for some time past, but it
this assumption is unfounded?t  A plurality of seems never to have been practically applied on a
worlds is more than once- asserted in Scripture, large scale until in 1837 it was adapted to the proand in numerous passages is evidently taken for pulsion of a:boat on the river Neva, by Professor
granted.' Celestial intelligences are represented as Jacobi of Petersburg.  On the 25th September,
ascribing," glory,. honor, wisdom, and power " to 1838, a galley, 28 feet in length and 714 in
the King. of heaven, "because he hath created all breadth, was providea with paddles similar to
things, and' because they perceive his works to be those of a steam  vessel. The action was pro-'great' and marvelous.'" -- But if - all the great duced from 320 pair of plates, arranged along the
globes in the firmament were only so many'fright- sides of the galley, room being left for twelve perful deserts, destitute of inhabitants, such a uni- sons. The vessel was made to proceed against the
verse could never inspire superior intelligences'stream, and the speed attained in still water was
with admiration of the wisdom  of the Creator. three English miles per hour. The plan consistFor wisdom  consists in proportioning means to ed in rapidly reversing the poles during the action
-Since the above period a machine has been con* Since the first editions of this work were published, the.trived by Mr. R. Davidsoh of Aberdeen, in which
author has' fully illustrated the topics above stated, along a reiterated series of attractions are' employed to
with other kindred subjects, in'his volumes entitled "Celes- produce the effect
tial Sceaery," and "The. Sidereal,-Ileaens," which areem-c
bellished with numerous engravings               count of Mr. Davidson's experiments, abridged
t Seep. 89.,''                         from  a letter of Professor Forbes of King's Gol



APPENDIX.                                         153
lege, Aberdeen. Mr. R. Davidson has made an a leaf of parchment, and the second and third on
arrangement by which, with only two electro- paper, printed only on one side, and the corners
magnets, and less than one square foot of zinc left blank for capitals. At, the top are wooden
surface (the  negative metal being copper) a cuts, representing the Creation, and, as it is calllathe is driven with such velocity, as to be capa- ed, Lucifer's Fall."-pp. 109-111.
ble of turning small articles. He has' another arrangement by which, with the same small extent
of galvanic power, a small, carriage is driven,, on NOTE X, p. 117.-On Telescopes; with a brief nowhich two persons are carried along a very coarse   tice of a NEW REFLECTING TELESCOPE, constructwooden floor of a room. He has likewise a third   ed by the Author.
arrangement not yet completed, by which, from
the imperfect experiments he has made, he expects   It is doubtful to what particular individual we
to gain very considerably more force from  the owe the. invention of the telescope.  Some have
same extent of galvanic power than from either supposed that Roger Bacon and Baptista Porta inof the other two. The first two machines are vented this instrument. Borelli ascribes the inexceedingly simple, without the least complexity, vention to Zacharias Jansen, a native of Middleand therefore easily manageable, and not liable to berg. Perhaps the account given in the article to
derangement, and they take up very little room. which this note refers, and which is stated by a
As-yet, the extent of power of which they are variety of authors, may be as probable as any
capable has not been at all ascertained, as the size other. It is certain  the telescope was not in
of -the' battery employed is so trifling, and the general use until the beginning of the 17th cemnmagnets so few; but it seems probable that a very tury, and that no discoveries in the heavens were
great power, in no degree inferior even to that of made with it until the year 1609
steam, but much more manageable, much less ex-   There are two kinds of telescopes, Refracting
pensive,-and occupying greatly less space-if the and Reflecting.  In refracting telescopes, the rays
coals be taken into account-may be obtained. of light pass through convex or concave glasses
The Professor considers Mr. Davidson's inven- or lenses. The object-glass is always convex, and
tions to be so interesting to railroad proprietors in forms an image or picture of the object in an inparticular, that it would be much for their in- verted position in its focus, whichimage isviewed
terest to take up the subject and be at the expense by the eye-glass; and the magnifying power is in'
of making' the experiments necessary to bring this the proportion of the focal distance of the objectpower into operation on a great scale.-The dif- glass to that of the eye-glass. The focal distance
ference between Professor Jacobi's plan and Mr. of a convex glass may be ascertained by holding
i)avidson's is this;-that Jacobi produces motion it in the rays of the sun, opposite to a pieco of
ny changing the poles of the magnets, and Mr. white paper, and measuring the distance between
Davidson, by cutting off the galvanic curient at the glass and the white spot, or burning point,
given points-the power of alternating as the formed on the paper. An astronomical telescope
rotation proceeds, from a neutralized magnet to a for viewing celestial objects may be constructed
newly changed one. In both experiments it has with only two glasses. If an object-glass, 30
been clearly demonstrated that the power of the inches focal distance, be fixed in the end of a tube,
magnet is increased, by increasing the diameter, and an eye-glass of one inch focus be placed at
and adding to the length of the helix.  The the other end, at the distance of 31 inches from
power is also increased by increasing the size the object-glass, a telescope will be formed which
of the bars.'        will magnify in the proportion of one to thirty, or
30 times; that' is, objects seen through such a telescope will appear thirty times larger in diameter,
NOTE IX, P. 114. —On the first Inventor of Print- or thirty times nearer than to the naked eye. By
inpg.                      such an instrument, the inequalities onuthe Moon's
surface, and some of the satellites of Jupiter, may
Mr. Ireland, in his "Picturesque Tour through  be perceived; but when directed to land,objects,
Holland, Brabant, and part of France, in 1789," they will appear inverted or turned upside down.
gives the following account of the Inventor of In order to reverse the appearance of the object,
Printing, when describing the city of Haerlem.   two other eye-glasses are required;-or, if a con" Haerlem  claims the invention of the art of cave eye-glass of a similar focus be placed at 29
Printing. It is attributed to Lawrence Koster, an inches from the object-glass, the object will appear
alderman of this city, in 1440; whose house is in its natural position, and the magnifying power
yet standing in the market-place, opposite the will be the same; but the field of view will be
church. Amusing himself one day in the neigh- much smaller. Astronomical telescopes of this
boring wood, with cutting the bark of trees into construction were formerly made of 120, and even
letters that formed the initials of his name, he is of 200 feet in length, and were used without a
said to have laid them on paper, and, falling asleep, tube; the: object-glass being placed on the top of
when he awoke, observed, that, from the'dew their a long pole; but these are now entirely superseded
form was impressed on the paper. This accident by achromatic telescopes. In the achromatic teleinduced him to make further experiments; he next scope, the object-glass is compounded of two, and
cut his letters in wood, and, dipping them  in a sometimes of three lenses, placed close to each
glutinous liquid, impressed them on paper, which other, one of which is a double concave of white
he found an improvement; and, soon'after, sub- flint glass, and the other a double convex of crown
stituting leaden and-pewter letters, erected a press glass. By this means an image is formed without
in his house; thus laying the foundation of this being blended with the prismatic colors; and it
noble art, which:has thence gradually arisen to its will, therefore, bear a large aperture, and a much
present excellence.-The art, it is said, was stolen greater magnifying power, than a common refracfrom him by his servant, John Faustus, who con- tor. A good achromatic telescope four feet long
veyed it to Mentz, and, from  thie novelty of-the will magnify objects as much as a common rediscovery, soon acquired the title of Doctor and fractor 100 feet long.
Cenjurer. The original specimens are now shown    In Reflecting telescopes the images of objects
at the Library in the Town Hall. The first is on are formed by speculums or mirrors, instead of




THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER.
lenses.- They are of two kinds, the Gregortan and  struction, and, the excellence of the performance
the Newtonian.  The Gregorian Reflector consists of.theseinstruments, have been much admired by
of a tube; in which a concave mirror, having a several scientific gentlemen to whom they have
hole- in its center, is placed.  The rays of light been exhibited.*
from distant objects:falling upon:this mirror, form  -In;the.system of OeTIcs,.lately published in the
an image before it, in its center or focus. This- Edinburgh Encyclopedia tone of the. most lumiimage is intercepted by a smaller mirror, which  nous and comprehensive treatises which has yet
reflects it back,-through the hole in the large mir- appeared on;this' subject), the writer in his introror to an eye-glass, through which.the observer duction to the account of Sir D. Brewster's imviews the object. In the Newtonian Reflector, a provement on the NewtonianTelescope, remarks:
plane mirror, placed at an angle of 45 degrees, is -" If we could dispense with the use of the
substituted in place of the small mirror, in the small specula in telescopes of modern length, by
Gregorian -construction, -and the, observer looks "inclining the great speculum, and using an oblique,'
uponr the object through the side of the tube. Sir and consequently a distorted reflection, as proposed
David Brewster has suggested -an interesting im- first by La.Maire, we should consider the Newtoprovement in-the construction of this instrament, nian Telescope as perfect, and, on a large —scale,
which is.described in the Edin. Encyc., Art. Optics, or when the instrument exceeds 20 feet, it has unp. 644.                     -.                  doubtedly this character, as nothing can be more
NEW REFLECTOR.-Several years ago, the Author simple than to magnify, by a single eye-glass, the
commenced a series of experiments on- Reflecting image formed. by a single speculum.-As the front
Telescopes.; and has- lately constructed several on view is quite impracticable, and, indeed, has never
a new plan and principle.  In this construction  been attempted in instruments of a small size, it
there is no small speculum, either plane, convex, becomes of great practical consequence to remove
or concave; there, is no. tube, except a short one as much as possible the evils which -arise from
of two or three inches in length, for holding the the use of a small speculum," etc.  The instruspeculum.  The observer sits with his back to the ments noticed above have effectuated the desirable
object, and views the image formed by the specu- object alluded to by this respectable writer; and
lum  through an eye-piece, which requires to be the principle of the construction is neither that of
nicely directed and adjusted.  Three or four in- Sir W. Herschel's front view, nor does it coincide
struments of this construction have been fitted up, with that  proposed by La Maire, which seems to
with specula of 16, 28, 35, and 49 inches focal -have been a mere hint, which was never put into
distance. One of them, having a speculum  of execution.
eight inches focus, and two inches diameter, with
a terrestrial eye-piece, magnifying about 25 times,
forms an excellent parlor telescope for viewing
land-objects, and exhibits them in a brilliant' and    NOTE XI, p. 119.-On Steam Navigation, etc.
novel aspect. When compared with a Gregorian
of the same size and magnifying power, the quan-   The application of steam, as a mechanical power,
tity of light upon the object appears nearly dou- for impelling vessels and carriages, is one of the
bled, and theimage is:equallydistinct. It represents most brilliant and useful achievements of art
objects in their natural.colors, without that dingy  which distinguish the present age, and is rapidly
and yellowish tinge which appears when looking producing an important and interesting change
through a Gregorian. Another of these instru- both on inland and foreign intercourse. The fact
ments, having a speculum of 28 inches focal dis- that a vessel can be impelled by steam, against
tance, and an eye-piece producing a magnifying  wind and tide, at the rate of twelve miles an
power of about 100 times, serves as an excellent hour, and a carriage on a railway with a velocity
astronomical telescope. By this instrument the of thirty and upward, is sufficient to account for
belts. and satellites of Jupiter,. the ring of Saturn, such a change. From the " Report of a Commitand the mountains and cavities of the Moon, may  tee of Parliament," published in 1822, it appears,
be contemplated with great ease and distinctness. that the first application of steam to the impelling
By placing the pedestal on the floor of the apart- of vessels was made by an Englishman of the
ment, when the object is at a high elevation, we name of HULL, who, in 1736, obtained a patent
can view celestial phenomena with the same ease for the invention of a steamboat, to be moved
as if'we were sitting at a writing-desk reading a with a crank and paddles. But it was only in
book. With a' magnifying power of about 40 1807 that the invention was fairly brought into
times applied to this telescope, terrestrial objects practical use by Mr. FULTON, who had the advice
appear extremely bright and well defined. A spe- and assistance of Mr. BELL, a Scottish engineer.
culum of 49 inches focal distance, and 6/2 inches'In Britain, the first successful applicationi  of
diameter, has lately been fitted up on the- same steam to vessels was made by Mr. Bell,t who built
principle. With magnifying powers of from 100. the Comet, of 25 tons and 4 horse power, to ply
to 130 times, it exhibits -distinct and interesting  on the Clyde.  Glasgow, which had the honor of
views of the Moon's surface and of the ring of introducing steam navigation on this side of the
Saturn, and with a power of 56 times it affords a Atlantic, is still the seat of its greatest activity.
beautiful view of land objects. The specula used  In 1840, there were no less than 76 steamers of
in some of these instruments are far.from being
good.; -being of a yellowish color, and scarcely   * The reader will find a more particular account of these
half polished, and having large holes in-the center; s, accompanied with egravngs,  the Edinbr
Philosophical Journal for July, 1826; the "London Encyclo.
as they were originally intended, for Gregorian re- pedia,"Art. Telescope, and in the "London Mechanics' Maga.
flectors; yet the brightness of vision approaches zine" for August, 1826. The Author has given a more par.
nearly to that of Achromatic:Telescopes.  The ticular description of these and various other astronomical
instruments, in a work recently published.
experiments which have been' made on this sub- instruments, in a work recently puhlished
experiments which have been- made on this sub-   t It is much to be regretted, and is certainly not congenial
ject demonstrate, that a tube is) not necessary for, a to the generous spirit of the age, that this gentleman, who
reflecting Telescope, when viewing either celestial was among the first inventors of steam navigation, and who
or terrestrial objects; and, therefore,. this construc- did so much to promote its success in the neighborhood of
Glasgow, never received any public reward for his services,
tion of- the instrument may be denlominlated, THE but was allowed to finish his days in a condition approach.
&ERIAL REFLECTOR.  The simplicity of the con- ing to poverty.




APPENDIX                                          155
various sizes, comprising nearly 8000 tons, plying the make and size of the vessel.' Several years
on the Clyde. Some of these, beside performing ago, the Sovereign, of 210 tons and 80 horse powregular voyages to Inverary, Cambelton, Belfast, er, went 934 miles an hour in still water; and the
Dublin, Londonderry, Cork, Bristol, Liverpool, James Watt, of 448 tons, and 100 horse power,
and other places, are also performing tours, during 10 miles. For the paddle-boards, the rule is, that
the summer months, to the- Giant's Causeway, 3-10ths of a square foot of surface be immersed
Staffa, Skye, and other parts of the Western in the water for each horse power. Mr. Glad[sles, and to Inverness by the Caledonian canal. stone affirms, that so much power is wasted in
Steam-vessels are also pl]ying between Inverness displacing the water by the stroke of the board,
and London, Perth and Dundee, Dumfries and Li- that the velocity of the ship is only about one-half
verpool, Aberdeen and Leith, Dundee and London, of that of the outer surface of the paddle-wheel.
Aberdeen and London, Leith and'Dundee, Leith There are -two sources of apprehension in steamand London, Dover and Calais-from Liverpool to vessels —fire and the bursting of the boiler. With
Lisbon, Cadiz, Gibraltar, Malaga, etc. In -1840, regard to the latter, when the boiler is of low
therewere, throughout Great Britain and its colo- pressure, it is satisfactorily established that not
nies, no less than 630 steam-vessels, possessing an the smallest danger exists. And in the best conaggregate burden of 71,000 tons. The rivers on structed vessels, the danger from fire is completewhich these vessels chiefly ply are the Thames, ly obviated, by separating the furnace from  the
the Severn, the Mersey, the Tyne, the'Tay, the sides of the vessel by five inches of water."
Forth, and the Clyde. From the Thames steamers   An interesting Report was published some years
proceed to Rotterdam, Boulogne, Havre, and many ago of a series of experiments, made with a new
other ports on the continent. From  Liverpool steam engine, invented by an American machinist,
steam-vessels now regularly sail to the West In- called the capillary steam engine. Three great obdies and America. These vessels are of an enor- jects are said to be accomplished by this invenmous size.  The Great'Western, the first steamer tion-lightness, safety and economy of fuel.  In an
that sailed to America, is 1340 tons burden. The engine calculated for a 4 horse power, the genoeVictoria is a vessel of 500 horse power, and 27 rater is formed of a copper tube, 14 of an inch in
feet longer than our largest man-of-war. The diameter, and 100 feet long, which weighs about
British Queen measures in entire length 275 feet. 16 lbs. It is arranged in coils, one above another,
Her two engines are of 250 horse power each, and in the form  of a sugar loaf, 30 inches high; the
sheis calculated to carry 1862 tons.  Her outward bottom coil being 18 inches in diameter, and the
voyage of 18 days requires a consumption of 540 top one considerably less. The wood is prepared
ton's of coal, and her homeward voyage of 12 days as is usual for a stove, and put within the coils.360 tons. But larger-vessels than even these are The steam cylinder is formed of sheet copper, 3
now in' preparation. A regular communication  inches in diameter, 27 inches in stroke, and, with:is also- now established by steam  between Britain  all its appendages, weighs about 25 lbs. It has
and India, by the Mediterranean, Egypt, and the been ascertained that the generator and main cyRed sea.                                        linder, with their contents and appendages, excluSteam navigation on the continent is likewise sive of fuel, need not weigh more than 20 lbs. to
making rapid progress. Steam-vessels are now to the horse power.  No harm  can be done by the
be found on the Garonne, Seine, Danube, Rhine, bursting of boilers-even a safety-valve is conRhone, lakes of Geneva and Constance, etc. It sidered as useless. In the course of the experiis likely that, in the course of a few years, such  ments, the experimenters several times burst the
conveyances will be established on most of the tube; but so far from  doing any injury, it could
friths and rivers both in Europe and America; and not always be perceived by the spectators.
the period is no doubt hastening on when voyages   To ascertain what may be done toward aerial
will be made in such vehicles to the most distant navigation by steam, experiments were made on
regions of the world.  A steam-vessel has for the power of wings in the air, and on the power
many years been sailing regularly, summer and  necessary to work them. The result is, that it
winter, between New York and New Orleans, a requires a horse power to every 30 lbs. in the air;
distance of 2000 miles, in an open sea, exposed to so that a flying engine, to be worked by charcoal,
great storms. On the coasts and rivers of North would weigh about 30 lbs. to the horse power,
America, steam navigation is carried on to a much  wings, condenser, and fuel included. It was also
greater extent than in Great Britain or any other ascertained by experiments and calculations, that
country.  There are about 500 steam-vessels, a balloon could be made to carry a man with an
most of them  of very large size, plying on the engine, which would push it at the rate of 15
Ohio, Mississippi, and other western waters.  In miles an hour in the air. A more particular dethis country, steam-vessels are fitted up with  tail of these experiments may be seen in the Lonevery accommodation and elegance whichl art can don Mech. Mag., No. 60, for 16th Oct. 1824.
devise; so as to produce, if possible, as great a   "What steam is doing to facilitate intercourse
variety of enjoyment to passengers on sea as on by water, it is also doing on land. By means of
land. Mr. Church, the American consul in France, the iron-railway, the speed of traveling in steamin 1822, invented a paddle that revolves on the carriages is treble that which is attainable by
paddle-wheel by a very simple mechanism, which horses. The railway course is level; to accomis found to save power. In the United States, a plish which the same obstacles have to be overnew mode of constructing cabins has been intro- come in its construction that are met with in
duced, so as to place them beyond the reach of in- making a' canal —the high ground to be cut
jury from explosions of the boiler. " The Amer- through and bridges to be thrown over the low.
ican steam-vessels are larger than ours, and are Since the railway for steam-carriages between
much more used for the conveyance of merchan- Liverpool and Manchester was opened, a few years
dise. The average proportion is about 1 horse ago, the country has been getting intersected by
power for every 4 tons of burden, computed in the others in every direction.  Between these two
usual' way.  The velocity is found to be nearly as towns, the number of passengers by this mode of
the square of the power, so that an 80 horse power conveyance averaged in 1831 about 1300 daily.engine will produce only twice the velocity of one TIo transport all these by four-horse coaches,
of 20 horse power. Something depends also on each allowed to carry 20 individuals, and to travel




-156                       THE CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
60 miles per day, and each horse to run 20 miles, ment of the Creator. And who among the sons
would require upward of 32-of such coaches and of Adam can lay claim to such high qualifications
390 horses. Traveling by. steam is also making for pronouncing so (sweeping~ a decision on this
rapid progress on the continent and iinAmerica. point? - 3dly, It sets limits to the Divine perfC.&,
Between Paris and St. Germain a substantial rail- tions and operations. For although it could bh
way has been lately opened, with 105 vehicles, proved (which it cannot be),.that no such display
for passengers only,>capable of.-containing 4070 -have hitherto been made to any other beings, ye
persons, and of transporting the'whole. population who can take upon him to assert that displays ot
of Paris to St.- Germain in one day. This railway Divine perfections, far more glorious and aston
traverses no fewer than eighteen bridges, three of ishing, will not be exhibited during.countless aget
which are across the Seine. The rails are.. fifteen of eternity which are yet to come?  To set limits
times heavier than those between Liverpool and to the operations of Almighty power and bound]Ma;nchester.   Steam-carriages' have repeatedly less benevolence, during the lapse of infinite dubeen constructed to. run on common roads; but ration, is not the province of any created intellithe. friction there is so great, except where- the gence, and far less of man, who stands so low in
ground~is very smooth, hard, and level, that, with the scale of universal being.-4thly, It tends to
other impediments, theyihave not been found to damp the hopes and prospects of immortal beings,
run:to advantage."                            when looking forward to an interminable existAmong the numerous purposes to which steam  ence. For this sentiment leads them to conclude
is now applied is that of breaking stones for the that -they are already.acquainted with the greatest
construction of roads. The stones are put.into a display of Divine glory which can be made; and
kind: of hopper above, and pushed down with a that, whatever scenes of wonder may be -exhibrake, and the machine is worked by a.:rotatory ited in the future.world, they must of course be.motion of one horse power; and will break a ton all inferior to this in point of extent and grandeur..of hard pebbles, completely, in from  six to eight   The redemption of the human race, as displayminutes. A steamrmachine has also been invent- ed in the Christian revelation, is a theme suffied for the dressing of woolen cloth, which does ciently  grand, astonishing, and interesting to
as much,work in 50 minutes- as two men could command the attention of all who are convinced
do in two days.-Mon. Mag. Aug. 1823, p. 71.    that they belong to an apostate race of intelligences, and to excite the admiration and gratitude
of all who have experienced its benefits; and it
stands in no need of such unfounded and extravaNOTE XII, p. 146.-Strictures on a certain senti- gant assertions to display its riches and glory.
ment respecting the Work of Human Redemption. -Will a man speak deceitfully for God! Shall
not his excellency make you afraid, and his dread
The sentiment referred to in this paragraph, fall upon you?"  We -.ironounce nothing deci-' That there never was nor ever will be,,through  sively on this subject. We feel ourselves chained
all the ages of eternity, so wonderful a display of down to an obscure corner of God's dominionsthe Divine glory as in the cross of Christ," has to be in the very infancy of our knowledge, and
been frequently reiterated, in sermons and in sys- withal to be connected with a race of beings
temrns of divinity, and is still repeated by certain whose "understandings are darkened by reason
preachers as if it were an incontrovertible axiom, of sin;" and are, therefore, unable to pronounce
which ought never to be called in question; and an infallible decision on what God will or will not
is no doubt intended to magnify the Divine attri- do. Were we to hazard a conjecture on this subbutes and the work of redemption.  But it is ject, we would say that the converse of the pro
nothing more than a presumptuous assumption, position under consideration is more probable than.Vhich has a tendency to limit the perfections of the proposition itself. We can conceive worlds
Deity, and to present a partial and distorted view  ten thousand times more populous than ours, and
of the economy of human redemption. For, in peopled with a higher order of intellectual beings,
the first place, it has no foundation in Scripture.- toward whom  a similar display of benevolence
There is not a single -passage from which it can and mercy, were it necessary, may be made; and,
be legitimately deduced. The onus f:robandi, on therefore, in point of the extent of its objects, we
this point, rests with those who make the assertion. can conceive the love of God more illustriously
A gentleman, when lately conversing on this sub- manifested than even to the inhabitants of our
ject, brought forward the following interrogation, globe. But whether such an event shall ever
as a demonstrative argument in proof of the posi- take place, it would be presumption in us to detibn in question: " Is not redemption declared in termine.  For the thoughts and the ways of God
Scripture to be the chief of all theworks of Grod?" as far transcend ours "as the heavens are high
but he was not a little surprised when he was in- above the earth." It demands our highest tribute
-formed that the passage, which he had partly mis- of grateful adoration, that the Almighty conde-quoted, is applied to the behemoth, or the ele- scended to " regard us in our low estate," and to
phant, as stated in Job, xl, 19. —2dly, The asser- deliver us from the moral degradation into which
tion is as presumptuous as it is unfounded. It we had fallen; but surely it would be unreasonatakeds for granted, that we kniow all the events ble to conclude, from this consideration, that of
which have already.happened, and which are now  all the rational tribes which people the universe,
taking place throughout the whole range of God's MAN is the only favorite of the Most High, " when
universal empire. This empire seems unbounded; thousand worlds are round."  Though myriads
and that portion of it which we can minutely ex- of other intelligences were to share in similar
plore is but as a point in comparison of the whole. favors, it would not lessen the happiness conferred
Blut before we can, on good grounds, hazard such on us, nor ought it in-the least to detract from our
an assertion as that under consideration, we admiration of 5'.the love of God which is in
must have explored all the dispensations of God, Christ Jesus our Lord."
through every portion of his vast dominions; and   There are a great many other vague and un,
be able to form.a comparison between the diffe- tenable. notions which are entertained and reiterarent displays of divine glory made to all the different ted by certain commentators and divines, as indisclasses of intellectual beings under the. govern- putable axioms, which it would be of importance




APPENDIX.                                       157
to the cause, of religion to discard; such as, that and providence, irresistible and glorious reasons
angels are pure immaterial substances-that they for admiring, adoring, loving, and praising his
were formed on the first day of the Mosaic crea- Creator, has not a claim to evangelical piety."tion-that the wisdom of God is nowhere so illus- System of Theology, vol. iii, p. 477.
triously displayed throughout the universe as in
the scheme of redemption-that the chief employment of the future world will be to pry into
the mysteries of salvation-that sin is an infinite NOTE XIV.-List of Popular Works.on the dfeevil - that the whole material universe was   rent Sciences treated of in this volume, with occabrought into existence at the same time with our   sional Remarks.
earth-that the Creator ceased to create any new
order of beings in the universe after arranging
the fabric of our globe-that the whole system    Goldsmith's History of the Earth and Animated
of material nature in heaven and earth will be Nature-with numerous notes from the works of
destroyed at the period of the dissolution of our the most distinguished British and foreign natuworld-that our thoughts and affections should ralists, embodying the most recent discoveries in
be completely detached from  all created things, natural history-illustrated by nearly 2000 figures,
etc. Several vague notions of this description in 2 vols., royal Svo., edited by Mr. Whitelaw, and
are founded on the false assumption, that the published by Blackie & Son. —This edition of
globe we inhabit and the rational beings that have Goldsmith is unquestionably the most complete
appeared on its surface from age to age, are the that has yet appeared. It contains nearly double
chief objects of God's superintendence and care-  the quantity of matter in the original work, and
and that the Scriptures are the only medium  an account of the latest discoveries down to the
through which we can view the plans and ope- period of its publication in 1840.-The Gallery
rations of the Deity-assumptions which are con- of Nature and Art, by Dr. Mason Good and
trary to reason, which are unwarranted in Reve- others, 6 vols., 8vo.-Spectacle de la Nature, or
lation, nay, which are directly contradicted in Nature Displayed, 7 vols., 12mo.-Nature Disnumerous passages of Scripture, some of which played, by Dr. Sinleon Shaw, 3 vols., 8vo., or ir 5
have already been referred to in the course of this vols., 12mo. This work, though chiefly a com —
volume. It would be of essential service to the pilation, embodies a great variety of interesting
cause of Christianity, that its doctrines, facts, and and popular descriptions of the most remarkable
moral requisitions were uniformly exhibited in facts in the system of nature, which are illustratheir native simplicity and grandeur, without ted with numerous engravings, both plain and
being obscured and distorted by the vague and colored.  Clarke's Hundred  Wonders of the
extravagant representations with which they are World, 1 vol., 12mo., and Platt's Book of Curi.
too frequently blended by injudicious minds.   osities, contain a number of interesting selections
on this subject.-Smellie's Philosophy of Natural
History, 2 vols., 4to., and his translation of Buffon's Natural History.-Bingley's Animal BiograNt-rE XIII.-Extracts from Dr Dwight's The- phy, 4 vols., 8vo.-Works entitled " Systems"
ology.                     and "Elements" of " Natural History," are numerous; but the greater part of them is conAs authority has a considerable degree of weight fined to descriptions of the forms, habits, and
on some minds, I shall conclude with an extract instincts of animals.  On this department of
on the subject of this volume, from that respecta- natural science, a work was published some time
ble and enlightened divine, Dr. Dwight, late Presi- ago by the celebrated Cuvier, entitled The Animal
dent of Yale College: —" The works of God were Kingdom, with engravings chiefly from the living
by him intended to be, and are, in fact, manifesta- subjects in the museum  of natural history at
tions of himself; proofs of his character, pre- Paris.-A  work on the same subject has been
sence, and agency.  In this light he requires men publishing for several years past, in 12mo. vols.,
continually to regard them; and to refuse this entitled The Naturalist's Library, by Sir W  Jarregard is considered by him as grossly wicked, dine. Every volume contains about 34 plates,
and highly deserving of punishment. Psalm xxviii, with the figures colored from  nature, along with
5; Isaiah, v, 12-14. I am apprehensive that even a biographical sketch, and a portrait of some emigood men are prone to pay less attention to the nent naturalist or philosopher. About 40 vols.
works of creation and providence than piety de- have already been published, price 6s. each. —A
mands and the Scriptures require. We say and Popular and Comprehensive History of the facts
hear so much concerning the insufficiency of which have been ascertained respecting the earth,
these works to unfold the character of God and the atmosphere, the meteors, the heavens, etc.,
the nature of genuine religion, that we are prone calculated for general readers, and interspersed
to consider them as almostuninstructive in moral with appropriate moral and religious reflections,
things, and in a great measure useless to the pro- is still a desideratum. The facts of natural histomotion of piety. This, however, is a palpable ry, next to the facts recorded in the sacred volume,
and dangerous error. The works alone, without are the first subjects to which the minds of the
the aid of the Scriptures, would, I acknowledge, young should be directed in the course of a genebe far less instructive than they now are, and ral education.
utterly insufficient to guide us in the way of
righteousness. The Scriptures were designed to          SELECT BOOKS ON GEOGRAPHY.
be a.comment on these works; to explain their
nature, and to show us the agency, purposes,   Pinkerton's Modern Geography, 2 vols., 4to.,
Wisdom, and goodness of God in their forma- and the Abridgment, 1 vol., 8vo.-The Glasgow
tion   Thus explained, thus illuminated, they Geography, in 5 vols., 8vo. This work comprebecome means of knowledge, very extensive hends an immense mass of information on the
and eminently useful. He who does not find historical and descriptive parts of geography. It
in the various. beautiful, sublime, awful, and also contains comprehensive compends of astroastonishing objects presented to us in' creation nomy, geology, meteorology, etc. —Malte Brun's




1-58                       THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.
System of Geography, 7 vols., 8evo. The English: etC.- AFRICA. Lyon's Travels in Northern
translation of this work contains the fullest -and Africa.-Burckhardt's Travels in Nubia.-Bruce's
imost comprehensive view of universal geography Travels in Abyssinia. —Salt's Travels in Abysslthat has yet appeared in our' language, including nia.-Bowditch's, Hutton's, andDupuis's Accouint
details of the most recent discoveries. The first of Ashantee.-Park's and Lander's Travels in Afvolume contains a luminous and comprehensive rica. —Leigh's:Journey in Egypt.-Belzoni's Traoutline of the science of geology and physical vels in Egypt.-Sonini's Travels in Egypt.-Barand- mathematical geography. —Mrriay's Ency- row's, Burchell's, andCampbell'sTravelsin Southclopedia of Geography, l vol., 8vo.  This work era Africa..-Russell's Account of Nubia, Abyscontains a great mass of information on the sub- sinia, and the Barbary States, and-View of Ancient
jects connected with geography, and numerous and Modern Egypt. —Narrative of Discovery and
engravings.-Woodbridge's System  of Universal Adventure in Africa, with Illustrations of the
Geography, with maps and-  umerous engravings.  Geology, Mineralogy, and Zoology, etc.- AMER-Bell's Geography. —XMyer's System of Modern IcA. Howison's Sketches of Upper Canada.Geography,;with maps, views, engravings repre- Stewart's Three Years in America.-Tytler's
seating costumes, etc., 2 large vols., 4to. —Cooke's Views of the Northern Coast of America.-HumSystem of Universal Geography, in 2 very large boldt's Travels in South America.-Duncan's Tra4to. volumes, closely priated, contains a great vels in the United States.-Miss Martineau's Sovariety of interesting sketches in relation to de- ciety in America.-Buckingham's Travels in the
scriptive -geography, extracted from the writings United States of America —Luccock's, Vidal's,
oof moderil voyagers and travelers;, the details of Koster's, and Hall's Travels in South America,
incidents, etc.; being related, for the most part, in etc. —EURoPE.  Henderson's and Mackenzie's
the words of-the respective authors from whom  Travels in Iceland.- Thomson's Travels in Swethe information is collected. - Winterbotham's den. —Carr's Travels in Russia, Denmark, etc. —
Geographical and Historical View of the United Pallas's Travels in Russia.-Wraxall's, Neale's,
States of America, etc., 4 vols., 8vo.-Morse's Coxe's, and Lemaistre's Tours through France,
American Geography, 8 vo. —Goldsmith's Geogra- Switzerland, Germany, etc.-Burgoing's and Japhy on a popular plan, contains an interesting cob's Travels in Spain.-Brydone's.Tour in Sicily,
account of the rl:anners and customs of nations, etc. —Von Buck's Travels in Norway and Lapland.
for the entertainment and instruction of the -Cochrane's Travels in Siberia, etc.-Cooke's,
young, illustrated with above 60 engravings..Of Anson's, Byron's, Perouse's, and Bouganville's
smaller systems, there is a great abundance in the Voyages round the World, etc.-Prior's Universal
English language; but most of them are extremely Traveler, 1 thick vol., 12mo., closely printed, with
deficient,, particularly in what relates to general 100 engravings.
geography. —On sacred geography, Well's Geography, modernized by the Editor of Calmet's              SELECT BOOKS ON GEOLOGY.
Dictionary, is the most complete work of its
kind. On physical or general geography:;Play-   Kirwin's Mineralogy, and his, Geological Esfair's System of Geography, vol. I, and Vareni- savs.-De Luc's Geology, and his Geological Traus's General Geography. A MODERN system of vers.-Parkinson's Organic Remains of a former
general geography, in a separate form, on the world, 3 vols., 4to. —The Fossils of hle South
plan of Varenius, is a desideratum. —Edin. Encyc., Downs, or Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex,
Art. Geography.-Encyc. Brit., 7th edition, Art. by G. Mantel, F.L.S.-The preliminary Essay to
Physical Geography, etc. Books of Voyages and this splendid Work contains several excellent reTravels generally contain the rmost circumstantial marks respecting the connection of Geology with
details of the physical aspects of the different Religion, which are calculated to advance the incountries, and of the dispositions and customs of I terests of both.-Cuvier's Essay on the theory of
their inhabitants;' and present to the view of the the Earth, with Illustrations by Professor JamieChristian philanthropist those facts and principles son, 4th edition. —Playfair's Illustrations of the
from which the moral state and character of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth.-Transactions
various, tribes of human beings may be inferred. of the Geological and Wernerian Societies. —Dr.
The following works contain  comprehensive P. Smith's Lectures on Geology as connected with
-abridgments of the most celebrated voyages and Revelation.-Dr. Hitchcock's Treatise on Geology
travels:-Pinkerton's General Collection of Voy- -his Connection between Geology and Natural
-ages and Travels in all parts of. the World, 17 Religion-and his Connection between Geology
vols., 4to.-Mavor's Voyages, etc., 28 vols., 18mo. and the Mosaic Account of the Creation.-Lyell's
-The World Displayed, 18 vols., 18mo.-Phillips's Geology.-Buckland and Babbage's Bridgewater
Collection of Voyages and Travels, etc.-Conder's Treatises. —Macculloch's System  of Geology.Modern Traveler, 20 vols.                      Hugh Miller's Old Red Sandstone.-Buckland's
The following are among the most respectable Account of the discovery of a Den of Hyenas in
modern publications on this subject, arranged ac- a cavern in Yorkshire.-Buckland's Treatise on'cording to the different quarters of the world: — Geology, 2 vols., 8vo. —Bakewell's Introduction to
AsrIA.  alencia's Travels in- India, Arabia, etc.-  Geology.-Phillips's Outlines of Mineralogy and
Porter's Travels in Georgia, Armenia, etc. —Go- Geology, 12mo.-This last work forms a good in*l.ownin's Travels in Japan.-Staunton's Account troduction to the study of Geology, for those who
of Macartney's Embassy to China.-Raffles' Tra- are just commencing their inquiries on this subvels in Java. —Clarke's Travels in Asia Minor and  ject. The object — of this science, in the meanthe Holy Land. —Chateaubriand's Travels in Pal- time, should be confined chiefly to the col:ecting of
estine.-Ali Bey's Travels in Arabia.-Sir Alex- facts, in< reference to the structure of the earth
-ander Burness's Travels in India, etc.-Stephens' and the -changes it has undergone. The exterior
Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petrea, and aspect of our globe, and its internal recesses, must
the Holy Land.-Morier's Travels through Persia. be still more extensively explored, before ally theoe-Historical and -Descriptive Account of British ry of the earth can be established on a broad and
India, 3 vols.- Historical and Descriptive Account solid foundation. It should be left to future ages
of'China, 3 vols. —Crichton's History of Arabia. — to build a system with the materials we are uow
Frazer's Account of Persia. —Russell's Palestine, preparing.




-APPENDIX. -                                     159
POPULAR WORKrS ON-ASTRONOMY..          entitled "Celestial Scenery," and the "$idereal
Heavens," which have already passed through seBrewster's Ferguson's Astronomy, 2 vols., 8vo., veral editions, and have been republished in differwith a vol. of plates. The notes and supplemen- ent parts of America.
tary chapters of this work, written by'Sir D.
Brewster, contain a full and comprehensive detail    SELECTr BOOKS ON NATURAL PHiLOSOPHY.
of all the modern discoveries in this science. —
Bonnycastle's Introduction po Astronomy, 1 vol.,   Hauy's Elementary Treatise on Natural Philos.
8vo.- La- Place's System  of the World, 2 vols., ophy, translated by Dr. O. Gregory, 2 vols., 8vo.
8vo.-Dr. Olinthus -Gregory's Astronomy, 1 vol., This translation contains a number of valuable
8vo.-Mrs. Bryan's System of Astronomy, 8vo.- notes by the translator.-Ferguson's Lectures on
Adams' Astronomical and Geographical Essays, Select subjects in Mechanics, etc., by Sir D. Brew8v'o. —Phillips's Eight Familiar Lectures on As- ster, 2 vols., 8vo., with a vol. of plates. The Aptronomy, 12mo. —HIerschel's Astronomy. —Squire's pendix to this work, by Sir D. Brewster, conGrammar of Astronomy, one thick vol. 18mo., tains a mass of valuable information on Meclosely printed, and illustrated with 35 plates.- chanics, -Hydraulics, Dialing, and the construcArago's Lectures on Astronomy:.-The Won- tion of Optical Instruments; beside a varietv of
ders of the Heavens, 12mo. —This work contains illustrative notes interspersed through the we 1:.
a popular view of the principal facts of Astrono- which comprises a detailed account of the recent
my, and is illustrated with 50 elegant engravings discoveries in Experimental Philosophy.-Nicholof a variety of interesting objects connected with son's Introduction to Natural Philosophy, 2 vols.,
the scenery of the heavens; but its discussions 8vo.-Cavallo's Complete Treatise  on Natural
are too frequently blended with the peculiarities and Experimental Philosophy, 4 vols., 8vo.- Marof a moderni physical theory.-Martin's Gentle- tin's Philosophia Britannica, 3 vols., 8vo.; his
man a8nd Lady's Philosophy, vol. 1. —Derham's Gentleman and Lady's Philosophy; 3 vols., Svo.;
Astio-Theology, and Whistol's Astronomical arid his Philosophical Grammar, 1 vol., 8vo. —
Principles of Religion, 8vo. —Baxter's Matho, 2 Herschel's Preliminary Discourses onil the study
vols., etc.-An elegant and comprehensive outline of Natural Philosophy.-Lardner's   Hydrostatics,
of thd leading  facts of Astronomy in their rela- Mechanics, and Pneumatics.-Professor Quetetion to Revealed Religion, will be found in Dr. let's Facts, Laws, and Phenomena of Natural
Chalmers's Discourses on the Christian- Revela- Philosophy.-Partington's Manual of Natural and
tion, viewed in connection with Modern Astrono- Experimental Philosophy, 2 vols., 8vo. —Sir D
my, 8vo.-The general reader, in commencing his Brewster's Treatise on Optics.-Smith's Complete
study of this science, will find Bonnycastle's"' In- System of Optics, 2 vols., 4to., with 93 plates, controduction" a very interesting work. It is writ- taining 941 figures, 1738.-Arnot's Elements of
ten ini an elegant and animated style, and is agree- Physics, 2 vols., 8vo.-Gregory's Economy of Naably interspersed with a number of appropriate ture, 3 vols, 8vo.; and his Lectures on Experireflections; but it is deficient in the detail of mod- mental Philosophy, Astronomy, and Chemistry, 2
en discoveries.  He might next proceed to the vols., 12mo.-Joyce's Letters on Experimental
perusal of Ferguson, Gregory, Squire, etc. —La Philosophy, 2 vols., 12mo.; and his Scientific DiPlace's work contains a beautiful exposition of alogues, 18mo.-Adams' Lectures on Natural and
the Newtonian system; but it is glaringly deficient Experimental Philosophy, 4 vols., 8vo., with a vol.
in reference to the Wisdom and Agency of a Su- of plates.-Young's Lectures on Natural Philosopreme Intelligence. "An undevout astronomer phy, 2 vols., 8vo.-Walker's System  of familiar
is mad."  Baxter's Matho contains a popular and Philosophy, 4to., in 12 lectures, with 47 4to. eninteresting view of this subject, and forms a stri- gravings.-Conversations on Natural Philosophy
king contrast to the apathy'of La Place, who care- by the author of Conversations on Chemistry, one
fully keeps out of view the agency of the Creator thick vol., 12mo., with 23 engravings.-Blair's
-the main design of this author being to con- Grammar of Natural Experimental Philosophy,
nect the phenomena of the heavens and the earth especially the late editions, contains (at a small
with the attributes of Deity, and the high destina- price), a comprehensive view of the principal detion of immortal minds. Though this work pass- partments of Philosophy, including Astronomy,
ed through three editions, it does not seem to have Geology, Chemistry, Meteorology, etc.-Euler's
been appreciated according to its merits. As it Letters to a German Princess, 2 vols., 8vo., conhas now become scarce, a new edition with notes, tains a popular view of the most interesting subcontaining a detail of modern discoveries, might jects connected with Natural and Experimental
be an acceptable present to the public. Those Philosophy, Logic, and Ethics. This work is diswho wish to prosecute this subject to a greater tinguished by a vein of dignified and scriptural
extent, may be referred to Long's Astronomy, 2 piety, whidch runs through every part of it. Euler
vols., 4to; —Robison's Mechanical Philosophy, was one of the most distinguished Philosophers
vol. 1.-Dr. Pearson's Introduction to Practical and Mathematicians of his day. HIe died in 1783,
Astronomy,comprising descriptions of Telescopes, at the age of 77. An edition of this work, con
Equatorials, Quadrants, and other astronomical taining notes by Sir D. Brewster, has been publishinstruinents,2 large vols., 4to., with numerous en- ed. These notes are excellent, so far as they exgravings of instruments.-Vince's complete Sys- tend; but it is to be regretted that they are so
tern of Astronomy, 3 vols., 4to. —La Lande As- sparingly distributed, and that the passages suptronomie, 3 vols., 4to-andBiot's Traitie El6men- pressed by M. Condorcet and De la Croix, which
taire d' Astronomie Physique. A comprehensive were restored by Dr. Hunter, who translated the
work on Descriptive.Astronomy, detailing in a pop- work, and the notes of the French and English
ular manner, all the facts which have been ascer- editors, are for the most part discarded. As a
tained respecting the scenery of the heavens, ac- work of general information in -elation to the
companied with a variety of striking delineations, physical sciences and other useful departments of
andinterspersed with appropriate moral reflections, knowledge, Chambers's Information for the People
accommodated to the general reader, is a desider- may be recommended to common readers, as a
atum which we trust will be in some measure very useful and comprehensive compend of Scisupplied by the two volumes we lately published, once, History, Civil and Natural Geography, VeVOL. II.-11




160                         THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER.'getable and Animal Physiology, Chemistry, Elec- of Lavoisier's Elements of Chemistry, 9vo -
tricity, Magnetism, etc. It is the cheapest book Chaptal's Chemistry applied to the Arts, 4 vols.,
that has hitherto been'published, when we consider 8vo.-Fourcroy's Chemistry, 4 vols.-Accum's
the quantity of letter-press, and the vast mass of Chemical Amusements, and Griffin's Chemical
information it contains.                       Recreations, contain a description of a variety of
Notwithstanding the numerous excellent trea- interesting chemical facts, and amusing experitises which are to be found on this subject, a com- ments.-Gurney's Lectures on the Elements of
prehensive work  on experimental Philosophy, Chemical Science, 8yVo.-Mackenzie's One Thoublended with sketches of those parts of natural histo- sand Experiments in Chemistry, etc.-Mitchell'
ry which are connected with it, and enlivened with Dictionary of Chemistry.-Graham's Chemical
appropriate reflections on the peculiar agencies of Catechism.-Donovan's Treatise on Chemistry, in
Deity, which appear in the various processes of Lardner's Cyclopedia.- Turner's Chemistry.nature-is; still wanting to.interest the general Conversations on Chemistry, by a Lady, 2 vols.,
reader, and to attract his attention- to this depart- 12mo.-Joyce's Dialogues on Chemistry, 2 vols.,
ment of knowledge. Were philosophers, in their 18mo.-Parke's Rudiments of Chemistry, 18mo,
discussions of natural science,) more frequently to and his Chemical Catechism, 8vo. The four works
advert to the agency of the Deity, and to point last mentioned may be recommended as popular
out the Religious and Philanthropic purposes to introductions to the study of this science.which modern discoveries might be applied, they Parke's Rudiments and Catechism are distinguishmight be the means of promoting, at the same ed by their constant reference to the agency of
time, the interests both of science and religion, by the Deity, and by the anxiety which the author
alluring general readers to.direct their attention to displays to fix the attention of his readers on the
such objects, and bh reynmoving those groundless evidences of benevolent design which appear in
prejudices which a great proportion of te Christian the constitution of nature. The numerous notes
world still entertain against philosophical studies. appended to the Chemical Catechism embody a
About the period when Boyle, Ray, Derham, great variety of interesting facts in reference to
Nieuwentyt, Wh'ston, Addison, theAbbe Pluch6, the economy of nature, and the processes of the
and other Christian philosophers flourished, more arts. To this amiable and intelligent writer I feel
attention seems to have been paid to this subject indebted for several of the chemical facts stated
than at present. Since the middle of the last cen- in this volume.
tury, the piety of philosophers appears to have   As the science of Chemistry is making rapid
been greatly on the decline.  It is to be hoped that progress in its investigations and discoveries-the
it is now beginning to experience a revival. But latest editions of the works referred to, and all
whatever may be the varying sentiments and feel- others on the same subject, are generally to be
ings of mere philosophers, in reference to the preferred. The same remark is applicable to alagencies of the material system, "all the works most all the works connected with the physical
of God invariably speak of their Author," to the sciences. But, with the exception of new discohumble and enlightened Christian; and if he be veries, many of the works published twenty or
directed to contemplate the order of nature with thirty years ago, are worthy of being consulted,
an eye of intelligence, he will never be at a loss and are, in some respects, superior to more recent
to'trace the footsteps and- the attributes of his publications. There are some works, on different
Father and his God.                            branches of natural science, published nearly a
century ago, which give more full and clear deSELECT BOOKS ON CHEMISTRY            scriptions of certain scientific facts than are to be
found in many of our modern publications: and
Davy's Elements of Chemical Philosophy, Svo. therefore such works ought not to be considered
-Ure's Dictionary of Chemistry, on the basis of as altogether obsolete. It is of some importance
Mr. Nicholson's, 1 large vol., 8vo.-Henry's Epi- to the student of science to be possessed of several
tome of Chemistry, 2 vols., 8vo.-Accum's Chem- treatises on the same subject; as certain principles
istry,'2 vols., 8vo.-Thomson's System of Chem- or facts which may be vaguely stated, or imperistry, 4vols., 8vo.-Murray'sSystem of Chemistry, fectly explained by one author, may be more fully
4 vols., 8vo., and Appendix. —Kerr's Translation and clearly elucidated by another




/ CELESTIAL SCENER Y;
OR,
THE WONDERS
OF
THE PLANETARY SYSTEM  DISPLAYED;
ILLUSTRATING
THE PERFECTIONS OF DEITY
AND A PLURALITY OF WORLDS,








PREFACE.
TEE following work is intended for the instruction of general readers, to direct their
attention to the study of the heavens, and to present to their view sublime objects of
contemplation. With this view the author has avoided entering on the more abstruse
and recondite portions of astronomical science, and confined his attention chiefly to
the exhibition of facts, the foundation on which they rest, and the reasonings by which
they are supported. All the prominent facts and discoveries connected'with descriptive
astronomy, in so far as they relate to the planetary system, are here recorded, and
many of them exhibited in a new point of view; and several new facts and observations are detailed which have hitherto been either unnoticed or unrecorded.
The results of hundreds of tedious calculations have been introduced respecting
the solid and superficial contents of the different planets, their satellites, and the rings
of Saturn; their comparative magnitudes and motions, the extent of their orbits, the
apparent magnitudes of bodies in their respective firmaments, and many other particulars not contained in books of astronomy, in order to produce in the minds of common
readers definite conceptions of the magnitude and grandeur of the solar system. The
mode of determining the distances and magnitudes of the celestial bodies is explained,
and rendered as perspicuous and popular as the nature of the subject will admit; and
the prominent arguments which demonstrate a plurality of worlds are considered in all
their bearings, and illustrated in detail.
One new department of astronomical science, which has hitherto been overlooked,
has been introduced into this volume, namely, the scenery of the heavens as exhibited
from the surfaces of the different planets and their satellites, which forms an interesting
object of contemplation, and, at the same time, a presumptive argument in favor of
the doctrine of a plurality of worlds.
The author, having for many years past been a pretty constant observer of celestial
phenomena, was under no necessity of adhering implicitly to the descriptions given
by preceding writers, having had an opportunity of observing, through some of the
best reflecting and achromatic telescopes, the greater part of the phenomena of the
solar system which are here described.
Throughout the volume he has endeavored to make the facts he describes bear upon
the illustration of the Power, Wisdom, Benevolence, and the Moral Government of
the Almighty, and to elevate the view, of the reader to the contemplation of HIM
who sits on the throne of the universe, " by whom the worlds were framed," and who
is the Source and Center of all felicity.
In prosecuting the subject of Celestial Scenery, the author intends, in another
volume, to carry forward his survey to the STARRY HEAVENS and other objects con(iii)




iv
nected with astronomy. That volume will embrace discussions relative to the number,
distance, and arrangement of the stars; periodical and variable stars; new and temporary stars; double and triple stars; binary systems; stellar and planetary nebulae;
the comets, and other particulars; accompanied with such reflections, as the contemplation of such august objects may suggest. The subject of a plurality of worlds
will likewise be prosecuted, and additional arguments, derived both from reason and
Revelation, will be adduced in support of this position.  The practical utility of
astronomical studies, their connection with religion, and the views they unfold of the
perfections and the empire of the Creator, will, also be the subject of consideration.
And should the limits of a single volume permit, some hints may be given in relation
to the desiderata in astronomy, and the means by which the progress of the science may
be promoted, together with descriptions of the telescope, the equatorial, and other
instruments, and the manner of using them for celestial investigation.
]BnouauTr FRuEy, XN.B  DUNDN.     -




CONT ENTS.
IN TR O D U C T I 0N.
PApg,Objects and sublimity of the science of astronomy. Ignorance of former ages on this subject.
Modern Discoveries-object of this work..............................................   9
CHAPTER I.
ON THE GENERAL APPEARANCE AND APPARENT MOTIONS OF THE STARRY HEAVENS.
Ignorance of the bulk of mankind in regard to the apparent motions of the heavens.
Deficiencies in our modes of education. Innate curiosity of the young. Apparent motions
and phenomena of the nocturnal heavens. How to find the pole-star. Description of Ursa
M1ajor and Minor. Situations of some of the principal stars. Appearance of the firmament
in southern latitudes.  Magnificence of the starry heavens.  Proofs of the earth's rotation.
1 Ttilitv of the stars. Measures of the celestial sphere..............................  11
CHAPTER II.
ON THE GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLANETARY SYSTEM.
Ptolemaic system —its complexity and futility.   Copernicus.  System  of Copernicus-its
important bearings. Arguments to prove the truth of this system, and of the earth's annual
motion, illustrated at large. Motion of the earth a sublime object of contemplation.........  19
CHAPTER III.
ON THE MAGNITUDES, MOTIONS, AND OTHER PHENOMENA OF THE BODIES CONNECTED WITH TIlE
SOLAR SYSTEM.
1. The Planet Mercury.
Its period-elongation-transits-mountains-intensity of light-temperature-magnitude and
population-rate of motion-mass and density-eccentricity of orbit, &c................  27
2. The Planet Venus.
Form of the Planetary orbits. Explanation of astronomical terms. General appearance,
phases, and apparent motions of Venus.   May be seen at its superior conjunction.
Observations on in the day-time. Discoveries on by the telescope. Views of by Cassini,
Bianchini, Maraldi, Schroeter, and others. Its mountains and atmosphere. Its supposed
satellite-its transits-extent of surface-quantity of light-temperature-distance-rate of
motion, density, &c................................................................. 29
3. The Earth considered as a Planet.
Its spheroidal figure, and how ascertained-general aspect of its surface-appearance if viewed
from the moon-its internal structure and density-its variety of seasons-general reflections
on —its tropical and -sidereal year, and various other particulars............................  39
4. The Planet Mars.
Peculiar phenomena of the superior planets.- Conjunctions, oppositions, and phases of Mars —
distance, motion, apparent diameter, and extent of its orbit-telescopic views of its surface —
(v)




Vi                                       CONTENTS.
its atmosphere-conclusions respecting its physical constitution-its superficial contentsproportion of light-wheth-er it have a secondary attendant, &c....... 45
5. The Planets Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas.
History of their discovery. Notice of Dr. Olbers. Magnitude, distances, periods, and other
phenomena of these planets-their peculiarities-inclination and eccentricity of orbits, &c.,
&c. Conclusions respecting the hature of these planets. Remarks in reference to the Divine
government.  Meteoric phenomena. Details of meteoric showers, with remarks.  Moral
reflections, &c.............. -51
6. The Planet Jupiter.
Its distance-diurnal rotation-centrifugal force  density — magnitude and capacity for,-population.  Discoveries made on its surface by means of the telescope.  Its belt —their
changes and general phenomena.  Opinions respecting their nature.  Its permanent spots.
Its peculiar splendor.  Its seasons-atmosphere —proportion of light-spheroidal figure-arc
of retrogradation, &c............                         -                                59
7. The Planet Saturn.
Its distance-period of revolution and proportion of light.  Discoveries on its surface by means
of the telescope.  Magnitude and extent.  Its density.  Gravitating power of the planets,
&c, &c...- -............................................................  64
8. Rings of Saturn.
History of their discovery.  Their dim ensions-rotation-arc eccentric.  Their superficial
contents and vast extent illustrated. Display the grandeur of the Creator. Their appearance
from the surface of Saturn. Their diversified phenomena. Firmament of Saturn described.
Uses of the rings.  Different aspects of the rings as viewed through telescopes.............. 66
9. The Planet Uranus.
History of its discovery.  Its distance.  Circumference of its orbit.  Its period of revolution.
Its, magnitude and dimensions.  Its proportion of light.  Its temperature,  Nature of
caloric,  &c............................................................................................... 72
Whether any other planets exist within the limits of our system, and how they may be discovered.  75
10. The Sun.
Its apparent diurnal motion as viewed from different positions on the globe-its annual motionits distance-its magnitude particularly illustrated with reflections-its rotation.  Phenomena
of its spots particularly described-their variety and changes-opinions respecting them.
Deductions respecting the nature and constitution of the sun.  Amazing operations going
forward on its surface.  The extent of its surface compared with the view from Mount Etna.
Displays the grandeur of the Deity. Whether it be inhabited.  Its beneficial influence on
our globe. Its effect on the weather. Its motion in space.  Zodiacal light...............   76
CHAPTER IV.
ON  THE  SECONDARY  PLANETS.
1. The Moon.
Its apparent motions and phases-rotation-opacity-distance-variety of mountains-caverns..
volcanoes-telescopic views of-atmosphere-magnitude-inhabitants-pretended discoveries
on-beneficial influence, &c...................................... 85
2. The Satellites of Jupiter.
Their discovery- revolutions-eclipses —-magnitudes - diversity of phenomena - longitude-.
motion of light............................................... 9......  95
3. Satellites of Saturn.
History of their discovery-revolutions and assumed magnitudes-appearance from Saturn...   98




CONTENTS                                                v
4. Satellites of Uranus.
Their motions-distances —assumed magnitudes and peculiarities.......................... 99
CHAPTER V.
ON THE PERFECTIONS OF THE DEITY, AS DISPLAYED IN THE PLANETARY SYSTEM.
Grand object of astronomy.  Omnipotence of the Deity-displafed in the magnitudes and
motions of the sun and planets. His wisdom illustrated in various particulars. His boundless
beneficence................................................................... 100
CHAPTER VI.
SUMMARY VIEW: OF THE PLANETARY SYSTEM.
Superficies, solidity, comparative magnitudes and distances of the sun, earth, planets, satellites
rngs.......................................................... 105
and rnsof Saturn.....105
CHAPTER VII.
ON THE METHOD BY WHICH THE DISTANCES AND MAGNITUDES OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES ARE DETERMINED.
Popular methods illustrated.   Law  of shadows.   Eclipses.   Trigonometrical definitions.
Parallaxes. Triangles. Mode of calculating the distance and diameter of the moon. General
remarks.................................................................... 107
CHAPTER  VIII. T T T
ON THE SCENERY OF THE HEAVENS AS VIEWED FROM THE SURFACES OF THlE DIFFERENT PLANETS ANDS
THEIR SATELLITES.
General remarks on celestial scen~ry. Scenery of the heavens from Mercury-Venus-Mars —
the new  plaiiets-Jupiter-SaturiiUralnus  rings of Saturn.   Celestial scenery  of the
moo-n.. Appearance of the earth from. Lunar astronomy. Scenery from the satellites of
Jup~iter-of Saturn —and of Uranus. Various views of these scenes. General observations.. 114
CHAPTER IX.
ON THE DOCTRINE OF A PLURALITY OP WORLDS, WITH AN ILLUSTRATION OP SOME OF THE ARGUMENTS
BY WHICH IT MAY BE SUPPORTED.,,
First argument illustrated.........................126
Second argument...........................00..... 127
Third argument....................................  12
Application of the preceding arguments.........................132
Fourth drgument....................................133
Filth argument..........134
S-ummary-concluding  reflections.............................137
Descriptions of Celestial phenolnena, and of the. positions and aspects of all the plaliets during
the years 1838 and 1839.................................137








CELESTIAL SCENERY.
I NTRO D U C T IO N.
ASTRONOMY is that department of knowledge light, or with their own native luster?  Are they
which has for its object to investigate the motions, placed only a few miles above the region of the
the magnitudes, and distances of the heavenly bo- clouds, or at immense distances beyond the range
dies; the laws by which their movements are di- of human comprehension?  Can their distance be
rected, and the ends they are intended to sub- ascertained?  Can their bulk be computed?  By
serve in the fabric of the universe. This is a what laws are their motions regulated? and what
science which has in all ages engaged the atten- purposes are they destined to subserve in the great
tion of the poet, the philosopher, and the divine, plan of the universe?  These, and similar quesand been the subject of their study and admira- tions, it is the great object of astronomy to retion. Kings have descended from their thrones to solve, in so far as the human mind has been enrender it homage, and have sometimes enriched it abled to prosecute the path of discovery.
with their labors; and humble shepherds, while   For a long period, during the infancy of sciwatching their flocks by night, have beheld with ence, comparatively little was known of the hearapture the blue vault of heaven, with its thou- venly bodies excepting their apparent motions and
sand shining orbs, moving in silent grandeur, until aspects. Instead of investigating with care their
the morning star announced the approach of day. true motions, and relative distances and magniThe studyl of this science must have been coeval tudes, many of our ancestors looked up to the
with the existence of man; for there is no rational sky either with a brute unconscious gaze, or
being who has for the first time lifted his eyes to viewed the heavens as the book of fate, in which
the nocturnal sky, and beheld the moon walking they might read their future fortunes, and learn,
in brightness amidst the planetary orbs and the from the signs of the zodiac, and the conjunctions
host of stars, but must have been struck with ad- and other aspects of the planets, the temperamiration and wonder at the splendid scene, and ments and destinies of men and the fate of emexcited to inquiries into the nature and destination pires. And even to this day, in many countries,
of those far-distant orbs.  Compared with the the fallacious art of prognosticating fortunes by
splendor, the amplitude, the august motions, and the stars is one of the chief uses to which the scithe ideas of infinity which the celestial vault pre- oence of the heavens is applied. In the ages to
sents, the most resplendent terrestrial scenes sink which I allude, the world in which we dwell was
into inanity, and appear unworthy of being set in considered as the largest body in the universe. It
competition with the glories of the sky.       was supposed to be an immense plane, diversified
When, on a clear autumnal evening, after sun- with a few inequalities, and stretching in every
set, we take a serious and attentive view of the direction to an indefinite extent. How the sun
celestial canopy; when we behold the moon dis- penetrated or surmounted this immense mass of
playing her brilliant crescent in the vrestern sky; matter every morning, and what became of him
the evening star gilding the shades of night; the in the evening-whether, as the poets assert, he
planets moving in their several orbs; the stars, extinguished himself in the western ocean, and
one after another, emerging from the blue ethe- was again lighted up in the eastern sky in the
real, and gradually lighting up the firmament morning-many of them could not determine.until it appear all over spangled with a brilliant Below this mass of matter we call the earth, it
assemblage of shining orbs; and  particularly was conceived that nothing but darkness and
when we behold one cluster of stars gradually de- empty space, or the regions of Tartarus, could
scending below the western horizon, and other exist. The stars which gild the concave of the
clusters emerging from the east, and ascending, firmament above were considered only as so many
in unison, the canopy of heaven; when we con- bright studs fixed in a crystalline sphere, which
template the whgle celestial vault, with all the carried them round every day to emit a few glimshining orbs it contains, moving in silent gran- mering rays, and to adorn the ceiling of our terdeur, like one vast concave sphere, around this restrial habitation. Above the visible firmament
lower-world and the place on which we stand-  of heavenr, and far beyond the ken of mortal eye,
such a scene naturally leads a reflecting mind to the Deity was supposed to have fixed his special
such inquiries as these: Whence come those stars residence, among myriads of superior intelliwhich are ascending from  the east?  Whither gences. The happiness, the preservation, and the
have those gone which have disappeared in the moral government of the human race were supwest?  What becomes of the:stars during the posed to be the chief business and object of the
day which are seen in the night?  Is the mo- Deity, to which all his decrees in eternity past,
tion which appears in the celestial vault real, or and all his arrangements in relation to eternity to
does a motion in the earth itself cause this ap- come, had a special and almost exclusive referpearance?  What are those immense numbers of ence. Such ideas are still to be found, even in
shining orbs which appear in every part of the the writings of Christian divines, at a period no
sky?  Are they mere studs or tapers fixed in the further back than the sixteenth century.
arch of heaven, or are they bodies of immense   To hazard the opinion that the plans of the Alsize and splendor?  Do they shine with borrowed mighty embraced a much more extensive range(9)




10                               CELESTIAL SCENERY.
that other beings, analogous to men, inhabited the beholds the celestial regions filled with bodies of
planetary or the starry orbs, and that such beings an immense size, arranged in beautiful and har.
form by far the greater part of the population of monious order, and performing their various revothe universe-would have been considered as a lutions with regularity and precision, the natural
heresy in religion, and would probably have sub- inquiry is, For what end has the Deity thus exjected some of those who embraced it to the erted his wisdom and omnipotence?  WVVhat is the
anathemas of the church, as happened to Spige- ultimate destination of, those huge globes which
lius, bishop, of Upsal, for defending the doctrine appear in the spacesof the firmament?  Are
of the antipodes, and to Galileo, the philosopher these vast masses of matter suspended in the vault
of Tuscany, for'asserting the motion of the of heaven merely to diversify the voids of infinite
earth. The ignorance,' the intolerance, and the space, or to gratify a few hundreds of terrestrial
contracted views to which I allude, are,'however, astronomers in peeping at them  through their
now, in a great'measure, dissipated. The light -glasses?  Is the Almighty to be considered as
of science has arisen, and shed its'benign influ- taking pleasure in beholding a number of splendid
ence on the world. It has dispelled the darkness. lamps, hung up throughout the wilds of immen.
of former ages, extended our prospects of the sity, which have no relation to the accornmodagrandeur and magnificence of the scene' of crea. tion and happiness of intelligent minds?  Has he
tio,: and, in conjunction with the discoveries of no end in view corresponding to the magnificence
revelation, has opened new views of the perfec- and grandeur of the means he has employed!. Or,
tions and moral government of the- Almighty. In are we to conclude that his wisdom and goodness
the progress of astronomical science, the distances are no less conspicuously displayed than his omand magnitudes of many of the celestial bodies nipotence in peopling those vast bodies with mybegan to be pretty nearly ascertained; and the in- riads of intelligent existences of various orders,
volition of the telescope enabled the astronomer to to share in his beneficence and to adore his perfecextend his views into regions far beyond the limits tions?  This last deduction is the only one which
of the unassisted eye, and to disqover myriads of'appears compatible with any rational ideas we can
magnificent globes formerly hid in the -unex- entertain of the wisdom  and intelligence of the
plored regions' of immensity. The planetary orbs Eternal Mind, and the principles of the Divine
were found to bear a certain resemblance to the government.
earth, having spots and dark: streaks of different   This opinion is now very generally entertained
shades upon their surfaces; and it was not long by those who have turned their attention to the
in being discovered that, notwithstanding their subject. But it is frequently admitted on grounds
apparent brilliancy, they are, in reality, opaque that are too general and vague; on the authority
globes, which derive all their light and luster from  of men of science, or on the mere ground that
the sun. The planet Venus,- in different parts of the planets and stars are bodies of immense size;
its orbit, was observed to exhibit a gibbous phase, and hence it is only considered as a probable opinand the form of a crescent similar to the moon, ion, and a thorough conviction of its truth is selplainly' indicating that it is.a dark globe, enlight- dom produced in the mind.
ened only on one side by the rays of.the sun. —   In the following work it shall be our endeavor
The moon was perceived'to be diversified with to show that the arguments which may be brought
hills and valleys, caverns, rocks, and plains, and forward to establish the doctrine of a plurality of
ranges of mountains of every shape, but arranged worlds have all the force of a moral demonstration;
in a manner altogether differeit from what takes that they throw a luster on the perfections of the
place! in our sublunary sphere. The sun, which Divinity; and that the opposite opinion is utterly
was' generally supposed to be a ball of liquid fire, inconsistent with the every idea we ought to enterwas found to be sometimes covered with large tain of an All-wise and Omnipotent Intelligence.
dark spots, some of them exceeding in size the   In order to the full illustration of this subject,
whole surface of the terraqueous globe, and giv- it will be necessary to take a pretty minute and
ing:indications, by their frequent changes-and dis- comprehensive view of all the known facts in reappearance, of vast operations being carried on lation to the heavenly bodies; and while these
upon the surface and in the interior of that mag- facts will be made to bear upon the object now
nificent luminary. Hundreds of stars were des- proposed, they will likewise tend to exhibit the
cried where scarcely -one could be perceived by a scenery of the heavens, and to elucidate many of
common observer; and as- the powers of the the prominent truths and principles connected
telescope were increased, thousands more were with descriptive astronomy. In the progress of
brought to view, extending -in every direction, our discussions, we shall descend into many mifrom- the limits kof unassisted -vision throughout nute particulars which are generally overlooked
the boundless extent of space,                 by writers on the subject of astronomy, and shall
It is natural for an intelligent observer of the introduce several original observations and views
universe to inquire into the final causes of the va- on this subject which have not hitherto been par~
rioas objects which exist around him. When he ticularly detailed.




CHAPTER I.
ON TIlE GENERAL APPEARANCE AND APPARENT MOTIONS OF THE STARRY
HEAVENS.
BEFORE proceeding to a particular description directed his attention for a few hours to the subof the real magnitudes, motions, and phenomena ject, and that, too, without the knowledge of a
of the heavenly bodies, it may not be' improper to single scientific principle. He has only to open
take a brief survey of the general appearance and his eyes, and to make a proper use of them; to
apparent motions of the celestial vault, as they fix his attention on the objects before him; to
present themselves to the eye of a common ob- make one observation after another; and to comserver.                                        pare them together; and to consider that s"the
It is of importance to every one who wishes to works of the Lord are great," and that they ought
acquire a clear idea of the principles of astrono- " to be sought out [or seriously investigatedl by
miy and the phenomena of the heavens, that he all those who have pleasure therein."
contemplate with his own eyes the apparent   If this representation be admitted as just, what
aspects and revolutions of the celestial bodies a striking idea does it present of the apathy and
before he proceeds to an investigation of the real indifference of the greater part of mankind in
motions, phenomena, and arrangements which regard to the most astonishing and magnificent
the discoveries of science have led us to deduce. display which the Creator has given of himself
From  want of attention to this circumstance, in his works! Had we an adequate conception of
there are thousands of smatterers in the science all the scenes of grandeur, and the displays of
of astronomy who never acquire any clear or intelligence and omnipotent power, which a sericomprehensive ideas on this subject; and who, ous contemplation of a starry sky is calculated to
instead of clearly perceiving the relations of the convey, all the kingdoms of this world would
heavenly orbs from their own observation, rely sink into comparative insignificance, and all their
chiefly on the assertions of their instructors, or pomp and splendor appear as empty as the bubthe vague-descriptions to be found in elementary  bles of the deep. It is amazing that Christians,
books.  It is amazing how many intelligent men in particular, should, in so many instances, be
there are among us who would not. wish to be found overlooking such striking displays of Divine
considered altogether ignorant of modern astro- perfection as the firmament opens to our view, as
nomy, have never looked up to the celestial vault if the most august works of the Creator, and the
with fixed attention; have never -made repeated most striking demonstration of his "eternal power
observations to discover its phenomena; and can- and godhead," were unworthy of their regard;
not tell, from  their own survey, what are the va- while we are commanded, in Scripture, to " lift
rious motions it exhibits. There are thousands up our eyes on high, and consider Him who hath
and ten thousands who have gazed on a clear created these orbs, who bringeth forth their hosts
evening sky, at certain intervals,.during a period by number," and who guides them  in all their
of many years, yet can tell no more about the motions " by the greatness of his strength."
glorious scene around them than that they behold " The heavens," says the Psalmist, " declare the
a number of shining points twinkling in every glory of the Lord, and the firmament showeth his
direction in the canopy above. Whether these handiwork."  Though these luminaries "have
bodies shift their positions with regard to each no speech nor language," though "their voice
other, or remain at the same relative distances; is not heard" in articulate sounds, yet, as they
whether any of them  appear in motion, while move along in silent grandeur, they declare to
others appear at rest; whether the whole celestial every reflecting beholder that "the hand that
canopy appears to stand still, or is carried round made them is Divine."
With some general motion; whether all the stars   One great cause of this indifference and inatwhich are seen at six o'clock in the evening are tention is to be found in the want of those habits
also visible at twelve at midnight; whether the of observation and reflection which ought to be
stars rise and set, as the sun and moon appear to formed in early life by the instructions imparted
do; whether they rise in the east, or north-east, in the family circle and at public seminaries.
or in any other quarter; whether some rise and Children, at a very early age, are endowed with
set regularly, while others never descend below, the principle of curiosity, and manifest an eager
the horizon; whether any particular stars are oc- desire to become acquainted with the properties
casionally moving backward or forward, and in and movements of the various objects which strwhat parts of the heavens they appear; whether round them; but their curiosity is, in most inthere are stars in our sky in the daytime as well stances, improperly directed; they are seldom
as during night; whether the same clusters of taught to make a right use of their senses; and
stars are to be seen in summer as in winter? To when they make inquiries in reference to the apthese and similar questions there are multitudes pearances of nature, their curiosity is too frewho have received a xegular education, and who quently repressed, until, at length, habits of inatare members of a Christian church, who could tention and indifference take possession of their
give no satisfactory answers. And yet almost minds. A celebrated author represents his pupil
every one of these inquiries could be satisfacto- as expressing himself in the following manner:rily answered, in the course of a few evenings, "I shall freely tell you the things which freby any man of common  understanding who quently occur to my mind, and often perplex my




12                                 CELESTIAL SCENERY.
thoughts.  I see the heavens ~over my head, and whether the heavens might be bounded on all
tread on the earth with my feet; but I am at a sides by a solid wall; how far this wall migit exloss what to think of that- mighty concave above tend in thickness; or whether there was nothing
me, or even of this very earth I walk upon.  I bit empty space, suppose we could fly forever in
often think whetherthe. earth "may not' stretch out any direction, I then' entered into a train of inin breadth to immensity,' so as, if one was to I quiries as to'what would have been the consetrav-el it over, one should never be able' to get to quendes had neither heaven nor earth been made,
the end of-the earth, but always find room t6 con- and had God alone existed in the boundless void.
tinue the journey; norcan I satisfy myself aSto Why was the world created?  What necessity
the depth of the earth, whether it has any bottom; was there why God himself should exist?  And
and, if so, what it can be that is below the earth. why was not all' one vast blank, devoid of matter
As to the - heaven, I ireed say nothing:. every and intelligence?  My thoughts ran into wild
change thiat happens, and every object seen there, confusion; they were overwhelming, and they
perplex me with doubts and:fruitless guesses. I became even oppressive and painful, so as to inoften wonder how thesun moves over so large a duce me to put a check to them, and to hasten to
space every day,:andyet seems notto stir ut of my piayful associates  and  amusements.  But
his place.  I would know where he goes beyond  although my relatives were more intelligent than
the mountains in the evening; what becomes of many  of their neighbors, I never thought of
him in the night-time; whliether he makes his'way  broaching such ideas, or of making any inquiries
through  the' thickness of the earth, or the depth of them  respecting' the objects which had perof the sea, and  so always shows himself' again plexed my thoughts; and, even if I had, it is not
from the east next morning.'It seems strange likely I:should have received much satisfaction.
that, being so small a body as he is, he should Such views and reflectidns are, perhaps, not unstill be seen everywhere, and still of the same common in the' case of thousands of young peabigness. The Various nature of the moon seems pie. I mention these things to show  that the
yet more perplexing; to-night, perhaps, you can youthful mind, in consequence of the innate desire
scarce discern her; -butin a few  days, she be- of knowledge with which it is endowed, is often
comes larger than' the body of the sun itself. In a in a state peculiarly adapted for receiving instruclittle time after, she decays, and, at last, wears quite tion'on many important subjects, and for becoe.
away; yet she recovers again.  In a word, she is ing an intelligent observer of the economy of
never the same, and yet still.becoming what she nature, were it not that our methods'of instrucwas before. What means that multitude of stars tion hitherto, both  in public and in private,
scattered over the. face of the whole sky, whose instead  of gratifying juvenile curiosity, have
number is so great that it is become proverbial? frequently tended to counteract the natural aspiThere are other things I-want to be informed of, rations of'the opening mind.
but these are the main difficulties which exercise   But, leaving such reflections and digressions,
my thoughts, and: perplex my mind with endless let us now take a general view of the motions of
doubting.".-:                and phenomena of the nocturnal heavens.
Were the young, or any,other class of persons,   Let us suppose ourselves under the open cano.
led to such reflections as:these and were their py of heaven in: a clear night, at six o'clock in
doubts and inquiries resolved, so far as our know- the evening, about the first of November.  I fix
ledge, extends, vre should' have a hundred intelli-'upon this period, because the Pleiades, or seven
gentobservers of the phenomena of the universe stars, which are known:-to every one, are then
for one that is found in the present state of so- visible during the whole: night, and because, at
eiety.  Bu]t, instead -of answering their inquiries this season of the year, the most brilliant fixed
and gratifying their natural curiosity, we not un- stars, and the more remarkable constellations, are
frequently tell them: that they are troublesome above the horizon in the' evening.  Turning our
with their idle questions; that they oughtto mind eyes, in the first-place, toward the eastern quarter
their grammar and parts of speech, and not med- of the heavens, we shall see the seven stars just
dle with philosophical matters until they be many risen above the horizon, in a direction about  half
ears older; that such subjects cannot beunder- way between the east and the north-east points,
stood  until theybecome men; and that they must or east-north-east. North-west from:the seven
be' content to.remain in ignorance for ten or stars, at the distance of thirty' degrees, a very
twelve years to come.'T'huswe frequently dis- bright star, named Capella, may beperceived at an
play our own ignorance and inattention, and elevation of abouteighteen degrees above the horithus we repress the natural desire for knowledge zon. Directing our view toward the south, we shall
in the young, until they become habituated to perceive a pretty bright star, with a small star on
ignorance, and until'the uneasy sense arising from  the north and another on the south of it, which
curiosity and unsatisfied desire has lost its edge, has just passed the meridian.  This star is called
aiid a desire for sensual or vicious pleasure usurps Altair, and belongs to the constellation Aquila.its place.   I recollect, when a boy of about seven It is nearly south, at an elevation of forty-six deor eight years of age, frequently musing on such  grees, or about half-way between the horizon and
subjects as those to which we have now alluded.  the zenith.  About thirty-three degrees north
Isometimes looked out from a window, in the day- from Altair, and a little farther to the west, is the
time, with fixed attention, on a pure azure sky, brilliant star Lyra, belonging to the Harp. Lookand sometimes stretched myself on my back on ing to the west, a bright star, named Arcturus,
a meadow, or in a garden, and looked up to the will be seen about fifteen degrees above the hoezenith to contemplate the blue ethereal.  On such zon, a very little to the north of the western point.
occasion's a variety of strange ideas sometimes Turniig  our eyes in a northerly direction, the
passed through my mind.  I wondered how far constellation Ursa Major, or the Great Bear, prthe blue vault of heaven might exteind; whether sents itself to _view.  This cluster of stars is
it was a solid transparent arch, or empty space; sometimes distinguished  by the name of the
what would be seen could I'transport myself to Plow, or Charles's Wain, and is known to almost.
the highest point I perceived;. and what display every observer.  The relative positions of the
the Almighty made of himself, in those regions prominent stars it contains are represented in the
so far removed from mortal view. I asked myself following figure.  At the time of the evening




APPARENT MOTIONS OF THE STARS.                                        13
apow supposed, it appears a little to the westward  elevation, and are nearly half way between the
of the northern point of, the heavens, the two  eastern horizon and the south; that the Bull's-eye,
eastern stars of the square being about eighteen  a bright ruddy star, which was before invisible, is
degrees west from  that point.  These two stars, now: seen a little to the eastward of the Pleiades;
tlie uppernlost of which is namled -Dubhe, and' the and that bright cdnstellation Orion, which inl the
lower one Merak, are generally distinguished by former observation was below the horizon, is now
the name of thePointers, because they point, or di- distinctly visible in, the east and south-east; and
rect our eye toward the pole-star.                the star Capella: midway between the horizon and
The seven stars in the lower part of the figure the zenith.  The stars Altair and Lyra, which
are the prominent stars which constitute the tail were before nearly south,; have descended more
-and the body of the -Great Bear. The first of than:;half-way toward the western horizon. -
these, reckoning from  the left, is termed Benet-, The star Arcturus is no longer visible, having
nasch, the second Mizar, the third Alioth, the sunk beneath the horizon; and. many stars in
fourth Megrez, immediately below which is Phad. the eastern quarter' of the- heavens, which were
The other two stars to the right are the Pointers, formerly unseen, now  make their appearance  at
alluded to above. If a line connecting these two  different,elevations.  The stars of the Great Bear,
stars be considered as prolonged upward to a con — particularly the two pointers, which were formersiderable distance until it meet the first bright ly to the west of the north point, have now passed
star, it directs us to.thepole-star, which isAthe one to the east of it. At twelve o'clock, midnight,
nearest to the pole, and wliich, to a common ob- their position may be thus represented.
server, never seems to shift its position.  The
uppermost star in the figure toward the right hand                      Fig. 2.
represents the pole-star iln its relative distance and
position to the Great Bear. The distance between                         Nortl.
the two pointers, Dubhe and Merak, is about five
degrees; and the. distance between Dubhe, the uppermost of the pointers, and the pole-star, is about
twenty-nine degiees; so'that the space between
Dubhe and the pole-star is nearly six times the
distance between the two pointers.  By attending
to these circumstances, the distance between.ally
two stars, when expressed in degrees,. may be
nearly ascertained by: the eye.  The- six small,
stars in the upper part of the figure represent the a
constellation Ursa M.Iinor, or the Lesser Bear, of
which.the pole-star forms the tip of the tail.They resemble the configuration of the stars in
Fig. 1.
The pointers now  appear considerably to the
eastward of the north point, and considerably
more elevated than before, while the stars in the
tail appear much lower.  About three o'clock
next morning the pointers will appear nearly due
east from the pole-star, and at the same elevation
above the horizon; and the other stars in that
constellation will be seen hanging, as it were,
nearly perpendicularly below them.  At tlis hour
the Pleiades, or seven stars, will appear to. have
moved twenty-five deg~rees past thle meridian to
the west, and the brilliant constellation Orion will
be-seen nearly due south.  The bright star Capella now appears nearly in the zenith, or point
directly over our heads; Lyra is in the horizon,
the Great Bear, only they are on a smaller scale, nearly due north, and Altair has descended below
and in a reversed position.*                      the western horizon.m  At six in the morning, the
Having now fixed on certain stars or points in  seven stars will be seen in the west, only a short
the heavens as they appear about six in the even- distance above the horizon; and all the other stars
ing, and marked their relative positions, let us to the eastward of them will be -found to have
take another view of the celestial vault as it ap- made a considerable progress toward the west.pears aboutten o'clock the same evening, or the At this hour the stars of the Great Bear will ap.
first clear evening afterward. We shall then find pear near the upper part of the heavens, and the
that the seven stars-have'risen to a -considerable  pointers not far'from  the zenith.  Their position
at this time is shown in the following figure.
*In these observations, the observer is supposed to be placed    Here the pointers appear elevated a great way
nearly in. 520 north latitude, which is nearly the latitude above the pole-star, whereas, in the observation at
of London. Those who reside. in latitudes between 400 and six in thethe whole costellation ap
450, as the iphabitants of Philadelphia, New York, Hart.
rord, Boston, Montreal, Madrid, Rome, etc., would require peared far below it.  At eight in the morning, the
to postpone their observations until a little after half-past whole of the constellation would be seen nearly
ilxinthe evening, and to make a small allowance for- the overhead, were the stars then visible; at twelve,
elevations, above stated, of certain stars above the horizon.
In most other respects, the appearance of the heavens, to noon, t would appear toward the west, at a conthe inhabitants of such places, Ivill be the same as here de- siderable elevation; and at six in the evening, it
scribed.                                           would again'return to its former position, as noted




14                                 CELESTIAL SCENERY.
Fig. 3.                      of the south, near to. that point of the compass
called south-south-edst,: and observe a star near
the horizon, such as the star Fomalhaut, in the
Southern Fish, it will appear to rise to a very
small altitude when. it comes to the meridian, only
about six degrees, and in about five hours it Will
set niear the. point -south-soruth-west, having described a very small arc of a circle above the
horizon. If we direct our attention to. the sout4least, and observe any bright- star, such as Sirius,
or the Dog-star:, in the horizon, it will make a
larger circuit over the southern sky, and will re-'
main':about nine hours above the horizdon before
it sets in the south-west. -If we look due east,
and-lsee a star, such as Procyon in the colstellation of the Lesser Dog, rising, it will. remaini
about twelve hours above the horizon, and will
in our first observation. -The folloWing figure set in the west. If we look to the north-east,
represents the position of Ursa Minor, or the Les- and perceive any stars, such as Castor and Pollux;
ser B.ear, at.four different periods during twenty- beginning to appear, they will make a large cirfour hours.                                       cult round the heavens, such as the sun describes
Fig. 4.                      illn the month' of June, and, after the period of
-   g. *                  about eighteen' hours, will set in the north-west.
*-D-                        -Such are the general appearances and the apparent motions of the heavens which present
themselves when viewed from -our northern latitude. WVere we to take our station near the Gulf'
of Guinea, in the island of Sumatra, or Borneo,
- in the Gallipago Isles, in the city of Quito, in
E"li    South America, or on any other point of the
co.  |    0globe near the equator, the motions of the stars,.kIA II IIB L| T~a~l~"~"""""""""H1 c    would appear somewhat different.  The polestar, instead of being at a high elevation, as in
a,,'                                           l iour latitude, would be in the horizon.  All the
stars would appear to rise and set, and the time of
their continuance above the horizon would be
precisely the same.' The stars which rise in the
east would ascend to the zenith, and pass directly
overhead, in the course of six hours; and in
another six hours they would descend to' the'horiAt-  B'I..               -.'  -  -  zon, and set in the' western point.  The stars
At  six in the evening, about the beginning of near the northern and. southern points would apNovember, Ursa Minor will be nearly in the posi- pear to describe small semicircles above the hori.
tion represented-,on the left at A, nearly straight zon during the same time, and their motion would
west from the pole-star, which appears in the cen- appear much slower.  The Great Bear, which
ter. Six hours afterward,'or at twelve, midnight, never sets in our latitude, would be above the
it will appear below  the pole, in the position horizon only during the one-half of its circuit.
marked B; at six next morning, it will appear Many stars and Constellations would appear in
opposite to its first position, as represented on the the southern' quarter' of'the sky which we never
right at C; at twelve, noon, it will appear above see in our latitude.: Every star:would,be found
thle pole, as represented at D; but in this position to remain exactly twelve hours above and twelve
it cannot be seen in' November, or during th,e hours below, the horizon,' and all the visible stars
winter months,. as the. stars at that time of the in the firmament might, from'such a position be
day are eclipsed by'the light of the sun. At six perceived in the -course of a year. Were we to
in the evening it again returns to its former posi- take our station in the southern hetispllere, in
tion. Such are the general appearance and appa- Valdivia, Botany Bay, or Van Dieman's Land, the
rent motions, of all the stars in the northern  heavens would present a different aspect fiom any
hemisphere, within fifty-two: degrees of the pole, of those we have yet contemplated. -The north
to a spectator situated in 520 of north latitude. pole-star, the Great- Bear, and other neighboring
They all appear to perform  a circuit, in the constellations, would never appear above the horicourse of twenty-four hours, around. a point zon.  Many of the stars which we now  see in
which is the center of their motion, near to which  the south would appear in the north.  The south
is the pole-star.; All the stars within this range  pole would appear elevated about forty degrees
never set, but appear to describe complete circles, above the horizon, and various clusters of stars
of different dimensions, around the pole and  Would be seen revolving round it, as the Great
above the horizon. When they are in the lower Bear and other constellations do around the north
part of their course, or beneath the pole, they ap- pole.  In fine, could we take our station at ninety
pear to move from west to east; but when in the degrees of north'latitude, or, in other words, at
higher part of'their course, their apparent motion the north pole of the world, we should just see
is from east to, west; andall their circuits are com-'one-half of the stars of heaven, and no portion of
pleted in exactly~the. same period of time, namely, the other half would ever be visible.  These stars
twenty-three hours, fifty-six minutes,.and four would appear neither to rise nor set, nor yet to
seconds.   - stand still. They would appear to move round
Let us now consider. the appearances which  the whole heavens, in circles parallel to the hori
present themselves in the other. quarters of the zon, every twenty-four hours; and'on every clear
heavens.; If we turn our eyes a little to the left evening, all the stars that are ever visible in that




APPARENT MOTIONS OF THE STARS.                                    15
hemisphere may be seen.  The stars, however, round in their revolutions with a velocity that
that appear in a certain direction at any particular baffles the power of the most capacious mind to
hour, will appear at the same elevation in the op- conceive. In this case, there would be millions
posite direction, twelve hours afterward; and of those vast luminaries, which behooved to mov6
during nearly six months no stars will be seen in at the -rate of several thousands of millions of
the sky.                                       miles in the space of a second of time. For ill pro 
The apparent motion of the heavens may at portion to the distances of any of these bo,.ies
any time be perceived by fixing on any star that would be; the rapidity of their motions. T'he
appears nearly in a line with a tree, a spire, or nearest star would move more than fourteen hunany other fixed object, and in the course of a few  dred millions of miles during the time in which
minutes its motion will be perceptible; or, fix a the pendulum of a clock moves from  one side to
common telescope upon a pedestal, and direct it to another; but there are thousands of stars visible
any star, and in three or four minutes it will be through our telescopes at least a hundred times
seen to have passed out of the field of view. In more distant, and whose distance cannot be less
the description now given, I have spoken of the than 2,000,000,000,000,000, or two thousand bilpole-star as if it were actually the pole, or the lions of miles. This forms the radius, or half
most northerly point of the heavens. But it may diameter of a circle, whose circumference is about
be proper to state, that though it is the nearest 12,500,000,000,000,000, or twelve thousand five
large, star to that point, it is not actually in the hundred billions of miles. Around this circumole; it is somewhat more than a degree and a ference, therefore, the star behooved to move every
alf from  the polar point, and revolves around day. In a sidereal day of twenty-three hours,
that point, in a small -circle, every twenty-four fifty-six minutes, and four seconds, there are
hours. This motion may be perceived by direct- 86,164 seconds. Divide the number of miles in
Ing a telescope of a moderate magnifying power the circumference by the number of seconds in a
to this star, and fixing it in that position, when, in day, and the quotient will be somewhat.more than
the course of an hour or two, it will be found to 145,000,000,000, or. one hundred and forty-five
have moved.beyond the field of view.          thousand millions, which is the number of miles
All the observations above stated (excepting that such a star would move in the space of a
those supposed to have been made at the equator, second, or during the pulsation of an artery, were
and in southern latitudes) may be accomplished the celestial vault to be considered as really in
in the course of two or three evenings, Without motion; a rate of motion more than a hundred
incurring the loss of a couple of hours.; for each thousand millions of times greater than that of a
observation may be made in the space of five or cannon ball, and seven hundred& thousand times
ten minutes. Every inhabitant of the globe has. more rapid than the motion of light itself, which
an opportunity, if he choose, of observing the as- is considered the swiftest motion in nature.
pect of the heavens in the manner now described,   The idea of such astonishing velocities comexcepting, perhaps, those who live in dark and pletely overpowers the human imagination, aild is
narrow lanes, in large cities, where the sky is. absolutely inconceivable. We perceive no objects
scarce.y visible; the most unnatural situations in or motions connected with our globe that can aswhich human beings can be placed, and which sist our imagination in forming any definite conought no longer to remain as the abodes of men. ceptions on this subject. The swiftest impulse
And the man who will not give himself the trou- that was ever given to a cannon ball, or any other
ble of making such observations on the starry projectile, sinks into nothing in the comparison.
heavens, deserves to remain in ignorance of the Were we transported to the planet Saturn, and
most sublime operations of the Creator.        placed on its equatorial regions, we should behold
Let us now consider what is the conclusion we a stupendous arch, thirty thousand miles in
ought to deduce from our observations respecting breadth, and more than six hundred thousand
the apparent motions of the heavens. All the miles in circumference, revolving around us every
phenomena which we have described, when duly ten hours, at the rate of a thousand miles in a
considered and compared together, conspire to minute, and sixty thousand miles every hour.show that the whole celestial vault performs an ap- But even this astonishingly rapid motion would
parent revolution round the earth, carrying, as it afford us little assistance in forming our concepwere, all the stars along with it, in the space of tions, as it bears no comparison with the motions
twenty-four hours. This may be plainly demon- to which we have now  adverted. It becomes
strated by means of a celestial globe, on which those persons, therefore, who refuse to admit the
all the visible stars are depicted. When the north motion of the earth, to consider, and to ponder with
pole is elevated fifty-two degrees above the north- attention, the only other alternative which must be
ern horizon, and the globe turned round on its admitted, namely, that all the bodies of the firmaaxis, all the variety of phenomena formerly de- ment move round the earth every day with such
scribed may be clearly perceived.              amazing velocities as have now been stated. If it
Here, then, we have presented to view a scene appear wonderful that this globe of the land and
the most magnificent and sublime. All the bright water, with all its mighty cities and vast populaluminaries of the firmament revolving in silent tion, moves round its axis every day at the rate of
grandeur around our world; not only the stars a thousand miles an hour, how much more won.
visible to the unassisted eye, but all the ten thou- derful, and passing all comprehension, that mysands and millions of stars which the telescope riads of huge globes should move round the earth
has- enabled us:to descry in every region of the in the same time with such inconceivable rapidity.
heavens, for they all seem to partake of the same If we reject the motion of the earth because it is
general motion.  If we could suppose this motion incomprehensible and contrary to all our preconto be real, it would convey to the mind the most ceived notions, we must, on the same ground,
magnificent and impressive idea which could pos- likewise reject the motion of the heavens, which
siblv be formed of the incomprehensible energies is far more difficult to be conceived, and conseof Omnipotence. For here we have presented to quently fall into downright skepticism, and reject
view, not only ten thousand, times ten thousands even the evidences of' our senses as to what apof immense globes, far superior to the wholeearth pears in the economy of nature. Such views
In magnitude, but the greater part of them carried and considerations, howeveri, teach us that,. ia
VOL. II —12




16                   -   -         CELESTIAL SCENERY.
whatever point of view we contemplate the works then, might be supposed to'be the consequence,
of the Almighty, particularly the scenery: of the were a body impelled through the regions of space
heavens, the mind is irresistibly inspired with sen- with-a velocity of an hundred- and forty thousand
timents of admiration and wonder.  To the vul- millions of miles in a moment of time? - It would
gar eye as well as to the philosophic, " the heavens most assuredly reduce to atoms the most compact
declare the glory of, God.": Their,:harmony and bodies in the universe, although they were comorder evince his wisdom and intelligence; and the posed of substances harder than adamant. PBut
numerous bodies they contain, and the astonishing as the fixed stars appear to be bodies of a nature
motions they exhibit, on whatever-hypothesis they somewhat similar to the sun, and as the sun is
are contemplated, demonstrate both to the savage much less dense than the earth, and only a little
and the sage the. existence of a power which no denser than water, it is evident that they could
created being can control.:                 not withstand such a rapidity of motion, which
" View the amzing InO y.I     I-.      would instantly shatter their constitution, and:  - Thewide,-the wo'ndirfiilexpanse!   dissipate every portion' of their substance through
Let each bold-'infidel agree.         the voids of space. 
That God is there, unknown to chance."   4. Because there is no known instance in the uni.
W" cannot; however, admit, in consistency with verse (if that to which we are now adverting be
the dictates of enlightened- reason, that the appa- excepted) of a larger bddy revolving around a
rent diurnal movementsof the.stars are the real smaller.  The planlet Jupiter does not revolve
motions with which these bodies are impelled.- around his satellites, which are a thousand times
For, in the first place, such, motions are altogether less than that ponderous globe, but they all reunnecessary to produce the effect intended, name- volve-around him; nor does the earth, which is
ly, the alternate succession: of day and night with fift y times larger than the moon, revolve around
respect to our globe; and we knowthatthe Al- that nocturnal luminary, but she regularly revolves
mighty does nothing iii vain, but employs the about the earth, as the more immediate center of
most simple means to accomplish the:most aston- her motion. The'sun does not perform his revoishing and important ends.  Thea succession of lution around Venus or Mercury, but these pladay and night can be accomplished by a simple nets, which are small, compared with that mighty
rotation of the earth from  west to east every orb, continually revolve about him as the center
twenty-four hours, which will completely a   ccount of their motions. Neither on earth nor in the
for the -apparent motion of the heavens, in the heavens is there an instance to be found contrary
same time, from: east -to west. This we find to be to this law, which appears to pervade the whole
the case with' Jupiter and Saturn, which are a system -of universal nature; but if the diurnal
thousand times larger than the earth, as well as revolution of the stars is to be considered as their
with the other planets, which have a rotation proper motion, then the whole universe, with all
round their axes, some in ten hours, some in the myriads of huge globes it contains, is to be
twenty-three, and-some in ten-hours and a half; considered as daily revolving around an inconsideand consequently, from the: surfaces of these bo- rable ball, which, when compared with these ludies the heavens will' apear to -revolve around minaries, is only as an atom to the sun, or as the
them  in another direction from what they do to smallest particle of vapor to the vast ocean.
us, and, in certain instances, with a much greater   5. The apparent motion of the heavens cannot
degree of velocity. We must therefore conclude be admitted as real, because it would confound all
that our motion every day toward the east causes our ideas of the intelligence of the Deity.  While it
the'heavens to appear as if they moved toward tended to exalt our conceptions of his omnipothe- west; just as the trees and houses on the side tence to the highest pitch, it would convey to us
of -a narrow river appear to move to the west a most unworthy and distorted idea of his wisdom.
when we are sailing down its current in a steam- Wisdom is that perfection of an intelligent agent
boat toward the east.                            which enables him to proportionate one thing to
2. Because it is impossible to conceive that so another, and to devise the'most proper means in
many bodies of different magnitudes, and at diffe- order to accomplish important ends. We infer
rent distances from  the earth, could all'have the that an artist is a wise man from  the nature of
same period of diurnal revolution. The sun is his workmanship, and the methods he employs to
four hundred times farther from us than the moon, accomplish his purposes. We should reckon that
and is sixty millions of times larger. Saturn and person foolish in the extreme who should conHerschel are still further from  the earth; the struct, at a great expense, a huge and clumsy piece
comets are of different sizes, and traverse the hea- of machinery for carrying round a grate, and the
Vens in all'-directions and at different distances; wall of a house to which it is attached, for the
the fixed stars are evidently placed at different dis- purpose of roasting a small fowl placed in the
tances from the earth and from each other; yet all center of its motion, instead of making the fowl
these bodies have exactly the same period of revo- turn round its different sides to the fire.  We
lution, even to a single moment, if the heavens should consider it as the most preposterous prorevolve around the earth, and that, too, notwith- ject that was ever' devised were a community to
standing the other motions, in various directions, attempt, by machinery, to make a town and its
which many of them perform.  It is, therefore, harbor move forward to meet every boat and
much more natural and reasonable to suppose that small vessel that entered the river on which it was
the earth revolves around its axis, since this cir- situated, instead of allowing such vehicles to move
cuinstance solves all the phenomena and removes onward as they do at present. But none of these
every difficulty.                                schemes would be half so preposterous as to sup3. Because such a rate of motion in the-heavenly pose that the- vast universe moves daily round an
bodies, if it could be supposed to exist, would soon inconsiderable ball, when no end is accomplished
shatter them to atoms. Were a ball of wood to be. by such a revolution but what may be effected in
projected firom a cannon at the rate of a thousand the most simple manner. Such a device, therefore,
miles an hour, in a few moments it would be re- cannot be any part of the arrangements of Infiduced to splinters; and hence the forage and other nite Wisdom.  It would tend to lessen our ideas
soft substances'projected from a musketeor a piece  of the intelligence of that adorable Being who is
-of ordnance are instantly torn to pieces.  What, "wonderful in -counsel and excellent in working,"




ANNUAL MOTION OF THE STARS.                                      17
who "established the world by his wisdom, and and again, at the same hour, on the first of April,
stretched out the heavens by his understanding," we shall find that the clusters of stars in the southand whose wisdom as. far excels that' of man as ern parts of the heavens are, at the latter period,
the "heaven in its hight surpasses the earth." — altogether different from those which appeared in
This argument alone I consider as demonstrative the former; and those which are in the neighborof the position we are now attempting to support. hood of the pole will appear in a different position
The above are a few arguments which, when in April from what they did at the same hour in
properly weighed, ought to carry conviction to the month of October. The square of the Great
the mind of every rational inquirer, that the gen- Bearifor example,will appearimmediately below the
eral motion which appears in the starry heavens pole-star in October; whereas in April it will apis not real, but is caused by the rotation of the pear as far above it, and near to the zenith. In the
earth round its axis every day,- by which we and former case, the two stars called the Pointers will
all the inhabitants of the globe are carried round point upward to the pole, in the latter case they
in a regular and uniform  motion from  west to will point downward. In October this constellaeast. When this conclusion is admitted, it re- tion will appear nearly in the position represented
moves every difficulty and every disproportion in fig. 1 (p. 13); in April it will appear nearly as
which at first appeared in the motions and ar- represented infig. 3 (p. 13). These variations in the
rangements of the celestial orbs, and reduces the appearance of the stars lead us to conclude that
system of the universe to a scene of beauty, har- there is an apparent annual motion in these lumimony and order worthy of the infinite wisdom  naries. This motion may be observed, if we take
of Him who formed the plan of the mighty fabric, notice, for a few days or weeks, of those stars
and who settled "the ordinances of heaven." In- which are situated near the path of the sun
stead, then, of remaining in a state of absolute When we see a bright star near the western horirest, as we are at first apt to imagine, we are trans- zon, a little elevated above the place where the
ported every moment toward the east with a mo- sun went down, if we continue our observation
tion ten times more rapid than has ever been we shall find that every day itappears less elevated
effected by steam-carriages or air-balloons. It is at the same hour, and seems to be gradually aptrue, we do not feel this motion, because it is preaching to the point of the heavens in which
smooth and uniform, and is never interrupted. the sun is situated, until, in the course of a week
The earth is carried forward in its course, not like or two, it- ceases to "be visible, being overpowered
a ship in the midst of a tempestuous ocean, but by the superior brightness of the sun. In the
through a smooth ethereal sea, where all is calm  course of a month or two the same star which
and serene, and where no commotions to disturb disappeared in the west will be seen rising some
its motion ever arise. Carried along with a velocity time before the sun in the east, having passed from
which is common to everything around us, we are the eastern side of the sun to a distance considerin a state somewhat similar to that of a person in ably westward of him. The stars in the western
a ship which is sailing with rapidity in a smooth quarter of the heavens which appeared more elecurrent; he feels no motion except when a large vated will be found gradually to approximate to
wave or other body happens to dash against the the sun, until they likewise disappear; and in this
vessel; he fancies himself at rest, while the shore, manner all the stars of heaven seem  to have a
the buildings, and the hills appear to him to move; revolution. distinct from their diurnal, from east
but the smallness of the vessel, compared with the to west, which is accomplished in the course of a
largeness of the objects which seem to move, con- year.
vinces him that the motion is connected with theship   The different positions of the Pleiades, or seven
inwhich hesails: and on similar principles we infer stars, at different seasons of the year, will afford
that the apparent motion of the heavens is caused every observer an opportunity of perceiving this
by the real motion of the earth, which carries us motion. About the middle of September these
along with it as a ship carries its passengers along stars will be seen, about eight o'clock in -the eventhe sea. With regard to motion, it may be oh- ing, a little to the south of the north-east point of
served, that, strictly speaking, we do not perceive the horizon; about the middle of January, at the
any motion either in the earth or in the heavens. same hour, they will be seen on the meridian, or
When we look at a star with the utmost steadi- due south; on the first of March they will be seen
ness, we perceive no motion, although we keep half-way between the zenith and the western hoour eye fixed upon it for a few minutes; but, if rizon; about the middle of April they will appear
we mark the position of the star with regard to a very near the horizon; soon after which they will
tree or a chimney top, and, after an hour or two, be overpowered by the solar rays, and will remain
view the star-from the same station, we shall find invisible for nearly two months, after which they
that it then appears in a different direction. Hence will re-appear in the east, early in the morning,
we infer that motion has taken place; but whether before the rising sun.
the motion be in the star or in the persons who   This annual motion of the stars evidently indihave  been observing it, remains still to be deter- cates'that the sun has an apparent motion every
mined. We perceive no motion in the star any day from west to east, contrary to his apparent di.
more than we feel the motion of the earth. All urnal motion, which is from east to west. This
that we perceive is, that the two objects have apparent motion is at the rate of nearly a degre.
changed their relative positions; and, therefore, every day, a space nearly equal to twice the sun
the body that is really in motion must be deter- apparent diameter. -In this way the sun appears
mined by such considerations as we have stated to describe a circle around the whole heavens,
above.                           -             from west to east, in the course of a year. This
Beside the- apparent diurnal revolution of the apparent motion of the sun is caused by the anheavens, there is another apparent motion which nual revolution of the earth around the sun as the
requires to be considered.- It is well known to center of its motion, which completely accounts
every one who has paid the least attention to this for all the apparent movements in the sun and
subject, that we do not perceive the same clusters stars to which we have now adverted. If we place
of stars at every season of the year. If, for ex- a candle upon a table in the midst of a room, and
ample, we take a view of the starry heavens on walk round it in a circle, and, as we proceed,
the first of October, at ton o'clock in the -evening, mark the different parts of the opposite walls with




18                                CELESTIAL SCENERY
which the candle appears coincident, when we of the firmament, which'may be beheld " without
have completed our circle the candle will appear money and without price."  That man who has
to have made a revolution round the room. If the never looked up with serious attention to the miwalls be conceived to represent the starry heavens, tions and arrangements of the heavenly orbs must
and the- candle the sun, it will convey a rude idea be inspired with but a slender degree of reverence
of the apparent motion of the sun, and the dif- for the Almighty Creator, and devoid of taste for
ferent clusters of stars which appear at different enjoying the beautiful and the sublime.
seasons- of the year in consequence of the annual   The stars not only adorn the roof of our sublumotion of the earth. But this subject will be nary mansion, but they are also, in many respects,
more particularly explained in the sequel.     useful.to man. Their influences are placid -and
From what we have-now stated in relation to gentle.  Their rays, being dispersed through
the apparent motions of the heavens, we are ne- spaces so vast and immense, are entirely destitute
cessarily led to conceive of the earth as a body, of heat by the time they arrive at our abode; so
placed, as it were, in the midst of infinite space, that we enjoy the view'of a more numerous asand surrounded in every direction, above, below, semblage of luminous globes without any danger
on the right hand and on the left, with the lumi- of their destroying the coolness of the night or
naries of heaven, which display their radiance the quiet of our repose. They serve to guide the
from  every quarter at immeasurable distances; traveler both by sea and land; they direct the
and that its annual and diurnal motiohis account'navigator in tracing his course from  one conti
for all the movements Which appear in the celes- nent to another through  the pathless ocean
tial sphere. Hence it is a necessary conclusion, They serve "for signs and for seasons, and for
that we are surrounded at all times with a host of days and' years."  They direct the labors of the
stars, in the day-time as well as in the night, al- husbandman, and determine the return and con-though they are then imperceptible. The' reason clusion of the -season. They serve as a magnifi-:why they are invisible'during the day is obviously cent " timepiece" to determine the true length of
that their fainter light is overpowered by the more the day and' of the year, and to mark with accu.
vivid splendor of the sun and the reflective power racy all their subordinate divisions. They assist
of the- atmosphere. But although they are then us in our commerce, and in endeavoring to proimperceptible to the unassisted eye, they can be pagate religion among the nations, by showing us
distinctly perceived, not only in the mornings and our path to every region of the earth. They
evenings, but even at noonday, while the sun is have enabled us to measure the circumference of
shining bright, by means of telescopes adapted to the globe, to ascertain the density of the materials
an equatorial motion; and in this way almost of which it is composed, and to determine the
every star visible to the naked'eye at night can be exact position of all places upon its surface. They
pointed out, even amid the effulgence of day, cheer the long nights of several months in the
when it is within the boundary of our hemisphere. polar regions, which would otherwise be overWhen the stars which appear in our sky at night spread with impenetrable darkness.  Above all,
have, in consequence of the rotation of the earth, they open a prospect into the regions of other
passed from our view, in about twelve hours after- worlds, and tend to amplify our views of that Alward they will make their appearance- nearly in mighty Being who brought them  into existence
the same manner to those who live on the oppo. by his power, and " whose'kingdom ruleth over
site side of the globe; and when they have cheer- all."  In these arrangements of the stars in
ed the inhabitants of those places with their radi- reference to our globe, the Divine wisdom and
ance, they will again return to adorn our nocturnal goodness may be clearly perceived. We enjoy
sky.                                           all the advantages to which we have alluded as
On the whole, the starry heavens present, even much as if the stars had been. created solely for
to the vulgar eye, a scene of grandeur and magnifi- the use of our world, while, at the same time,'cence. We know not the particular destination of they serve to diversify the nocturnal sky of other
each of those luminous globes which emit their planets, and to diffuse their light and influence
radiance to us from afar, or the specific ends it- is over ten thousands of other worlds with which
intended to subserve in the station which it occu- they are more immediately connected; so that, in
pies, though we cannot doubt that all of them an- this respect, as well, as in every other, the Alswer purposes in the Creator's plan worthy of his mighty produces the. most sublime and Diversified
perfections and of their magnitude and grandeur; effects by means the most simple and economibut we are certain that they have, at least, a re- cal, and renders every part of the  universe
mote relation to man, as well as to other beings subservient tot another, and to the good of the
far removed from us, in the decorations they throw  whole.
around his earthly mansion. They serve as a   Before proceeding further, it may be expedient
glorious ceiling to his habitation. Like so many to explain the measures by which astronomers
thousand sparkling lusters, they are hung up in estimate the apparent distances between any two
the magnificent canopy which covers his abode. points of the heavens. Every circle is supposed
He perceives them shining and glittering on every to be divided into 360 equal parts. A circle which
hand, and the dark azure which surrounds them  surrounds the concavity of the heavens, as that
contributes to augment their splendor. The va- which surrounds an artificial globe, is divided into
riety of luster which appears in every star, from  the same number of parts. The number 360 is
those of the sixth magnitude to those of the first, entirely arbitrary, and any other number, had
nd the multifarious figures of the different con- mathematicians chosen, might have been fixed
stellations, present a scene as diversified as it is upon: and hence the French, in their measures
brilliant. What are all the decorations of aVaux- of the circle, divide it into 400 equal parts or dehall Garden, with its thousands of variegated grees; each degree into 100 minutes, and each
lamps, compared with ten thousands of suns, dif- minute into 100 seconds.  The reason why the
fusing their beams over our habitation from re- number 360 appears to have been selected, is, that
gions of space immeasurably distant?  A mere this number may be divided into halves, quarters,
gewgaw in comparison; and yet there are thousands and eighths, without a fraction; and, perhaps, bewho eagerly flock to those gaudy shows Who have cause the year was, in former times, supposed to
never spent an hour in contemplating the glories contain about 360 days. Each degree is divided




ARRANGEMENT OF/ THE PLANETS.                                     19
intesixty minutes, each minute into sixty seconds, the real diameter of any object in the heavens can
each second into sixty thirds, &c. Degrees are be determined, its distance must be first ascermarked thus,; minute,'; seconds, "; thiids, "'. tained.
Thus the obliquity of the, ecliptic for January'1st,   Those who have never been in the practice of
1836, was, twenty-three degrees, twenty-seven applying angular instruments to the heavens may
minutes, forty-two seconds,. which- are thus ex- acquire a tolerably correct idea of the extent of
pressed, 230 27' 42".                          space which is expressed by any number of deIt may not be improper to remark, that when grees by considering that the apparent diameters
we state the number of degrees between two of the sun and moon are about half a degree;
objects, either on the earth or in the heavens,, it is that the distance between the two pointers in the
not intended to express'the real distance, but only Great Bear is about five degrees; that the distance
the  relative or apparent distance of the objects. between the.pole-star and the nearest pointer is
Thus, when' we say that two places on the twenty-nine degrees; that the distance between
earth, which lie directly north and south of each the Pleiades and the ruddy star Aldebaran, which
other, are twenty degrees distant, it does not con- lies to the eastward of these stars, is fourteen devey an idea of the actual distance of these places grees; that the distance between Castor and Polfrom each other, but only what proportion of the lux is five degrees; and the distance between Belearth's circumference intervenes between them. latrix and Betelguese, tile stars in the right and
If, however, we know the number of yards or left shoulder of Orion, is eight degrees.' Perhaps
miles contained in that circumference, or in a the most definite measure for a common observer
single degree of it, we can then find the actual is that which is to be found in the three stars in a
distance, by multiplying the number of degrees straight line which form the belt of Orion, which
by the number of miles in a degree. But this are known to every one, and which are distinsupposesthat the extent of a degree on the earth's guished in England by the name of the Three
surface has been measured, and the number of Kings, or the Ell and Yard, and in Scotland by
yards or miles it' contains ascertained.  In like "The Lady's Elwand."  The line which unites
manner; when we say that two stars ill the hea- these three stars measures exactly three degrees,
vens are fifteen degrees from  each other, this and, consequently, there is just one and a half
merely expresses their relative position,, br what degree between the central star and the one on
portion of a great circle of the celestial sphere each side of it, By applying this' rule or yard to
intervenes between them, but determines nothing any of the spaces of the firmament, the number
as to their real distance, which is far surpassing  of degrees which intervenes between any two obour comprehension. The real magnitude of ob- jects may'be nearly ascertained. Orion is the
jects or spaces in the heavens depends upon their most striking and splendid of all the constellations;
distance. Thus, the apparent breadth or diameter and as the equator runs through the middle of it,
of the moon is about half a degree, or nearly it is visible from  all the habitable parts of the
thirty-two minutes, and that of the sun nearly globe. About the middle of January it is nearly
the same; but as the moon is much nearer to us due south at nine o'clock in the evening.
than the sun,; a minute of a degree on her surface   I have been somewhat particular in the above
is equal only to about seventy miles, while a sketches of the apparent motions and phenomena
minute on the sun's surface is equal to more than of the heavens, because such descriptions are sel28,000 miles, which is four hundred times greater. dom or never given in elementary treatises; beThe greatest apparent diameter of Saturn  is cause I wish every lover of the science of astrotwenty seconds, or one-third of a minute; the nomy to contemplate with his own eyes the
greatest diameter of Venus is fifty-eight seconds, scenery of the sky; and because such views and
or nearly a minute; but as Saturn is much farther observations of the general aspect of the heavens
from us than Venus, his real diameter is 79,000 are necessary in order to understand the true sys.
miles, while that of Venus is only 7,700. Before tem of the-universe.
CHAPTER  II.
ON THE GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLANETARY SYSTEM.
WHEN we take an attentive view of the noc- said, with two or three exceptions, in regard to
turnal heavens at different periods, we find that all the stars in the heavens, which preserve invathe stars never shift their positions with respect to rlably the same general relations to each other
each' other. The stars, for instance, that form the from one year and century to another. Hence
constellation of Orion, preserve the same relative they have been denominated fixed stars. But
positions to each other every succeeding day, and when an attentive observer surveys the heavens
month, and year. They exhibit the same general with minuteness, he will. occasionally perceive
figure which they presented in the days of our some bodies that shift their positions. When the
fathers, and even in the times of Amos and of movements of these bodies are carefully marked,
Job., We never see the three stars in the. belt, they will be found to direct their course somewhich Job calls "the bands'of Orion," move times to the east, at other times to the west, and
nearer to, or farther from, each other  We never at certain times to remain in a fixed position; but
see the pointers in the Great Bear directed on any on the whole, their motion is generally from west
other line than  toward the pole-star, nor do we to east. Their motion is perceived by their apsee Aldebaran to the north or south, or" to the pearing sometimes on one side of a star and somewest, of the seven stars; and the same may be times on another. They appear to partake of




20                                CELESTIAL SCENERY
the general diurnal motion of the heavens, and patched up a new sphere, giving it such motions
rise and set with the stars to Which they are adja- and directions as were deemed requisite. Cycles,
cent. These bodies have received the name of epicycles, deferents, centric and eccentric circles,
planets, that is, wandering stars; and, indeed, solid spheres, and other celestial machinery, were
were their real motions such as they appear to a all employed to solve the intricate motions of the
common observer, the name would be exceedingly heavens, which seemed to baffle all the efforts of
appropriate. For'their apparent' motions' are, in human ingenuity. After their system was supmany instances, exceedingly irregular; arid, were posed to be completed, new anomalies were detlhey delineated on paper, or attempted' to be ex- tected, which required new  pieces of machinery
hibited by machinery, they' would appear an to be applied to solve appearances. But after all
almost inextricable maze. Ten bodies of this de- the ingenuity displayed in their patchings and rescription have been discovered in the heavens, patchings, the celestial spheres could never be got
five of which are invisible to the naked eye, and to move onward in harmony, and in accordance
can only' be perceived by means of telescopes. with the phenomena of the heavens.*
They were, of course, unknown to the ancients.   It would be no easy task to describe' how their
The names of the five which have been known in epicycles could be made to move through the
all ages are, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and thick crusts of crystal of which their spheres
Saturn.' The names of the other five,'which  were made. They, however, found some means
have been discovered within the last sixty years, or other to extricate themselves from every diffiare, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, and Uranus, or culty, as they always had recourse to geometrical
Herschel.                                      lines, which never found any obstacle to their
It was long before the true magnitudes and real passage on paper. To make all the pieces of
motions of these globes were fully ascertained.- their machinery move with as much smoothness
Most of the ancient astronomers supposed that and as little inconsistency as possible, they were
the earth was a quiescent body in the cMnter of forced to delineate certain furrows, or to notch on
the universe, and that the planets revolved around the arches certain grooves, in which they jointed
it in so many different heavens, which were near- and made the tenons and mortises of their epicyly concentric, and raised one above another in a cles to slide. All this celestial joiner's work, to
certain order. The first or lowest sphere was the which succeeding astronomers added several pieces.Moon, then lMercury, and, next in order, Venus, to produce balancings, or perpetual goings backthe Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and then the ward and forward, had no other tendency than to
sphere of the fixed stars. They found it no easy conceal the sublime and beautiful simplicity of
matter to reconcile the daily motion, which car- nature, and to prevent mankind, for many ages,
ries the stars from east to west, with another pe- from recognizing the true system of the world.culiar and slow motion, which carries them round With all their cumbrous and complicated mathe poles of the ecliptic, and from west to east, in chinery, they never could account for the motions
the period of 25,000 years; and, at the same time, and other phenomena of Mercury and Venus, and
with a third motion, which carries thbm along the different apparent magnitudes which the pla.
from east to west in a year, around the poles of nets present in different parts of their orbits.the ecliptic. They were no less at a loss how to Without admitting the motion of the earth, it
reconcile the annual and daily motions of the would surpass the wisdom of an angel, on any rasun, which are directly contrary'to each other.-  tional principles, to solve the phenomena of the
An additional difficulty was found in the particu- heavens. This is the system which has been delar course pursued by each individual planet.  It nominated the Ptolemaic, from Ptolemy, an astrorequired'no little ingenuity to invent celestial ma- nomer of Egypt, who first gave a particular
chinery to account for all the variety of motions explanation of its details; but it is understood to
which appeared among the heavenly orbs. After have been received by the ancient Greek philoso.
the first mobiles, or powers of motion, they placed phers except the Pythagoreans.  It was supported
some very large heavens'of solid crystal, which, by Aristotle, who wrote against the motion of the
by rolling one over another, and by a mutual and earth; and as the authority of this philosopher
violent clashing, communicated to each other the was thought sufficient to establish the opinion of
universal motion received from the primum mobile, the earth being a quiescent body, it was generally
or first mover; while, by a contrary motion, they received by the learned in Europe until the sixresisted this general impression, and, by degrees, teenth century, or a little after tile period of the
carried away, each after its own manner, the pla- Reformation. This is the system to which almost
net for the service of which it was designed.-  all our theological writers, even of the seventeenth
These heavens were conceived to be solid; other- century, uniformly refer, when alluding to the
wise the upper ones could have had no influence heavenly bodies and to tile general frame of the
on the lower to make them perform their daily world; and, in consequence of admitting so abmotion, and they behooved to be of thefinest crys- surd and untenable a theory, their reflections and
tal, because the light of the stars could not other- remarks in reference to the objects of the visible
wise'penetrate the thickness of these arches applied world, and many of their comments on Scripture,
one over another, nor reach our eyes. Above the are frequently injudicious and puerile, and, in
sphere of the fixed stars were placed the first and many instances, worse than useless. That such
second crystalline heavens, and above these the a clumsy and bungling system  was so long in
primum mobile, which carried round all the sub- vogue, is a disgrace to the ages in which it preordinate spheres. They imagined that the pri- vailed, and shows that even the learned were
mum mobile was circumscribed by the empyreal more prone to frame hypotheses and to submit to
heaven, of a cubic form, which they supposed to the authority of Aristotle, than to follow the path
be the blessed abode of departed souls. Some as- of observation, and to contemplate with their own
trolnomers were contented with seven or eight eyes the phenomena of the universe. To suppose
different' spheres, while others imagined no less that the Architect of nature was the author of
than seventy of them wrapped up one within an- such a complex and clumsy piece of machinery,
other, and all in separate motions. They no sooner was little short of a libel on his perfections, and a
discovered some'new motion or effect, formerly
unknown, than they immediately set to work and'  See La Pluche's " Spectacle De la JaVtuare."




ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLANETS                                         21
virtual denial of his infinite wisdom -and intelli- The work was printed at Nuremberg at the ex9gence                                          pense of his friends, who wrote a preface to it, in
order to palliate as much as possible, so extraordi-9 Oh how. unlike the complex works of man,.
Heaven's easy, artless, unencumbe'd plan?"  nary an innovation.
From this  sketch o thePolemaic not live to behold the success of his work.  HIo
From this brief sketch of the Ptolemaic system, was attacked by a bloody flux, which was suewe may learn into how many absurdities we in- ceeded by a palsy in his left side; and only a few
volve ourselves by the denial of a single important hours before he breathed his last he received a
fact and the admission of a single false principle; copy of his work, which had been sent to him by
and the importance of substantiating every fact one of his scientific friends. But he had then
and proving every principle in all our investigations other cases upon his mind, and composedly roof the system of nature and the order of the uni- signed his soul to God on the 23d of May, 1543,
verse.                                           in the seventy-first year of his age.'His remains
The first among the moderns who had the bold- were deposited in the cathedral of Frauenberg;
ness' to assail'the ancient' system  which had so and spheres cut in relief on his tomb were the
long prevailed, was the famous Nicolaus Coperni- only epitaph that recorded his labors. Not many
cus, who was born at Thorn, in Polish Prussia, in years ago his bones were wantonly carried off to
1472, and died at Worms, where he had been gratify the impious curiosity of two Polish tramade a canon of the church by his mother's bro- velers.*
ther, who was bishop of that place. His attention    The system  broached by Copernicus, notwithwas early directed to the sciences of mathematics standing much opposition, soon  made its way
and astronomy. Having traveled into Italy for among the learned in Europe.  It was afterward
the purpose of enlarging his knowledge on such  powerfully supported by the observations  and
subjects, he relnained some time at Bologna with reasonings of Galileo; Kepler, Halley, Newton,
Dominicus Maria, an eminent professor of astro- La Place, and other celebrated philosophers, and
nomy, and afterward went to Rome, where he now rests on a foundation firm and immutable as
soon acquired so great a reputation that he was the laws of the universe.  The introduction of
chosen professor of mathematics, which he taught this system may be considered an era as importfor a long time with great applause. At the same ant in philosophy as that of the Reformation was
time he was unwearied in making celestial obser- in politics and religion.  It had even a bearing
vations. Returning-to his own country, he began upon the progress of religion itself, and upon the
to apply his vast knowledge in mathematics to views we ought to take of the character and opercorrect the system of astronomy which then pre- ations' of the Creator.  It- paved the way for a
vailed. Having applied himself with assiduity to rational contemplation of his works, and for all
the study of the heavens, he soon perceived that those brilliant discoveries in the celestial regions
the hypothesis of the ancient astronomers was which have expanded our views of his adorable
conformable neither to harmony, uniformity, nor perfections, and of the boundless extent of his
reason.  With a bold independent spirit, and a universal empire.  It was promulgated nearly at
daring hand, he dashed the, crystalline spheres of the same period when the superstitions of the dark
Ptolemy to pieces, swept away his cycles, epicy- ages were beginning to be Dissipated; when the
cles, and deferents, stopped the rapid whirl of the power of the Romish church had lost its ascenprimum mobile, fixed the sun in the center of the dency; when the alt of printing had begun to
planetary orbs, removed the earth from, its quies- illuminate the world; when the mariner's comcent state, and set it in motion through the.ethereal passwas applied to the art of navigation; when
void along with the other planets, and thus intro- the western continent was-discovered by Columduced simplicity and harmony into the system of bus; and when knowledge was beginning to difthe universe. But such a bold attack on ancient fuse its benign influence over the nations; and,
systems, which had been so long venerated. could  therefore, it may be considered as connected with
not be made without danger. Even the learned that series of events which are destined, in the
set themselves in opposition to such bold innova- moral Government of God, to enlighten and rentions in philosophy; the vulgar considered such ovate tile world.
doctrines as chimeras, contrary to the evidence of   I shall now. proceed to consider the arrangethe senses, and allied to the ravings of a maniac; ment of the planetary or Copernican system, anld
and the church thundered its anathemas against all some of the arguments by which it is supported.
such opinions as most dangerous heresies. When    In this system  the sun is considered as placed
only about thirty-five years of age, Copernicus near the center. Around this central luminary
wrote his book " On the Revolution of the Celes- the planets perform  their revolutions in the foltial Orbs;" but, fearing the -obloquy and persecu- lowing order:-First, the planet Mercury, at the
tion to which his opinions might' expose him, he distance from the sun's center of about 37 milwithheld its publication, and communicated his lions of miles. Next to Mercury is Venus, disviews only to a few friends. For more than thir- tinguished by the name of the morning and eventy years he postponed the publishing of this cele- ing star, at the distance of 31 millions of miles
brated work, in which his system is demonstrated; from the orbit of Mercury, and 68 millions from
and it was with the utmost difficulty, even in the the sun. The Earth is considered as the planet
latter part of his life, that he could be prevailed next in order, which revolves at the distance of
upona to usher it into the world. Overcome, at 95 millions of miles from the sun, and 27 millions
length, by the importunity of his friends, lie put from the orbit of Venus. Farther from the sun
the work in order, and dedicated it to Pope Paul than the Earth is the planet Mars, which is 145
III; in which dedication, not to shock received  millioins of miles from  the sun, and 50 millions
prejudices, he presented his system under the form  beyond the orbit of the Earth. Next to the orbit
of a hypothesis.'-Astronomers," said he "be- of Mars are four small planetary bodies, somelug permitted to imagine circles to explain the
motion of the stars, I thought myself equally
entitled to examine if the supposition of the   * A fac-simile of one of the letters of Copernicus may be
seen in'No. IX of the" -Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,"
motion of the earth would render the theory  for July, 181; and an engraving of the ouse in whicJrnalie
of these appearances more exact and simple." —  lived in No. XIII of the same Journal for July, 1822.




22.CELESTIAL SCENERY.
times named Asteroids, which were discovered at I briefly illustrate those which I consider as demondifferent times about the-bjeginning of the present I strative. Having already endeavored to prove the
century.  They are named Vesta;- -Juno, "Ceres, diurnal rotation of the earth, I shall consider that
and Pallas. Of these, the first:in.order'from the point as settled, and confine myself, at present, to
sun is Vesta, at the distance of 2~25 millions of the consideration, of the earth's annual revolution,
miles; the next, Juno, at the" distance of.'253 mil- and the phenomena "of the planets which result
lions. Ceres, at 260 <millions;' and Pallas, at 266 from this motion,.
millions of miles.  The planet Jupiter is the next,  The presumptive arguments that.the earth is a
in order, and performs its revolution in an orbit planetary body, and revolves round the sun in cin495 millions of miles from the sun, and 400 from  cert with- other planets, are, 1. It is most simple and
the orbit of the earth.  Saturn- is nearly double agreeable to the general arrangements of the &Ceator
the distance of Jupiter from. the sun, being dis- that such an order as we-have now stated should
tant from  that orb above 900 milliols-of amiles. exist in the planetary system. For, by the moThei'most distant planet in the system which has tion of the earth, all the phenomena of the heayet been discovered is Uranus, or Herschel, which vens are resolved and completely accounted for,
is removed from the sun at more than double the which they cannot be on any other system, withdistance of Saturn; namely, above 1800 millions out the supposition of clumsy and complex maof miles.- The orbit of this planet includes the chinery and motions altogether repugnant to reanorbits of the whole of the bodies of the solar sys-  son and to what we know of the other operations
tem  that have hitherto been discovered, and is of the all-wise Creator. Beside, it is contrary to
eleven thousand three hundred millions' of miles the first rule laid down in philosophy,-" That
-in circumference, and three thousand six hundred  more causes of natural things are not to be ad.:millions. in diameter.  To move -round'this cir- mitted than are both true and sufficient to explain
cumference at the rate of thirty miles every hour the phenomena."  But the Ptolemaic, or vulgar'would require above forty-two-thousand ninehun- system  of the world, assumes the existence of
dred years. Such is the order, and such are the facts which can never be established, and introample dimensions of that system  of which we duces cumbrous and complicated motions which
form a part; and yet it is but a mere speck in the are quite unnecessary for explaining the phenomnmap of the universe.  The following diagram  ena.  2. Because it is more rational to suppose that
exhibits the order of the planets in the solar the earth moves about the sun, than that the huge
system.                      I                    masses of the planets, some of which are a thouFig. 5.                    sand times larger than our globe-or that the stupendous body of the sun, which is thirteen hulldred thousand times greater-should perform a
revolution around so comparatively small a globe
-as the earth. To suppose the contrary, would
be repugnant to all the laws of motion that
are known to exist in the universe. We might
as well expect that a sling, which contains a
millstone in it, may be fastened to a pebble,
and continue its motion about that pebble
without removing it, as that the sun can re{-~~ ~Wr~~ ~ ~ ] ~volve about the earth while the earth continues
immovable in the center of that motion.
3. It was a law discovered by Kepler, by
which all the planets, both primary and secondary, are regulated, "That the squares of the
periodic times of the planets' revolutions are
as the cubes of their distances;"* but, if the
sun move around the earth, that law, which
is established on tho most: accurate observations, is completely destroyed, and the general
order and symmetry of the system  of nature
are infringed upon and interrupted. For, according to that law, the sun would be so far
from  revolving about the earth in 365 days,
that it would require!?no less than. 589 years to
accomplish one revolution, as will appear from
In the foregoing figure the small central star the following calculation: The moon  revolves
represents the sun, and the circles represent the round the earth in twenty-seven days eight hours,
orbits of Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Vesta, at the distance of 240,000 miles; thle sun is placed
Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, at the distance of 95,000,000 miles.  The period
in the order here enumerated. The orbits of the of the revolution of any body revolving at that
new planets, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, are! distance will be found, according to the law now
represented as crossing each other, as they do in stated, by the following proportion: As the cube
nature; and the portion of a long ellipse which  of the moon's distance: is to the cube of thl Sl aI's
crosses the orbits of all the planets represents the distance:: so is the square of the moon's period:
orbit of a comet.  The proportional distances and | to the square of the period of any body moving
magnitudes of the planets are represented in a about the earth at tile distance of the sun. Now,
subsequent chapter.                              the cube of the moon's distance, 240,000, is 13,I shall now proceed to offer a few arguments or   * For example; if one planet were four times as distant as
demonstrations of -the truth of the solar system, another, it would revolve in a period eight times as long:
as first proposed by Copernicus;, pan -;.w  receivec  for the cube of 4=64' is equal to the square of 8. Thus
by all astronomers.  I shall first state, those which  Mars is about four times as remote from the sun as.Mercury,
and Uranus fbur times as remote as Jupiter, and their periods
may be called presumptive arguments,: orwhich of revolution correspond to this proportion of their distances.
amount  to a high degree of probabity, and tten This argument, when properly understood, is demonstratie.




EARTH'S ANNUAL MOTION.                                     23
824,000,000,000,000; the cube of thesun's dis- to conceive such a motion than-it is to conceive
tance, 95000,000,is 857.375,000,000,000,000,000,- how the earth can'be inhabited all round, and
W00. The square of the moon's periodical time, that there can be no such thing as up or down
twenty-seven days eight hours, is 747, which, in the universe, absolutely considered; how, foi
multiplied by the cube of the sun's distance, and  example, persons can stand upright on tile oppodivided by the cube -of the moon's distance, is site sides of the globe; that our antipodes, stand46,329,508,463, the square rootof which is215,242 ing with their heads in an opposite direction to
days, or 589 years and 257 days. This calculation  ours calln look up into the sky and down to t!he
is of itself sufficient to determine the point in earth just as we do, without any more danger of
question, for there is no exception known to- the falling off from  its surface than we are of being
law we have stated. Beside, did the sun observe carried upward into the air. These are circumthis universal law, and yet revolve in 365 days, his stances which necessarily flow from the rotundity
distance ought to be only about 1,351,000 miles, of the earth and its attractive power; they are
whereat it can be shown that it-is about 95,000,- known to every one, and cannot possibly be dis.
000. For, as the square of the moon's period, puted, unless we deny the globular' form  of the.747  is to the square of the sun's, 365X365=  earth, or, in other words, contradict the evidence
133,225:: so is the cube of the moon's distance both of our reason and our senses. But we know
from the earth 13,824,000,000,000,000: to 2,465,- as little of that power which draws everything to
465,050,240,963,855, the cube root of which is the earth on all sides, as we do of a power which
1,351,295, or one million, three hundred and fifty- carries a planet round its orbit at the rate of a
one thousand, two hundred and ninety-five miles, hundred thousand miles an hour. Both are effects
which should be the sun's distance if he revolved  of that Almighty agent who contrived the uniabout the earth in accordance with this universal verse, "who is wonderful in counsel and excellent
law, which governs every moving body, both pri- in working," and " whose ways," in numerous
mary and secondary.*                           instances, "are past finding out."  But, in all
4. It appears most reasonable to conclude that cases where the least doubt exists, we ought to
the sun is placed near the center of the plan- adopt that view of the Creator's plans and operaetary system, as it is the, fountain of light and tions which is most consistent with the ideas of a
heat for cheering'and irradiating all the worlds Being of infinite perfection.
within the sphere of its influence; and it is f:nm   The arguments now stated, although we could
the'center alone that these emanations can be dis- produce no other, would be sufficient to corrobotributed in uniform and equable proportions to all rate the idea that the earth is a planetary body,
the planets. If the earth were'in the center, with  performing its motion through the depths of space;
the sun and planets revolving around it, the plan-' but, happily, we are able to produce proofs of the
etary worlds would be, at different times, at very  sun occupying the center of thee system, which
different distances from the sun; and, when near- may be considered as demonstrative.. These proofs
est to him, would be scorched with excessive heat, I shall now state as briefly as possible.
and at their greatest distance would be frozen with   1. In the first place, the planets Mercury and
excessive cold; and as some of the planets would, Venus are uniformly observed to have two conon this supposition, be sometimes five times the  junctions with the sun, but no opposition, which
distance from the source of light and heat which  could not possibly happen unless the orbits of those
they are at other times, it would produce the same planets lay, within the orbit of the earth, as deeffect as if the earth were occasionally to be car- lineated in the plan of the solar system. This
ried beyond the orbit of Jupiter, four hundred and  circumstance will be more particularly understood
seventy millions of miles from  its present posi- by the following diagram.
tion. But if the sun be considered as placed in
the center of the system, we have then presented
to our view a system of universal harmony and
order: the planets all revolving around the great
central orb by the universal law or power of grav- 
itation, and everything corresponding to the laws
of circular motion and central forces; otherwise 
we are left entirely in the dark as to the operations
of nature and the system of the universe.
There is no more difficulty in conceiving the
earth to move than that it should remain quiescent     [  ~
in the same place. For if the earth remain at       \
rest n the center of the system, it is supported                               a i;
upon nothing, in the midst of infinite space, by        x                      i    /
the power of Omnipotellce: and we have as little     a,
conception how a ponderous globe of the size of        A
the earth'should remain suspended upon nothing,
as that it should move throlgh the voids of space'
with a velocity of sixty-eight thousand miles an
hour. The Power that is able to suspend it in                                   /
empty space can as easily make it fly through the
ethereal regions, as is the case with Jupiter and
Saturn,, which are globes a thousand times larger;
and such a motion is necessary in order to display 
tihe harmony and proportion of the Creator's
works, and to vindicate, his all-perfect wisdom
anid intelligence. It is even no more difficult                     G
The primary planets are those which revolve about the
sun as their center, as Venus, Mars, and Jupiter. The secr
rda7ry planets are those which revolve around the primary,
s. -e moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus.      Let S represent the sun in the center of the




id4                           -    GCELESTIAL SCENERY.
system, M, Mercury; V,Venus; E, Earth; and G, about twenty-five seconds, and when least, not
Mars.; It is evident that when Mercury is at M  above four or five seconds; so that in one part of
and Venus at V, they will be seen friom the earth, his orbit he is five times nearer to- the earth than
E, in the same part of the heavens as. the sun; at the opposite part, and, consequently, appears
namely, at'B, where Mars ismrepresented;  because  twenty-five times larger in surface.  Thus, when
they are all situated in. the same straight line, E  Mars is in the point G,-in opposition to the sun.
B. In this position they are between the sun and he is the whole diameter of the earth's orbit, or 190
the earth, and this is called their inferior conjune- millions. of miles nearer us than when he.' is in
tion.  Again, when.Mercury and- Venus come to conjunction, in the point B.  In the- one case he
the situations H-, K, they are againin'the'straight is only 50 millions of miles distant from the earth,
line joining the centers of the eairth! and sun, and while in the other he is no less than 240 millions
are therefore see.n in the -same. part of the heavens of. miles; and his apparent magnitude varies'acwith that orb.-. In these last positions they.are cordingly. But, accoiding to the system which
beyond the sun, which' is now between them. and' places the earth in the center, the apparent magthe earth. This is called their siperior conjunc- nitude of Mars, and of all the'other planets, should
tion. Here it is'evident that these two planets always be equal, in whatever points of their orbits
must appear twice in conjunction with the sun, they may be situated.
iin each revolution, to a'spectator on. thb earth at   5. When the planets are viewed through good
E; but they can never appear in opposition to the telescopes, they appear with different phases; that
sun, or, in other'-words, they can:-never be seen is, with different parts of their'bodies enlightened.
in -the east. immediately after the sun has set in Thus, Mars sometimes appears ro:und, or with a
the, west, as is the -case with Mars,'which may be full enlightened face; and at other times he preseen at G when'the sun'appears at B, in-'the op- sents.a gibbous phase, like that of the moon three
posite dilection;'all which appearances are exactly  or four days before the full. Venus presents al.
correspondent' with observation, but could never the different phases of the moon, appearing sometake place if'the earth were the center of their times' with a gibbous phase, sometimes like a half
motions.                                i.  moon, and at other times like a slender crescent.
2. The greatest elongation or distance of Mer- Thus, at V, her dark side is turned to the earth,
cury from  the sun i's twenty-nine degrees, and and she is consequently invisible, unless she hapthat of Venus about forty-seven degrees, which  pens to pass across the disc of the sun, when she
answers exactly to observation, and to the posi- appears like a round black spot on the surface of
tions and distances assigned to them in the sys- that luminary. At D she appears like a crescent;
temrn; but if they.moved round the earth as a cen- at A like a half moon, because only the one-half
ter, they would sometimes be seen 180 degrees of her enlightened side is turned toward the earth;
from the sun, or' in opposition to him. But they and at F she presents a gibbous phase. When
have never been seen in such a position by any  Copernicus first proposed his system, it was one
observer, either in ancient or modern times, nor of the strongest objections which his adversaries
at greater distances from the sun than those now  brought against it, and by which they supposed
specified. It is evident, from the figure, that when they had completely confuted him; namely, that
Venus is at D, the point of its greatest elongation, " if his hypothesis were true, Venus and Mercury
it will be seen at. a, in- the direction of E a, which must vary their phases like the moon, but that
forms an angle of forty-'seven degrees with the they constantly appeared round.' Coperllicus at
line E B, or the direction of the sun as-seen from  once admitted that these consequences were justly
the earth. In like manner Mercury, when at its drawn; and he attributed the cause of their round
greatest elongation, at R, willibeseen at e, which  appearances to the structure of our eyes, to the
forms.a less- angle than the former with the line distance of the objects, and to those radiating
of direction in which the.sun is seen., Hence it crowns which hinder us from judging either of
is that Mercury is'so rarely seen, and Venus only the size or the exact form  of the stars and plaat certain time's of the year; whereas, were the nets; and he is said to have prophesied that one
earth' at rest in the.center of the planetary orbits, day or other these various phases would be discothese planets would be seen inl-all positions and vered; and little more than a half century interdistances from the suni in the same manner as the vened, when the telescope (which was unknown
moon appears..                    in the time of Copernicus), in the hands of Ga-'3.. The planets Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, lileo, determined to a certainty the matter in disand all the other superior planets, have each their  pute, and confirmed the prediction of that emiconjunctions and oppositions to the sun,-alternate  nent astronomer. How great, may we suppose,
and successively, which could not be unless their would have been the transport of that illustrious
orbits were exterior to the orbit of the earth.-  man had a telescope been put into his hands, and
Tlius, from  the earth at E  Mars will appear in had he seen, as we now do, that Venus, when she
conjunction with the sun at B and in opposition appears most brilliant, exhibits, in reality, the
at G;. that is, in a part of the heavens 180 degrees form of a crescent! so that this formidable objecdistant-from the sun, or directly opposite to him; tion to the truth of his system  has now become
and the same is the case with all the planets be- one of the strongest and most palpable demonstrayond the orbit. of Mars, which proves that they  tions of the reality of thiat arrangement which
are all situated in orbits which include the orbit of has placed the sun in the center, and set the earth
the earth.             -.                    in motion between Mars and Venus.
4. In the arrangements of the planets in the    6. All the planets in their motions are seen
system, as formerly stated, they will all be some- sometimes to move direct; sometimes retrograde;
times much nearer, to th3 earth than at other -and at other times to remain stationary, without
times; and, consequently, -their brightness and any apparent motion: in other words, in one part
splendor, and.likewise. their apparent diameters, of their course they appear to move to the east;
will be proportionably greater'at -on e time than at in another part to the west; and at certain points
another, This corresponds with. every day's ob- of their orbits they appear fixed for some time in
servation   Thusdiameter of Venusthehe same position. Thus, Venus, whlen she passes
when greatest, is fifty;eight'seconds, and when from. her greatest elongation westward, at L, to
least, about ten seconds; of Mars, when greatest her elongation eastward, at D, through the are




MAGNIFICENT SCENES OF- MOTION.                                       25
-L GKF A D, will appear direct-in motion, or have passed in that time from  E  to some other
from west to east; but as she passes from  ) to-L, part of. its oribit, and from  this part still keeps
through the arc D V L,; she will'appear retro- moving on until Venus overtakes it,- aid gets
grade, or. as if she were moving from east to west. again between it and the sun.  The period which
When she is in those parts of her orbit -most dis- Venus will take before she overtakes the earth
tant from the sun, as -at D and L, she will appear and comes in conjunction with the sun, is found
for some time stationary, because the tangent line. as follows: The daily mean motion of the earth is
or visual ray appears to coincide for some time fifty-nine minutes eight seconds (which is the
with the orbit of the planet; just as a ship at a same as the apparent mean motion of the sun),
great distance, when moving directly toward the and the daily mean motion of Venus is one degree,
eye in the line of vision, appears.for a little time thirty-six minutes, eight seconds. The difference
to make no progress. All these apparent diversi- of these. mean motions is thirty-seven minutes.
ties of motion are necessary results of the Coperni- Therefore, as 37': is to the number of minutes in
can system, and they coincide with the most ac- the whole circle of 360 degrees, namely, 21630'
curate. observations; but they  are  altogether:: so is one day: to 583 days, 18 5-4 hours, which
inexplicable on any other hypothesis.           is the time between two conjunctions of the same
7. The planets Mercury and Venus, in their kind, or one year and a little more than seven
superior conjunctions with the sun, as at H  and months, which is somewhat more than two and a
K, are sometimes hid behind the sun's body; half revolutions of Venus, and which perfectly
which could never happen on the Ptolemaic hy- agrees with the most accurate observations.
pothesis, because in it the orbit of the-sun is.sup-   In the last place, if we were to suppose the
posed to be exterior to the orbits of these two earth at rest in the center of the planetary sys\planets.                                        tem, the motions of all the planets would present a
8. The times in which these conjunctions, op- scene of irnextricable confusion. They would appositions, direct and retrograde motions, and sta- pear so irregular and anomalous that no rational
tionary aspects of the planets happen, are not being would ever suppose they could be the consuch as they would be if the earth were at rest in trivances of an All-wise Being, possessed of every
its orbit; but precisely such if the earth move, and perfection. This will appear at once by casting
all the other planets in the periods assigned them. the eye on Fig. 7, which represents the apparent
Thus, suppose Venus at any time in conjunction motion of the planet MerctLry, as seen from the
with the sun at V; were the earth at rest in E, earth, from the year 1708 to 1715, as originally
the next conjunction of the, same kind would delineated by the celebrated astronomer Cassilli,
happen again when.Venus had made-just one re- and published ii the. Memoirs of the Royal Acavolution, that is, in 224 days. But this is con- demy of Sciences. Here the motion, of this platrary to experience; for a much longer time is, net appears to describe a complicated curve, or a
found to intervene between two conjunctions of series of loops or spirals running into each other,
the same kind, as must be if we suppose the earth instead of a regular circular motion in an orbit;
to have; a- motion in the same direction.  For, and such irregular curves must be the real motion
when Venus comes to the point V, the earth will of the planet, to account for all its appearances,
-if the earth were considered as remaining fixed in the center of its motion. On                          Fig. 7
each side of the loops in the figure it appears stationary; in that part of the loop
next the earth it appears retrograde; and,
in all the rest of the path, which seems to      -              - ----
stretch far away from  the earth, it appears direct, until its course again appears
to run into a loop. Let the reader trace        - /,
the whole of the curve here delineated,
and then ask himself whether such motions can possibly be real, or the contri- 
vances of Infinite Wisdom. The motions
of Venus, and all of the superior planets, as  
seen from the earth, present similar curves l                    v et>art       -
and anomalies. Now it is a fact, that  
when the earth is considered as moving
round the sun in a year, between the
orbits of Venus and Mars, all these apparent irregularities are completely accounted for by the combination of motions  
produced by our continual change of position, in consequence of the earth's pro-l                    t 
gress in its annual orbit; and thus the      i
movements of all the planets are reduced
to perfect harmony and order.
Such is a brief summary of the leading                            a
proofs which may be brought forward to
establish the fact of the annual motion of
the,-earth round -the sun. They all converge to- in question, as if, from  a fixed position in the
ward the same point, and hang together in per- heavens, we actually beheld the earth and all
fect harmony. It is next to impossible that such its population sweeping along through the ethea combination of arguments could he found to real spaces with  the velocity  of sixty-eight
prove a false position. When  thoroughly un- thousand miles every hour.  These arguments
derstood and calmly  considered they are calcu- are plain and easy to be understood if the least
lated to produce on the mind of- every -unbi- attention be bestowed. Most of them  require
assed inquirer-as strong a conviction of the point nothing more than common observation, or, in




26                               CELESTIAL: SCENERY.
other words, common sense, in order- to'under- a minute; while the earth in its'annual course flies
stand and appreciate them; and he who'will not with a velocity of more than 1130 miles in the same
give himself the trouble to weigh them with'at- space of' time, or about nine times that velocity.
tentioii  nust be contented to remain in ignorance.   How august, then, and overpowering the idea,
I have stated them with more, particularity than that during every pulse that beats within -us we
is generally done in elementary books on this are carried nearly twenty miles; from that portioni
subject, because they lie at the foundation of as- of absolute space we occupied before! that during
tronomical science, and of all our views of the the seven hours we repose in sleep, we, and all
amplitude and order of the universe:' and be- the inhabitants'of the world, are transported 4] 0,cause many profess to believe in the motion of 000 miles through the depths of space;, that durthe earth merely on the authority of others, with- ing the time it would, take to read deliberatelyout examining the grounds'of their belief, and, froni the beginning of the last paragraph to the
consequently, are:never fully and rationally con- present sentence, we have been carried forward
viriced of the important position' to which we have with the earth's motion more than 4500 miles;
adverted.                                       and that, in the course of'.the few minutes we
The - motion of the earth, presents before us a spend in walking a mile, we are conveyed through
most (sublime and august object of contemplation, a portion of absolute space to the extent of more
We-wonder at beholding' a steam carriage, with than 18,000 miles. What an astonishing idea
ill its apparatus of wagons and passengers, carried does such a motion convey of the ENERGIES of the
forwardoon a railway at the rate'of thirty miles Almighty Creator, especially when we consider
an hour, or a balloon sweeping through the atmo- that thousands of rolling worlds, some of them
sphere with a velocity of sixty miles in. the same immensely larger than our globe, are impelled
time. Our admiration would be'raised'still higher, with similar velocities, and have, for many censhould.-we behold Mount Etna, with its seventy turies past, been running' without intermission
cities, towns, and villages, and its hundred thou- their destined rounds!  Here, then, we have a
sand inhabitants, detached from its foundations, magnificent scene presented to. view, far more
carried, aloft through the air, pouring  forth tor- wonderful than all the enchanted palaces rising
rents of red-hot lava, and impelled to the conti- and vanishing at the stroke of the magician's
nent of America in the space of half an hour. rod, or all the scenes which the human imaginaBut such an object, grand and astonishing as it tion has ever created, or the tales of romance have
would be, could convey no adequate idea of the recorded, which may serve to occupy our mental
grandeur of such a body as the earth flying contemplation when we feel ennui, or are at a loss
through the voids of space in its' —course round for subjects of amusement or reflection.  We
the sun. Mount Etna, indeed, contains a mass may view in imagination this ponderous globe on
of matter equal to more than 800 cubical miles, which we reside, with all its load of continents.
but the earth comprises an extent of more than islands, oceans, and its millions of population,
263,000,000,000 of solid miles, and, consequently, wheeling its course through the heavens at a rate
is more than three hundred  millions of times of motion, every day, exceeding 1,600,000 miles,
larger than Etna, and of a much greater density. we may transport ourselves to distant regions.
The comparative size of this mountain to the and contemplate globes far more.magnificent,
earth may be'apprehended by conceiving three moving with similar or even greater velocities;
hundred- millions of guineas laid' in a straight we may wing our flight to the' starry firmament.
line,'which would extend 4700 miles, or from  where worlds unnumbered run their ample rounds,
London to the' equator, or to south America. where suns revolve around suns, and systems
The'whole. line of guineas throughout this vast around systems, around the throne'of the Eterextent would represent the bulk of'the earth, and nal; until, overpowered with the immensity of
a single guinea, which is only about an inch in space and motion, we fall down with reverence,
extent, would represent the size of Etna compared and worship HIM  who presides over all the dewith that of the -earth. Again: Etna, in m'oving partments of universal nature, " who created all
from  its present situation'to America in half an worlds, and for whose pleasure they are and were
hour, would move only at the rate of 130 miles in created."
CHIAPTER III.
ON THE MAGNITUDES, IMOTIONS, AND OTHER PHENOMEVe JA THE BODIES
-CONNECTED WITH THE SOLAR S 5STEM
IN the elucidation of this subject, I shall, in the      I I' r.E I   rI   I, aT MERCURY.
first place, present a few sketches of the magnitudes, motions, and other phenomena of the pri-   This planet is fne nearest tothe sun of any
mary planets belonging  to the solar system. that have yet beer, discovered, although a space
These- planets, as formerly stated, are, Mercury, of no less than tbirty-seven millions of miles in-.
Venus, Mars, Vesta, Junio, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, tervene between Mercury and the central lumiSaturn, and Uranus, which -are here mentioned in nary. Within this immense space several planets
the order of their distance from the sun.      may revolve, though they may never'be detected
In this order I shall proceed to give a few de- by us, on account of their proximity to the sun.
scriptions of the principal facts which have been To an inhabitant of Mercury, such planets, if ally
ascertained respecting each planet.'        exist, may be as distinctly visible as Venus ant.




LIGHT AND' SPLENDOR OF MERCURY.                                     27
Mercury are to us; because they will appear, in which was visible in the United'States of AmeriCqertain parts of their course, at a much greater ca, but -not in Britain, as -the sun was set be
elongation from  the sun than-they can to us. fore its commencement.  The next transits, to
This planet, on account of its moving in the the end of the present century, are as followsneighborhood of the sun, is seldom noticed by a
common observer. It is only to be seen by the                                Hours. Minutes.
naked eye about the period of its greatest elonga-   1845, May 8th............ 7  54 P. M.
tion from -the sun, which is sometimes only about    1848, November 9th.......   1  38 P. M.
16~ or 170, and never exceeds 290. These elonga-     1861, November 12th....     7  20 P. M.
tions happen, at an average, about six or seven      1868, November 5th....  6  44 A. AI.
times every year; about three times when the         1878, May 6th.............  6  38..
planet' is eastward of the sun, and three times      1881, November 8th....... 0  40 A. M.
when it is to the westward.  This planet, there-     1891, May 10th........... 2  45 A. M.
fore, can only beseen by the unassisted eye for a   1894, November 10th...... 6  17 P. Mx.
few days about these periods, either in the morning a little before sunrise, or in the evenings a   The time stated in the above table is the mean
little after sunset. As it is sometimes not above time of conjunction at Greenwich, or nearly the' 16~, even at its greatest elongation, from the point middle of the transit; so that, in whatever part
of sunrise or sunset, and is likewise very near the of the world' the sun is risen' at that time, the
horizon, it is sometimes very difficult to distin- transit will be visible if no clouds interpose.  The
guish it by the naked eye, and at all other times next two transits, in 1845 and 1848, will be partly
it is generally imperceptible without a telescope. visible in Britain.
It iq said that the celebrated astronomer, Coperni-   Few discoveries have been made onl the surface
cus, had never an opportunity of seeing this planet of this planet by means of the telescope, owing
during the whole course of his life. I have seen to the dazzling splendor of its rays, which preMercury three or four times with the naked eye, vents the telescope' from presenting a well-defined
and pretty frequently with a telescope. With a image of its disc; owing, likewise, to the short
magnifying power of 150 times, I have seen it interval during which observations can be made,
about the time of its greatest elongation, more and particularly to its proximity to the horizon,
than half an hour after sunrise, when it.appeared and the undulating vapors through which it is
like a small brilliant half'moon; but no spots then viewed. That unwearied observer of the
could be discovered upon it. To the naked eye, heavens, Sir William  Herschel, although he frewhen'it is placed in a favorable position, it ap- quently viewed this planet with magnifying powpears with a brilliant white light, like that of Ve- ers of 200 and 300 times, could perceive no spots
inus, but much smaller and less conspicuous. The or any other phenomenon on its disc from which
best mode of detecting it is by means of an equa- any conclusions could be deduced'respecting its
torial telescope, which, by a slight calculation and peculiar constitution or the period of its rotation.
the help of an ephemeris, may be directed to the Mr. Schroeter, an eminent German astronomer,
precise point of the heavens where it is situated. however, appears to' have been more successful.
The most favorable seasons of the year for ob- This gentleman has long been a careful observer
serving it are when its greatest elongations happen of the phenomena of the planetary system, by
in the month of March or April, and in August means of telescopes of considerable size, and has
or September. In winter it is not easily perceived, contributed not a few interesting facts to astroon account of its very low altitude above the nomical science. He assures us that he has seen'horizon at sunrise and sunset; and in summer, the not only spots, but even mountains on.the surface
long twilight prevents our. perception of any  of Mercury, and that he succeeded in ascertaining
small object in the heavens. From  the planets the altitude of two of these mountains.  One of
Saturn and Uranus, Mercury would be altogether them he found to be little more than 1000 toises
invisible, being completely immersed in the splen- in bight, or about an English mile and 372 yards.
dor of the solar rays; so that an inhabitant of The other measured 8900 toises, or ten miles and
these planets would never know that such a body 1378 yards, which is more than four times higher
existed in the universe, unless he should happen than Mount Etna or the Peak of Teneriffe. The
to see it when it passed, like a small dark point, highest mountains are said to be situated in the
across the disc of the sun.                     southern hemisphere of this planet. The same
Mercury revolves around the sun in the space observer informs us, that, by examining the variaof eighty-seven days twenty-three hours, which tion in the daily appearance of the horns or cusps
is the length of its year; but the time from one of this planet, when it appeared of a crescent
conjunction to the same conjunction again, is form, he found the period of its diurnal, rotation
about 116 days; for as the earth has moved about round  its axis to be twenty-four hours, five
a fourth part of its revolution during this period, minutes, and twenty-eight seconds. But these'it requires nearly thirty days for Mercury to deductions require still to be confirmed by future
overtake -it, so as to be in a line with the sun. observations.
During this period of'about 116 days it passes   The light or the intensity of solar radiation
through all'the phases of the moon, sometimes -which falls on this planet is nearly seven times
presenting a gibbous phase, sometimes that of a greater than that which falls upon the earth; for
half moon, and at other-times the form of a cre- the proportion of their distances from the sun is
scent; which phases and other particulars will be nearly as three to eight, and the quantity of light
more particularly explained in the description I diffused from a luminous body is as the square of
shall give of the planet Venus. Mercury, at dif- the distance from that body. The square of 3 is
ferent times, makes'a transit across the sun's disc; 9, and the square of 8, 64, which, divided by 9,
and as its dark side is then turned to the earth, it produces a quotient of 7 1-9, which nearly exwill appear like a round spot upon the face of the presses the intensity of light on Mercury comBun; and when it passes near the center of the pared with that on the earth. Or, more accusun, it will- appear for.the space of from five to rately, thus: Mercury is 36,880,000 of miles from
seven hours on the surface of that orb  Its last the sun, the square of which is 1,360,134,400,transit happened on the 7th of November, 1835, 000,000: the earth is distant 95,000,000, the




28                                CELESTIAL SCENERY.
square of which is, 9,025,000,000,000,000.  Di- ceeds that on Uranus. But we may rest assured,
vide this last square. by the first,. and the quotient from what we know  of the plans of Divine wis.
is about 62, which is very nearly the proportion dom, that the eyes of organic intelligence, both at
of light on this planet. As the apparent diameter the extremes and illn all the intermed;ate spaces of
of the sun is likewise.in proportion to the square the system, are exactly adapted to the sphere they
of the distance, the inhabitants of this planet will occupy and the quantity of light they receive
behold in their-sky a luminous orb, giving light from the central luminary.
by day, nearly seven times larger than the sun    In regard to the temnperature of Mercury, if the
appears to us; and every' object on its surface intensity of heat were supposed to be governed by
will be illuminated with a brilliancy seven times the same law as the intensity of light, the heat in
greater than are the objects around-us in a fine this planet would, of course, be nearly seven
summer's day. Such'a brilliancy of luster on times greater than on the earth. Supposing the
every object would completely dazzle ou.r eyes in average temperature of our globe to be fifty detheir present state. of organization; but in'- every grees of Fahrenheit's thermometer, the average
such case we are bound to believe that the organs temperature on Mercury would be'333 degrees,
of vision of the inhabitants of any world are ex- or 121 degrees above the heat of boiling water; a
actly adapted to the sphere they occupy in- the degree of heat sufficient to melt sulphur, to make
system  to which they belong. Were we trans- nitrous acid boil, and to dissipate into vapor every
ported to such a luminous world as Mercury, we volatile compound. But we have no reason to
could perceive every object with the same ease conclude that the degree of sensible heat on any
and distinctness we now do, provided the pupil planet is. in an inverse proportion to its distance
of the eye, instead of being one-eighth of an inch from the sun. We have instances of the contrary
in diameter, as it now is, were; contracted to the on our own globe. On the top of the highest
size of one-fiftieth of an inch. In consequence range of the Andes, in South America, there is
of the splendor which-. is- reflected from  every an intense cold at all times, and their summits are
object on this planet, it is likely that the whole, covered with perpetual snows, while in the plains
scenery of nature will assume a most glorious immediately adjacent, the inhabitants feel all the
and magnificent aspect, and that the colors depict- effects of the scorching rays of a tropical sun.
ed on the various parts of the scenery of that The sun, during our summer in the northern
world -will be much more vivid and splendid  hemisphere, is more than three millions of miles
than they appear on the scenery of our terrestrial further from us than in winter; and although the
mansion; and since it appears highly probable obliquity of his rays is partly the cause of the
that there are elevated mountains on this planet, cold felt in winter when he is nearest us, yet it is.f'they be adorned with a diversity of color, and not the only cause; for we find that the cold in
of rural and artificial objects, they must present New York and Pennsylvania is more intense in
to the beholder a most beautiful, magnificent, and winter than in Scotland, although the sun rises
sublime appearance.  The following figures will from ten to sixteen degrees higher above the horipresent to the eye a comparative view of the ap- zon in the former case than in the latter.  Beside,
parent size of the sun, as beheld from  Mercury we find that the heat of summer in the southern
and from the earth.                              hemisphere,' when the sun is nearest to the earth, is
not so great as in the summer of corresponding
latitudes in the northern hemisphere. In short,
did heat depend chiefly on the nearness of the
A  A4  sun or the obliquity of his rays, we shoul4 always
- have the same degree of heat or cold at the same
A- A'  -    0'   l  s > co   time of the year, in a uniform  circle; which experience proves to be contrary to fact. The de>~'~S                             ~,   gree of heat, therefore, on any planet, and on dif%; LR: ~~ ~. L   I  1~    ferent portions of the same planet, must depend
in part, and perhaps chiefly, on the nature of the
~    atmosphere, and other circumstances connected
o with the constitution of the planet, in combination with the influence of the solar rays.  These
rays undoubtedly produce heat, but the degree of'While the intensity of the solar light on this its intensity will depend on the nature of the subplanet is about seven times greater than on the stances on which they fall; as we find that the
earth, the light on the surface of Uranus, the same degree of sensible heat is not felt when they
most distant planet of the system, is 360 times fall on a piece of iron or marble, as when they
less than that on the earth; for the square of the fall on a piece of wood or flannel.
earth's distance, as formerly stated', is 9,025,000,-   Mercury was long considered as the smallest
000,000,000,'and the square of'the distance of primary planet in the system; but the four new
Uranus from the sun, 1,800,000,000, of miles, is planets lately discovered between the orbits of
3,240,000,000,0OQ00,000, which, divided by the Mars and Jupiter, are found to be smaller.  Its
former number, gives a quotient of 359 and a diameter is estimated at 3200 miles, and, consefraction, or, in round numbers, 360; the number quently, its surface contains above 32,000,000 of
of times that the light on the earth exceeds that square miles, and its solid contents are 17,157,On Uranus.  Yet we find that the' light reflected 324,800, or more than seventeen thousand millions
from that distant planet, after passing 1,800,000,- of solid miles; and if the number of solid miles
000 of miles from  the body of the sun, and re- contained in the earth, which are 264,000,000,000,
turning again by reflection 1,700,000,000 of miles be divided by this sum, the quotient will be someto the earth, is visible through our telescopes, and what more than fifteen, showing that the earth is
even sometimes to the naked eye. Thus it ap- above fifteen times larger than Mercury. Not.
pears that the intensity of light at the two ex- withstanding the comparatively diminutive size
tremes of the solar system  is in the proportion of this planet, it is capable of containing a popu.
of 2400 to 1;;, for 36063X/ =2400, the number of lation upon its surface much greater than has
timnes that the quantity of light on N.ercury ex- ever been supported. on the surface of the earth




THE PLANET VENUS.                                          29
during any period of its history.  In making an  Saturn in 1-901 days, or about five. years; Uranus
estimate'-on this point, I shall take the population  in 5425 days, or nearly fifteen years; and:the
of -England as a standard.  England contains  Moon, Would fallito the earth, were its centrifugal
50,000 square miles of surface, and 14,000,000 force destroyed, in 4 days, 20 hours. Some of the
of'inhabitants, which is 280 inhabitants for every  deductions stated above may be apt to startle some
square mile., The surface of Mercury  contains readers as beyond the powers of limited intellects,
32,000,000 of square miles, which is not much  and above the range of human investigation. The
less than all the habitable parts of our globe. At discoveries of Newton, however, have now taught
the rate of population now stated; it-is sufficiently  us the laws by which these bodies act upon one
ample to contain 8,9'60,000,000, or eight thousand  another; and as the effects they produce depend
nine hundred and sixty millions of inhabitants, very much upon the quantities of matter they
which is more than eleven times the preset popu- contain, by observing these effects we are able, by
lation of our globe. And although the one-half  the aid of mathematical reasoning, to determine
of the surface of this planet were to be considered  the quantities of matter in most of the planets
as covered' with water, it would, still contain  with considerable certainty. But to enter on the
nearly six times the population of the earth. demonstration of such points would require a
Hence it appears, that small as this planet may be considerable share of attention and of mathenlaticonsidered, when compared with others, and sel- cal knowledge, and would probably prove tedious
dom  as -it is noticed by the vulgar eye, it in all and uninteresting to the general reader.
probability holds a far more distinguished rank in    Mercury revolves in an orbit which is elliptical,
the intellectual and social system under the moral and more eccentric than the orbits of most of the
government' of'God, than this terrestrial world of other planets, except Juno, Ceres, and Pallas. Its
which we are so proud, and all the living beings eccentricity, or the distance of the sun from  the
which traverse its surface.                     *center of its orbit, is above 7,000,000 of miles.I shall only mention further the following- par- The time between its greatest elongations from
ticulars in reference to this planet.  In its revo- the sun varies from 106 to 130 days.  Its orbit is
lution round the sun, its motion is swifter than  inclined to the ecliptic, or the plane of the earth's
that of any other planet yet discovered; it is no  orbit, in an angle of' seven degrees, which is
less than at-the rate of 109,8x00 miles everly hour more than double the inclination of the orbit of
at an' average, although in some parts of its course  Venus.
it is slower, and in other parts swifter,' since it
moves in. an elliptical orbit.  Of course it flies           II. OF THE PLANET VENUS..1830 miles every minute, and, more than thirty
miles during every beat of our pulse.. The den-    Of all the luminaries of heaven, the sun and
sity of this planet is found by certain physical moon excepted, the planet Venus is the most concalculations and investigations, founded on the spicuous and splendid.  She appears like a brillaws of universal gravitation, to be nine times liant lamp amid the lesser orbs of night, and althat of water, or equal to that of lead; so that a ternately anticipates the morning dawn and ushers
ball of lead 3200 miles in diameter would exactly  in the evening twilight.  When she is to the
poise the planet Mercury.  This density is greater westward of the sun, in winter, she cheers our
than- that of any of the other planets, and nearly  mornings with her vivid light, and is a prelude to
twice the density of the earth. The mass of this -the near approach of the break of day and the
planet, or the quantity of matter it contains, when  rising sun. When she is eastward of that lumicompared with the mass of the sun, is, according  nary, her liglt bursts upon us after sunset, before
to La Place, as 1 to 2,025,810, or about the two  any of the other twinkling orbs of heaven make
millionth part; that is, it would require two   il- their appearance; and she discharges, in some
lions of globes of the size and density of Mercury  measure, the functions of the absent moon.  The
to weigh one of the size and density of the sun. brilliancy of this planet has been noticed in all
But as Mercury contains a much greater quantity  ages, and has been frequently the subject of deof matter'in the same bulk than the sun, in point scription and admiration both'by shepherds and
9f size it would require 22,000,000 of globes of  by poets. The Greek poets distinguished it by
the bulk of Mercury to compose a body equal to  the name of Phosphor when it rose before the sun,
that of the sun. In consequence of the great and Hesperus when it appeared in the evening
density of this planet, bodies will have a greater after the sun retired; and it is now genlerally
weight on its surface than on the earth.  It has distinguished by the name of the Morning and
been computed, that a body weighing one pound  Evening Star.'on the earth's surface would weigh one pound   i" Next Mercury, Venus runs her larger round,
eight and a half drachms on the surface of Mer-      With softer beams and milder glory crown'd,
cury. If the centrifugal force of this planet were   Friend to mankind, she glitters from afar,
Now the bright evening, now the vmorniitg star.
suspended, and its motion in a circular course       Now trealms remote    she darts her pleasing ray,
stopped, it would fall toward the sun, as a stone    Now leading on, now closing up the day;
when thrown upward falls to the ground, by the       Term'd Phosphor when her morning beams she yields,
force of gravity, with a velocity continually in-    And esp'rs whenherraytheeveninggilds."
creasing as the square of the distance from  the    Before proceeding to a more particular descripsun,'diminished. The time in which Mercury or tion of this planet, 1 shall lay before the reader a
any other planet would'fall to the sun by the cen- brief explanation of the nature of the planetary
tripetal force, or the sun's, attraction, is equal to  orbits, as I may have occasion to refer to certain
its periodic time divided by the square root of particulars connected with them in the following
thirty-two; a principle deduced from  physical descriptions. All the planets and their satellites
and mathematical investigation.  Mercury would  move in elliptical orbits, more or less eccentric.
therefore fall to the sun in 15 days, 13 hours; Ve- The following figure exhibits the form  of these
nus in 39'days, 17 hours; the earth ill 64 days, orbits.
13 hours; Mars in 121 days, 10 hours; Vesta in    The figure A D B E represents the form  of a
205 days; Ceres in 297 days, 6 hours; Pallas in  planetary orbit, which is that of an oval or ei301 days, 4 hours;, Juno in 354 days, 19 hours; lipse. The longest diameter is A B; the shorter
Jupiter in 765 days, 19 hours, or above two years; diameter D  E. The two points F  and G are




80                                  CELESTIA X SCENERY.
called the foci of the ellipse, around which, as tw v may represent tne orbit of a planet which is incentral points, the ellipse is formed. The sun is dlined to it; the semicircle I A B' K being below
not placed in C, the~center of the orbit, but at F, the level of the ecliptic, and the other half or
one of the foci of the ellipse. When the plar.et, semicircle being above it.  The points of interFig. 9.   -      0      section at I and K, where the circles cut one another, are called the nodes. If the planet is moving in the direction A I D, the point I, where it
ascends above the plane, is called the ascending
node, and the opposite point, K, the descending
Fig. 10..therefore, is at A, it is nearest the sun, and is said
to be in its perihelion; its distance from the sun
gradually increases until it reaches the opposite,
point, B, when it is at its greatest distance from
the sun, and is said to be in its aphelion; when it       \/
arrives at th.e points D and E  of its orbit, it is
said to be at the mean distance. The line A B,
which-joins the perihelion and aphelion, is called
the line of the apsides, and'also the greater axis or
the transverse axis of the orbit; D E is the lesser node. The line I K, which joins the nodes, is
or conjugate axis; F D, the mean distance of the called the line of the nodes, which, in the different
planet from the sun; F C, or G C, the eccentricity planetary orbits, points to different parts of the
of the orbit, or the distance of the sun from  its heavens. I4 is when Mercury and Venus are at
center; F is the lower focus, or that in which the or near the line of the nodes that they appear to
sun is placed; G the higher focus; A the lower make a transit across the sun's disc. The moon's
apsis, and B the higher apsis.  The orbits of some orbit is inclined to the plane of the earth's- orbit
of the planets are more' elliptical than,others. — in an angle of about five degrees; and it is only
The eccentricity of- the orbit of Mercury is above when the full moon or change happens at or near
7,000,000 miles;- that is, the distance from  the the nodes that an eclipse call take place, because
point F, where the sun is placed, to the center, C, the sun, moon, and earth are then nearly in the
measures that number of miles; while the eccen- same plane; at all other times of full or change,
tricity of Venus is only about 490,000 miles, or the shadow of the moon falls either above or beless than half a million. Most of the planetary low the earth, and the shadow of the earth either
orbits, except those of some of the new planets, above or below the moon. The ecliptic is supapproach very nearly to the circular form.       posed to be divided into'twelve signs, or 360 de.
T he orbits of the different planets do not all lie grees, which have received the names:-Aries,
in the same plane, as they appear to do in orreries Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Score
and in the'representations generally given of the pio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces.solar system. If" we suppose a plane to pass Each of these signs is divided into thirty equal
through the earth's orbit, and' to be extended' in parts, called degrees; each degree into sixty parts,
every direction, it will trace a line in the starry  or minutes; each minute into -sixty parts, or seheavens which is called the ed'ptic, and the plane conds, &c.
itself is called the plane of the ecliptic. The orbits   Having stated the above definitions, which it
of all'the other pla' ets do not lie in this plane, may be useful to keep in mind in our further disone half of each d )it rising above it, while the cussions, I shall proceed to a particular descripother half falls below it. This may be illustrated tion of the motions and other phenomena of
by supposing a large bowl or concave vessel to be Venus.
nearly filled with water; the surface of the water   General Appearances and apparent motions of
will trace a circular line round the inner surface of Venus. —This planet, as already nioticed, is only
the bowl, which may represent the ecliptic, while seen for a short time, either after sunset in the
the surface of the water itself is the plane of the evening, or in the morning before sunrise.  It
ecliptic, and the bowl is the one-half of the con- has been frequently seen by means of the telecave sky. If we now immerse in the bowl a large scope, and sometimes by the naked eye, at nooncircular ring obliquely, so that one-half of it is day, but it was never seen at midnight, as all the
above the surface of the water and the other half other planets may be, with the exception of MIerbelow, this ring will represent the orbit of a pla- cury.  It never appears to recede further from the
net inclined to the ecliptic or to the fluid surface; sun than forty-seven degrees, or about half the
or if we take two large rings or. hoops of nearly distance from  the horizon to the zenith.  Of
equal size, and place the one within the other ob- course, it was never seen rising in the east, or
liquely, so that the half of the one hoop' may'be even shining in the south, after the sun had set in
above, and the opposite half below the other hoop, the west, as happens in regard to all the other
it will convey an idea of the inclination of a pla- heavenly bodies, with the exception now  stated.
net's orbit to the plane of the ecliptic..Thus, if the   When this planet, after emerging from  the
circle E F G H (Fig. 10) represent the plane of the solar rays, is first seen in the evening, it appears
earth's orbit or the ecliptic, the circle A B C D  very near the horizon about twenty minutes after




APPARENT MOTIONS OF VENUS.                                       31
sunset, and continues visible only for a very short which position it is said to be in its superior con
time, and descends below the horizon not far from  junction with the sun, or beyond him, in the rethe point where the sun went down. Every suc- motest part of its orbit from the earth; in which
ceeding day its apparent distance from the sun case the body of the sun sometimes interposes
increases; it rises to a higher elevation, and con- between the earth and Venus; at other times it is
tinues a longer time above the horizon. Thus it either a little above or below the sun, according
appears. to move gradually eastward from the sun as it happens to be either in north or south lati'for four or five months, until it arrives at the tude. When it is in this position, the whole of
point of its greatest elolngation, which seldom ex- its enlightened hemisphere is turned toward the)
ceeds forty-seven degrees, when it appears for earth. As it moves on its orbit from  A to.B,
some time stationary; after which it appears to which is from west to east, and is called its direct
commence a retrograde motion from'east to west, motion, it begins to appear in the evening after
but with a much greater degree of apparent velo- sunset. When it arrives at B, it is seen among
city; approaching everly day nearer the sun, and the stars at L, in which position it assumes a gibcontinuing  a shorter time above' the horizon,, bous phase, as a portion of its enlightened hemiuntil, in, the course of two or three weeks, it sphere is turned from the earth. When it arrives
appears lost in the splendor of the solar rays, and at C, it appears among the stars at M, at a still
is no longer seen in the evening sky until more greater distance from the sun, and exhibits a less
than nine or ten months. have elapsed. About gibbous phase, approaching to that of a half
eight or ten days after it has disappeared in the moon. When arrived at D, it is at the point of
evening, if we look at the eastern sky in the its greatest eastern elongation, when it appears
morning, a little before sunrise, we shall see a like a half moon, and is seen among the stars at
bright star very near the horizon, which was not N; it now appears for some time stationary; after
previously to.. be seen in that quarter; this is the which it appears to move with a rapid course in
planet Venus, which has passed its inferior con- an opposite direction, or from east to west, during
junction with the sun, and has now moved to the which it presents the form  of a crescent, until it
westward of him, to make its appearance as the approaches so near the sun as to be overpowered
morning star. It now appears every succeeding with the splendor of his rays.  When arrived at
day to move pretty rapidly from the sun to the E, it is said to be in its inferior conjunction, and,
Westward, until it arrives at the point of itsgreat- consequently, nearest the earth. In this position
est elongation, between 450, and 480 distant from  it is just 27 millions of miles from  the earththe sun, when it again appears stationary; and whereas, at its superior conjunction, it is no less
then returns eastward, with an apparently slow  than 163 millions of- miles from  the earth, for it
nmotion, until' it is again immersed in the sun's is then farther from us by the whole diameter of
rays, and arrives at its superior conjunction, its orbit, which is 136 millions of miles. This is
which happens after the lapse of about nine the reason why it appears much smaller at its sumonths from the time of being first' seen in the perior conjunction than when near its inferior;
morning. But the planet is not visible to the although, in the latter case, there is only a small
naked eye all this time on account of its proximity crescent of its light presented to us, while in the
to the sun when slowly approaching its superior fornler case its full enlightened hemisphere is
conjunction. After passing this conjunction it turned to the earth.
sooan after appears in the evening, and resumes   The following figure will exhibit more disthe same course as above stated. During each of tinctly the phases of this planet in the different
the- courses now described, when viewed with a parts of its course, and the reason of the diffetelescope, it is seen to pass suce.ssively through  rence of its apparent magnitude in different
all the phases of the moon, appearing gibbous, or points of its orbit. At A  it is in the superior
nearly round, when it is first seen in the evening;
of the form of a half moon when about-the point                     Fig. 12
of its greatest elongation;' and of the fvgure of a
crescent, gradually turning more and more slender
as it approaches its inferior conjunction with the
sun. Such are the general appearances which
Venus presents to the attentive eye of a common
observer, the reasons'of which will appear from
the following figure and explanations.
Fig. 11.
Let the earth be supposed at K; then when conjunction, when it presents to our view a round
Venus is in the position marked A, it is nearly-in full face. At B it appears as an evening star, ane
a line with the sun  as sen  from: the earth, in exhibits a gibbous phase, somewhat less than
VOL II. —13




32                                   CELESI[ AL SCENERY
full moon.  At D it approaches somewhat nearer order to determine this point, along with several
to a half moon.  At E, near the poiilt of its east- others, I commenced, in 1813, a series of obserern  elongation, it appears like. a half moon.. vations on the celestial bodies in the day-time, by
During all this course it moves from west to east. means of an equatorial instrument.  Onl the 5th
From  F to I it appears to move in a contrary  of June that year; a little before midday, when
direction, from  east to west, during which.it as- the sun was shining  bright, I saw Venus dissumes the figure of a crescent, gradually dimin- tiactly with.a magni'fying power of sixty times,
ishing in,breadth, but increasing in extent, until and a few minutes afterward with a power of
it arrives at I, the point of its inferior.conjunc-.thhrty, and even with a power of fifteen tines.
tion, when its dark hemisphere is'turned'toward  At this, time the planet.was just 30 in longithe earth, and is consequently invisible, being in a tude and about 13' in  time east of the sun's
situation similar to that of the moon at the.time  center, and, of course, only 2340 from  the sun's
of change.  It is seen no longer in the evenings, linmb.  Cloudy weather prevented  observations
but soon appears in the morning under the figure when Venus was nearer the sun.*  On the 16th
of a slender crescent, and passes.-through all the of October, 1819,'an observation was made, ill
other phases represented in the diagram, at M, N, which Venus was seen when only six days and
O, &c.; until -it' arrives. again at A, its superior nineteen hours past the time of her superior conconjunction.  The earth is here supposed to be junction.  Her distance from  the sun's easterli
placed at K; and if it were at rest in that posi-' limb was:then only 10 28' 42".  A  subsequent
tion, all the changes now stated would happen in  observation proved that she could be seen when
the course of 224 days. But as the, earth is ony.1027' from the sun's margin, which a'pproximoving forward in the same direction as the mates. to the nearest distance from  the sun at
planet, it requires some considerable time before which Venus is distinctly visible.. About the 10th
Venus can overtake the earth, so as to be in the of March, 1826, I had a glimpse of this planet
same position as before with respect to the earth  within a few  hours of its superior conjunction,
and the sun.  The time, therefore, that intervenes but the interposition of clouds prevented any parbetween the superior conjunction and the same ticular or continued observations.  It was then
conjunction again, is nearly 584 days, during  about 10 2512' from  the sun's center.  Observawhich period Venus passes through all the variety  tions were likewise made to determine how near
of its motions and phases as a morning and even- its inferior conjunction this planet might be seen.
ing star.                                          The following:is the observation in which it was
This diversity of motions and phases, as for- seen nearest to the sun.  On March 11th, 1822, 
merly stated, serves to prove the truth of the sys- thirty minutes past twelve, noon, the planet being
tem, now  universally received, which places the  only thirty-five hours past the point of its infesun in the center, and the earth beyond the orbit rior conjunction, I perceived the crescent of Veof Venus.  In order to illustrate this point to the nus by means of an equatorial telescope, magniastronomical tyro in the most convincing manner, fying about seventy times. It appeared extremely
i have frequently used the following plan   With  slender, but distinct and well-defined, and appa-'
the aid of a planetarium, and by means of an  rently of a larger curve than that of the lunar cresephemeris or a nautical almanac, I place the earth  cent when the moon is about two days old.  ThF
and Venus in their true positions on the planeta- difference of longitude between the'sun and Verium, and then.desire the learner to place his eye nus at that timne was about 20 19'.  A gelitleman
in a line with the balls representing Venus and  who happened to be present perceived the same
the earth, and to mark the phase of Venus, as seen  phenomenon with the utmost ease and perfect dis.
from the earth, whether gibbous, a half moon, or tinctness.t
a crescent.  I then adjust an equatorial telescope    From the above observations, the following con(if the observation be in the day-time), and, point- clusions are deduced: 1. That Venus may be dis.
ing it to Venus, show him  this planet with the tinctly seen at the moment of her superior consame phase in the heavens; an experiment which junction, with a moderate magnifying  power,
never fails to please and to produce conviction.    when her geocentric latitudeS at the time of conIt, has generally been asserted by astronomers junction exceeds' 110, or, at most, 1~ 43'. 2
that it is impossible to see Venus at the time of That during the space of 584 days, or about nineits superior conjunction with the-sun.  Mr. Benjamin Martin, _,in'his',' Gentleman and Lady's   * The particulars connected with this observation,' and
Philosophy,i'. vol. i, says, "At and about her up- with those made on the other planets, and on stars of the
first and second magnitudes, together with a description of
per conjunction. Venus caussot be seencby reason  the instrument, and the manner of malting day observations
of her nearness to.the sun."  And in his " Philo- are recorded in Nicholson's " Journal of Natural Philoso
sophia Britannica,". vol. iii, the same dpinion is phy," &c., for October, 1813, vol. xxxvi, pp. 109 to 128, in a
expressed: "At her. superior conjunction Venus communication which occupies about twenty pafes;.and
also, in an abridged form, in the "Monthly Magazine,'
would appear a'full enlightened hemisphere, were "Annals of Philosophy," and other periodical journals of
it not that she is then lost in the sun's blaze, or hid- that period. During the succeeding winter the celehrated
den behind.his body."  Dr. Long, in his "Astro- Mr. Playfair, professor of natural philosophy in the Univer
nomy,"'vol.. i, says, " Venus, in her: superior con- sity of Edinburgh, communicated, in his lectures to the stu
dents, the principal details contained in that communicatior
junction, if she could be seen; would appear round  as new facts in astronomical science.
like the full moon."' Dr. Brewster,' in the article   t The observations stated above are also recorded in sci
of Astronomy in the" Edinburgh.Encyclopedia,"  entific journals. The observation of the 16th October,
when describing the phases of Mercury and Ve- 1819, is recorded in the "Edinburgh Phiilosophical Journal,'
whnus,   th-asays,  Merury   linosde im et No. V, for July, 1820, pp. 191, 12; and in Dr. Brewster's
nus, says,".Their luminous side is completely  second edition of "Ferguson's Astronomy," vol. ii, p. 111
turned to: the earth at the time of their superior in the " Monthly Magazine " for August, 1820, vol. i, p. 62.
conjunction, when they wouldI- appear.like the The observation of March 11, 1822, made on Venus wisp
near the infereior conjunction; is recorded at large in the
full nmoon,itf they were not then eclipsed A.y the rays "Edinburgh Philosoplical Journal," No. XII, July, 1822,
of the sun."  Thle same. opinion is expressed inll pp. 177, 178, &c.
similar phrases' by Ferguson, Gregory, Adams,   t The latitude of a heavenly body is its distance from the
Gravesend, and most other. writers on the science ecliptic, or the apparent path of the sun, either north or
south. Its geocentric latitude is its latitude as seen fiom the
of astronomy, and has been copied by all subse- earth. Its heliocentric latitude is its latitude as viewed from
quent compilers of treatises on this subject. In  the sun. These latitudes seldom coincidc.




DISCOVERIES ON THE SURFACE OF VENUS                                   33
teen months, the time Venus takes in moving                       Fig. 13
from one conjunction of the sun to a' like conjunction again, when her latitude -at the time of
her superior conjunction exceeds 10 43', she may                 _             =
be seen by means of an equatorial telescope every 
clear day without interruption, except at the moment of her inferior conjunction, and a very short      E                         P
time before and after it, a circumstance which          A         O                B
cannot be:affirmed of any other celestial body, the   0A       O 
sun only excepted. 3. That from the time when           0c" D
Venus ceases to be visible, prior to her inferior
conjunction, on account of the smallness of her The above figure will illustrate my idea; where
crescent and her proximity't6 the sun, to the mo- A B (Fig. 13) represents the concave curve of the
ment when she may again be perceived in the board to be used when the planet is in'south latiday-time by an equatorial telescope, there elapses tude; C D, a segment of the apparent diurnal
a period of only two days and twenty-two hours; path of the planet; and E F, a segment of the
or, in other words, Venus can never be hidden sun's diurnal arc. Fig. 14, represents the board
from our view-about the time of her inferior conjunction for a longer period than seventy hours                   Fig. 14.
4. That during the space of 584'days, the longest
period in which Venus can be hidden from our                                        D
view under any circumstances, excepting a cloudy
atmosphere, is about sixteen days and a'half.-       A      -
A                            B
During the same period, this planet sometimes  
will be hidden from the view of a common ob-                                       _
server for the space of five or six months.
One practical use of the above observations is,_ _ 
that they may lead to the determination of the
difference (if any) between the polar and equate- to be used when the planet is in north latitude.
rial diameters of this planet, which point has which requires no further, description.  I have
never yet been determined.  It is well known that given thee above brief statement of the observathe earth is of a spheroidal figure, having its polar tions on Venus because they are not yet generally
shorter than its equatorial diameter.  Jupiter, known, and because compilers of elementary
Mars, and Saturn have also been ascertained to be books on astronomy still reiterate the vague and
oblate spheroids, and the proportion between their unfounded assertion that -it is impossible to see
equatorial and polar diameters has been pretty ac- this planet at its superior conjunction, when it
curately determined. As Venus is found to have presents a full enlightened hemisphere. Tile cila rotation round her axis, as these planets have, it cumstance now ascertained may not be considered
is reasonable to conclude that she is of a similar as a fact of much importance in astronomy.  It
figure. It is impossible, however, to determine is always useful, however, in'every department
this' point when she is in those positions in which of science, to ascertain every fact connected with
she has generally been viewed; as at such times its principles, however circumstantial and minute,
she assumes either a gibbous phase, the form of a as it tends to give precision to its language; as it
half moon, or that of a crescent, in neither of enables the mind to take into view every particuwhich cases can the two diameters be measured. lar which has the least bearing on -any object of
I am  therefore of opinion that,-at some future investigation; and as it may ultimately promote
conjunction, when her geocentric latitude is con- its progress by leading to conclusions which were
siderable, with a telescope of a high magnifying not at first apprehended. One of these conciupower, furnished with a micrometer, this point sions or practical uses has been stated above; and
might be ascertained. If the planet is then view- another conclusion is, that such observations as
ed at a high latitude, and the sky serene, its disc now referred to. may possibly lead to the discovery
will appear sufficiently luminous and well-defined of planets yet unknown within the orbit of Merfor this purpose; free of that glare and tremulous cury, which circumstance I shall take'occasion
aspect it generally exhibits when near the horizon, more particularly to explain in, the sequel.
-which makes it appear larger than it ought to do,   Discoveries made by the Telescope in relation to
and prevents its margin from being accurately  Venus.-The- first circumstance which attracted
distinguished.                                 the attention of astronomers after the invention
Such observations require a considerable degree of the telescope, was, the variety of phases which
of attention and care, and various contrivances Venus appeared to assume, of which I have
for'occasionally diminishing the aperture of the' already given a description. Nothing further was
object-glass, and for preventing the direct rays of observed to distinguish this planet until more
the sun from entering. the tube of the telescope. than half a century had elapsed, when Cassili,
In order to view this planet to advantage at any a celebrated French astronomer, in  the years
future conjunction,' when in south latitude, it will 1666-7, discovered some spots on its surface, by
be proper to fix a board, or any other thin opaque which he endeavored to ascertain the period of its
substance, at a considerable distance beyond the revolution round its axis. October 14th, 1666, at
object end of the telescope; having such a degree five hours forty-five minutes, P. M., he saw a bright
of concave'curvature as shall nearly correspond spot near the limits between the light and the
with a segment' of the diurnal. are at that time dark side of the planet, not far from  its center;
described by the sun, with its lower concave edge at the same time he noticed two dark oblong spots
at an elevation a small degree above the line of near the west side of the disc, as represented in,
collimation of the telescope, when adjusted for Fig. 15. After this he could obtain no satisfacviewing the planet, in order to.intercept asmuch as tory views of Venus until April 20th, 1667,
possible the solar rays. When the planet is in north about fifteen minutes before sunrise, when he
latitude, the curvature of -the'board must be made saw upon the disc, now half enlightened. a bright
convex, and placed a little below the line of sight. part, distant from  the southern edge about a




84                                 CELESTIAL SCENERY.
fourth part of the diameter of the'disc, and near whether the spot, during that interval of twenty.
the eastern edge. He saw, likewise, a darkish  four hours, had advanced forward only 15o, ot
oblong spot toward the'northern edge, as in Fig. had finished a revolution, and 15~ more as a part
16.  At sunrise  he perceived that the bright part of another rotation.*  Of these two periods, Bi
anchini concluded that the rotation.was accomplished in twenty-four days eight hours, The
following is the chief, if not.the only observation,
he brings forward to substantiate his conclusion
He saw  three spots, A, B, C, in the situation
represented in Fig. 19, which'he and, several persons of distinction,-viewed for about an hour'
Fig. 19.
was advanced farther from  the southern point
than when he first observed it, as at Fig. 17, when
he had the satisfaction of finding an evident proof
of the planet's motion. On the next day, at sunrise, the bright- spot was a-'good way off the section, and distant from the-southern point a fourth  when they could discover no change of place in
part of the diameter of the disc. When the sun  their appearance. Venus being hidden behind the
had risen six degrees above the horizon, the spot Barbarini palace, their view was interrupted for
had got beyond the center. When the sun had  nearly three hours, at the end of which they
risen seven degrees, the section cut it in halves, found that the spots had not sensibly changed
as in Fig. 18, which showed its motion to have their situation.  But the inference from this obsome inclination toward' the center.*  Several ob- servation is not conclusive  for the period of
twenty-four days eight hours.  For, during the
Fig 17.             Fig. 18.           three hours' interruption, the spot C might have'
gone off the disc, and the spot B moved into its
place, where, being near the edge, it would appear
less than when in the middle; A, succeeding into
the place of B, would appear larger than it did
near the edge, and another spot might have come
/_ -              __. 5 Ad-into the place of A.  For that there were other
spots, particularly one which, by the rotation of
Venus, would'have been brought into the place of
A, Aappears-by the figures given by Bianchini; and
if so, it would correspond with the rotation of
twenty-three hours twenity minutes deduced by
Cassini. Beside, it.is impossible to make observations on Venus for three or four hours in sucservations of a similar kind were made about that cession, as is here supposed, without the help of
time, which- led Cassini to the conclusion that the  equatorial instruments, which were not then in
planet revolves about its axis in a period some- use, as this planet is. seldom more than three
what more than twenty-three hours.  From this hours above the horizon after sunset; and when
time, for nearly sixty years, we' have no further it descends within 8o or 10o of the horizon, it is
accounts of spots having been observed on the  impossible to see its surface with any degree of
disc of Venus.                                   distinctness, on account of the brilliancy of its
In the year 1726, Bianchini, with telescopes of  light, and the undulating vapors near the horizon,
90 and 100 Roman palms, commenced a series of  which, in some cases, prevent even its phase from
observations on Venus, and published an-account being accurately distinguished.  In the commuof them in a book entitled,,";Hesperi et Phosphori nication in'"Nicholson's Journal" for 1813,
nova Phenomend."  In these observations, we do  already referre'd to, I have shown how the dispute
not find that any one of them was continued long  in reference to the rotation of Venus may be
enough todiscover any change of position in the  settled, by commencing a, series of observations
spots at the end of the observation from  what on this planet in the day-time, when its spots, if
there was at' the beginning; but at.the distance  any were perceived, could be traced in their moof two and'of four days he'found the same spot tion for twelve hours or more. Mr. Ferguson, in
advanced so far that he. concluded it mhst:have  his-astronomy, by adopting the conclusion of Bigone round at the rate of 15o i'n a day.  This ad- anchini, has occupied a number of pages in decance would show that Venus turned round either scribing the phenomnena of Venus on this suppoonce in about twenty-four days, or in little more  sition, which description is altogether useless;, and
than twenty-three:hours, but Would not determine  conveys. erroneous ideas of the circumstances
which of these.was- the true period. For, if an  connected with this planet, if the period deterobserver, at a given hour, suppose seven in the  mined by Cassini (as is most'probable) be correct'
evening, were to mark. the exact place of a spot,   Mr. Schroeter, formerly mentioned, who has
and at the same hour on:the next day find the spot been a most diligent and accurate observer of the
advanced 15o, he-would' not be able-to determine  heavens, commenced a- series of- observations, in, —-:'.:order to determine the daily period of this planet
* See " Philosophical Transactions,' abridged by Drs.
Hutton, Shaw, and Pearson, vol. i, part 2, p. 217; " Journal   * See some particular remarks on this subject, illnstrated
des Satans," vol. i, p. 216; and ".Jiemoires of the Royal with a figure, in my volume "On the Improvement of SoAeaiemy of Sciences."' ciety," section 3.




DAY OBSERVATIONS ON VENUS.                                        35:Ie observed particularly the different shapes of northern cusp had the same tapering termination,
the two horns of Venus.  Their appearance gene- but did not encroach upon the- dark part of the
rally varied in a few hours, and became nearly disc. A  streak, however, of glimmering bluish
the same at the corresponding time of the subse- light proceeded about eight seconds along the
quent day, or, rather, about half an hour sooner dark line, from the point of the cusp, from b to c
every day.  Hence he concluded that the period  (Fig. 21), b being the extremity of-the diameter
must be about twenty-three hours and a half; that of a b, and consequently, the natural termination
the equator of the- planet is considerably inclined of the cusp. The streak b c, verging to a pale
to the ecliptic, and its pole at a considerable dis- gray, was faint when compared with the light of
tance from  the point of the horn. From several the cusp at b. I was struck with a similar apobservations of this kind he found that the period pearance when observing Venus, when only thirtyof rotation must be twenty-three hours, twenty- five hours past her inferior conjunction, on March
one minutes, or only one minute more than had. 11, 1822, as formerly noticed (p. 32). One of the
been assigned by Cassini; -and this, we have rea- cusps, at least, appeared to project into the dark
son to. believe, is' about the true period of this hemisphere, like a fine lucid thread, beyond the
planet's revolution round its axis, being thirty-five luminous semicircle.  This phenomenon  Mr.
minutes less than the period of the earth's rota- Schroeter considers as the twilight, or crepuscular
tion, which is twenty-three hours fifty-six mi- light of Venus. From  these and various other
nutes.r I have stated these observations respect- observations, which it would be too tedious to deing the rotation of Venus at some length, because tail, he concludes, on the ground of various calthey are not generally known to common readers culations, that the dense part of the atmosphere
on this subject, or noticed in modern elementary of Venus is about 16,020 feet, or somewhat above
books on astronomy, and that the general reader three miles high; that it must rise far above the
may perceive the reason of the dispute which has highest mountains; that it is more opaque than
arisen among astronomers on this point.          that of the moon; and that its density is a suffiMountains on Venus.-Mr. Schroeter, in his cient reason why we do not discover on the surobservations, discovered several mountains on this, face of Venus those superficial shades and varieplanet, and'found that, like those of the moon, ties of appearance which are to be seen on the
they were always highest in the southern hemi- other planets.
sphere; their perpendicular hights being nearly as   Day Observations on Venus. —The most disthe diameters of their respective planets. From  tinct and satisfactory views I have ever obtained
the 11th of December, 1789, to the 11th of Janu- of this planet were taken at noonday, or between
ary, 1790, the southern horn' b (Fig. 20), appear- the hours of ten in the morning and two in the
ed much blunted, with an enlightened mountain, afternoon, when it happened to be at a high elevation above the horizon, which is generally the
Fig. 20.            Fig. 21.          case during the summer months.  The light of
this planet is so brilliant, that its surface and margin seldom  appear well-defined in the evening,
even with the best telescopes. But in the daytime its disc and margin present a. -harp and welldefined aspect with a good achromat?, telescope,
and almost completely free of those undulations
which obscure its surface when near the horizon.
The following figure (No. 1) represents one of
the appearances of Venus which I have frequently seen in the day-time when viewing this planet
at a high altitude and in a serene sky, when near
the meridian, by means of a three-and-a-half feet
achromatic telescope, magnifying about 150 times.
Fig. 22.
m, in the dark hemisphere, which he estimated at
about 18,300 toises, or nearly twenty-two miles
in perpendicular hight. It is quite obvious that                           _ _
if such a bright spot as here represented was
regularly or periodically seen, it must indicate a
very high elevation on the surface of the planet,
and its precise hight will depend upon its distance
from'the illuminated portion of the disc, or, in
other words, the length of its shadow. It is precisely in' such a way that' the mountains in the
moon are distinguished. Mr. Schroeter measured
the altitude of other three mountains, and obtain-   The exterior curve of the planet, as here ex.
ed the following results: hight of the first, nine- hibited, appeared far more lucid and bright thaln
teen miles, or, about five' times the hight of Chim- the interior portion. It was not a mere stripe or
borazo; hight of the second, eleven miles and a luminous margin, but a broad semicircle, of a
half; and of the third, ten miles and three quar- breadth nearly one-third of the semidiameter (f
ters. These estimates may, perhaps, require cer- the planet. It appeared as if it were a kind of
tain corrections in future observations.         table-land, or a more elevated portion of the plaAtmosphere of Venus.- From  several of Mr. net's surface, while the interior and darker part
Schroeter's observations, he concludes that Venus appeared more like a plain, diversified with inehas an atmosphere of considerable extent. On the qualities, and two large spots, somewhat darker
10th of September, 1791, he observed that the than the other parts, were faintly marked.  The
southern cusp of Venus disappeared,-and was bent appearance was somewhat similar to that of cerlike a hook about eight seconds beyond the lumi- tain portions of the level parts of the moon which
nous semicircle into the dark hemisphere.  The lie adjacent to a ridge of mountains or a range of




36                               CELESTIAL SCENERY.
elevated ground. I have exhibited this view of about a third of the diameter of Venus. Its light
Venus at different times to various -individuals, was not so bright-or vivid, but exceedingly sharp
and even those not accustomed to look through and well-defined. A line passing through the
telescopes could plainly perceive it. I consider it center of Venus and it made an angle with the
as a corroboration of the fact, that- mountains of equator of about twenty degrees. He saw it, for
treat elevation exist on the surface of this planet. the space of an hour, several times that morning;
Pfhere appeared likewise some slight indentations but, the light of the sun increasing, he lost it
in the boundary which separated the dark from  about a quarter of an hour after eight. He says
the enlightened- hemisphere, which circumstance he looked for it every clear morning after this, but
leads to the same conclusions. If the whole hemi- never saw it again.*
sphere of the planet had been enlightefied, it   A similar phenomenon is described as having
would probably have appeared as in No. 2. On been seen by Baudouin, Montaigne, Rodkier,
the whole, I am of opinion that future discoveries Montbarron, and other astronomers, and, from
in relation to Venus will be chiefly made ill the their observations, the celebrated M. Lambert, in
day-time, by large telescopes adapted to equato- the "Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin" for
rial machinery, when such instruments shall be i773, gave a theory of the satellite of Venus, in
brought into use more than they have hitherto which he concludes that its period is eleven days,
been. Venus,' however, is the only planet on five hours, and thirteen minutes; the inclination
which useful observations can be made in the day- of its orbit to the ecliptic, 63o0; its distance from
time; for although several of the other planets Venus, 66y2 radii of that planet; and its magnican be perceived, even at noonday, particularly tude, 4-27 of that of Venus, or nearly equal to
Jupiter, yet they present a very obscure and that of our moon. There is a singular consis.
cloudy appearance compared with Venus, on ac- tency in these observations, which it is difficult to
count of the comparatively small quantity of solar account for if Venus have no satellite. Astrono.
light which falls upon their surfaces.         mers expected that such a body, if it existed,
Supposed Satellite of Venus.-Several astrono- would be seen as a small dark spot upon the sun
mers have been of opinion that Venus is attended at the time of the transits of Venus in 1761 and
with a satellite, although it is seldom to be seen. 1769; but no such phenomenon seems to have
It may not be improper to give the reader an been noticed at those times by any of the obserabridged view of the observations on which this vers.  Lambert, however, maintains, from  the
opinion is founded, that lihe may be able to judge tables he calculated in relation to this body, that
for himself. The celebrated Cassini, who disco- the satellite, if it did exist, might not have passed
vered the rotation of Mars, Jupiter, and Venus, over the sun's disc at the time of the transits, but
and four of the satellites of Saturn, was the first he expected that it might be seen alone on the
who broached this opinion.  The following is sun when Venus passed near that luminary.
his account of the observations on which it is   The following is a particular account of tne
founded:                                       observations made by Mr. Montaigne: —May 3,
" 1686, August 18, at fifteen minutes past four 1760, he perceived, at twenty minutes distance
in the nmorning,_looking at Venuswith a telescope from Venus, a small crescent, with. the horns
of thirty-four feet, I saw at the distance of three- pointing the same way as those of Venus. Its
fifths of her dialneter, -eastward, a luminous ap- diameter was a fourth of that of its primary; and
pearance, of a shape not well-defined, that seemed a line drawn from  Venus to the satellite made,
to have the same phase with Venus, which. was below Venus, an angle with the vertical of about
then gibbous on the western side. The diameter twenty degrees toward'the south, as in Fig. 22,
of this phenomenon was nearly equal to a fourth No. 3, where Z N represents the vertical, and E
part of the diameter of Venus. I observed it at- C a parallel to the ecliptic, making then an angle
tentively for a quarter of an hour, and having with the vertical of forty-five degrees.  The
left off looking at it for four or five minutes, I
saw it no more; but daylight was then advanced.               Fig. 22.-No. 3.
I had seen a like phenomenon, which resembled                      North.
the phase of Venus, on January 25, 1672, froml
fifty-two minutes after six in the morning to two
minutes after seven, when the brightness of the
twilight caused it to disappear. Venus was then
horned, and this phenomenon, the diameter of
which was nearly a fourth part of the diameter
of Venus, was of the same shape. It was distant
from the southern horn- of Venus, a diameter of
Venus on the, western side. — In these two obser- A
vations I was in doubt whether it was not a satellite of Venus, of such a consistence as not to be
very well. fitted to reflect the light of the sun, and
which, in magnitude, bore nearly the same proportion to Venus as the moon does to the earth,
being at the same distance from the sun and the
earth as Venus was, the phases of which it resembled."
In the year 1740, October 23, at sunrise, Mr.
Short, with a reflecting telescope of sixteen inches
and a half, which magnified about sixty times, numbers 3, 4, 7, 11, mark the situations of the
perceived a small star at the distance of about ten satellite on the respective days.  May 4th, at the
seconds from Venus; and, putting on a magnify- same hour, he saw the same star, distant from
ing power of 240 times, he found the star put on Venus about one minute more than before, and
the phase of Venus.  IIe tried another magnifying power of 140 times, and even then found the              alPhilosophica Transactions," No. 459, for Janmary
star to hale the same phase. Its diameter seemed February and March, 1741.




DIFFICULTY OF SEEING THE SATELLITE.                                  37
making  anngle with the wertical of ten degrees mote the progress and illustrate the deductions
below,-but on the north side; so that the satellite of physical astronomy. It is somewhat probaseemed to have described: an -arc of about thirty ble, reasoning a priori, that Venus, a planet nearly
degrees, whereof Venus was the center, and the as large as the earth, and in its immediate neighradius twenty minutes. The two fo-llowing nights horhood, is accompanied by a secondary attendant.
being hazy, Venus could not be seen. But May    Transits of Venus. —This planet, when in cer7th, at the same hour as on. the preceding days, tain positions, is seen to pass like a round black
he saw the satellite again, but above Venus, and spot across the disc of the sun. These transits,
on the north side, as represented at 7, between as they are called, are of rare occurrence, land
twenty-five and twenty-six-minutes, upon a line take place at intervals of 8 and 113 years. If the
which made an angle of forty-live degrees with plane of the orbit of Venus exactly coincided
the vertical toward the right hand. It appears by with that of the earth, a transit would happen at
the figure that the points 3 and 7 would have been regular intervals of little more than nineteen
diametrically opposite if the -satellite had gone months; but as one-half of this planet's orbit is
fifteen degrees more round the central point where three degrees and a half below the plane of the
Venus is represented. May 11th, at nine o'clock, earth's orbit, and the other half as much above it,
P. m., the only night when the view of the planet a transit can only take place when it happens to
was not obscured by. moonlight, twilight, or be in one of the. nodes, or. intersections of the
clouds, the satellite appeared nearly at the same orbits, about the time of its inferior conjunction.
distance from Venus as before, making, with the These transits of Venus are phenomena of very
vertical, an angle of forty-five degrees toward the great importance in astronomy, as it is owing to
south, and above its primary. The light of the the observations which have been made on them,
satellite was always very weak; but it had always and the calculations founded on these observathe same phase with its primary, whether viewed tions, that the distance of the sun has been very
with it in the field of the telescope or alone by nearly ascertained, and the dimensions of the
itself. He imagined that the reason. why the planetary system  determined to a near approxisatellite had been so frequently looked for-without mation to the truth. It would be too tedious to
success might be, that one part of its globe was enter into a particular explanation of the process
crusted over with spots, or otherwise unfit to and calculations connected with this subject, and,
reflect the light of the sun with any degree of therefore, I shall only, in a few words, explain the
brilliancy, as is supposed to be the case with the principle on which the deductions are founded.
fifth satellite of Saturn.                     Suppose B A (Fig. 23) to represent the earth; v,
It is evident that, if Venus have a satellite, it Venus; and S the sun. Suppose two spectamust be difficult to be seen, and can only be per- tors, A and B, at opposite, extremities of that
ceived in certain favorable positions. It cannot diameter of the earth which'is perpendicular to
be-se'en when'nearly the whole of its enlightened.
hinmisphere is turned to the earth, on account of
its great distance at such a time, and its proximity
to the sun; nor could it be expected to be seen
when the planet is near its inferior conjunction,     X 
as it would then present to the earth only a very
slender crescent, beside being in the immediate                              -
neighborhood of the sun. The best position in
which such a body might be detected is near the
time of the planet's greatest elongation, and when the ecliptic; then, at the moment when the obit would appear about half enlightened. If the server at B sees the center of the planet projected
plane of its orbit be nearly coincident with the at D, the observer at A will see it projected at C.
plane of the planet's orbit, it will be frequently If, then, the two observers can mark the precise
hidden by the interposition of the body of Venus, position of Venus on the sun's disc at any given
and likewise when passing along her surface in moment, or note the precise time of ingress or
the opposite point of its orbit; and if one side of egress of the planet, the angular measure of C D1
this body be unfitted for reflecting much light, it as seen from  the earth, might be ascertained.
will account in part for'its being seldom  seen. Since A C and B D are straight lines crossing
It is not sufficient in this case, to say, as Sir David each other at v, they consequently make equal
Brewster has done, "that Mr. Wargentin had in angles on each side of the point v; and C D will
his possession a good achromatic telescope, which be to B A as the distance of Venus from the sun
always showed Venus with such a satellite, and is to her distance from the earth; that is, as 68 to
that the deception was discovered by turning the 27, or nearly as 212 to 1; for Venus is 68 millions
telescope about its axis."  For we cannot suppose of miles from the sun, and 27 millions from  the
that such accurate observers as, those mentioned earth, at the time of a transit or an inferior conabove would have been deceived  by such an junction. C D, therefore, occupies a space on
optical'illusion; and, beside, the telescopes which the sun's disc 2   times as great as the earth's
were -used.:in the observations alluded to were apparent diameter at the distance of the sun, or,
both refractors and reflectors, and it is not likely in other words, it is equal to five times the sun's
that both kinds of instruments would produce an horizontal parallax; and, therefore, any error that
illusion, especially when three different powers might occur in measuring it will amount to only
were applied, as - in. Mr.. Short's observations. one-fifth of that error on the horizontal parallax
Were the attenltion of astronomers more particu- that may be deduced from  it; and it is on the
larly directed to this, point than it has hitherto ground of this parallax that the distance of the
been; were the number of astronomical observers sun is determined. The result of'all the observaincreased to a much greater degree than at pre- tions made on the transits which happened in
sent; and were frequent observations on this 1761 and 1769, gives about 8,/1 seconds as the
planet made in the-clear and serene sky of tropi- horizontal parallax of the sun, which makes his
cal climes, it fs not improbable that a decisive distance 95 millions of miles. The distance is
opinion might soon be formed on this point; and, considered by the most enlightened astronomers
if a satellite were detected, it would tend to pro- as within one-fiftieth part of the true distance of




CELESTIAL SCENERY
the sun from the earth; so that no future obser- rays with peculiar splendor;' for its light is so invations will alter thisjdistance so as to increase or tense as to be distinctly seen by telescopes in the
diminish it by more' than two millions'of miles.   day-time; and, during'night, the eye is so overThe future transits of Venfus for the next 400 powered by its brilliancy'as to prevent its surface
years are as follows:                            and margin' from being distinctly perceived.- Were
we to indulge our imaginations on this subject,
1874, Decemer 9th..  this circumstance might lead us to form various1874, Decemrber 6th.....   4 1  6A M.
-'1882,- December 6th.'...4 16 P. M.  conceptions of the glory and magnificence of the
2004, June 8th.8.........   -' 8 51 A. M.   diversified objects which may be presented to the'''2012, June  6th......1.....   -... 117 A. M.'view of the intellectual beings who inhabit this
2 )1]17, December llth'... 2.,   57p A. M.  world; but, in the meantime, we have no suffi2125,;December 8th..'.'..'.'. 3  9 P. I  cient data to warrant us in indulging in conjec2247,uD-nember    8th...........  P1 M.
2247, TJuwne 11 t;B:fth -... th~ 0'21...'rtural speculations. The apparent size of the sun
2255,. June 9th........ 4 44 A. M.      as seen from Venus, compared with his magnitude
as seen from the earth, is represented in fig. 24,
Some of these transits will last nearly seven the larger circle showing the size of the sun from
hours. The-.next two transits will not be visible Venus..'
throughout their whole duration: in Britain or ill                  Fi. 24
most countries in Europe. Such'was the importance attached to the observations of the last
transits, in 1761 and 1769, that several of the European states fitted out expeditions to different
parts of the world, and sent astronomers with
them, to make the requisite observations.  This
was one end, among others, of the celebrated expedition of Captain Cook, in 1769, to the islands
of the Pacific Ocean; and the transit was observed in Tahiti, now so celebrated on account of
the moral revolution which has lately taken- place
among its inhabitants.                             With regard to the heat in this planet, according
Magnitude and Extent of Surface on this Planet. to the principles and facts formerly stated (page
-The diameter of Venus has been computed at 28), it may be modified by the constitution of its
about. 7800 miles; and, consequently, its surface atmosphere and the nature of the substances
contains 191,134,944, or above 191 millions of which compose its surface, so that its intensity
square miles. Taking, as formerly, the popula- may not be so great as we might imagine from
tion of: England as a standard, this planet would  its nearness to the sun. Even on the supposition
contain a number of. inhabitants equal to more that the intensity of the heat of any body is
than 53,500 millions, or nearly sixty-seven times inversely as the square of its distance from  the
the population of our globe..It does not appear sun, it has been calculated that the greatest heat
that any great quantity of water exists upon this in Venus exceeds the heat of St. Thomas, on the
planet, otherwise there would be a greater con- coast of Guinea, or of Sumatra, about as much
trast between the different parts of its surface, the as the heat in those places exceeds that of the
water presenting a much darker hue than the Orkney Islands or that of the city of Stockholm;
land. For, if from a high mountain we survey a and, therefore, at 60 degrees north latitude on that
scene -in which a portion of a large river or of planet, if its axis were perpendicular to the plane
the ocean is contained, when the sun is shining  of its orbit, the heat would not exceed the greatest
on all the objects, we'shall find that the water heat of the earth, and, of course, vegetation like
presents a much darker appearance than the land, ours could be carried on, and animals of a terresas it absorbs-the greater part of the rays of light, trial species might subsist. But we have no need
except in a few points between. our eyes and the to enter into such calculations in order to prove
sun, where his rays are reflected -from the surface the habitability of Venus, since the Creator has,
of the fluid; but these partial reflections would doubtless, in this as well as in every other case,
be'altogether invisible at the distance of the adapted the structure of the inhabitant, to the
nearest plainet.'It is pretty evident, however, nature of the habitation.
from what has been.formerly stated, that there is   In addition to the above, the following facts
a great diversity of surface on this. planet; and if may be stated: Venus revolves in va orbit which
some of its mountains be more than twenty miles is 433,800,000 of miles in circumference in the
in elevation, they may present to view objects of space of 224 days 16 hours; its rate of motion is
sublimity and grandeur, and fron their summits therefore about eighty thousand miles every hour;
extensive and diversified prospects of which we one thousand three hundred and thirty miles every
canll form no- adequate conception.. So that Ve- minute, and above twenty-two miles every secnus, -although  a small fraction' smaller than the ond. Its distance from the sun is 68 millions of
earth, may hold a rank in the solar system, and miles; and its distance from  the earth, when
in the empire. of the Almighty, in point of popu- nearest us, is about 27 millions of miles, which
lation and sublimity of scenery, far surpassing  is the nearest approach that any of the heavenly
that of -the world in which we dwell.            bodies (except the moon) make to the earth.  Yet
Having dwelt so long on the phenomena of this this distance, when considered by itself, is very
planet, I shall state only the following additional great; for it' would require a cannon'ball six years
particulars; The quantity of light on Venus is and three months to move from  the earth to thie
nearly twice as great as that on the earth, which nearest point of the orbit of Venus, although it
will, dotubtless, have the effect of- causing all the were flying every moment at the rate of 500 miles
colors reflected from  the different parts of the an hour, or 12,000 miles a day. Were the enscenery of that planet,, to present, a- more vivid, lightened hemisphere of the planet turned to the
rich, and magnificent appearance tthan with us. earth when it is in this nearest point of its orbit,
It is urobable, too, that agreat proportion of the it would appear like a brilliant moon, twenty-five
objects on its surface are fitted to.reflect the solar times larger than it generally does to the nlakee




THE EARTH CONSIDERED AS A PLANET.'         39
eye; but at that time its light side is turned to inch; whereas, if its diameters bore the same prothe sun and away from the earth. At its greatest portion to each other as the two diameters of an.istance from us it is 163 millions of miles from  orange generally do, its polar diameter would be
the earth. The period of its greatest brightness nearly one foot three inches shorter than its equa
is when it is about forty degrees from the sun, | torial.
either before or after its inferior conjunction, at   Before the time of Newton, it was never sus
which time there is only about one-fourth part of I pected that the figure of the earth differed in any
its disc that appears enlightened. In this positioni degree from that of a perfect sphere, excepting
it may sometimes be seen with the naked eye even the small inequalities produced by the mountains
amid the splendors of noonday. In the evening and vales. The first circumstance which led to
it casts a distinct shadow on a horizontal plane. the determination of its true figure was an acciSir John Herschel remarks, that this shadow, to dental experiment made with a pendulum  near
be distinguished, " must be thrown upon a white the equator. M. Richer, a Frenchman, in a voyground.  An open window  in a whitewashed age made to Cayenne, which lies near the equaroom is thebestexposure; in this situation I have tor, found that the pendulum  of his clock no
observed not only the shadow, but the diffracted longer made its vibrations so frequently as in the
fringes- edging its outline."  The density of Ve- latitude of Paris, and that it was absolutely necesnus compared with that of the sun is as 1 to sary to shorten it in order to make it agree with
383,137, according to La Place's calculations, the times of the stars passing the moeridian. Some
while that of the earth is as 1 to 329,630; so that years after this, Messrs. Deshayes and Varin, who
the earth is somewhat denser than Venus. A  were sent by the French king to make certain asbody weighing;.one pound on the earth willweigh tronomical observations near the equator, found
only 15. oz. 10 dr. on the surface of Venus. Tile that the pendulum  at Cayenne made 148 vibraeccentricity of the orbit of Venus is less than that tions less in a day than at Paris, and that his
of any of the other planets; it amounts to 492,000 clock was retarded by that means two minutes
miles, which is only the 1-276th part of the diame- twenty-eight seconds; and was obliged to make
ter of its orbit, which, consequently, approaches his pendulum shorter by two lines, or the sixth
very-nearly to a circle. The inclination of its part of a Paris inch, in order to make the time
orbit to the ecliptic is 30 23' 33". Its mean ap- agree with that deduced from celestial observaparent diameter is 17", and its greatest about tions. Similar experiments, attended with the
5712". Its greatest elongation from the sun va- same results, were made at Martinique, St. Dories from 450 to 470 12'. Its mean arc-of retro- mingo, St. Helena, Goree, onthe coast of Africa,
gradation., or when it moves from  east to west, and various other places, in all which it was
contrary to the order of the signs, is 16~ 12', and found that the alteration was the greatest under
its mean duration forty-two days, commencing or the equator, and that it diminished as the observer
ending when it is about 28~ 48' distant from the approached the northern latitudes.  This dissun. Such is a condensed view of most of the covery, trifling as it may at first sight: appear,
facts in relation to Venus which may be consid- opened a new field of investigation to philosophic
sred as interesting to the general reader.     minds; and there are, perhaps, few facts throughout the range of science from which so many cuiII. OF THE EARTH, CONSIDERED AS A PLANET.   rious and important facts have been deduced. Six
Isaac Newton and M. Huygens were among the
In exhibiting the scenery of the heavens, it is first who perceived the extensive application of
not perhaps absolutely necessary to enter into any this discovery, and the important results to whicL
particular description of the earth; but as it is it might lead. Newton, whose penetrating eye,
the only planetary body with which we are inti- traced the fact through all its bearings and remately acquainted,and the only standard bywhich mote consequences, at once perceived that the
we can form a judgment of the other planetary earth must have some other figure than what was
globes, and as it is connected with them  in the commonly supposed, and demonstrated that this
same system, it may be expedient to state a few  diminution of weight naturally arises from  the
facts in relation to its figure, motion, structure, earth's rotation round its axis, which, according
and general arrangements.                      to the laws of circular motion, repels all heavy
The earth, though apparently a quiescent body bodies from the axis of motion; so that, this moin the center of the heavens, is suspended in tion being swifter at the equator than in other
empty space, surrounded on all sides by the ce- parts more remote, the weight of bodies must
lestial luminaries and the spaces of the firmament. also be less there than near the poles. All heavy
Though it appears to our view to occupy a space bodies, when left to themselves, fall toward the
larger than all the heavenly orbs, yet itis, in fact, earth in lines perpendicular to the horizon; and,
aliost infinitely smaller, and holds a rank only were those lines continued, they would all pass
with the smaller bodies of the universe; and, through the earth's center. Every part of the
although it appears to the. eye of sense immova- earth, therefore, gravitates toward the center; and
bly -fixed in the same position, yet it is, in reality, as this force is found to be about289 times greater
flying through the ethereal spaces at -tho rate of than that which arises from the rotation of the'nore than a thousand miles every minute, as we earth, a certain balance will constantly be main.
have already demonstrated. The figure of the tained between them, and the earth will assume
earth is now ascertained to be that of an oblate such a figure as would naturally result from  the
spheroid, very nearly approaching to the figure of difference of these two opposite forces. From
a globe. An orange and a common turnip are various considerations and circumstances of this
oblate spheroids, and are frequently exhibited to kind, Newton founded his sublime calculations on
illustrate the figure of the earth. But they tend this subject; and, as Fontenelle remarks, "deterto convey an erroneous- idea; for, although a mined the true figure of the earth without leavspheroid of ten feet diameter were constructed to ing his elbow-chair."
exhibit the true figure of the earth, no eye could    Newton and Huygens were both engaged in
distinguish-the difference between such aspheroid these investigations at the same time, unknown
and a perfect globe, since the difference of its two to each other, but the results of their calculations
diameters would scarcely exceed one-third of au were nearly alike. They demonstrated, from tue




40                                 CELESTIAL SCENERY.
known laws of gravitation, that' the true figure parts of Chinese Tartary, to the western extremiof the earth was ihat of an oblate spheroid, flat- ty of Africa, is about 9000 miles.  The other
tened at the poles, and protuberant at the equator; band of earth is the western continent, comprethat the proportion between its polar and equa- bending North and South America, lying between
torial diameters is as 229, to 230, and, consequent- the Atlantic on the east and the Pacific Ocean on
ly, that the'polar' diameter is shorter than the the west. Its greatest length is about 8000 miles
equatorial by about thirty-four miles.* If these de- from north to south, and its greatest breadth, from
ductions be nearly correct, it follows that a degree Nootka Sound to Newfoundland, North America,
of latitude in the polar regions must measure and from Cape Blanco to St. Roque, South Amerimore than a degree near the equator.  To deter- ca, is about 3000 miles. Beside these two larger
mine this point by actual measurement, it was bands of land, there is the large island of New
ordered by the French king that-a degree should Holland, which is 2600 miles long and 2000
be measured both at the equator and within the broad, which might be reckoned a third continent;
polar circle.  Messrs. Maupertuis, Clairaut, and along with many thousands of islands, of every
others were sent to the north of Europe, and form and size, which are scattered throughout the
Messrs. Bouger. Godini, and La Condamine to different seas and oceans. The whole of these
Peru, in South America. The first of these com- solid parts of our globe comprehends an area'of
panies began their operations at Tornea, near the about forty-nine millions of square miles, or about
Gulf of B1othnia, in July, 1736, and fillished them  one-fourth of the superficies of the terraqueous
in June, 1737. Those who were -sent to Peru, globe, which contains about one hundred and
having greater difficulties to encounter, did not ninety-seven millions of square miles. Were all
finish their survey until the year 1741. The re- these portions of the land peopled with inhabitsuits of these measurements were, that a degree ants in the same proportion as in England, the
of the meridian in Lapland contains 344,627 population of the globe would amount to thirteen
French feet, and a degree of the meridian at the thousand seven hundred and twenty millions of
equator 340,606; so that a degree in Lapland is human beings, which is more than seventeen times
4021 French- feet, or 4280 English feet, longer its present number of inhabitants.  Yet, strange
than a degree at the equator; that is, they differ to tell, this world has, in all ages, been the scene
about six and a half English furlongs, or 8-10ths of wars, bloodshed, and contests for small patches
of a mile. But if the earth had been a perfect of territory, although the one-seventeenth part of
sphere, a degree of the meridian in every latitude it is not yet inhabited!
would have been found precisely of the same    There is a striking correspondence between two
length.  This spheroidal figure is not peculiar to sides of the two continents to which we have adthe earth; for the planets Saturn, Jupiter, and verted, the prominent parts of the one corresMars are likewise found to be spheroids, and some ponding to the indentings of the other.  If we
of, them much flatter at the poles than the earth. look at a terrestrial globe or map of the world,
The difference between the polar and equatorial we shall perceive that the projection of thewestdiameters of Jupiter is more than 6000 miles.    ern coast of Africa nearly corresponds with the
From the circumstances stated above, we may  opening between North and South America, oplearn that the most minute' facts connected with  posite to the Gulf of Mexico; that the priojection
the system  of nature ought to be carefully ob- in South America, about Cape St. Roque and St.
served, investigated, and recorded, as they may Salvador, nearly corresponds with the opening in
lead to important conclusions, which, at first the Gulf of Guinea; so that, if we could conview, we may be unable to trace or to appreciate; ceive the two continents brought into contact,
for in the system of the material world, the great- the'openings to which I have referred would be
est and most sublime effects are sometimes pro- nearly filled up, so as to form  one compact conduced from  apparently simple and even trivial tinent.  The Gulf of Guinea would be nearly
causes. Who could have imagined that such a blocked up with the eastern coast of South Amersimple circumstance as the retardation of clocks ica, and a large gulf formed between Brazil and
in southern climes, and the shortening or length- the land to the eastward of the Cape of Good
ening of a pendulum, would lead to such an im- Hope. The Gulf of Mexico would be formed
portant discovery as the spheroidal figure of the into a kind of inland lake, and Nova Scotia and
earthi?  Hence we may conclude, that if ten thou- Newfoundland would block up a portion of the
sands of rational observers of the facts of nature Bay of Biscay and the English Channel, while
were to be added'to those who now exist, many Great Britain and Ireland would block up the enparts -of the scenery of the universe which are trance to Davis's Straits.  A  consideration of
now involved in darkness and mystery might ere these circumstances renders it not altogether imlong be unfolded to our view.                    probable that these'continents were originally
General Aspect of the Earth's -Surface.- The  conjoined, and that, at some former physical remost prominent and distinguishing feature of the' volution or catastrophe, they may have been rent
surface of our globe is'the two bands of land and  asunder by some tremendous power, when the
of water into-which it is divided. These bands waters of the ocean rushed in between them, and
present a somewhat irregular appearance and  left them separated as we now behold them. That
form, but their greatest length is from  north to POWER which is said to "remove mountaiis,"
south.  One of these bands of land, generally  which "shaketh the earth out of her place," and
d-enominated the eastern continent, comprehends causeth "the pillars thereof to tremble," is adeEurope, Africa, and Asia, and extends from  the quate to produce such an effect; and effects equalCape of Good Hope on the south to the north- l'y stupendous appear to have been produced when
eastern extremity of Kamtschatka, in which di- the waters of the great deep covered the tops of
rection its length measures about 10,000 miles.-  the highest mountains, when the solid strata of
Its greatest breadth from Corea, or the eastern the'earth were bent and disrupted, and rocks of
enormous size transported'from one region of tho
* From a comparison of the length of different degrees of earthi to another.  There appears no great improthe meridian, lately measured, it is probable that the diffe- bability in the supposition that such an event may
ience of the diamieters is somewhat less than is here stated.
Its eqcatorial diameter is about 7934 miles, and its polar have taken place at the universal deluge, when
about 7908.                                      the original constitution of the globe seems to




DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH.                                    41
bhave undergone a dreadful change and disarrange- darker color than the more' elevated and mounment.                                          tainous regions, as we find to be the case on the
Between the two continents now mentioned are surface of the moon. The islands would appear
two' immense bands of water, extending nearly like small bright specks on the darker surface of,from the northern to the southern extremities of the ocean; and the lakes and Mediterranean seas
the globe, one of which is 10,000, and the other like darker spots, or broad streaks intersecting the
3,000 miles broad. These vast collections of wa- brighter parts of the land.  By its revolution
ter surround the continents and islands, and form  round its axis, successive portions of its surface
numerous seas, straits,(gulfs, and bays, which in- would be brought into view, and present a diffedent and diversify the coasts through every region rent aspect from the' parts which preceded. Were
of the earth. They occupy a square surface' of the first view taken when the middle of the Pa148,000,000 of miles, forming about three-fourths cific Ocean appeared in the center, almost the
of the surface of the globe, and containing about whole hemisphere of the earth would present a'296,000,000 of cubical miles of water, sufficie'nt dull and somber aspect, except a few small spots
to cover the whole globe to the depth of 2600 near the middle, where the Marquesas, the Sandyards. This vast superabundance of water, corn- wich, and the Society Isles are situated, and some
pared with the quantity of land, it is probable, is pe- bright streaks on its north-eastern, north-western,
culiar to our globe, and that no such arrangement and south-western borders, where the north-westexists on the surface of the other planets of our sys- ern parts of America, the north-eastern parts of
tem. It is probable that such an extensive ocean Asia and New Holland are situated. In about six
did not exist at the period of the original forma- hours afterward the; whole of Asia, with its large
tion of the earth, and that such a disproportionate islands, Borneo, Sumatra, New  Guinea, &c.,
accumulation of water took place in consequence  would come into view and diversify the scene, havof the deluge. The present constitution of the ing a portion of the Pacific on the east, and the
earth, and the disproportion of the water to the Indian Ocean and a portion of Africa on the west.
dry land, are circumstances more adapted to a In another six hours the whole of Africa and Eurace of fallen intelligences than to beings in a state rope, the Atlantic Ocean, and the eastern part of
of innocence, and adorned with the image of South America, would- make their appearance;
their Creator.                                 and ini six hours more the whole of North and
Beside the circumstances now stated, the earth South America would appear near the center of
is diversified with extensive ranges of mountains, the view, having the Atlantic Ocean on the east
which stretch in different directions along the and the Pacific on the' west. All these views
continents and islands, rearing their summits, in would present a considerable variety of aspect,
some instances, several miles above the level of but in every one of them the darker shades would
the ocean, and diversifying in various modes the appear to cover the greater part of the view, exlandscape of the earth. From  these mountains cept, perhaps, in that view which takes in the
flow hundreds of majestic rivers, some of them  whole of Asia and part of Africa and Europe.more than 2000 miles in length, fertilizing the Each of these views occasionally present a motcountries through which they flow, and forming tied and unstable appearance, on account of the
a medium of communication between the inland numerous strata of clouds suspended over diffecountries and the ocean.  The atmosphere is rent regions, which would be seen frequently to
thrown around the whole of this terraqueous mass, shift their positions.  These clouds, when dense,
by means of which, and the operation  of the and accumulated over particular countries, would
solar heat, a portion of the ocean is carried up to prevent certain portions of the land and water
the region of the clouds in the form of vapor, from  being distinctly perceived.  They would
which diffuses itself over every region of the sometimes appear like bright spots upon the ocean,
earth, and is again condensed into rains and dews, by the reflection of the solar rays from their uplo supply the sources of rivers, and to distribute per surfaces, and sometimes like dark spots over
fertility throughout every land.  This atmosphere the land.  The following figures represent two
is the region of the winds, whether fanning the of the views to which we have alluded:
earth with gentle breezes, or heaving the ocean
into mountainous billows, and overturning forests         Fig. 25.          Fig. 26.
by hurricanes and tornadoes. It is the theater
where thunders roll and lightnings flash, where
the fiery meteor sweeps along with its luminous
train, and where the aurorv boreales display
their fantastic coruscations.  It is constituted by
a law of the Creator to sustain the principle of
life, and to preserve in existence and in comfort
not only man, but all the tribes of animated existence which.traverse the regions of earth, air,
or sea, without the benign influence of which
this globe would be soon left without a living
inhabitant.                                      Fig. 25, represents the appearance of the earth
Were the earth to be viewed from  a point in when the middle of the Pacific is in the center of
the heavens, suppose. from  the moon, it would the view. Fig. 26, is the appearance when the
present a pretty variegated, and sometimes a mot- Atlantic is presented to the spectator's eye, with
tied appearance.  The distinction between its South and part of North America on the west,
seas, oceans,- continents, and islands would be and Europe, Africa, and a portion of Asia on the
clearly marked, which would appear like brighter east.
and darker spots upon its disc. The continents   Internal Structure of the Earth.-We are now
would appear bright, and' the' ocean of a darker pretty well acquainted with the general outline of
hue, because water absorbs the greater part of the surface of the earth, and the different ramifithe solar light that falls upon it. The level plains cations of land and water with which it is diver(excepting, perhaps, such spots as the Arabian sified, except those regions which lie adjacent to
deserts of sands) would a-)pear. of a somewhat the poles. But our knowledge of its internal




42                                CELESTIAL SCENERY.
structure  is extremely limited.  The deepest whether they appear to be fitted for being the
mines that have ever been excavated do not de- abodes of intelligent beings. For, in ts present
scend above a mile from the surface, and this state, notwithstanding the numerous objects of
depth is no more, compared with the thickness of sublimity and beauty strewed over its surface, it
the earth, than the slight scratch of a pin upon a can be considered as little more than a majestic
large artificial globe compared with the extent of ruin; a ruin, however, sufficiently accommodated
its semidiameter. What species of materials are to the character of the majority of inhabitants
to be found two or three thousand miles within its who have hitherto occupied its surface, whose
surface, or evenwithin fifty miles, will, perhaps, be conduct, in all ages, has been marked with injusforever beyond the power of mortals to determine. tice, devastation, and bloodshed.
Various researches, however, have been lately    Density of the Earth.-In the year 1773, Dr.
made as to. the materials which compose. its upper Maskeline, the astronomer royal, with other genstrata, immediately beneath the surface, and the tlemen, made a number of observations on the
order in which they are arranged. From these mountain Schehallien, in Scotland, to determine
researches we learn that substances of various the attraction of mountains. After four months
kinds compose,the exterior crust of the globe, spent in the necessary arrangements and observaand that they are thrown together in almost every tions, it was ascertained beyond dispute that the
possible position; some horizontal, some vertical, mountain exerted a sensible attraction, leaving no
and some inclined to each other at various angles. hesitation as to the conclusion that every mounGeologists have a!rranged the strata of the crust tain and every particle of earth is endowed with
of the earth into various classes: 1. Primary  the same property in proportion to its quantity
rocks, which are supposed to have been formed  of matter.  The observations were made on both
before all the others, and which compose, as it sides of the mountain, and from these it appears
were, the great; frame- or; groundwork of our that the sum of the two contrary attractions exglobe. These rocks are composed of granite, erted upon the plumbline of the instruments was
gneiss, mica-slate, and other substances; they form  equal to eleven seconds and a half. Professor
the most lofty mountains, and, at the- same time, Playfair, more than thirty years afterward, from
extend themselves downward beneath  all the personal observation, endeavored to determine the
other formations, as if all the materials on the specific gravity or density of the materials of
surface of the globe rested upon them as a basis. which Schehallien is composed, and after nume2. Transition rocks, which are above the primi- rous experiments and calculations, it was contive, and rest upon them, and are composed of the eluded that " the mean density of the earth is
larger fragments of the primary rocks, consoli- nearly double the density of the rocks which
dated into continuous masses. These rocks con- compose that mountain," which seem to be contain the remains of certain organized beings, such siderably more dense than the mean of those
as sea-shells, while no such remains are found which form the exterior crust of the earth.  The
among the rocks termed primitive. 3. Secondary density of these rocks was reckoned to be two
rocks, which lie upon the primary and transition and a half times the weight of water; conserocks, and which appear like deposits from  the quently the density of the earth is to that of
other species of rocks. The substances which this water as five to one; that is, the whole earth,
class of rocks contain are secondary limestone, bulk for bulk, is five times the weight of water, so
coal, oolite, sandstone, and chalk. There are like- that the earth, as now constituted, would counterwise tertiary, basaltic, and volcanic rocks, and al- poise five globes of the same size composed of the
luvial and diluvial deposits. But it would be same specific gravity as water.  As the mean
foreign to our present subject to descend into density, therefore, of the whole earth's surface,
particulars.                                   including the ocean, cannot be above twice the
From  facts which have been ascertained re- density of water, it follows that the interior of
specting these and various other circumstances the earth must have a much greater density tha%
connected with the constitution of the earth, it even five times the weight of water, to counterhas been concluded that important changes and balance the want of weight on its surface. Hence
astonishing revolutions have taken place in its we are necessarily led to conclude that the intephysical structure since the period of its forma- rior parts of the earth, near the center, must contion; that rocks of a huge size have been rolled sist of very dense substances, denser than even
from one region of the globe to another, and been iron, lead, or silver, and that no great interial
carried up to the tops of hills and elevated poer- cavity can exist within it, as some theorists have
tions of the land; that the hardest masses of its supposed, unless we could suppose that most of
rocks have been fractured, and its strata bent and the materials far below the foundation of the
dislocated; that in certain places sea-shells, sharks' ocean are much denser than the heaviest metallic
teeth, the bones of elephants, the hippopotamus, substances yet discovered.  La Place has atoxen, deer, and other animals,.are found mingled tempted to estimate the earth's density near the
together, as if they had been swept along by some center on the following data: If 5 2-5 be its mean
overpowering force, amid a general convulsion of density, and 3 1-8, 31-5, 2 4-5, and 2 3-5 be asnature; that the bed of the ocean has been raised sumned as its superficial densities, then, on the theup by the operation of some tremendous power, ory of compressibility, the density at the center
so as to form a portion of the habitable surface of will be 131, 14X, 1534, and 20 1-10 respectivethe globe; and that the loftiest mountains were ly. The least of the specific gravities (1314) is
once covered by the waters of the ocean. From  nearly double the density of zinc, iron, and t e ore
these and other considerations we have reason to of lead; and the greatest (20 1-10) is nearly. qua}
believe that the earth now presents a very diffe- to purified and forged platina, which is the most
refit aspect fiom what it did when it first pro- ponderous substance hitherto discovered.  Yet
ceeded from the creating hand of its Maker, and this ponderous globe, with all the materials on its
when all things were pronounced by him to be surface, is carried through the regions of space
"very good."  The earth, therefore, as presently with a velocity of sixteen hundred thousand milei
constituted, ought not to be considered as a every day.
standard or model to be compared with the other   Variety of Seasons.-The annual revolution of
planets of our system, and by which to judge the earth is accomplished in 365 days, 5 hours,48




INCLINATION OF THE EARTH'S AXIS.                                    43
minutes, and 51 seconds. In the course of this during its progress through the twelve signs of
revolution, the inhabitants of every clime experi-  the zodiac. (See Fig. 29.)
ence, though at different times, a variety of sea-   In this representation the ellipse exhibits the
sons. Spring, summer, autumn, and winter fol- earth's orbit seen at a distance, the eye being suplow each other in constant succession, diversify- posed to be elevated a little above the plane of it.
ing the scenery of nature, and distinguishing the The earth is represented in each of the twelve
different periods of the year. In those countries signs, with the names of the months annexed.
which lie in the southern hemisphere of the globe, In each of the figures e is the pole of the ecliptic,
November, December, and January, are the sum- and e d its axis, perpendicular to the plane of the
mer, months,- while in the northern hemisphere, orbit. P is the north pole of the earth; P m its
where we reside, these are our months of winter, axis, about which the earth daily turns from west
when the weather is coldest and the days'are to east, P C e shows the angle of its inclination.
shortest. In the northern and southern hemi- During the whole of its course, the axis keeps
spheres, the seasons are opposite to each other, so always in a parallel position, or points always to
that when it is spring in the one it is autumn in the same parts of the heavens. If it were otherthe other;- when it is winter in southern latitudes wise, if the axis of the earth shifted its position
it is summer with us.  During six months, from  in any considerable degree, the most appalling
March'21 to September 23, the sun shines without and disastrous effects might be produced; the
intermission on the north pole, so that there is no ocean in many places might. overflow  the land,
night there during all that interval, while the south and rush from  the equator toward the polar repole is all this time enveloped in darkness. From  geions, and -produce a general devastation and
September to March the south pole enjoys the so- destruction to myriads of its inhabitants.  If the
lar light, while the north, in its turn, is deprived *axis pointed always to the center of its orbit. so
of the sun and left in darkness. The sun is at dif- as to be continually varying its direction, all the
feret' distances from the earth at different periods objects around us would appear to whirl about us
of the year, owing to the, earth's moving in an in confusion; there would' be noo fixed polar
elliptical orbit; but it is not upon this circum- points to guide the mariner, ncr could his course
stance that the seasons depend.,  For on the first be directed through the ocean by any of the stars
of January we are more than three millions of of heaven.
miles nearer the sun than on the. first of July,   When the earth is in the first point of Libra,
when the heat of our summer is generally great- the sun appears in the opposite point of the eclip-.est.- The true cause of the variation of the seasons tic, at Aries, about the 21st of March; and when
consists in the inclination of the axis of the earth the earth is in Aries, the sun, S, will appear in
to the plane of its orbit; or, in other words, to the Libra about -the 23d of September. At these
ecliptic. If its axis were perpendicular to the times both poles of the earth are enlightened, and
ecliptic, the equator and the'orbit would coincide; the day and night are equal in all places. When
and as the sun is always in the plane of the the earth has moved from Libra to Capricorn, its
ecliptiC, it would in this case be always over the axis keeping always the same direction, all places
equator; the two poles would be always enlight- within the north polar circle, P e, are illuminated
ened, and there would be no diversity of days and throughout the whole diurnal revolution, at which
nights, and but one season throughout the year. time the inhabitants of those places have the sun
What is meant bv the inclination of the axis will more than twenty-four hours above the horizon.
appear from the following figures.               This happens at the time of our summer solstice.
or about the 21st of June, at which time the south
Fig. 27.         Fig. 28.             polar circle, d m, is in- darkness. While the earth
is moving from  Libra, through Capricorn, to... 1      X   a. S                   eAries, the north pole, P, being in the illuminated
hemisphere, will have six months continual day;
but while the earth passes4rom  Aries, through
Cancer, to Libra, the north pole will be in darkness, and havecontinual night; the south poleat
the same time enjoying continual day.  When
-  the earth is at Cancer, the sun appears at Capricorn, at which. season the nights in the northern
-.H'  ~          F','     hemisphere will as much exceed the days as the
days exceeded the nights when the earth was in
LetA B- represent the plane of the ecliptic, or the opposite point of its orbit.
the earth's orbit,; and C D  (Fig 28) the axis of    Our summer is nearly eight days longer than
the-earth, inclined at an angle of 6610~ to the our winter.  By summer is meant the time that
ecliptic, and 2320o from the perpendicular E  F, passes between March 21 and September 23, or
or the axis of the ecliptic, and it will represent the between the vernal and autumnal equinoxes; and
positionof the axis of the earth with respect to the by winter, the time between September 23 and
plane of its orbit.' Fig. 27 represents the axis of March 21, the autumnal and vernal equinoxes.
the earth,-G H, perpendicular to the ecliptic.  As The portion of the earth's orbit which lies north
the sun can enlighten only the one-half of the of the equinoctial contains 184 degrees, while
globe at a time,'.it is evident that, if his rays come that portion which is south of the equinoctial
in the direction from B, Fig.: 28, they cannot illu-' contains only 176 degrees, being eight degrees
min ate both poles at once. While the north polar less than the other portion, which is the reason
circle between E and C is enlightened, the regions why the sun is nearly eight days longer on the
around tie south pole between D and F must ne- north of the equator than on the south.  In our
cessarily remain'in the dark.  uBut if the axis of summer the sun's apparent motion is through the
the earth:were perpendicular to its orbit, as ex- six northern signs- Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Can.
hibited in Fig. 27, then'both poles would con- cer, Leo, and Virgo; and in our winter, through
stantly be enlightened at the same time. The the six southern. In the former case, from MIarch
following figure will more particularly-show the 21 to September 23, the sun is about 186 days 11
effect of the inclination of the axis of'the earth hours in passing through the northern signs, and




44                                CELESTIAL SCENERY.
only 178 days 18 hours in passing through the the horizon in summer than in-winter; and, consouthern signs, from September 23 to March 21, sequently, its rays falling more directly and less
the difference being about 7 days 17 hours, Thile oblique, the thicker or denser will they be, and so
nmuch the hotter. when  no counteracting
aig.o 29..          0        causes from local circumstances exist.. Thus,
supposing a parcel of rays, A BCDE (F'ig.
30), to fall perpendicularly on: any plane (D
Q.,       ___.                    C), and obliquely on another plane ( E C), it is
evident they will occupy a smaller space (D
C) in the former than (E C) in the latter; and,
consequently, their heat would be much
__ H          greater in the lesseI space D C than in the
greater space E  C.  If, ilstead of lines,
we suppose D C and E C to be the diameters
of surfaces, then the heat on those surfaces
will be inversely as the squares of the diameters. LetD C be 20 and EC  28; the square
I3~  -     ~~     of 20 is 400, and the square of 28 is 784,
I                 -    which is nearly double the square of D  C,
/2)''..vand, consequently, there is nearly double the
quantity of heat on D Ccompared with that
/ Adz  z~t loni E C, in so far as it depends on the direct
influence of the solar rays; but other causes
may concur either to diminish or increase
the heat in certain places, to which I have
already alluded when describing the phenomenia of Mercury. 2. The greater length
of the day contributes to augment the heat
p in summer; for the earth and the air are
heated by the sun in the day-time, more than
rthey are cooled in the night, and on this acin~~ aepa re rn wc s           count the heat will go on increasing in thi
summer, and for the same reason will decrease in winter, when the nlights are longer
than the days. Another reason is, that in
summer, when the sun rises to a great altiF      tude, his rays pass through a much smaller
meportion of the atmosphere, and are less refracted and weakened by it than when they
fall more obliquely on the earth, and pass
through the dense vapors near the horizon.,
The cause of the variety of the seasons
Ith         ycan be exhibited with more clearness and
precision by means of machinery than by,
_$~~~~ l gverbal descriptions; and, therefore, those
whose conceptions are not clear and welldefined on this subject, should have recourse
to orreries and planetariums, which exhibit
the celestial motions by wheel-worig. Thre
n -    L    } r mis an small instrument, called a Tellurion,,  which has been loig manufactured by Messrs.
Jones, Holborn, London, which conveys a
CI~  \.                    t fpretty clear idea of the motionse, and phases
of the moon, the inclination of the earth's axis
reason of this difference is, that the earth moves to the plane of its orbit, and the chages of the
in an elliptical orbit, one portion of which is seasons. It wmaybe procuredt different prices,
nearer the suni than another, in consequence of from 11. 8s. to 41. 14s. 6d., according to the size
which the sun's apparent motion is slower while and the quantity of the wheel-work.
it appears in the northern signs than while it   The subject of the seasons and the variety of
traves the southern ones.         phenomena they exhibit have frequently been the
rthemes both of the philosopher and the poet, who
in winter, it may naturally be asked why we ex- have expatiated ol the beauty of the contrivance
perience- the greatest heats in the former season. and the benignant effects they produce; and,
The following, among other reasons, may be as- therefore, they conclude that other planets enjoy
Fig. 30.                   the same vicissitudes and seasons similar or anaE:         D                    A       logous to ours. But although, in the present convstitution of our globe, there are many benign
agencies which accompany the revolutions of the
wseasons, and are essential to our happiness in the
circumstances in which we now exist, yet it is
by no means probable that the seasons, as they
now operate, formed a part of the original arrangements of our terrestrial system. Man was
~~~~~C ~\  ~:  B      at first created in a state of Innocence, and adcrn.
signed, which will partly accnthfr this effect: ed with the image of his Maker; and the frame
I. The sun rises to a much higher altitude above of nature, we may confidently suppose, hwas s




THE PLAN ET MARS.                                          45
arranged as to contribute in every respect both  the same pendulum to vibrate slower at the equato his sensitive and intellectual enjoyment.  But tor than in other places, as stated above.  For a
neither the horrors of winter, and its dreary as- pendulum  to oscillate seconds at the equator, it
pect in northern climes, nor the scorching heats must be thirty-nine inches in length; and at the
and appalling thunder-storms which are experi- poles, thirty-nine and one-fifth inches.
enced inl tropical climates, are congenial to the    The tropical year, or the time which the sun
rank and circumstances of beings untainted with  (or the earth) takes in moving through the twelve
sin and endowed with moral perfection.  Such ~signs of the ecliptic, from  one equinox to thle
physical evils atnd inconveniences as the change  same equinox again, is three hundred and sixtyof seasons occasionally produces, appear to be five days, five hours, forty-eight minutes, and
only adapted to man in his present state of moral fifty-one seconds.  This is the proper or natural
degradation.  In the primeval state of the world, year; because it always keeps the same seasons
it is not unlikely that the axis of the earth had a to the same months.  The sidereal year is the
different direction from what it has at present, space of timle the sun takes in passing fronm  any
and that, instead of scorching heats and piercing  fixed star until it returns  to the same star again.
colds, and the gloom and desolations of winter, It consists of three hundred and sixty-five days,
there was a more mild and'equable temperature, six hours, nine minutes, and eleven and a half
and something approaching to what the poet calls seconds, being twenty minutes and twenty and a
"a perpetual spring."  We are assured, from the  half seconds longer than the true solar year.
records of sacred history, that the original consti- This difference is owing to the regression of tile
tution of the earth has undergone a considerable  equinoctial points, which is fifty seconds of a
change and derangement: its strata were disrupt- degree every year; and, to pass over this space,
ed, " the fountains of the great deep were broken  the sun requires twenty minutes and twenty and
up," and a flood of waters covered the tops of the  a half seconds.  The earth moves in an elliptical
loftiest mountains; the effects of which are still orbit, whose eccentricity, or distance of its foci
visible in almost every region of the globe. At from  the center, is 1,618,000 miles: that is, the
that memorable era, it is highly probable those ellipse or oval in which it moves is double the ecchanges were introduced which diversify the sea- centricity, or 3,236,000 miles longer in one direcsons and produce those alarming phenomena and, tion than it is in another, which is the reason that
destructive effects which we now behold; but as the sun is farther from  us at one season of the
man advances in his moral, intellectual, and re- year than at another.  This is ascertained from
ligious career, and in proportion as his mental the variation of the apparent diameter:f the sun.
and moral energies are made to bear on the reno- About the first of Jatnuary, when he is nearest
vation of the world, he has it in his power to  the earth, the apparent diameter is thirty-two
counteract or meliorate many of the physical minutes, thirty-five seconds; and on the 1st of
evils which now exist. Were the habitable parts July, when he is most distant, it is only thlirlyof the earth universally cultivated, its marshes two minutes, thirty-one seconds.  This proves
drained, and its desolate wastes reduced to order that the earth has a slower motion in one part of
and vegetable beauty by the hand of art, and re- its orbit than in another.  In January, it moves
plenished with an industrious and enlightened  at the rate of about 69,600 miles an hour, but in
population, there call be little doubt that the sea- July its rate of motion every hour is only about
sons would be considerably meliorated, and many  66,400 miles; a difference of more than  3000
physical evils prevented with which we are now  miles an hour.
annoyed.  And all this is within the power of
man to accomplish, provided he chooses to direct              IV. OF THE PLANET MARS.
his wealth, and his intellectual and moral energies, into this channel. If these remarks have    The earth is placed, in the solar system, in a
any foundation in truth, then we ought not to  position between the orbits of Venus and Mlars.
imagine that the earth is a standard by which we  The two planets, Mercury and Venus, which are
are to judge of the state of other planetary  placed within the orbit of the earth, and whose
worlds, or that they arle generally to be. viewed as orbits lie between it and the sun, are termed the
having a diversity of seasons similar to ours.    inferior planets.  Those whose orbits lie beyond
The following facts, in addition to the pre- the orbit of the earth, at a greater distance from
ceding, may be noted in relation to the earth: the sun, as Mars, Jupiter, Saturln, and Uranus,
Under the equator, a pendulum, of a certain form  are termed superior planets.  The motions and
and length, makes 86,400 vibrations in a mean  aspects of all the superior planets, as seen from
solar day; but, when transported to London, the  the earth, differ considerably from  those which
same pendulum  makes 86,535 vibrations in the  are exhibited by the inferior.  In the first place,
same time. Hence it is concluded that the in- the inferior planets are never seen but in thle
tensity of the force urging the pendulum down- neighborhood of the sun, none of them  ever apward at the equator is to that at London as 86,400  pearing beyond forty-eight degrees from that luto 86,535, or as I to 1.00315; or, in other words, minary; whereas, the superior planets appear at all
that a mass of matter at the equator, weighing  distances from the sun, even in the opposite quar10,000 pounds, exerts the same pressure on the  ter of the heavens, or 180 degrees from  the point
ground as 10,03112 of the same pounds transport- in which the sun may happen to be placed.  This
ed to London would exert there.  If the gravity  could not possibly happen unless their orbits were
of a body at the equator be 1, at the poles it will exterior to that of the earth, and the earth placed
be 1.00569, or about the 1-194th part heavier; that at such times between them and the sun. In the
is, a body weighing 194 pounds at the equator next place, the inferior planets, when viewed
would weigh 195 pounds at the north pole; so  through telescopes, exhibit, at different times, all
that the weight of bodies is increased as we ad- the phases of the moon; but the superior planets
vance from the equator to the poles, owing to the never appear either horned or in the shape of a
polar parts being nearer the center of the earth  half moon.  The planets Jupiter, Saturn, and
than the equatorial, and the centrifugal force Uranus, never appear in any other shape than
being diminished.  It is this variation of the ac- round, orwith full enlightened hemispheres. This
tion of gravity in different latitudes that causes circumstance of itself furnishes a proof that we




46                                 CELESTIAL SCENERY
see tnese planets always in a direction not very ranted to conclude that the diameter of the orbit of
remote from that in which they are illuminated Mars cannot be less than 1 1-2 that of the orbit
by the solar rays; and, consequently, that we oc- of the earth. The phases of Saturn, Jupiter, and
cupy a station which is never very far removed Uranus being quite imperceptible, demonstrate
from  the center of their orbits. It proves, in that their orbits must include both the orbit of
other words, that the path of the earth round the the earth and that of Mars; and, consequently,
sun is entirely included within their orbits, and that they are removed at a much greater distance
likewise that this circular path of the earth is of than either of these bodies from the center of the
small diameter compared with their more expansive system.
orbits.  This may be illustrated by the following   Before proceeding to a particular description of
figures. Let S, Fig. 32, represent the sun; A B  the phenomena connected with the planet Mars,
I shall give a brief sketch of the motions peculiar
to this planet, which will serve, in some measure,
Aa  ~1_ MM-    as a specimen of the apparent motions of all the
other superior planets.  In the following figure S
i                                                            E
i: \  33,  
the orbit of the earth; and C the planet Saturn, 
about ten times farther from  the sun than the represents the sun; A B C D the planet Mars in
earth is. Suppose B to represent the earth at its four different positions in its orbit; E F G H I K
greatest elongation from the sun, as seen from  the orbit of the earth; and L M N O P, a segSaturn; the angle, S C B, being so small, it is ment of the starry heavens. Suppose Mars at A
evident that an observer on the earth, at B, can and the earth at E, directly between it and the
see little or nothing of the dark hemisphere of sun, then all thile planet's enlightened hemisphere
Saturn at C, but must perceive the whole en- will be turned toward the earth, and it will appear
lightened hemisphere of the planet, within'a like the full moon. When the planet is at B it
small fraction, which fraction is not perceptible will be gibbous, like the moon a few days before
by our best telescopes                           or after the full. At C it would again appear
There is only one of the superior planets that wholly enlightened, were it not in the same part
exhibits any perceptible phase, and that is the pla- of the heavens with the sun. At D it is again
net Mars.  In Fig. 31, S represents the sun; E  gibbous, as seen from E, and will appear less gibD, the orbit of the earth; M, Mars; and D, the bous as it advances toward A. At A it is said to
earth at its greatest elongation, as seen from Mars. be in opposition to the sun, being seen from the
In this case the angle S M D is much larger than earth at E among the stars at N, while the sun is
in the former case, as Mars is much nearer to the seen in the opposite direction, E C. When the
earth than Saturn or any other of the superior planet is at C and the earth at E, it is said to be
planets. Consequently, a spectator on the earth is in conjunction with the sun, being in the same
enabled to see a greater portion of the dark hemi-part of the heavens with that luminary. In resphere of Mars, and, of course, loses sight of a gard to all the superior planets, there is but one
corresponding portion of his enlightened disc.-  conjunction with the sun during the course of
This is represented by the line h i. This gibbous their revolution; whereas the inferior planets,
phase of Mars, however, differs only in a small Mercury and Venus, have two conjunctions, as
degree flom a circle; it is never less than seven- formerly explained. Let us now  attend to the
eighths of the whole disc. This phase is repre- apparent motions of this planet.  Suppose the
sented in Fig. 33. When the earth arrives near earth at F, and the planet at rest in its orbit at A;
the point F, when Mars appears in opposition to it will be projected or seen by a ray of light
the sun, the whole of his enlightened hemisphere among the stars at L; when the earth arrives at
is then visible.  The extent of the gibbous phase G, the planet will appear at M, by the ray a M;
of this planet affords a measure of the angle S and in the same manner, when the earth is at H,
M D, and, therefore, of the proportion of the dis- I, and K, the planet will be seen among the stars
tance, S M of Mars, to S D or S F, the distance at N, 0, and P; and, therefore, while the earth
of the earth from the sun, by which we are war- moves over the large part of its orbit, F H K, the




DISTANCE, MOTION, AND ORBIT OF MARS.                                   47
planet will have an apparent motion from L to P  planet is ascertained to be about 145 millions of
among the stars; and this motion is from west to miles from the sun. From what we have stattd
east, in the order of the signs, or in the same di- above, it is obvious that, in the course of its
rection in which the earth moves; and the planet revolution, it is at very- different distances from
is then said to be direct inm motion. When the the earth. When at its greatest distance, as when
earth is at K and the planet appears at P, for a the earth is at E, and the planet at C, Fig. 34, it
short space of time it appears stationary, be- is 240 millions of miles from  the earth.  This
cause the ray of light proceeding from P to K will appear from an inspection of the figure. The
nearly coincides with the earth's orbit and the di- distance, E  S, from  the earth to the sun is 95
rection'of its motion. But when the earth moves millions of miles; the distance, S C, of Mars
on from K to E, the planet will appear to return from  the sun is 145 millions. These distances,
from P to N; and while the earth moves from E, added together, amount to the whole distance from
to F, the planet will still continue to retrograde E to C, or from the earth to Mars when in confrom N to L, where it will again appear stationary  junction with the sun. When nearest the earth,
as before. From what has been now stated, it is as at A, it is only 50 millions of miles distant
clear, that since the part of the orbit which the from us. For as the whole distance of the planet
eartli describes in passing through F HKis much from  the sun, A S, is 145 millions, subtract the
greater than the arc K E  F, and the space L P  distance of the earth from the sun, E S=95 milwhich the planet describes in its direct and retro- lions, and the remainder will be the distance of
grade motion is the'same; therefore, the direct mo- the planet, E A=50 millions of miles from the
tion is very slow from  L to P, in comparison of earth. Small as this distance may appear comthe retrograde motion from P to L, which is per- rpared with that of some bof the other planets, it
formed in much less time.                        would require more than 285 years for a steamIn the' above description I have supposed the carriage, moving without intermission at the rate
planet at rest in its orbit at A, in order to render of twenty miles an hour, to pass over the space
the explanation more easy and simple, and the which intervenes between the earth and Mars at
diagram  less complex than it would have been  its nearest distance.
had we-traced the planet through different parts   From what has been now stated, it is evident
of its orbit, together with the motions of the that this planet will present a very different aspect,
earth. But the appearances are the -same, whether as to size and splendor, in the different parts of
we suppose the planet to be at rest or in motion. its orbit. When nearest to the earth, it appears
The: only difference is in the time when the retlo- with a, surface twenty-five times larger than it
grade or direct motions happen, and in the places does at its greatest distance, and seems to vie with
of the heavens where the planet will be at such Jupiter in apparent magnitude and splendor. But,
times situated. What has now been stated in re- when verging toward its conjunction with the
gard to the apparent motions of Mars will apply sun, it is almost imperceptible.  And this is one
to Jupiter, Saturn, and all the superior planets, proof, among others, of the truth of the Copernimaking allowance for the difference of time in can system. All its motions, stations, and direct
which their direct and retrograde motions are and  retrograde  movements, and  the times in
performed.  All the superior planets are retro- which they happen, exactly accord with its posigrade in their apparent motions when in opposi- tion in the system and the motion of the earth,
tion, and for some time before and after; but they as a planet between the orbits of Venus and Mars.
differ greatly from each other, both in the extent Whereas, were the earth supposed to be the cenof their arc of retrogradation, in the duration of ter of this planet's motion, according to the
their retrograde movement, and in its rapidity, Ptolemaic hypothesis, it would be impossible to
when swiftest.  It is more extensive and rapid in account for any of the phenomena above stated.
the case of Mars than of Jupiter, of Jupiter than    The orbit of Mars is 901,064,000, or more than
of Saturn, and of Saturn than of Uranus.  The 900 millions of miles in circumference.  Through
longer the periodic time or annual revolution of a this space it moves in one year and 322 days, or
superior planet, the more frequent are its stations in 16,488 hours. Consequently, its rate of moand retrogradations; they are less in quantity, but tion is 54,640 miles every hour, which is more
continue a longer time. The mean arc of retro- than a hundred times the greatest velocity of a
gradation of Mars, or from  P to L, Fig. 34, is cannon ball when it leaves the mouth of the
sixteen degrees, twelve minutes, and it continues cannon. The diurnal rotation of this planet, or
about seventy-three days; while the mean arc of its revolution round its axis, is accomplished hi
retrogradation of Jupiter is only nine degrees, twenty-four hours, thirty-nine minutes, twentyfifty-four minutes, but its mean duration is about one seconds, which is about two-thirds of an hour
121 days.  The time between one opposition of longer than our day. This period of rotation
Saturn-and another is 378 days, or one year and was first ascertained by Cassini, from the motion
thirteen days. The time between two conjunc- of certain spots oal its surface, which I shall aftertions or oppositions of Jupiter is 398 days, or one ward describe. Its axis is inclined to the plane
year. and thirty-three days. But Mars, after an of its orbit in an angle of thirty degrees, eighteen
opposition, does not again come into the same situ- minutes, which is nearly seven degrees more ination until after two years and fifty days. It is clined from  the perpendicular than that of the
only at and near the time of the opposition, of earth. This motion is in the same direction as
Marsthatwe have the besttelescopic vievwsof that the rotation of the earth, namely, from  west to
planet, as it is then nearest the earth; and, conse- east  The inclination of the orbit of Mars to
quently, when it has passed' its opposition for any thai of the earth is one degree, fifty-one minutes,
considerable time, a period of two years must six seconds, so that this planet is never so much
elapse before we see it again in such a conspicua. as two degrees either- north or south of the eclipous situation. HIence itlis that this-planet is sel- tic. The orbit of Mars is considerably eccentric.
dom noticed by ordinary observers, except during Its eccentricity is no less than 13,463,000 miles,
a period of three or four months every two years. or about 1-21 of its diameter, which is more than
At all other times it dwindles to the apparent size eight times the eccentricity of the orbit of the
of a small star.                                 earth. Hence it follows, that Mars, when in op
Distance, Motion, and Orbit of Mars.-This, position to the sun, may be nearer the earth by
VOL. II.  14




~IS \                             (3CELESTI'AL SCENERY.
a considerable number of millions of miles at one ty-four feet in length, perceived, among several
time than at another, when he happens- to be other spots, a long belt that reached about half
about his perihelion, or nearest distance from  the way round the planet, not parallel to its equator,
sun at such opposition. On the  27th of August, to the end of which another short belt was joined,
1719, this planet was in such a position, being in so as to form  an angle a little obtuse, as repreopposition within two and a half degrees of its sented in Fig. 38.
perihelion, and nearer-to the earth than it had
been for a long period before; so that its magni-         Fig. 37.           Fig. 38.
tude and brightness were so much.increased, that,
by common spectators, it was taken for a new star.
Appearance of the Surface of Mars when viewed
through Telescopes.-It was nat before the telescope was brought to a certain degree of perfection that spots were discovered on the surface of
Mars. This instrument was first directed to the
heavens by Galileo, in the year 1610; but-it was
not until the beginning of 1666 that any of the
spots which diversify this planet were discovered.
On the 6th of February, that year, in the morn-   The following figures represent the appearance
ing, Cassini, with a telescope of sixteen feet long, of the spots as seen by Dr. Hook'in 1666. He
saw two dark spots on the face of Mars, as repre- saw Mars on March 3, 1666, as represented in
sented in Fig. 35; and on February 24, in the Fig. 39, which appearance was taken down at the
evening, he saw on the other face of the planet moment of observation. On the 23d of the same
two other spots, somewhat like those of the first, month he perceived the spots as delineated in Fig.
but larger, as represented in Fig. 36.          40, which appears to have been either the same
Fig. 35.             Fig. 36.                   Fig. 39.             Fig. 40.
These figures are copied from  the first volume of spots in another position, or some other spots on
the Transactions of the Royal Society.  After- the other hemisphere of the planet.
ward, continuing his observations, he found the    The following are two views of this planet by
spots of these two faces to turn by little and little Sir William Herschel, who has given a great
from  east to west, and to return at last to the variety of delineations of the different appearsame situation in which he had first seen them. ances of Mars in the Transactions of the Royal
Campani and several other astronomers observed Society of London for 1784.
similar spots about the same time at Rome, and
Dr. Hook in England.  Some of these observers               Fg. 41           Fig. 42.
were led to conclude, from  the motion of these
spots, that the rotation of this planet was accomplished in thirteen hours; but Cassini, who ob —                              _ _
served them with particular care, proved that the' 
period of rotation was about twenty-four hours
and forty minutes, and showed that the error of
the other astronomers arose from their not distinguishing the difference of the spots which appeared
on the opposite sides of the disc of Mars.  The
deductions of Cassini on this point have been
fully confirmed by subsequent observations.        My own views of this planet have not bece
Maraldi, a celebrated French mathematician
and astronomer,made particular obsevat tions on numerous, as it is only at intervals of two years,
and astronomer, made particular observations on,
these spots in the year 1704. He observed that when near its opposition, that observatve howthe spots were not always  vell-defined, and that be made on its surface with effect. I have, howthe spoften changed their form, not  nly in that ever, distinctly perceived its surface as delineated
they often changed their form, not only in the in Figires 43 and 44.
space of time from  one opposition to another,
but even within the space of a month; but some            Fig. 43               Fig. 44.
of them continued of the same form long enough
to ascertain their periods. Among these was an
oblong spot, not unlike one of the broken belts
of Jupiter, that did not reach' quite round the
body of Mars, but had, not far from the middle
of it, a small protuberance toward the north, so
well-defined as to enable him to settle the period
of its'revolution at twenty-four hours, thirty-nine
minutes; only one minute less than as Cassini
lhad determined it. This appearance of Mars is
represented in Fig. 37. On the 27th of August,
1719, the same observer, with a telescope of thir-   These observations were made in November




ATMOSPHERE OF MARS.                                        49
IXid De cember, 1832, and in January, 1837, and morning and evening clouds are generally tinged
the appearances were very nearly the same; but with red, and the sun, moon, and stars, when near
the spots as represented in the two figures were the horizon, either rising or setting, uniformly
seen at different times, and were evidently on assume a ruddy aspect, because their light then
different hemispheres of the planet, which were passes through the lower and denser part of our
presented in succession by its motion of rotation. atmosphere. When the light of the sun passes
The instrument used in the observations was a through the atmosphere of Mars, the most re44j4 inch achromatic telescope, with magnifying frangible colors, such as the violet, will be partly
powers. of 150 and 180 times...      absorbed; and before the reflected rays reach the
Beside the dark spots; here delineated, there is a earth, they must again pass through the atmosmallK portion of the globe of Mars, round its sphere of the planet, and be deprived of another
south pole, which has,; at least occasionally, a portion of the most refrangible rays; and, consp —
much brighter appearance than the other parts. quently, the red rays will predominate, and thA
Maraldi, who made observations on Mars about planet assume a dull red color. This I conceive
the year 1719, says, that this bright spot had been to be the chief reason why I could never perceive
noticed for sixty years before that period, and that Mars in the day-time, even when in the most fait is mote permanent than any ofi the -other spots vorable position, so distinctly as Jupiter, although
of Mars; that this segment or zone is not all of the quantity of solar light which falls on this
equal brightness, more than one-half of it being planet is more than eleven times greater than
brighter than the rest; that the part which is least what falls on Jupiter; which seems to indicate
bright is subject to great changes, and has some- that Jupiter is surrounded with a less dense and
times disappeared; and that there has sometimes more transparent atmosphere. Sir W. Herschel,
been seen a similar luminous zone round the though he questions the accuracy of some of the
north pole of Mars, which has appeared of diffe- observations of the dimness caused by the appulses
rent brightness in different years. The bright of the fixed stars to this planet, yet admits that it
spot at the polar point is represented at a, Figures has a considerable atmosphere. " For," says he,
41 and 42.; These white spots have been conjec- "beside the permanent spots on its surface, I have
tured to be snow, as they disappear when they have often noticed occasional changes ot partial bright
}been long exposed to the sun, and.are greatest belts, and also once a darkish one in a pretty high
when just.emerging from the' long night of the latitude: and these alterations we call hardly aspolar winter in that planet. This is the opinion cribe to any other cause-than the variable dispoof Sir W. Herschel, in'his paper on this subject, sition of clouds and Vapors floating in the atmoin the Philosophical Transactions.  "In the year sphere of the planet."
178!)," says this astronomer, "the south polar   Conclusions respecting the'Physical Constitution
spot t1was extrernely large, which we might well of Mars.-From  the preceding observations and
expect, as that pole had but lately been involved views we have exhibited of this planet,' I presume
in a  whole twelve-month's darkness and absence we are warranted to deduce, with a high degree
of the sun; but in 1783, I found it considerably of probability, the following conclusions: 1. T hat
smaller than before, and it decreased continually  land and water, analogous to those on our globe,
from'the 20th of May until about the middle of exist in the planet Mars. The dark spots are obSeptember, when it seemed to be at a stand. viously the water or seas upon its surface, which
During this last period, the south pole had already reflect a much less proportion of the solar light,been about eight months enjoying the benefit of than the land. " The seas," says Sir John Hersunnmer, and still continued to receive the sun- schel,." by a general law in optics, appear greenbeams, though, toward the latter end, in such an ish, and form  a contrast to the land. I have.
oblique direction as to be but little benefited by noticed this phenomenon on many occasions, but
the    On    other hand, in the year 1781, the never more distinct than on the occasion when
north polar spot, which had been its twelve-month  the drawing was made;" from which the figure
in the sunshine, and was but lately returning into of Mars in his "Astronomy" is engraved. It is
darkness, appeared small, though undoubtedly in- not improbable, from  the size of the dark spots
creasing in size."  Hence he concludes, "that compared with the whole disc of Mars, that about
the bright polar spots are owing to the vivid re- one-third or one-fourth of the surface of that
flectioln-of light from frozen regions, and that the planet is covered with water.  If this estimate
reduction of those spots is to be ascribed -to their be nearly correct, it will follow that the quantity
beingtexposed to the sun."                      of land and water on Mars is nearly in a reverse
Atmosphere oJ Mars.-From  the gradual- dimi- proportion to that which obtains on our globe,.nution of the light of the fixed stars when they  where the quantity of water is nearly four times
approach near the disc of Mars, it has been infer- greater than that of the land. The dark spots in
red that this planet is surrounded with an atmo- some of the views given above seem to convey
sphere of great extent. Although the extent of the idea of several large gulfs or bays running up
this atmosphere has been much overrated, yet it into the land. The various appearances of these.is generally admitted by astronomers that an at- spots which we have delineated are partly owing
mosphere of considerable density and elevation  to the different relations and positions in which,exists. Both Cassini and Roemer observed a star, they appear during different periods of the planet's
at six'i mhinutes from:the disc of Mars, become so rotation, as I have already shown, would happen
faint before it was cov;ered by the planet,:that it in the appearance of the earth were it'viewed
could' not be seen even with-a three feet telescope; from a distance in the heavens (see page 41). 2.
wrhich, in all probability, was caused by the light It is probable, too, that there are strata of clouds
of the star being-obscured bypassingthrough the of considerable extent occasionally floating in the
dense part of the             of the:planet.atmoatmosphere of Mars;'for some of the observers
is, doubtless, owing to this circumstance that referred to above have remarked that some of the
Mars-,presents so ruddy ani appearance,  more so spots "changed their form  in the course of a
than ainy other planet or star in the nocturnal sky. month;" and Sir W. Herschel, as above stated,
When a: beam- of light passes through' a- dense   declares that he has noticed " occasional changesmedium, its color' inclines to red, the other rays of partial bright belts, and also once of a darkish
beinig partly reflected or absorbed.  Thus the one."  These, in all probability, were clouds of




b0-                               CELESTIAL  SCENErIM.
greater orless density, which, for the most part, ries, and as Mars ranks among the smallest planets
would appear brighter than the seas'bythe reflec- of the system, its satellite, if any exist, must be
tion of the solar rays from their -upper surfaces; extremely small. The second satellite of Jupiter
for although the under surface of dense clouds is only the 1-43d part of the diameter of that plaappears dark to us; who view them  from below, net; and a satellite bearing the'same proportion to
yet, were we to view their upper surface from a Mars would be only ninety-seven miles in diamedistance when the sun shines upon them, they ter. But, suppose it were double this size,:it could
would undoubtedly present a bright appearance scarcely be distinguishable by our telescopes, esby the reflectionl of the solar rays.  It is, doubt- pecially when we consider that such a satellite
less, owing to- the occasional interposition of such would never appear to recede to any considerable
clouds in the atmosphere of Mars, that the per- distance from the margin of Mars. The distance
rnanent'spots sometimes.appear to: vary their form  of the first satellite of Jupiter is only three diand aspect. 3. A variety of seasons, somewhat ameters of that planet fiom  its center; and the
similar to ours, must-be experienced in this planet. distance of the first satellite of Saturn is but one
The diversity  of seasons on our globe arises diameter and two-thirds from its center. Now, if
chiefly from  the inclination of its axis to the a sateilite of the size we have supposed were to
plane of the ecliptic.  Now,'in reference to Mars,  revolve round Mars at the distance of only two or
the axis of rotation is inclined to its orbit at even three of its diameters, its nearness to the body of
a greater angle than that of the earth; and, there- Mars would generally prevent its being perceived,
fore, the contrast between its opposiite seasons is unless with telescopes of very great power and
probably.more marked and striking than on the under certain favorable circumstances; and it
earth.  The seasons will also continue for a much  could never be expected to be seen but about
longer period than with us, as the year in Mars is the time of that planet's opposition to the sun,
nearly double the length of ours, so that summer which happens only at an interval of more than
and winter will be prolonged for a period of eight two years.  If such a satellite exist, it is highly
or nine months respectively.  If tile opinion of probable that it will revolve at the nearest possible'Sir W. Herschel be correct, that the white spots'distance from  the planet, in order to afford it the
at the poles of Mars are caused by the reflection greatest quantity of light; in which case it would
of the sun's rays from masses of ice and snow, it never be seen beyond two minutes of a degree
will afford an additional proof of the existence of from  the margin of the planet, and that only in
a diversity of seasons on this planet, and that its certain favorable positions.  If the plane of its
inhabitants are subjected to a winter of great se- orbit lay nearly in a line with our axis of vision,
verity and of long duration. 4. This planet bears it would frequently be hidden either by the intera more striking resemblance to the earth than any position of the body of Mars or by transiting its
other planet in the solar system.  Its distance disc. It is therefore possible, and not at all im
from  the sun, compared with that ot the other probable, that Mars may have a satellite, although
superior planets, is but a little more than that of it has not yet been discovered. It is no argument
the earth.  The distinction of land and water on for the non-existence of such a body that we have
its surface is more strikingly marked than on any not yet seen it; but it ought to serve as an arguof the other planets.  It is encompassed with an ment to stimulate us to apply our most powerful
atmosphere of considerable extent. It is proba- instruments to the regions around this planet with
ble that large masses of clouds are occasionally more frequency and attention than we have hithformed in that atmosphere, such as sometimes erto done, and it is possible our diligence may be
hover over the whole of Britain, and even of Eu- rewarded with the discovery. The long duration
rope, for several weeks at a time.  The length of of winter in the polar regions of Mars seems to
the day is nearly the same as ours, and it has evi- require a moon to cheer them during the long abdently a succession of different seasons.  Were  sence of the sun; and if there be none, the inhawe warranted from such circumstances to form  bitants of those regions must be in a far more
an opinion respecting the physical and moral state dreary condition than the Laplanders and Greenof the beings that inhabit it, we might be apt to landers of our globe.
conclude that they are in a condition not alto-   Proportion of Light on the Surface of Mars. —
gether very different from that of the inhabitants As the quantity of' solar light on any of the plaof our globe.                                    nets is in an inverse proportion to their distances
Magnitude and Extent of Surface of Mars.-  from  the sun, the quantity -of light which falls
This planet is now estimated to be about 4200 upon Mars will be much less than that which we
miles in diameter, which is only a little more enjoy. It is nearly in the proportion of 43 to 100,
than half the diameter of the earth.  It contains which is less than one-half of tlie light which
38,792,000,000 or more than 38 thousand mil- falls upon the earth.  This is partly the reason
lions of solid miles; and the number of square why Mars appears so much less brilliant'than Vemiles on its surface is 55,417,824, or more than nus, but it is not the only reason; for Jupiter ai.w
fifty-five millions, which is about six millions of pears much more brilliant than Mars, although he
square-miles more. than on all the habitable parts is placed at a much greater distance from the sun.
of our globe. At the rate of population formerly  The refraction, reflection, and absorption of the
stated, 280 to a square mile, it would contain a rays of light, in passing through the dense atmopopula-tion of more than fifteen thousand five sphere to which we have alluded, form, doubtless,
hundred millions, which is nineteen times the one principal reason why Mars appears more som
number of the inhabitants of the earth; but, as it ber in its aspect than Jupiter or Venus  The fo:
is probable that one-third of the surface of Mars lowing figure represents the apparent size of th,
is covered with water, should we, subtract one- sun as seen from  Mars and the earth.  The cirthird from  these sums, there would still remain cle m represents the size of the sun as seen from
accommodation for twelve times the number of Mars, and e as seen from  the earth. The degree
the population-of our globe.    -                of heat on: different parts of this planet will deNo moon or secondary planet has yet been dis- pend upon: various circumstances; the inclination
covered about Mars; yet this is no proof that it is of its axis, the positions of places in respect to. its
destitute of such an attendant; for as all the se- equator and poles, the nature of its soil, the ma
condary planets are much less than their prima- terials which compose its surface, the quantity of




DISCOVERY  OF VESTA, JUNO, ETC.                                  b)
1ig. i5.                    ated in the constellation Taurus, and, consequent.
ly, at no very great distance from  its opposition'to the sun. It was observed by Piazzi until the
12th of February following, when a dangerous
illness compelled him to discontinue his observations; but it was again discovered by Dr. Olbers,
of Bremen, after a series of unwearied observa.
tions and laborious calculations, founded on a
few insulated facts which had been stated by Piazzi.  Dr. Brewster states, in the "Edinburgh
Encyclopwedia," vol. ii, p. 638, and likewise in his
second edition of "Ferguson's Astronomy," vol.
11, p. 38, "that the rediscovery of this planet by
water in different regions, the constitution of its Olbers did not take place until the 1st of Januaatmosphere, and other circumstances with which ry, 1807;" which must be a mistake, for in "La
we are unacquainted.                           Decade Philosophiques," for July, 1803, it is stated
The figure of Mars is an oblate spheroid, like that Dr. Olbers, some time before, received La
that of the earth, but much flatter at the poles.-  Lande's prize for having discovered the planet
Its equatorial diameter is to its polar as 1355 to Pallas; and, at the same time, his merit is referred
1272, or nearly as 16 to 15;' consequently, if its to in having rediscovered Ceres; and having
equatorial diameter be 4200 miles, its polardiame- been among the first that announced it to the
ter will be only 3937, which is 263 miles shorter world. Beside, Sir W. Herschel has observations
than the equatorial.  The mass of this planet on this planet in the "Philosophical Transaccompared with that of the sun is as I to 1,846,- tions," of date February 7, 1802, which, o.
082. Its density, compared with water, is as 3 2-7 course, was posterior to Dr. Olbers' rediscovery.
-to 1, which is considerably less than that of the   The planet Pallas, or, as it is sometimes named,
earth, but greater than the general density of the'Olbers, was discovered on the 28th of March,
rocks and other materials which compose the sur- 1802,-only fifteen months after the discovery of
face of our globe. A  body which weighs one Ceres, —by Dr. Olbers, a physician  at Bremen, in
pound on the surface of the earth would weigh Lower Saxony, distinguished for his numerous
only five ounces -six drachms on the surface of celestial observations, and for his easy and comMars.                                          modious method of calculating the orbits of comets. The planet Juno was discovered on the
V. ON THE LATELY-DISCOVERED PLANETS, VESTA,  evening of September 1, 1804, within two years
JUNO, CERES, AND PALLAS..           and a half of the discovery of Pallas, by M. Harding, at the observatory of Lilienthal, near BreThe immense interval which lies between the men, while endeavoring to form an atlas of all the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter led some astronomers stars near the orbits of Ceres and Pallas, with the
to surmise that a planet of considerable magni- view of making further discoveries. While thus
lude might possibly exist somewhere within this engaged, he perceived a small star of about the'limit.  This conjecture was grounded on the in- eighth magnitude, which was not marked in the
tervals which exist between the rest of the plane- Celestial Atlas of La Lande, which he put down
tary orbits. Between the orbits of Mercury and in his chart. Two days afterward he found that
Venus there is an interval of 31,000,000 of miles; the star had disappeared from  the position in
between those of Venus and the earth, 27,000,000; which he had marked it; but a little to the
between those of the earth and Mars, 50,000,000; south-west of that position he perceived another
but between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter there star resembling it in size and color; and having
intervenes the immense space of 349,000,000 of observed it again on the 5th of September, and
miles. Here the order of the solar system  was finding that it had moved a little in the same disupposed to be interrupted, which would form anll rection as before, he concluded that it was a movexception to the general law of the'proportion'of ing body connected with the solar system.
the planetary distances. No planetary body, how-   The planet Vesta was discovered on the 29th
ever, was detected within this interval until the of March, 1807, little more than two years and a
beginning of the present century; and, instead half after the discovery of Juno, so that four
of one large body, as was surmised, four very primary planets belonging to our system, which
small ones have been discovered. These bodies had been hidden for thousands of years from
are situated at a distance from  Mars nearly cor- the inhabitants of our globe, were discovered
responding to the order and proportion to which within the space of little more than six years.we have now alluded; and this circumstance leads Vesta must then have been near its opposition.
to a belief " that it is something beyond a mere The discovery of Vesta was made by Dr. Olbers,
accidental coincidence, and belongs to the essen- who had previously discovered Pallas, and redistial structure of the system."  As these bodies covered Ceres. He had formed an idea that the
are-invisible to the naked eye, and can only be three small bodies lately discovered,might possiseen in certain favorable positions, and as only a bly be the fragments of a larger planet, which had
short' period has elapsed since their discovery, we been burst asunder by some unknown and powerare not yet much acquainted with many of their ful irruptive force proceeding from its interior
phenomena and physical peculiarities.          parts, and that more fragments might still be deOf these four bodies, the first discovered was tected. Whether this position be tenable or not,
that which is now named Ceres, and sometimes. it seems to have led to the discovery of Vesta; for
Piazzi, from the name of its discoverer. It was, the doctor concluded, if his opinions were just,
discovered at Palermo, in the island of Sicily, on that although the orbits of all these fragmlents
the 1st of January, 1801, or the first day of the might be differently inclined to the ecliptic, yet,
present century, by Piazzi, a celebrated astronomer as they must all have diverged from the same point,
belonging to that city, who hassince distinguish- " they ought to have two common points of reed himself by his numerous observations on the union, or two nodes in opposite regions of the heafixad stars. This new celestial body was then situ- vens, through which all the planetary fragments




:3~~2     ~CELESTIAL SCENERY.
must sooner or later pass."  One of.these:nodes, eye.  Its light is more intense and white than
or points of intersection of the orbits he found  that of either Ceres, Juno, or Pallas; and it is not
to be in the sign Virgo, and the other in the con- surrounded with any-nebulosity, as some of tilese
stellation  of the Whale; and.it was actually in  planets' are.  It is not likely'that a body of this
the regions of the Whale that the: planet Juno was size could be seen at the;distance  of 130 millions
discovered b  M."Hardiiig,:iWth thhe view, there- of miles, which is its'nearest approach to'the
fore,_of detecting other fragments, if any should  earth, and that, too, by the'naked eye (as Schroeexist, Dr. Ollbers examined,;.three tiimes every year, ter affirms he did several times), unless the suball the small stars in the opposite constellatonsof stances on its surface were of such a nature as to
Virgo: and the W'hale, and in the constellation of reflect:the solar rays with a far, greater degree of
Virgo the planet Vesta was first seen.*  Thiswas brilliancy:than any of the other planets.'he
doubtless a remarkable  coincidence  of theory  diameter of the third satellite,-of Jupiter is ieckwith observation, and affords a presumption that oed at 3377 milesa   its surce     of course,
the conjecture of this eminent astronomer may  contains 35,827,211 square miles, which is 156
possiblyhave afoundationh  fact.        times greater than the surface of Vesta, according':'The following  is a summary of what  has been  to the  above estima tion.'Yet this satellite can
ascertained respecting the distances,'magnitudes, never (or, at least, but rarely) be' seen by the
and motionsof these'bodies:                          nalked eye.  Vesta  is; indeed, only about oneThe Planet Vesta.h-The mean distance of this  third the distance from us of the satellite of Jupi-'
plant from Ithe sun is recko'ned to be. about 225' ter; but, making allowance for this circumstance,
millions of:miles; its annual revolution is,com- it should be at least twenty times larger in surface
pieted  in about: 3 years 7-)  monthsor in 1325. than is'estimated above in order to be seen by tlhe
days; the circumference of its orbit is 1414 mil- naked eye, or with the same distinctness as the
lions of miles, and, of course, it moves with a  third  satellite of Jupiter.   In  other words, it
velocity, on an average,. of more than  44,000' should have a diameter of at least 1200 miles.  If
miles an'hour.  The inclination of  its orbit to  this is not the case, there must be something very'the'plane of the ecliptic is seven degrees, eight peculiar and extraordinary in the reflective power
minutes;  and its eccentricity 21 millions of miles. of the materials which compose its surface to proThe diameter of this planet'has been estimated  duce such an intensity of light from  so smnall a
by some astronomers at only about 270 miles; body at so great a distance as 130 millions of
and, if this estimate be correct, it will contain  miles.  I am therefore of opinion that the size of
only 229,000 square miles, or a surface somewhat this planet has not yet been accurately ascerless than Great Britain, France, and Ireland; and, tained, and that future and more accurate obseraccording to the rate of population formerly stated, vations are still requisite to determine its apparent
would contain 64 millions of inhabitants, or about diameter and real magnitude.
five times the number of the inhabitants of the    The Planet Juno.-The next planet in the order
United States of America, or nearly the twelfth  of the system is Juno.  Its distance from the sun
pirt of the population of the"earth.  It is proba- is estimated at 254 millions of miles.  The cirble~ however, that this estimate is too small, and  cumference of its orbit is 1596 millions of miles.
that the apparent diameter of'this planet has not Through this circuit it moves in four years and
yet been accurately taken; for the:light of this 128 days, at the rate of 41,850 miles every hour.
body is considered equal to that of a star of the  Its diameter, according to the estimate of Schroefifth  or sixth magnitude, and it may sometimes ter, is 1425 English miles.  Its surface will therebe distinguished, in a clear eyening, by.the naked  fore contain  six  millions, three  hundred  and
eighty thousand square miles, and a population
*  illiam Olbers, M. D., the discoverer of Vesta and of one thousand, seven hundred  and eighty-six
Pallas,'Was born on the 11th of October, 1758, at Arbergen, millions, which is more than double the aumber
a village in the Duchy of Bremen, where his father was a of te earth's inhabitants.  The orbit of Jun  is
clergyman. His father, beside.being a man of great gene-  of the earth's inhabitants. The orbit of Juno is
ral iearning, was a good mathematician -and a lover of as- inclined to the ecliptic in an angle of thirteen
tronomrny. Young O)lbers, when inhis fourteenth'year, felt a degrees, three  minutes.   Its  eccentricity  is
great taste for thatscience. During anevening walkin the 6358
63,588,000 miles, so that. its greatest distance
month-of August, having observed the Pleiades, or seven
stars, be becamne very desirous of knowing to what constel- fromn the sun is 316,968,000 miles, while its least
lation they belonged. HIe therefore, purchased some charts distance is only 189,792,000.  Its apparent diameand books, and began to study this science with' the greatest ter as seen from the earth is little more than three
iligence; he read with the greatest avi'dity every astrono- seond.  This  an
LI                                  ~~~~~~~~~~~seconds. iThis planet is of a reddish color, and -is
mical work' he was able to procure, and in a few months
made himself acquainted with all the constellations. Find- free from any nebulosity; yet the observations of
isag that a knowledge of mathematics was necessary to the Schroeter render it probable that it has an atmostudy ofastronomy, he devotedall hisleisure tie tothissub- sphere more dense than thatof any of thi  old
ject. He was at the same timine engaged in the study ofmedi-                  A remarable             in
tine as a profession. In the year 1779, when scarcely twen- plnt    system.
1...I   I   ~ ~ ~~   the bri~llanets of t hispaet hastm A remarkblervarato by,y-one years of age, he observed at Gottingen, and ealtu- the brilliancy of this planet has beenobserved by
fated the first comet. An account of this labor was pub-  this astronomer, which he attributes to changes
lished in the-,Berlin Astronomical Calendar" for 1789, wtere that are going on in its atmosphere, and thinks it'-co s~~thactaeoing oni    t     topee, anigthikit
it is mentioned thatOlbers made his'construction one night nt improbable that these changes may arise from
while'attending a patient; and yet it was afterward foundnot improbable that these changes may aise fom
that his determination of this orbit corresponded withi the adiurnal rotation performed in twenty-seven hours.
most accurate elements of the comet which were calculated.    The Planet Ceres.-This planet is about'263
Since tisat period, the astronomy of comets has been his fa- llions of miles from  the sun, and completes its
millions of miles from' the sun, and completes its
vetite study, and it is "admitted that none.of the methods
f6rmerly tried'for calculating the orbit of a comet is so im- annual revolution  i four years, seven months,
pIe,.and, at the same time, so elegant as that of Dr. Olbers. and ten days.  The circumference of its orbit is
Whenat Vienna, amid all his applications to the study of 1653 millions of miles, and it moves at the rate
nmedicine, hlie was the first who observed the planet Uranus of aboutforty-one thousand miles an hour.'re
of about forty-one thousa-nd miles an hour.  The
(after its  discovery by Herschelt), on the 17th of August,
1781. On the 19th he perceived its motion, and continued  eccentricity  of its orbit is 20;598,000miles.  Its
his observations until the end of September, at which period greatest distance from  the sun is 283,500,000
it was considered'asa comet. Returningfrom the sceneof  mniles  aid its least distance 242,300,000.  Its'
hisistudies, he settled at Bremen as a physician, where he
soon acquired the confidence of his fellow-citizens, both on apparent meandiameter, including its atmosphere,
account of his' successful practice and integrity'and afiahili- according to Schroeter, is somewhat more than
ty 01o' his charac er.                                six secondsat its mean distance from the earth




THE:iPLANET PALLAS.                                         53
Its:eal diameter, according to the estimate of the f times the inclination of Mercury's orbit, which
Bsame astronomer, is 1624 English miles; but, was formerly reckoned to have the greatest incliincluding its atmosphere, is 294:.miles. Its sur- nation of ally of the planetary orbits. The ecface,. therefore, contains 8-,285,580 square miles, centricity of the orbit of Pallas is likewise greater
or about the one-sixth part of the habitable por- than that of any of the other planets, being no
tions of our globe; and would afford accommo- less than 64,516,000 miles, so that this planet is
dation for 2,319,962,400, or more than 2300 mil- 129,000,000 of miles nearer the sun in one part
lions of inhabitants, according to the rate of of its orbit than it is at the opposite extremity.
population in England, which is nearly triple the Its greatest distance from  the sun is 327,137,000
present population of the earth.  This planet is miles, and its least distance only 198,404,000
of a slight ruddy color, and appears about the size miles.  Of course, its rate of motion in its orbit
of a star of the eighth magnitude, and is conse- must be very variable, sometimes moving several
quently invisible to the naked eye. It seems to thousands of miles an hour swifter at one time
be surrounded with a dense atmosphere, and  than at another, which is likewise the case, in a
exhibits a disc or sensible breadth of surface when  remarkable degree, with the planet Juno.  Its
viewed with a magnifying power of two hundred  mean motion is about 41,000 miles an hour.
times. Schroeter has determined, from  a great   This planet presents a ruddy aspect, but less so
number of. observations, that its atmosphere is than that of Ceres. It is likewise surrounded with
about six hundred and seventy-five English miles a nebulosity somewhat like that of Ceres, but of less
in  hight, and that it is subject to numerous extent. The following are some of the observations
changes.  Like the atmosphere of the earth, it is of this planet by Schroeter and Herschel.  The atvery dense near the planet, and becomes rarer at rnosphere of Pallas, according to Schroeter, is to
a greater distance, which causes its apparent that of Ceres as one hundred and one to one hundiameter to appear somewhat variable. When this dred and forty-six, or nearly as two to three. It
planet is approaching the earth, toward the point undergoes similar changes, but the light of the
of its opposition to the sun, its diameterincreases planet-exhibits greater variations.  On the 1st of
more rapidly than it ought to do from the diminu- April, the atmosphere of Pallas suddenly cleared
tion-of its distance, which Schroeter supposes to up, and the solid nucleus or disc of the planet
arise fromi the finer exterior strata of its atmo- was alone visible. About twenty-four hours afsphere becoming visible while it approaches the  terward, the planet appeared pale and surrounded
earth. He also perceived that the visible hemi- with fog, and this appearance continued during
sphere of the planet was sometimes overshadowed, the 3d and 4th of April; but this phenomenon
and at other times cleared up, so that he con- was not considered as arising from the diurnal rocludes'there is little chance of discovering the tation of the planet.  The following are Herperiod of its diurnal rotation. The inclination  schel's observations'  "April 22.  In viewing
of its orbit to the ecliptic is in an angle of ten  Pallas, I cannot, with the utmost attention and
degrees, thirty-seven minutes.  TAhe intensity of under favorable circumstances, perceive any sharp
light.upon its surface is more than seven times termination which might denote a disc; it is
less than what we enjoy.                          rather what I would call a nucleus  April 22
Sir William  Herschel, in the year 1802, after The appearance of Pallas is cometary; the disc,
the discovery of Ceres and Pallas, made a num- if it has any, being ill-defined.  When I see it to
her of observations to ascertain if any of these the best advantage, it appears like a much-cornbodies were accompanied with satellites.  Several pressed, extremely small, butill-defined planetary
very small stars were occasionally perceived near nebula. - May 1. With a twenty feet reflector,
Ceres-with high magnifying powers, of the posi- power 477, I see Pallas well, and perceive a very
tions and motions of which he has given several small disc, with a coma of some extent about it,
delineations; but it did not appear probable, in  the whole diameter of which may amount to six
subsequent observations, that they accompanied  or seven times that of the disc alone." —-Philosothe planet. In his observation of April 28, with  phical Transactions for 1802.
a power of 550, he says, "Ceres is surrounded    The diameter of this planet has not, perhaps,
with a strong haziness.-  The breadth of the been ascertained with sufficient precision.  The
coma, beyond the disc, may amount to the extent difference in the estimates formed by Sir W. FHerof a diameter of the disc, which is not very  schel and M. Schroeter is very great.'According
sharply defined.  Were the whole coma and star to Schroeter, the diameter of Pallas is 2099 miles.
taken together, they would be at least three times If this estimate be nearly correct, Pallas will beas large as my measure of the star.  The coma is about the size of our moon, and will comprehend
very dense near the nucleus; but loses itself pretty  on its surface nearly fourteen millions of square
abruptly on the outside, though a gradual diminu- miles, which would accommodate a population of
tion is still veryperceptible."  These observations nearly four thousand millions, or five times the
seem to corroborate the idea that Ceres is encom- population of our world.  The apparent mnean
passed with an atmosphere of great density and I diameter of this planet, comprehending its atmoelevation.                                        sphere, at its mean distance from  the earth, acThePlanet Pallas.-Tilis planet revolves about cording to Schroeter, is six and a half seconds.
the-sun at the mean distance of two hundred and    Such is a brief view  of the principal facts
sixty-three'millions of miles, and finishes its revo- which have been ascertained respecting the plalution in 1681 days, 17 hours, or in four years nets Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas. All these
and seven:and one-third months, which is within bodies are situated between the orbits of Mars
a day of the time of the revolution of Ceres. and Jupiter, and they are all invisible to the
Its distance is, likewise nearly the same as that naked eye, except, perhaps, the planet Vesta,
planet, and the' circumference of its orbit will when in certain favorable positions.  The real
also be nearly the same. This planet, however, magnitudes of these planets are not to be conis distinguished in a remarkable degree both from  sidered as yet accurately determined; they may
Ceres and from  all the: other planets by the very be a little greater or less than what is stated
great inclination of its orbit to the plane of the above, though it is not probable they are much
ecliptic. This inclination is no less than thirty- larger-  It may not be improper to remark, that
four degrees, thirty-seven minutes, or nearly. five on this point there is a great difference  in the




;54                                CELESTIAL SCENERY
estimates of Schroeter and Herschel, the two  and the whole line A.B,-the transverse diameter
principal observers who  have investigated the Now the distance S C, from the sun to the center,
phenomena - of these planets, owing to the mode is the eccentricity of the orbit. This eccentricity.
in which they measured the, &pparent diameters                        Fig. 47.
o'f these bodies. According< to Sir W. Herschel,                        -
there is none: of'th'ese bodies:that exceeds 163
miles in diameter. But'it is-obvious, from  the
conlsiderations I have stated in the description of
Vesta, that bodies of such a small size could not,-be visible at such a distance,- unless they were
either. luminous. or composed  of matter fitted'to reflect the solar light with an extraordinary de-'.a
gree of brilliancy; and,-therefore, it is far more              " — O......
probable that the estimates of Schroeter are nearest. the truth.
Peculiarities of-the New.-Planets.-These bodies,present:to' -our view  various' singularities, and
-,anomalies, which, at first sight, appear incompati-'ble With the proportion and- harmony -which we'.might suppose originally to have characterized
the arrangements -of the solar system.  In the in -the ease of' Pallas, amounts to more than sixtyfirst place, their orbits have a much greater degree four and a half millions of miles. Consequently,
of inclination to the ecliptic than those of the old when the planet is at B,:which is called its Aphe-.planets.  The orbit of Venus is inclined to the lion, or greatest distance from the sun, it is double
ecliptic in an angle of three degrees, twenty mi- its eccentricity, or the whole length of the line
nutes; of Mars, one degree, fifty-one minutes; of S F farther from the sun than when it is at the
-Jupiter, one degree, eighteen minutes; of Saturn, point A, which is called its Perihelion, or least
two degrees and a half; and of Uranus, only  distance from  the sun, that is, it is 129 millions
forty-six minutes. But the. inclination of the  of miles farther from the sun in the one case than
orbit of Vesta is seven degrees, nine minutes; of  in the other, which is nearly one-fourth of the whole.Juno, thirteen degrees; of Ceres, ten degrees, transverse diameter of the orbit A B.  Consethirty-seven minutes; and of Pallas, no less than  quently, its motion will be much slower, by seve-,thirty-four degrees and a halfj which is nineteen  ral hundreds of thousands of miles' a day, when
times greater than the inclination of Mars, and  near the point B, its aphelion, than when near its
twenty-seven times greater than that of Jupiter. perihelion at the point A; and to a spectator on
Thle proportion of these inclinations is represent- its surface the sun will appear more than double
ed in the following figure.                       the size from the point 4 that he does from  the
Fig. 46.                     point B; and its inhabitants (if any) will expertl
ence a greater difference in the intensity of the
solar light which falls upon them in different pe.
riods of its year, than there is between Venus and
the earth, or between the' earth and Mars.  On
the other hand, the eccentricity of the orbits of
/&D /i    the older planets is comparatively small. The
eccentricity of the orbit of Venus is less than half
13~   a million of miles, which is only the 1-274th part
of the transverse diameter of its orbit.  The
Earth's eccentricity is 1,618,000, or the 1-119th
--    J. -part; Jupiter's, 1-43d part; Saturn's, 1-38th part;
and that of Uranus, about 1-43d part; whereas,
the eccentricities of Pallas and Juno amount to
nearly one-eighth part of the transverse axes of
their orbits.  Were the orbits of the old planets
represented by figures ten times larger than the
above diagram, they coiuld not be distinguished
from  circles.  In the above figure, the dotted
line G H  is the conjugate, or shorter diameter of
Let A B represent theplane of the ecliptic, and the ellipse.  When the planet is at the points G
the line C D will represent the inclination of the and H, it is said to be at its mean distance from
orbit of Pallas    342~'degrees, E F, the inclina- the sun, or at the middle point between its greattion of the orbit of Juno  -13 degrees; G H, the est and its least distance.
inclination of Vesta's = 7 degrees; and the dotted    3. The Orbits of several of the New Planets cross
line the inclination of Ceres = 1012 degrees.  All each other.-This is a very singular and unacthe older planets have their orbits much less in- countable circumstance in regard to the planetary
elined to the ecliptic, except Mercury, which has orbits. It had been long observed that comets, in
nearly the same inclination as Vesta; so that the traversing the' heavens in every direction, crossed
zodiac would now  require to be extended nearly the orbits of the planets; but, before the discovery
five times its former breadth in order to include of Pallas, no such anomaly was found throughout
the orbits of all the planets.                   the system  of the planets.  For the orbits of all
2. The orbits of these planets are in general more the other planets approach so nearly to circles,
eccentric than those of the other planets; that is, and are separated firom  each other by so many
they move in longer'and narrower ellipses. The millions of miles, that there is no possibility of
following figure nearly represents the orbit of such intersection taking place.  The following
Pallas, and the orbit of: Juno is nearly similar. S diagram  represents the intersection of the orbits
represents the sun in one of the foci of the ellipse; of Ceres and Pallas.
C, the, center; F, the upper focus of the ellipse;   The central circle represents the sun; the two




PECULIARITIES OF THE NEW PLANETS.                                       55
next circles the orbits of the earth and Mars; and mission and appointment of Him who at first set
the two outer circles, crossing each other, those these bodies in motion, and who superintends both
the greatest and the most minute movements of
the universe.
4. Another peculiarity in respect to these planets is, that they revolve nearly at the same mean
distances from the sun. The mean distance of
/C~~~~~~ (      XJunio is 254 millions of miles; that of Ceres,
262,903,000; and that of Pallas, 262,901,000.
which is almost the same as Ceres.  This is a
very different arrangement from that of the other
planets, whose mean distances are immensely different from each other; Mars being 50 millions
of miles from  the orbit of the earth, and 80 millions from  the orbits of any of the new planets;
Jupiter, 270 millions from  Pallas; Saturn, 412
millions from- Jupiter; and Uranus, 900 millions
from  Saturn.  Except in the case of the new
planets, the planetary system appears constructed
on the most ample and magnificent scale, corresponding to the unlimited range of infinite space
of which it forms a part.
5. These new  planetary bodies perform  their
revolutions in nearly the same periods.  The period
c  Ceres and Pallas. In consequence of this in- of Vesta is 3 years, 712 months; that of Juno, 4
teorsection of their orbits, there is a possibility, years, 413 months; of Ceres, 4 years, 7/3 months;
especially if the' periods of their revolutions were and of Pallas, 4 years, 713 months.  So that
somewhat more different from each other, that the there are only three months of difference betwo planets might happen to strike against each  tween the periods of Juno and Ceres, and scarcely
other were they to meet at the points A and B, the difference of a single day between those of
where the orbits intersect; a very singular con- Ceros and Pallas; whereas, the periods of the
tingence in the planetary system. It is owing to other planets differ as greatly as their distances.
the very great eccentricity of the orbit of Pallas The period of Mercury is about 3 months; of
that it crosses the orbit of Ceres.  It is several Venus, 71  months; of Mars, nearly 2 years; of
millions of miles nearer the sun in its perihelion Jupiter, 12 years; of Saturn, 2912; and of Ura(or at A, Fig. 47) than Ceres, when in the same nus, nearly 84 yearsr A  planet moving round
point of its orbit.  But when Pallas is in its aphe- the sun in almost the same period and at tho
lion (or at B, Fig. 47), its distance from  the sun same distance as another, is a singular anomaly
is several millions of miles greater than that in the solar system, and could scarcely have been
of'Ceres in the same point of its orbit. Suppose surmised by former astronomers.
its aphelion at C, Fig. 48; it is farther from  the    6. Another singularity is, that these bodies are
sun than Ceres, and nearer at D its perihelion.  all much smaller than the other planets.  Mercury
The same things happen in the case of the other was long considered as the smallest primary platwo planets, paiticularly Vesta. Juno is farther net in the system, but it is nearly four times larger
from  the sun at its aphelion than Ceres in the in surface than Ceres, and contains eight times
same point of its orbit, and Vesta is farther from  the number of solid miles.  Mars, the next smallthe sun in its aphelion than either Juno, Ce- est planet, is seventeen times larger than Ceres;
res, or Pallas, in their perihelions.  The peri- and Jupiter, the largest of the planets, is 170,000
helion distance of Vesta is greater than that of times larger than Ceres, when their cubical conJuno or Pallas. Hence it follows that Vesta may  tents are compared.  The planets Vesta and Juno,sometimes be at a greater distance from  the sun are smaller than Ceres, and Pallas is only a small
than either Juno, Ceres, or Pallas, although its degree larger.  It is probable that all these four
mean distance is less than that of either of them  bodies are less in size than the secondary planets,
by twenty-eight millions of miles; so that the or- or the satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus.
bit of Vesta crosses the orbits of all the other three,   Conclusions respecting the Nature of the New
and, therefore, it is a possible circumstance that a Planets.-The anomalies and peculiarities of these
collision might take place between Vesta and any  bodies, so very different from  the order and arof these three planets, were they ever to meet at rangement of the older planets, open a wide field
the intersection of their orbits. Were such an  for reflection and speculation.  Having been acevent to happen, it ispeasy to foresee the catastro- customed to survey the planetary system  as a
phe that would take place. If the collision of scene of proportion, harmony, and order, we can
two large ships, sailing at the rate of ten miles an scarcely admit that these bodies move in the same
hour,, be so dreadful as to shatter their whole paths, and are arranged in the same order as
frame and sink them in the deep, what a tremen- when the system  was originally constructed by
dous shock, would be encountered by the impulse  its Omnipotent Contriver.  As we know  that
of a ponderous globe, moving at the rate of forty  changes have taken place in our sublunary rethoutisand miles an hour?  A universal disruption  gion since our globe first came fiom the hands of
of their parts and a derangement of their whole its Creator, so it is not contrary either to reason
* constitution would immediately ensue; their axes or observation to suppose that changes and revoof rotation would be changed; their courses in lutions, even on an ample scale, may take place
their orbits altered; fragments of their substance among the celestial orbs. We have no reason to
tossed about through the surrounding Void, and believe in the " incorruptibility" of the heavenly
thle heavens above would appear to run into con- orbs, as the ancients imagined, for the planets are
fusion. Though we cannot affirm  that such an demonstrated to be opaque globes as well as the
event is impossible or will never happen, yet we earth; they are diversified with mountains and
ire sure it can never take place without the per- vales, and,1in all probability, the materials which




~5~~~~6:::CELESTIAL SCENERY.
compose their surfaces and interior are not very  effect; and'in this view the heavens ought to be
different from the substances which constitute the contemplated with as much reverence as the revecomponent pLrts of the earth. i-have -already lations of his word.  As the great Sovereign'of
alluded to the 6Opinion of Dr. Olbers, that thenewl  the- universe is described' by the inspired writers
planets are only the' fragments of alarger  planet'as being the "King Eternal and Invisible," so we
which had been burst asunder by some immense can trace his perfections and the character of hi4
irruptive force proceedin'g fi0ronits interior parts. moral government only, or chiefly, through the
However strange this opinion.'may at first sight medium  of those displays he gives of himself
appear, it ought not to be considered as eitheri in his wonderful operations both in heaven and
very improbable or extravagalt.ri.  We all profess on earth.  And since in the course ef his provito' admit, on the authority of ReVelation, that the dence, he has crowned with" success the inventive
earth was arranged in' perfect- oirder and beauty at genius of man, and led him  on to make the most
its first, creation; and'on the same authority we noble discoveries in reference to the amplitude
believe that its exterior crust was disrupted, that and grandeur of his works, we have every reason
"the cataracts-  of heaiven were opened, and the to conclude that such inventions and such' discofountains of the great'deep broken up,', anld that veries, both in the minute parts of creation and
a floiod of waters ensued which -covered the tops in the boundless' sphere of the heavens, are inof',the ioftiesf: mouintairn's, Which transfotmed the tended to carry forward the human mind to more
earth' into' o;nie boundless ocean,'and buried the im- expansive views of his infinite attributes, of' the'
mense myriads of its population in a watery magnificence of his empire, and of the moral
grave.  This was a catastrophe' as tremendous economy'of the government which he has cstaband astonishing as the bursting' asunder of -a lished throughout the universe.
large planet.  Although physical- agents'may    The hypothesis of the bursting of a large pla,
have been emiployed ineithei case to produce the net between Mars and Jupiter accounts in a great
effect, yet we must adminit, in consistency with measure, if not entirely, for the anomalies and
the Divine perfections, that no such events could apparent irregularities which have been "observed
take place without the direction and'control of the in the'system of the new planets; and if this supAlmighty,  and that,'When they do happen, what- position be not admitted, we cannot account, on
ever appalling or disastrous effects they may pro- any principle yetdiscovered, for the singular pheduce, they are in perfect consistency with the moral nomena which these planets exhibit. Sir David
laws by which his universal goernment is directed. Brewster, who has entered into some particular
We kniow that a moral revolUtion has taken  discussions on this subject, after stating the replace among the human~race since man was crea- markable coincidences between this hypothesis
ted, and that this revolution is: connected with and actual observation, concludes in the following
most of the physical changes that have happened  words: "These singular resemblances in the moin the constitution "of our gl6be;  and, if we be- tions of the greater fragments and in those of the
aieve the sacred historian, we must admit that the lesser fragments, and the striking coincidence bemost prominent of these' physical changes or tween theory and observation in the eccentricity
concussions was the'consequence orpunishment of their orbits, in their inclination to the ecliptic,
of man's alienationfrom God and violation of his in the position of their'nodes, and in the places
laws. As the principles of the'Divine govern- of their aphelia, are phenomena which could not
ment must be essentially tie  same throughout possibly result from chance, and which concur to
every' part of the'bdundless empire of the Al- prove, with an evidence amounting almost to
mighty, what should hinder us from  concluding  demonstration, that the four new planets have dithat a'moral'cause, similar to that which led to verged from one common node, and have thlerefore
the physical "convulsions of our globe, may have composed a single planet."
operated in the regions to which we allude, to in-   Another species of phenomena,:n which a
duce the' Governor of the universe to undermine great mystery still hangs, might be partly eluci
the constitution, and to dash in pieces the fabric dated were the above hypothesis admitted, and
of that world?  The difference is not great be- that is the singilar but not well-attested fact of
tween bursting a planet into a number of frag- large masses of solid matter falling from the higher
ments and cleaviig the solid crust of the earth  regions of the atmosphere, or what are termed
asunder, removing rocks and mountains out of meteoric stones. Few things have puzzled philotheiir place, and raising the bed of the ocean from  sophers more than to account for large fragments
the lowest abyss, so as to form a portion of eleva- of compact rocks proceeding from regions beyond
ted land; all which changes appear to have been  the clouds, and falling to the earth with great yeeffected in the by-past revolutions of our globe, locity.  These stones sometimes fall during a
and both events are equally within the power and cloudy, and sometimes'during a clear and serene
the control of Him  "who rules in the armies of atmosphere; they are sometimes accompanied with
heaven, and among the'inhabitants of the earth," explosions, and sometimes not.  The following
whateverphysical agents he may choose to select statements, selected from  respectable authorities,
for the accomplishmentLof his purposes.  In the will convey some idea of the phenomena peculiar
course of the astronomical discoveries of the two to these bodies.  The'first desciiption I shall sepreceding  centuries, views of the universe have lect is given by J.L. Lyons, Esq., F. R. S., and
been laid open which have tended to enlarge our Icontained in the "Trainsactions  of the Royal So.
conceptions' of the attributes of the Deity, and ciety."  It is entitled, "Accountof'the Explosion
of the magnifience  of that universe over which  of a Meteor, near Benares, in the East Indies,
he Presides: and who knows but' that the dis- and of the falling of some Stones at the sarme
covery of those new planets described above, and time."  The following gre only the leading parthe singular circumstances in which they are ticulars.  "A circumstance  of so extraordinary a
found, are, intended to open to'our view a new  nature as the fall' of stones from the heaves could d
scene of tle physical -operations of the Creator, not fail to excite the wonder and to attract the at,
and a new display of the operations of his moral tention of every inquisitive mind. On the 19th
government?' For all the manifestations of God of December, 1798, about eight'oclock in the
in his works are doubtless intended to pr6duce on evening, a very luminous meteor was observed in
the mind not only an intellectual, but also a moral the heavens by the inhabitants of Benares and




FALL OF STONES AT BENARES, ETC.                                       57
tlepartsadjacent, in the form  of a large ball of shower of stones happened at L'Aigle, in Norfire; it was accompanied by a loud noise resem- mandy. About one b'clock, the sky being almost
bling thunder, and a number of stones. fell from  serene, a rolling noise like that of thunder was
it about fourteen miles from  the city of Benares. heard, and a fiery globe of uncommon splendor
Itwas observed by several Europeans, as well as was seen, which moved through the atmosphere
natives, in different parts of the country.  Itwas with great rapidity.  Some moments after there
likewise very distinctly observed by several[Euro- was heard at L'Aigle, and for thirty leagues
pean gentlemen and ladies, who described it as-a around in every direction, a violent explosion,
large ball of fire, accompanied with a, loud rum- which lasted five or six minutes; after which was
bling noise not unlike.an ill-discharged platoon of heard a dreadful rumbling like the beating of a
musketry. It was also seen and the noise heard by drum.  In the whole district there was heard a
several persons at Benares. When -a messenger hissing noise like that of a stone discharged from
was sent next day to the village near which they a sling, and a great many mineral masses, exactly
had fallen, he was told that the natives had either similar'to those distinguished by the name of mebroken the stones to pieces, or given them  to the teor stones, were seen to fall. The largest of these
n.ative collector or others..3eingdirected to the stones weighed seventeen pounds and a half. The
spot where they fell, he found four, most of which  Vicar of St. Michael's observed one of the stones
the fall had buried six inches deep in the earth. —  fall with a hissing noise at the feet of his niece in
He learned fiom the inhabitants that, about eight the  courtyard of his parsonage, and that it reo'clock in the evening, when retired to.their habi- bounded more than a foot from  the pavement.tations, they observed a very bright light, pro- When it was taken up and examined, it was found
ceeding as from the sky, accompanied,with a loud to resemble the others in every respect.  As a
clap of thunder, which was immediately followed wire manufacturer was working with his men in
by the noise of heavy bodies falling in the vicinity. the open air, a stone grazed his arm and fell at his
They did not venture out to make any inquiries feet, but it was so hot that, on attempting to take
until next morning, when the first circumstance it up, he instantly let it fall again. The celebrated
tlat attracted their attention was the appearance Biot was deputed by government to repair to the
of the: earth being turned up in several parts of spot and collect all the authentic facts in relation
their fields, where, on examination, they found to this phenomenon, an account of which was
t he stonues. Several other stones of the same de- afterward published in a long memoir. EIe found
scription were afterward found by different per- that almost all the residents of twenty hamlets desonsi. One of these stones, of about two pounds' clared that they were eyewitnesses of the shower
weight, fell through the top of the watchman's of stones which was darted from  the meteor.hut,, close to which he was standing, and buried  The interior parts of these stones resembled those
itself several inches in the floor, which was of of all the meteorites analyzed by Messrs. Howard
consolidated earth. The form  of the more per- and Vauquelin, such as those described above.
feet stones appeared to be that of an irregular They all contain silica, magnesia, oxyd of iron,
cube, rounded off at*the edges, but the angles nickel, and sulphur, in various proportions.were to be observed on most of them.  At the Their specific gravity is about three and onetime when the meteor appeared the sky was per- third or three and one-half times heavier than
fectly serene; not the smallest vestige of a cloud water.
had beels seen since the 11th of the month, nor   The following are a few brief statements in rewere any observed for many days after.  It is lation to this subject.  In 1492, November 7, a
well known there are no volcanoes onil the conti- stone of 260 lbs. fell at Ensisheim, in Alsace.  It
neint of India, and therefore they could not de- is now in the library of Colmar, and has been rerive their origin from  any such source; and no duced to 150 lbs., in consequence of the abstracstones have been met with in the earth, in that tion of fragments.  The famous Gassendi relates
part of the world, which bear the smallest resem- that a stone of a black metallic color fell on Mount
blance to those now described."                  Vaision, in Provence, November 29, 1637.  It
On the 13th of December, 1795, a stone weigh- weighed 54 lbs., and had the size and shape of the
Ing fifty-six pounds fell near Wold cottage, in human head.  Its specific gravity was three and
Yorkshire, at three o'clock, P. M.  It penetrated  one-half times that of water. 1654, March 30: A
through twelve inches of soil and six inches of small stone fell at Milan and killed a Franciscan
solid chalk rock, and, in burying itself, had thrown  1706, June 7: A stone of 72 lbs. fell at Larissa,
up an immense quantity of earth to a great dis- in Macedonia; it smelled of sulphur, and was like
tangce; as it fell, a number of explosions were the scum  of iron.  1751, May 26: Two masses
heard as loud as pistols. In the adjacent villages of iron, of 71 lbs. and 16 lbs., fell in the district
the sound was heard as of great guns at sea; but of Agram, the capital of Croatia.  The largest of
at-two adjoining villages the sounds were so dis- these is now in Vienna. 1790, July 24: A great
tinct of something passing through the air to the shower of stones fell at Barbotan, near Roquefort,
residence of Mr.'ropham, that five or-six people in the vicinity of Bourdeaux.  A  mass fifteen
came up to see if anything extraordinary had  inches in diameter, penetrated a hut and killed a
happened at his house. When the stone was ex- herdsman and a bullock.  Some of the stones
tracted, it -was warm,- smoked, and smelt very  weighed 25 lbs., and others 30 lbs. July, 1810:
st rong, of -sulphur.  The day was mild and hazy, A large ball of fire fell from the clouds at Shahabut there was no thunder nor lightning the whole bad, which burned five villages, destroyed the
cay. No such stone is known in the country, crops, and killed several men and women. Noand there is no volcano nearer than Vesuvius or vember 23, 1810: Three stones fell in the comnHecla...The constituent parts of this stone were mune of Charionville and neighborhood of Orfound exactly the same as those of the stones from  leans.  These stones were precipitated perpendicBenares.*                                         ularly, and without the appearance of any light
On the 26th of April, 1803, a'n extraordinary  or ball of fire. One of them weighed 20 lbs., and
made a hole in the ground in a perpendicular di" See a long paper on this subject, by E. Howard, Esq., rection, driving up the earth to the hight of eight
F. R. S. in "Transactions of the Royal Society of London" or ten feet. It was taken outhalf an hour after,
fm 1802.                                          when it was still so hot that' it could scarcely be




'::5s                             CELESTIAL SCENERY.
held in the hand. The second formed a hole three removed hundreds, or even thousands of miles
feet deep, and weighed 40 lbs. -1812, April. 15: from any volcanic mountain, and at timles when
A stone, the size of a child's head, fell at Erxle- no remarkable eruption was known to take place.
ben, and a specimen of it is in the possession Perceiving no probability of their having their
of  Professor Haussmann, of Brunswick.  1814, origin either in the earth. or the atmosphere, Dr.:September 1.:- A  ferw minutes: befoiren  midday, Hutton,  Poissonl La Place' and others, conjecwhile, tie sky was perfectly'serene, a violent de- tlured that they were projected from  the moon
tonfation was heard in the.: departnient of the Lot They demonstrated the abstract proposition, that
and Ga- ronne.  This was followed'by three or four a heavy body projected With a velocity of'six
others, and finally bya rolling noise, at- first re-   feet in a second,       caried beyond
semblilg a discharge of;musketry, after ward: the "the sphere  of the moon's attraction, and coine
rumblingof carriage's, and,'astly, that.of a large within the attraction of the earth. But it has.building falling down. Stones were immediately  never yet been proved that volcanoes exist on the
after precipitated to: the ground, some of which  surface of the moon; and, although they did exist,.weighed:18 lbs., and sank into a compact soil to and were as large andpowerful as terrestrial vol-:tle depth of eight or nine inches, and one of them  canoes, they would have no force sufficient to
rebounded three or fpur' feet fiom.the ground.- carry large masses of stone with such a rapid
1818, July 29, 0. 5:' A'ston- e of.7 lbs' weight fell velocity over a space -of several thousands of
at the'village of Slobodka,, in' Russia, and pene- miles.  Beside, were the moon the source of
trated nlearly sixteen inches'into the ground. - It meteoric stores, ejected from the craters of volca-.had a brown crust with metallic spots. In 1825, noes, we should expect such volcanic productions
February 10:. A meteoric stone weighing 16 lbs. to exhibit several varieties of aspect and composi7 oz., fell from the air at Nanjemoy, Maryland.- tion, and not the precise number of ingredients
It, was taken from. e ground.'about half an hour which are always found in meteoric stones.after its fall,:was: s isibly warm, and had a sul- From a consideration of the difficulties attending
phurous smell.                                this hypothesis, La Place was afterward induced.Several hundreds of instances similar to the to change his opinion.
above might be produced of large masses of stones   In order to trace the oHigin of meteoric stones,
ihavilng fallen from the upper regions upon the we are therefore under the necessity of directing
earth.*  These stones, although they have not the our views to regions far beyond the orbit of the'smallest analogy with any of the mineral sub- moon. On the supposition that the bursting of a
stances already known, either of a volcanic or any large planet was the origin of the small planets
other nature, have a. very peculiar and striking Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, we may trace a
analogy with each other. They have been found source whence meteoric stones probably originate.l
at places very remote from  each other, and at "When the cohesion of the planet was overcome
very distant periods. The mineralogists who have by the action of the explosive force, a number of
examined them agree that they have no resem- little fragments, detached along with the greater
blance to mineral substances, properly so called, masses, wpuld', on account of their smallness, be
nor have'they -been described by mineralogical projected with very great velocity; and, being
authors., They have, in short, a:.peculiar aspect, thrown beyond the attraction of the greater fragand peculiar characters which belong to no native ments, might fall toward the earth when Mars
rocks or. stones with which we are acquainted. I happened to be in the remote part of his orbit.
They appear to have fallen from'various points of When the portions which are thus detached arrive
the heavens, at all periods, in all seasons of the within the sphere of the earth's attraction, they
year, at all hours both of-the day and night, in may revolve round that body at different dieall countries in the world, on mountains and on tances, and may fall upon its surface, in conseplains, and in places the most remote from any quence of a diminution of their centrifugal force;
volcano.  The'luminous meteor which generally or, being struck by th-e electric fluid, they may
precedes their fall is carried along in no fixed or be precipitated upon the earth, and exhibit all
i1nvairiable direction; and as their descent usually those phenomena which usually accompany the
takes' place in, a calm and serene sky, and fre- descent of meteoric stones."   This opinion ap
quently in cloudless Weather, their origin cannot  pears to have been first broached by Sir David:be traced to the causes which operate in the pro-. Brewster, and is stated and illustrated in the
duction- of rain, thunder-storms, or tornadoes.    "Edinburgh Encyclopedia," article Astronomy,
From a consideration of these and many-. other and in vol. ii, of his edition of "Ferguson's As
oircunstances, it appea:9 highly probable,.if not tronomy."  Though not unattended with diffiabsolutely certain, that:. these substances proceed culties, it is perhaps the most plausible hypothefrom regions far beyond the limits of our globe. sis which has yet been formed to account for the
That such solid substances, in large masses, could extraordinary phenomena of heavy substance.
be -generated in the higher regions of the atmo- falling with velocity upon the earth through the
sphere, is anopinion altogether untenable, and is higher regions of the atmosphere,
ihow generally discarded, even by most of those   On this subject I would consider it as premaphilosophers who formerly gave it their support. ture to hazard any decisive opinions. I have laid
That they have been projected from.volcanoes is down the above facts before the reader that he
a hypothesis equally -destitute of support; for the maybe enabled to exercise his own judgment and
products of volcanoes are. never found at any form his own conclusion. A have stated them
great distance from the scene of their formation, particularly with this view, that- they may afford
and,- the -substances they throw out are altogether a subject of investigation and reflection. For all
different in their aspect and composition from  the works and dispensations of the Almighty,
meteoric stones.  Beside, these stones, in most both in the physical and moral world, are worthy
instances, have descended to the earth in places of our contemplation and research, and may ulti- For more    on-"''.'; -' Lmately lead both to important discoveries and to' For -more particular details on this subject, the reader moral instruction.  Though "the ways of God"
may.consult " The Edinburgh Encyclopaedia," art. J.deteorite          a..f G. o.
The "' Edin.:Phil. Jonrnal,"No.2-p.'221-255:. " Phil. Meag'are, in many. stances, "past finding out," yet
azine," Vol. xiii. -"Retrospect of Philosophical Discovy it iS our duty to investigate thetm so far as our
lies,"' 1805,vol. 1,p. 201-2010,&c,  &u(s.. i knowledge and lmited powers will permit. For




PECULIARITIES OF METEORIC STONES.:          59
s;we are told, on the highest authority, that. "the showing that we might occasionally connect our
works of the Lor&'are great and marvelous," so, moral views of the Deity with the contemplation
it iS declared that" they will be sought out" or of the material fabric of the universe.  When,
investigated "by all those who have pleasure through the medium  of our telescopes and our
therein.   There is, perhaps, no fact throughout physical investigations, we obtain a glinpse of
the universe, however minute iniitself, or however the order and economy of a distant region of the
distant from  the scene we occupy,, but is calcu- universe, it may be considered as a new manifeslated, when properly considered, to convey to the tation of the Deity, and it is our duty to deduce
mind all impression of the character of the Deity  from it those instructions it is calculated to conand' of the principles of his: moral government. vey. And although we may occasionally deduce
The mere philosopher may content himself with erroneous conclusions from  existing facts, yet
the application of the principles of chemistry  such speculations and reflections may sometimes
and mathematics to the phenomena of matter and have a tendency to excite an interesting train of
motion; and it is highly proper and necessary  thought, and to inspire us with an ardent desire
that both' chemical and mathematical analysis be of beholding the scene of the universe and the
applied for the investigation of the laws and order plan of the Divine administration more completely
of the material universe; but the man who recog- unfolded, in that world where the physical and
nizes the principles of Divine Revelation will rise moral impediments which now obstruct our into still higher views. From nature he will ascend tellectual vision shall be forever removed
to nature's God, and trace the invisible perfections
of the Eternal from the visible scene of hisworks;        vI. ON THE PLANET JUPITER.
and, from his physical operations, will endeavor
to learn something of the order and economy of    Next to Pallas, in the order of the system, is
his moral administration.                        the planet Jupiter. This planet, when nearest
If'there be any foundation for the hypothesis the earth, is the most splendid of all the nocturnal
to which we have adverted, it might be a question  orbs, except Venus and the moon. Its distance
and a subject of consideration at what period the from the sun is 495,000,000 of miles, and the cirdisruption of the supposed plnet'may have taken cumference of its orbit', 3,110,000,000 of miles.
place.  If the history of the fall'of meteoric Around this orbit it moves in eleven years and
stones would be considered as throwing any light three hundred and fifteen days, at the rate of
on this question, it will follow that such an event nearly thirty thousand miles every hour. When
must have taken place at a very distant period: nearest to the earth, at the time of its opposition
for the descent of such stones can be traced'back to the sun, it is about 400,000,000 of miles disto periods more than a thousand years before the tant from us. A faint idea of this distance may
commencement of'the Christian era; perhaps be acquired by considering that a cannon-ball,
even:to the days of Joshua, when a shower of flying five hundred miles every hour, would restones destroyed the enemies of Israel,* which  quire more than ninety-one years to pass over
would lead us to conclude that more than three this space; and a steam-carriage, moving at the
thousand years must have elapsed since such an rate of twenty miles an hour, would require
event. It might likewise be a subject of inquiry, nearly two thousand three hundred:years before
why the Deity has exposed the earth to the im- it could reach the orbit of Jupiter. When at its
pulse of such ethereal agents; for the fall of me- greatest distance from the earth, about the time
teoric stones is evidently attended with imminent of its conjunction with the sun, this planet is disdanger to the inhabitants of those places on which tant fronm us no less than 590,000,000 of miles;
they fall. The velocity and impetus with which yet its apparent size, in this case, does not appear
they descend are sufficient to cause instant death very much diminished, although it is 190,000,000
to those whom they happen to strike,.and even to of miles.farther from us in the latter case than in
demolish human habitations, as happened in sev- the former. When viewed with a telescope, howeral of the instances above recorded. Would the ever, it appears sensibly larger and more splendid
Deity have permitted a world peopled with inno- at the period of its opposition than when near the
cent beings to be subjected to such accidents and point of its conjunction.
dangers?  If not, is it not a presumptive proof   Diurnal Rotation.-This planet has been found
thatman, in being exposed to such casualties from  to revolve around its axis in the space of nine
celestial agents, as well as from  storms, earth- hours, fifty-five minutes, and forty-nine and a
quakes, and volcanoes, is not in that state of prime- half seconds.  This discovery was made by obval innocence in which he was created?  And if serving a small spot in one of the belts, which
we suppose that a moral revolution was the cause appeared gradually to move across the disc of the
of the. catastrophe which happened to the planet planet. Mr. Hook appears to have first observed
to which we allude, we may trace both a physical it in the year 1664; and in the following year,
and a moral connection, however distant, between  1665, Cassini, that accurate observer of the heathe earth and that planet; for if the stones to vens, perceived the same spot, which appeared
which we allude are a part of the wreck of that rould, and moved with the greatest velocity when
world, they have been the means of exciting in the. middle, but was narrower, and moved more
alarm among various tribes of the earth's popula- slowly as it approached nearer the edge of the
lion, and of producing destruction and devastation; disc, which showed that the spot adhered to the
so that one depraved world has been the instru- body of Jupiter, and was carried round upon it.
ment -in some degree of punishing another.. This spot continued visible during the following
But perhaps I have gone too far in such specu- year, so that Cassini was enabled to determine the'ations.  Ihave stated them  with the view of period of Jupiter's rotation to be nine hours and
nearly fifty-six minutes.  This rotation is far
These. stones, in-our translation of the Bible, are called more rapid than that of any of the other planets,
hailstones, but without any reason, since the original word, so far as we know, and nearly equals the velocity
abensim, signifies stones ingeneral according to the definition of Jupiter in his annual course round the sun.
givem in Parkhurst's Hebrew Lexicon; alndin the book of The circumference of this planet is 278,600 miles,
Jobl, chap. xxviii. 3, the word-is translated stones of ddrk
nes; meaning, undoubtedly, metallic stones or metals which and, therefore, its equatorial parts will move with
are searched outfrom the bowels of the earth,    a velocity of 28,000 miles an hour, which ia




dio0                             -CELESTIAL SCENERY.
3000: miles more than the equatorial parts of the  tions of all these bodles willbe perceptible to the
earth's surface move in twenty-four hours. This eye when contemplating them  only for a few
rapid velocityof the tropical regions of Jupiter, moments, excepting those which appear near
and of the places which lie adjacent to them, will the polar regions.  The sky of this planet will,
have the effect of:rendering all -bodies lighter therefore, assume an air of sublimity superior to
than they would-be were the mlotiou of rotation  ours, in consequence of all the bodies it contains
as slow as that of the earth. The: gravity of bo- appearing- to sweep so rapidly around, and to
dies at the surface of Jupiter is more than twice change -their positions in so short a space of
as great as at the surface of the earth, on account time. As Jupiter moves round the sun in 43321/
of his:sperior bulk;so tht-a abodyw;eighihg one  of our days, and round its axis in nine hours,
poaund at the equatoriailsurface of the earthw'ould  fifty-six minutes, there will be 10,470 days in
M'eigh two pounds foiurroiun'ces and ga half at the the year of that planet.
surface of Jupiter.  If, therefore, we were trans-   Magnitude and Superficial Contents of the Globe
ported to the surface of. that planet, we should be of Jupiter. —This planet is the largest in the sysa bui-den to ourselves,. being pressed down'with  tem, being 89,000 miles in diameter, and, consemo.rethan double our pe,.sent weight, and having  quently, fourteen' hundred times larger than the
but-the same'strength;to'support it. But Jupiter earth.  Its surface contains 24,884,000,000, or
is eleven times larger in' -rcumference than the twenty-four thousand eight hundred and eightyearth; and h.ence,:.if both' planets revolved on  four millions of square miles, wlich, at the rate
their axes in the same time, the centrifugal force of population formerly stated, 280 inhabitants to
on Jupiter would be eleven times greater than  a square mile; would be sufficient for the accom-with-us. But the squares of thenumberof rev- modation of 6,967,520,000,000, or nearly seven
olutions performed in: the same time by the earth  billions of inhabitants, which is more than eight
and Jupiter; that is, the square of twenty-four thousand seven hundred times the present popula.
hopurs, and the square of nine hours, fifty-six  tion.of our globe, and nearly fifty times the nuns
minutes, are, nearly as one to six; therefore, a ber of human beings that have existed on the
body placed on Jupiter will have sixty-six* times earth since its creation. Although the one-half
a greater centrifugal force than with us, which  of this planet were covered with water, which
would sensibly relieve the weight of the inhab- does not appear to be the case, it would still be
itants if they stood in need of it.  This rapid  ample enough to contain a population more
rotation would of itself relieve them of one-eighth  than four thousand times larger than that of our
or one-ninth of their whole weight; or, in other globe. If such a-population actually exist, as
words, a body weighing eight stone at the -equa- we have little reason to doubt, it may hold a i'ank,
to'r of Jupiter, if the' planet stood still, would  under the Divine government, equal to several
gravitate with a force' of only seven stone on the  thousands of worlds such as ours.  Such an irncommlencement of its diurnal rotation, at the mense globe, replenished with such a number of
rate at which we: now find it.                  intellectual beings, revolving with such amazing
It may perhaps be surmised by some that, since rapidity round its axis, moving forward in its an.
the. sclnidiameter of Jupiter is eleven times greater nual course 30,000 miles every hour, and carry-'than that of the earth,. the attraction or weight ing along with it four moons larger than ours to
of bodies-on its surface ought to be eleven times adorn'its firmament, presents to.the imagination
greater than on the. surface of our globe: This an idea' at once' wonderful and sublime, and dis
would be the case if the matter.in Jupiter'were as plays a scene of wisdom and omnipotence worthy
deinse as ill the earth; -and the weight of bodies of the infinite perfections of its Creator.
would, of course, be in proportion.to their semi-   Discoveries which have been made in relation to
diameter, or the distance of the surface from the Jupiter by the Telescope.-Jupiter presents a splencenters of these bodies. But the density of Ju- did and interesting appearance when viewed with
piter is only a little more than that of water, while a powerful'telescope.  His surface appears much
the,density of the earth is five times greater. If larger than the full moon to the naked eye; his
the density of Jupiter were as great as that of the disc is diversified. with darkish stripes; his sateleartli', and, consequently,'the weight.of bodies on lites appear sometimes in one position and someits.surface eleven times greater, men of our stature times in another, but generally in a straight line'and make could. scarcely be supposed to support with each other. Sometimes two of them  are'eleven times the weight of such bodies as ours, seen on one side of the.-planet and two on anbut behooved to be almost chained down to the other; sometimes two only are visible, while the
sinrface of the planet by. their own gravity; and other two are eclipsed either by the disc or the
were we to suppose them i of a larger stature, this shadow of Jupiter; and sometimes all the four
inconvenience would become the greater; for the'may be seen on one side and in a straight line
least of anly species of animated beings have from  the planet, in the order of their distances;
generallythe' greatest nimbleness and agility of so that these moons present a different aspect and
motion. This circumstance is perhaps one of the relation to each other every successive evening.
reasons.why the larger' planets of the system have   These moons were first seen by Galileo, in the
tl' least degree of density: for if Jupiter were year 1610, by means of.a telescope he had concomposed of- materials as-dense as those of Mer- structed, composed of two "glasses,'a ccncava
cury, organized beings like man would be unable, next the eye, and a convex next the object, which
without a'supernatura lpower, to trave rsethe sur- magnified about thirty-three'times.  No further
face of such-a planet..          discoveries were made il relation to this planet
In consequence of the rapid motion of Jupiter, until -abbut the year 1633,' when the belts were
the days. and nights- will be- proportionably short. discovered by Fontana Rheita, Riccioli, and seveThe sun will appear to move throngh the whole ral others. They were afterward more particucelestial hemisphere, from the-eastern to the west- larly observed and, delineated by Cassini.. These
ern horizon, in less;-than five hours, and- all the belts appear like dark stripes - across tne disc! of
planets and constellations will appear to, move the planet, and are generally parallel to one.an.
with the same rapidity: so that the apparent mo- other and to the planet's equator.  They are
somewhat variable, however, both as to their'T.lhat is' 11X6=66.             number and their'distance from each ether, and




Di IFFERENT  VIEWfS,OF THE -BELTS OF JUPITER.                              01
sometimes as to, their position    On certain occa- ),achromatic telescope, with magnifying powers of
io~ns e.ight have: been sheen at -\a time- at- other 1150 and:180 times. Fig. 52, is a view  taken.tirnes only one.' Though they are generally pa- with the same telescope in 1837.  In this view
rall elto one another, yet a piece'of'a'belt has the principal belt near the planet's equator apueen seen in an oblique position to the rest, as ill peared dark, distinct, and well-defined; but the
Fig. 49. They also vary illn breadth,; for one belt other two belts at either pole were extremely
has been observed to have grown a good deal nar- faint, and could only be perceived after a minute
rower than it was, when a neighboring belt has inspection.  Fig. 53, is a view in which a bright
been increased in breadth, as if the, one, like a.
fluid, had flowed into the other; ~. In favor of this
opinion, it is stated in the " Memoirs of the Royal --   - 
Academy of Sciences," that a part of an oblique
belt was observed to lie so as to form a communication between them, as, represented in Fig. 49.                          _ ___e
At:one t'ne, says Dr. Long, -the belts.have con-                                  __
tinued wi lthout sensible vari;-i.)ns for nearly three                     _
months; at another time a new belt has been
formed in an hour or two. They have sometimes
beeni seen broken up and distributed over the
whole face of the planet, inl which state they are
exhibited in some'of the delineations of Sir W. and a dark spot were perceived on one of the
Herschel.; but this phenomenon is extremely belts; and Fig. 54, a view by Sir, John Herschel.
rare, and does not appear to have been noticed I have had an:oppf "I'ity of' viewing Jupiter
by any other observer. In the year,1787, Schroe- with good telescopes, tolu, reflecting and achroter saw two dark belts in the middle of Jupiter's matic, for twenty or.thirty years past; and,:disc; and near to them  two.white and luminous among several hundreds of observations, I have
belts, resembling those which were seen by Cam- never seen above four or five belts at one -time.paul -in 1664. The equatorial zone. which was The most common appearance I have observed is
comprehe-nded between the'two dark belts had as- that of two belts, distinctly marked, one on each
sumed a dark gray color,. bordering upon yellow. side of the planet's equator,,- and one at each
The northern dark belt then received a sudden pole, generally broader, but much fainter than.iicrease:-of si'e, while the southern one became the others. I have never perceived much change
partly extinguished, and. afterward increased into inin!the form  or position of the belts during theo
an uninterrupted belt.  The luminous belts also same season, but in successive years a slight desuffered several changes,growing sometimes nar-:  ree of change has been perceptible, some of the,Cier,, and sometimes one-half larger than, their belts having either disappeared, or turned much
originlal size.  fainter than they were before, or shifted somewhat'-:The following figures represent some of the ap- their relative-positions; but I have never seen Jupearances of the belts of Jupiter.       ~       piter without at least two or three belts. Some,of the largest of these belts, being at least the oneeighth part of the diameter of the planet in breadth,
must occupy a space at least 11,000 miles.broad
o9      E;S — \and 278,000 miles in circumference; for they run
along the whole circumference of the planet, and
____ ___,.______ ~appear of the same shape during every period of
its rotation.  It is probable that the smallest belts
we can distinctly perceive by our telescopes'are
not much less than a thousand miles in breadth.
a______               What these belts really are has been a subject
of speculation and conjecture among astronomers,
but it is difficult to arrive at any definite concluFig. 49, represents a view of Jupiter's belts by sion. By some they have been regarded as imGlassini.. Fig. 50, a view from Dr. Hook, as de- mense strata of clouds in the atmosphere of Ju-:in'eated in the "Philosophical Transactions"' for piter; while others imagine that they are the.
1666, which was taken by a sixty feet, refracting  marks of great physical changes which are contelescope.  The small black spot 6n the middle tinually agitating the surface of this planet.  1
belt, which did not appear at the beginning of the am inclined to think that the dark belts are porolbservation, and which moved about a third or tions of the real surface of the planet, and that
fou6th part across the disc in the space:,of ten the brighter parts are something analogous to
iuteittes,,  was judged to be the shadow: of one clouds, or other substances with which we are
of the satellites meovinig across the disc of the'unacquainted, floating in its atmosphere, at a conplanet. Fig 51, exhibits a view of Jupiter as he"; siderahble elevation above its surface. That the
dark belts are e t hebody of the planet appears
highly probable from this consideration, that the
spot by which the rotation of Jupiter was deter-,             in, l,-, - mined has been always found in connection with
one of'the dark belts; and as this spot must be
considered as a permanent one on the body of Jube considered as a portion of the real body of the
_-;  ___         i 0.planet.  It is absurd and preposterous,to suppose,
as some have done, that.the changes on the surface of'Jupiter are produced by physical convulsions, occasioned by earthquakes and inundations;
appeared avut.the- end' of 1832,andthe  begin- for, in such a case, the globe of Jupiter would be
rnnf of 1833, which was taken by means'of-an' unfit for being the peaceful abode of rational




62'~                               CELESTIAL. SCENERY.
inhabitants.  What should,;we think'. Q. a world- dark ones, or,' in  other: —words, the  Dody of the
where,5000 miles of ocean- ccasion.ally inunidated  planet; and that they are elevated: above the dark
a::corresponding -'portion:of' thie an-d, —or where -globe of Jupiter, in" all'probability, not less than
earthquakes sometimes -swallowed' up''ontinents a-thousand miles.   - 
of several thousands- -of';miles,:in.,-length. and.'W.hatever opinion we may form as to -the conbreadth?'.Such, physical, catastrophes recurring - stitution of this planet, the phenomena it presents
every year.on sue  a splendid and-  mgnificent afford a vast:field for investigation and reflectiori
globe' as.,Jnupiter.would,.-not o'nlly render":it -unfit- If it be i,a.fact, as has been asserted,by credible
for the habitation of any beirnges,butld imply  observers, thatwo belts have gradually disapa reflection on. the wisdom'andbeneVoleceof the peared during.the' time. of an observation, and
great Creator.'.Whatever opinns,'therefore, we that, at tanother time, a new- belt has' been formed
may adopt,:;'especting:the phlen.onena of  thi:  pla-. in  an:hour or two, agents far more powerful than
net,.they oug.ht to be.such'-as are consistent'with any with which. we are acquainted must have
the 4dea:'of'a -habitable —w'orild-anid.W.ith. the. perfec- been.in- operation -to produce such. an effect, and
tionsi  of:the- Deity.f. Were V t eo' belts, f Jup:iter changes more extensive than any which take place
permanent and'invariable, i-t would'be, commpara- inn our terrestrial sphere must have happelied in
tively','easy. to- accounti fo.r it.heo -phenomena' w'hich:the regions connected with -J upiter~ for some of
appear..'on his surface,' fort:ke' dark- -belts might be   the; belts -of this planet are from  five' to ten thou.
considered,as seas, and thei'brighteri p'ortio'nof sand miles in'.breadth; and if those alluded to exhis surface alald.-  But ias -these belts,: whether tended quite' across      of the planet, they
brightl or dark, are found to. be' variable' wE e must must have been more, than one hundred and thirty
hav:recoursetoanotherhyothesisfor their ex- thousand miles in length. -;Yet such a change
-planation, or' b6 content,- in' the meantime, to may have taken place, not only without convulconlfess -our ignorance.  Our opinions and con- sions, causing terror and confusion, but to the
jectures respecting the -circumstances of other admiration and joy of the inhabitants of that
worlds are too frequently guided merely by what globe, as opening up a new and striking scene,in:we know of the objects and'operations which ex- the canopy of heaven; for if we suppose such
ist on our globe; and we are- apt to think that the bright belts or circles as we have imagined rapidarrangements of other glob.s destined: for the ly to shift their position in the canopy above,
abode of intellectual beings nust be similar to such a grand effect might in a short titme be prothose of-our-own. We talk of.physical convul  duced.
sions, earthquakes, and-inundations- in Jupiter,   Beside the belts, spots of different kinds, some
and- of volcanic eruptions in the sun and moon, of them brighter and-some darker than the belts,
as if these phenomena were as common in other have been occasionally seen. -The spot by which
worlds as in the earth; whereas it is not improba- Jupiter's rotation was determined is the largest
ble that'they are peculiar to our globe, and that' and of the -ongest continuance of any hitherto ob
they are connected with'the morall or rather de- served. Its diameter is one-tenth of the diameter
moralized state of -its present. inhabitants. There of Jupiter, and it is situated in the northern part- of
isan infinite variety in the system of'nature; -and' the' southern belt. Its center, when nearest that
it is- highly probable that- there is: ino world in the of the planet, is distant from the center of Jupiter
universe that' exactly -resembles another.  Al- about' one-third of:the' semidiameter of the planet.
though Jupiter. meoves-'round the sun- and turns -This- spot was first" perceived by Hook and' Cassini
uponi his'axis by. the. same -laws'which'direct' the in the years 1664, 1665, and 1666. It appeared and
motions of -our globe,; yet there.may be: as greata   vanished —eight times between the years 1665 and
difference: in';the,arangements. connected with 1708. From 1708 until; 1713 it was invisible; the
this planet and those -of the earth, as there is be- longest time of' its continuing visible was three
tween tlieconstitution of: the-earth and that'of'a years, and the longest period of its disappearing
planet -which revolves:around the star Sirius.- was from  1708 to 1713. It' has evidently some'Would'it be al.togetherimprobable to suppose that connection with the southern belts; for it has.the globe of. Jupiter is.partly- inclosed within a never been seen when that.-disappeared, though
sphere of semitransparent substanc e, at a conside- that belt has often been visible without the spot,
rable elevation above.his: surface, or- rather within Beside this ancient spot, as- it is called, Cassini, in
parallel rings, like-an Armillary'sphere composed- the year- 1699, saw one of -less stability, which
of such  a substance, which vary their position, did not continue. of the Same' shape and -dimenl
and somnetimnies surround onepart of his globe and sions, but broke into several small o-nes, of which
sometimes aiother?  These' rings, " of' whatever the revolution was but 9 hours, 51'minutes; ann
substance they.might be composed, might serve two other spots  whieh revolved in 9- hours, 52v
to reflet: thee rays'bf the sun so as to produce -an minutes. The large, spot described above, being
addition of- lightand:heat, andatlthe same time,' about. the  one-tenth of' the diameter of Jupiter,
by- exhibiting' a' variety of colors and' motions, to must have been mote than 8000 miles in extent,
diversify, aand-addrn the firmament of':this planet. and, conseque.ntly, larger than the diameter of
Almost. any supposition iSpreferable to the' idea the earth.'-When Cassini had assured himself of
of:"a. cLntinued's'c-ene of-'physica — convulsions -- the:period of'rotation from  the motion of this
The ideanow othro~n'A out is';not more.extravagant -spot, he:made a report of his observations to the
than that:-of ap.Ipanet nearly arls y- as s Jupiter Royal Academy of Sciences, and calculated the
bei.n'g',sumrroudnded wi'th.wo —concentric rings. -"..Had precise moment when the'spot would appear on
-we not-'disc:veredthe'rings of, Saturn, we should  the'eastern limbof-the planet,on-afuture day; on
neverhave formed the idea of a.world' environed  which the academy sent a:-deputtion of M  Buot,'
with such -an appendage.  A  a corroboration of'.-M. Vlariotte, and others:tio be present at the obhthe idea:that- theright stripes which appear on servation;'and when they came to the royal obserthis planet"'surountd itso dyat a considerable ele- vatory, they- saw  the spot in the: position prevation, ito'has bee  Aobse.rved by Si JohI- Herschel,  dicted, and traced itsmotiofi for' an hour or two,
"that' the d'ark;:- belts':',do- no;'com e up' in all until the' heavens began'-to be  overcast with
their' strength to. the' edge of'the,disc, but fade clouds.  All the-observations which have been
away gradually before they reach it;," an almost made upon this spot and others, and its suiceessiveo
decisive. proof. that the':bright'belts inclose the: appearance and disappearance, perfectly agree




SPLENDOR OF JUPITER.                                        63
swith the idea of bright belts inclosing the globe for nearly six years without intermission, just as
of Jupiter at a distance from  the surface, and the places around our north and south poles are
varying their aspect and motions at different pe- deprived of the light of the sun for one-half of
riods of time. And although some readers may  the year.  There will be nearly equal day ard
consider it as a trifling matter to dwell with such  night in every part of the surface of this planet;
particularity on a spot in Jupiter, yet that spot, but to the places near the equator the sun will
however insignificant it may appear through our appear to rise to a high elevation above the horitelescopes, may be more spacious and important zon, and to move through the heavens with great
in the system  of nature than all the continents rapidity, while near the polar regions he will apand islands of our globe, and may form a greater pear to move comparatively slow, and to describe
portion of the divine government than all the only a small semicircle above the horizon. We
kingdoms of the earth.                           are not to imagine, however, that "everlasting
There is a peculiar splendor in the appearance winter" prevails around the poles of this planet,
of Jupiter, both through the telescope and to the as some have asserted, because the sun never rises
naked eye, considering his great distance from the high above those regions, and the solar rays fall
sun and- from  the earth. The planet Mars ap- obliquely upon them; for there may be arrangepears comparatively dull and obscure, even when  ments and compensations, of which we are ignonearest the earth, when it is only fifty millions of rant, to produce nearly as great a degree of light
miles distant; while the planet Jupiter, which is and heat in the polar as in the equatorial regions;
350 mnillions of miles farther from  the earth and and perhaps the bright belts to which we have
from' the source of light, presents a brilliancy of adverted may be so arranged as to contribute to
aspect far superior. This circumstance seems to this effect. Nor are we to imagine that there is
indicate that there is some apparatus connected  no variety of scenery in Jupiter because there are
with the globe of Jupiter calculated to reflect the no seasons similar to ours. For every degree of
light of the sun in a peculiar manner, both on the latitude from  the equator to the poles will prosurface of the planet itself, on its moons, and to- duce a diversity of aspect; and the variation of
ward other planets.  Such an apparatus is not the belts, whatever may be their arrangement,
only consistent with the supposition thrown out and of what substances soever they may consist,
above, but tends to corroborate it; and however will produce a diversity of scenery in the firmastrange *we may consider the idea of brilliant ment of Jupiter far greater, and, perhaps, far
belts surrounding a planet, yet as variety is stamp- more magnificent and transporting than anything
ed on all the works of the Creator, and as no we contemplate in our terrestrial globe.
world is precisely like another, the dissimilarity    The intensity of the solarlight on the surface of
of such an appendage to what we know of our Jupiter is twenty-seven times less than on the
own or of other globes ought to be no argument earth. The mean apparent diameter of the sun,
against its existence  If we wish to know more  as seen from  the earth, is thirty-two minurs,
of the phenomena of this planet than what we three seconds; but the solar diameter, as seen
have hitherto ascertained, we must endeavor to from Jupiter, is only,six minutes, nine seconds,.
improve our telescopes, and to increase, indefi- which is less than one-fifth as great as the sun;
nitely, the number of observers. Were an im- appears to us. The square of 6' 9", or 369", is3
mense number of intelligent observers distri- 136,161, and the square of 32' 3" is 369,721.
bated over different parts- of the earth, and  which, divided by136,161, produces a quotieat of
provided with the best telescopes; were they to 27 1-6, which shows that the surface of the sunn.
marlk with care and minuteness the phenomena as seen from Jupiter, is more than twenty-sevemn
to which we have adverted; were they to deline- times less than he appears to us; and as. the inlate, in a series of drawings, the various aspects tensity of light decreases in propxti on, to; thei
of this planet during two or three periodical revo- square of the distance, there will be twenty-seven,
lutions, marking the periods of the  different times less light on this planet than on, the earth,.
changes, and the positions of the planet with re- But if the intensity of the light be increased by re —
spect to the earth and the sun, and noting at the flection from any substances connected with thic.
same time the positions of the satellites when any  planet, or if the inhabitants have the pupils of!
change in the belts took place, we might possibly  their eyes much larger than ours,.all the objects.
ascertain something more of the nature of the around them may appear with even greater splen —
belts, whether dark or bright, of the periods of dor than on the earth. The following figures will,
their changes, and whether these changes be in- show to the eye the proportional size of the sun.
fluenced by-the attractive power of the satellites. as seen from Jupiter and from  the earth. The!
For if any appendage is connected with Jupiter small circle shows the comparative bulk of the
composed of a substance of small density, it is solar orb as seen from Supiter, and the larger eirreasonable to believe that its positions and move- cle its bulk as viewed from the earth.
ments would be affected at certain times by the
positions of the satellites, especially when they                   Fig. 55.
all happened to be situated on the same side of
Jupiter.
Seasons, Proportion of Light, Tic., in Jupiter.The axis of this planet being nearly perpendicular to the plane of its motion, there can be no
variety of seasons similar to what we experience.
The inclination of its axis, however, is stated by
some astronomers, to be 86 degrees, 5442 minutes;
or 3 degrees, 51 minutes from the perpendicular.
This inclination will cause a slight variety of seasons al different periods of the planet's annual
revolution, but not nearly to the same extent as
in Mars or the earth. If the axis of Jupiter were    Nothing particular has been ascertained reas much inclined to his ecliptic as the axis of the specting an atmosphere surrounding this planet —
earth, his polar regions would remain in darkness Though it is probable that it has an appendage
VOL. II. —15




64                                CELESTIAL SCENERY.
answering the purpose of an atmosphere, yet it majestic rings constitute the most-singuIar and
may be very different in its nature and properties astonishing phenomena that have yet been disfrom that which surrounds-the earth.'And if the covered within the limits of our system.
planet be surrounded with bright belts, as we   Its distance from  the sun is 906 millions of
have supposed, or if the bright parts of its surs- miles, whic'h is nearly twice the distance of Jupiface are to be considered as something analogous ter; and the circumference of its orbit is 5,695,-'to clouds suspended in a body of air, it is evident 000,000 of miles; to move round Which a cannon
that the denser:parts of its atmosphere never call ball would require more than 1300 years, albe perceived by us, and that no dimness or ob- though it were moving 500 miles every hour
scurity is to.be expected when.a fixed star ap- But a steam-carriage, moving at the rate of twenty
proaches its disc. Hence M. Schroeter,'when he miles an hour, would require above 32,500 years'had a very clear and distinct view, of the spots to complete the same round. When nearest the
and belts when Jupiter suffered an occultation by earth. Saturn is 811 millions of miles distant, an
the moon on the 7th of April, 1792, could per- interval which could not be traversed by a carceive nothing throughout the whole observation riage, at the rate now stated, in less than 4629
indicative of a refractive'medium near the margin years; land even a cannon ball, moving with the
of the planet.'                          velocity above mentioned, would  require  184
Jupiter is remarkable on account of this sphe- years. So that, although man were divested of
roidalfigure. This figure is -obvious to the eye the gravitating power, and capable of supporting
when viewing the planet with a high magnifying himself amid the ethereal regions, and though he
power. Nor is this an optical illusion; for both were invested with a power of rapid  motion
diameters have been accurately, measured by the superior to any movement we perceive on earth,
micrometer; and the equatorial diameter is'found  before he could reach the middle orbit of the
to be in proportion to the polar nearly as fourteen planetary system, or one-fourth of its diameter,
to thirteen, so that the equatorial is more than it would require a space of time far more than is
6300 miles longer than the polar diameter. This yet allotted to mortal existence, and, therefore,
oblate figure is ascribed to the swiftness of Jupi- all hope of personally exploring  the celestial
ter's-rotation, which produces a centrifugal force, regions is: completely annihilated, so long as we
which has a tendency to make the equatorial parts are invested with our present corporeal vehicles,
more protuberant than the polar. From calcula- and are connected with this terrestrial abode.
tions formed on the principles of physical astro-   This planet revolves round the sun in the space
nomy, it is found that the proportion above stated of about 2912 years, or in 10,758 days, 23 hours,
is really the degree of oblateness which corres- 16 minutes, 34 seconds, which is its sidereal revoponds, on those principles, to' the dimensions of lution, or the time it takes in moving from  a
this planet and the time of its rotation; so that certain fixed star to the same star again. Through
theory perfectly harmonizes with observation.    the whole of its circuit it moves at the rate of
The density of this planet compared with that 22,000 miles every hour. The period of its rotaof water is as 1 1-24 to 1; that is, it is a small tion was for a long time unknown. About a
fractional part denser than water.  Its mass, century ago, it was conjectured by some astronocompared with that of the sun is as 1 to 1067; mers that it was accomplished in about ten or
compared with that of the earth, as 312 to 1; that eleven hours. It was not, however, until Sir W'L
is, Jupiter could weigh 312 globes of the same Herschel applied his powerful telescopes to Saturn
size and density as the earth. The eccentricity of that its rotation was accurately determined.  By
its orbit is 23,810,000 miles; and the inclination  certain dark spots which he perceived on its disc,
of the orbit to the ecliptic is about one degree, and by their change of position, he ascertained
nineteen minutes. Its mean apparent diameter is that the diurnal rotation is performed in ten hours,
thirty-eight seconds, and its greatest diameter, sixteen minutes, and nineteen seconds.*  It is rewhen in opposition to the sun, forty-seven and a markable that La Place, from  physical considerahalf seconds. Its mean are of retrogradation is tions, had calculated the rotation of Saturn to be
nine degrees, fifty-four minutes, and its mean nearly the same as above stated, before Herschel
duration about 121 days. This retrogradation, or had determined it by direct observation.  The
moving contrary to the order of the signs, com- rotation is performed on an axis perpendicular
mences or finishes when the planet is not more to the plane of the ring. The circumference of
than 115 degrees from the sun. The following Saturn being 248,000 miles, the parts about the
figure exhibits a view of Jiupiter and his satellites equator will move at the rate of 24,000 miles an
as seen through a good telescope.                hour.  Its year will consist of 25,150 days, or
Fig. 56.                     periods of its diurnal rotation.
Proportion- of Light on Saturn.-This planet
being about 912 times farther from the Sun than
the earth, it will receive only the one-ninetieth of
the light which we receive; for the square of 9Xis equal to 90X1.  This quantity of light, however, is equal to the light which would be reflected from a thousand full moons such as ours;
-and there can be little doubt that the beings that
reside in this planet have their organs of vision so
constructed as to be perfectly adapted to the quantity of light they receive; and, by such an adapVII_. ON(, HE PLANET SATURN.          tation, all the objects around them may appear as
splendidly enlightened, and their colors as,vivid
The planet Saturn may be considered in almost as they do on the globe on which we live. The
every respect as the imost magnificent and in- apparent diameter of the sun, as seen from Saturn,
terasting body within the'limits of the planetary  is three minutes, twenty-two seconds; but his
system. Viewed in connection with its satellites
and rings, it comprehends a greater quantity of    Sir John Herschel states the period of rotation to be ten
surface than even the globe of Jupiter; -and its hours, twenty-nine minutes, seventeen seconds.




DENSITY OF SATURN.:65
mean apparent diameter, as seen from lthe earth, the great'protuberance which is found about the
is equal to thirty-two minutes, three seconds. equatorial regions of Saturn.
This proportion of size in'which the sun appears    Magnitude and Extent of Surface on Saturn.from the earth and from  Saturn is represented in This planet is about 79,000 miles in diameter, and
the-following figure, in which the small circle nearly a thousand times larger than the earth.
represents the size of the suni as seen fro  Saturn.  Its surface contains more than 19,600,000)000 of
square miles, and, consequently, at the rate of
Flg. 57.                     280 inhabitants to a square mile, it would contain
a population of 5,488,000,000,000, or about five
billions and a half, which is six thousand eight
hundred and sixty times the present number of
inhabitants on our globe; so that this globe,
which appears only like a dim  sr,'eck on our nocturnal sky, may be considered as equal to six
thousand worlds like ours, and since such a noble
apparatus of rings and moons is provided for the
accommodation and contemplation of intelligent
beings, we cannot doubt that it is replenished with
ten thousand times ten thousands of sensitive and
rational inhabitants; and that the scenes and
transactions connected with that distant world
may far surpass in grandeur whatever has occurred
on the theater of our globe.
Discoveries by the Telescope on the Body of Sa-    Density of Saturn.-The density of Saturn,
turn.-The great distance of;this planet.from the  compared with that of the earth, is nearly as one to
earth prevents us from  observing its surface so  nine; compared with that of water, it is less than
niinutely as that of Jupiter. Certain dusky spots, one-half; so that the mean density of this planet
however, have of late years been occasionally  cannot be much more than the density of cork;
seen on its surface, when very powerful telescopes  and, consequently, the globe of Saturn, were it
were applied, and by the motion of these its diur- placed in an immense ocean, would swim on the
nal rotation was determined. Belts somewhat surface as a piece of cork or light wood swims in
similar to those of Jupiter have likewise been  a basin of water. There is none of the planets,
seen. Huygens, more than 150 years ago, states so far as we know, whose density is so small as
that he had perceived five belts on- Saturn which  that of Saturn, or less than the density of water.
were neaHly parallel to the equator. -Sir W. Her- We are not to imagine, however, that the mateschel, in his numerous observations, also observed  rials which compose the surface of Saturn are as
several belts,'which in general, were parallel with  light as cork, or similar substances; for anything we
the ring. On the 11th of November, 1798, im- know to the contrary, they may be as dense as thei
mediately south of the shadow of the ring upon  rocks and mold which compose the crust of our
Saturn, he perceived a bright, uniform, and broad  globe. We have only to suppose that the globe of
belt, and close to it a broad or darker belt, divided  Saturn is hollow, or merely filled with some elastic'by two narrow white streaks, so that he saw five fluid, and that the solid parts of its exterior crust
belts, three of which were dark and two bright. form a shell of a hundred or two hundred miles in
The dark belt had a yellow tinge. These belts thickness.  It is true, indeed, that the density of
cover a larger zone of the disc of the planet than  our globe increases from  its surface downward,
the belts of Jupiter occupy upon his surface. perhaps even to the center.  But we have no roaWith a magnifying power of 200 times I have son to suppose that this is the case with all the
sometimes seen one darkish belt on the body of  other planets; oh the contrary, it is most probable
Saturn; but it was much. fainter than those of  that it is exactly the reverse in the case of Saturn;
Jupiter. It does not appear.that these belts vary  for if the materials which compose that planet
or shift their positions, as the belts of Jupiter are  were to increase in density toward the center, the
found to do; the dark ones are much fainter than  substances on its surface would have little more
those of Jupiter, and, therefore, it is most proba- density or solidity than that of a cloud suspended
ble that they are permanent portions of the globe in the atmosphere.  And we know that, in all the
of Saturn, which indicate a diversity of surface works of the Creator, variety is one grand characand configuration either of land or water, or of teristic of his plans, even where the same general
some other substances with which we  are unac- objects are intended to be accomplished, and the
quainted... When this planet is viewed with a good  same general laws are in operation.
telescope, it appears, like Jupiter, to be of a sphe-    From  want of correct views on this subject,
roidal: figure, or somewhat. approaching to it. several foolish and erroneous notions have been
The proportion of its, polar;to its equatorial entertained and circulated.  In a late number of
diameter is as 32 to 35, or nearly as 11 to 12; so a popular and  extensively circulated  journal,
that.the: polar diameter is more than 6,700 miles when treating of "Planetary Arrangements," it
shorter than the. equatorial, which is a greater is stated, that "while on Mercury: a native of
difference than that of the two diameters of Ju- earth would scarcely be able to drag one foot after
piter.  Saturn was generally considered, until another for the strong  power pulling him  to
lately, as a regular spheroid; but on the 12th of the ground, he could, on the planet Saturn, leap
April,-1805, Sir W.. Herschel was struck with a sixty feet high as easily as he could here leap a
very singular appearance when viewing the planet. yard."  Now, both these positions are quite er"-The flattening of the poles did not seem to roneous; for although the density of Mercury is
begin until near a.very high latitude, so that the about double the density of the earth, and nearly
real figure of the planet resembled a.square, or that of lead, yet the bulk of the two planets is
rather. a parallelogram,; with the four corners very different, the diameter of the earth being
rounded off deeply, but not so much as- to bring nearly 8000 miles, while that of Mercury is only
it to a spheroid."  It. is piobable that the action 3200, and the force with which a bodyqplaced on
of the ring or its attractive power is the cause of their surfaces gravitates to them is in proportion




66                                CELESTIAL SCENERY
to their masses divided by the squares of their dia-   The first individual who perceived a glimpse of
maeters.  If Mercury were as large as the earth, Saturn's ring was Galileo, soon after the invenan inhabitant of our globe placed on the surface tion of the telescope. He thought he saw that
of that planet would feel himself "pulled to the planet appear like two smaller globes on each
ground" as if he were placed on a similar ball side of a larger globe; or, as he expressed it, that
of lead, and his weight, of course, would be in- " Saturn was in the shape of an olive."  In the
creased; but, as matters now stand, the gravita- year 1610, he published his discovery in a Latin
tion' on Mercury is only a small fraction greater sentence, the meaning of which was, that he had
than on the surface of the eartn; so that, in this seen Saturn appear with three bodies. After view.
respect, " a native of the earth," and particularly ing Saturn ill this form for two years, he was suran inhabitant of Greenland, might walk with prised to see him become quite round without his
nearly as much ease on the planet Mercury as adjoining globes, and to remain in this state for
under our equator.  The same considerations some time, and, after a considerable period, to
show the absurdity of what is stated in relation to appear again in his triple form as before. This
Saturn; for that planet is ten times the diameter deception was owing to the want of magnifying
of the earth; and though its density is nearly as power in the telescope used by Galileo; for the
small as that of cork, yet its immense bulk ren- first telescope constructed by this astronomer
ders the force of gravity at its surface somewhat magnified the diameters of objects only three
greater than even on the earth, and almost as times; his second improved telescope magnified
great as on the surface of Mercury.  A  body only eight times; and the best telescope which, at
which weighs one pound on the surface of the that time, he found himself capable of constructearth would weigh one pound and four drachms if ing, magnified little more than thirty times; and
removed to the surface of Saturn; so that a per- with this telescope he made most of his discoveson, instead of being able to "leap sixty feet ries. But a telescope of this power is not suffihigh" from the surface of this planet, would be cient to show the opening or dark space between
unable to leap quite so high as he can do on the the ring and Saturn on each side of the planet;
earth.  In short, there is not a planet in the solar and at the time when it appeared divested of its
system, with the exception of Jupiter, on which two appendages, the thin and dark edge of the
an inhabitant of the earth might not move about ring must have been in a line between his eye
as easily, in respect to gravitating power, as he and the body of Saturn, which phenomenon hapdoes on the terraqueous globe; and even on Jupi- pens once every fifteen years.  About forty years
ter, he would experience little more than double after this period, the celebrated Huygens greatly
the weight he now feels.  On some of the other improved the art of grinding object glasses; and
planets, such as Mars and Juno, he would feel with a telescope of his own construction, twelve
somewhat lighter than he now does, but not nearly feet long, and afterward with another of twentyso much as would enable him  to leap to such a three feet, which magnified objects one hundred
hight as above stated. On the same principle, times, lie discovered the true shape of Saturn's
which is taken for granted in the above quotation, ring, and in 1659 he published his " Systemsa Sawe might suppose that a person would feel much turnzuen," in which he describes and delineates
lighter were he placed on the surface of the sun, all its appearances.
because the density of that luminary is little more   It was suspected by astronomers more than a
than the density of water; whereas, in conse- century ago, that the ring of Saturn was double,
quence of his immense size, the gravitating pow- or divided into two concentric rings. Cassini
er would be twenty-seven times greater than at the supposed it probable that this was the case. Mr.
surface of our globe. For, according to the cal- Pound, in the account of his observations on Saculations of La Place, a body which, at the earth's turn in 1723, by means of Hadley's new reflectequator, weighs one pound, if transported to the ing telescope, states that with this instrument
surface of the sun, would weigh about twenty- he could plainly perceive "the black list in Saseven and a half pounds; from which it follows, turn's ring," and gives an engraving of the plathat there a heavy body would descend about net and ring with this dark stripe distinctly
four hundred and twenty-five feet in the first se- marked, as in the modern views of Saturn.*  Mr.
cond of time; consequenltly, were a man who Hadley likewise states t that, in the year 1722,
weighs two hundred pounds to be placed on the with the same telescope, he observed the dark
sun, he would be pressed down to its surface with line on the ring of Saturn parallel to its circuma force equal to five thousand five hundred pounds, ference;, which was chiefly visible on the anse,
or nearly two tons and a half, which would fix or extremities of the elliptic figure in which the
him to the surface without power of motion. So ring appears, but that he was several times able
that whatever beings may inhabit that globe, it is to trace it quite round; particularly in May, 17'5~,
not fitted for the residence of man in his present he could discern it without the northern limb of
state of organization.                           Saturn, in that part of the ring that appeared beThe eccentricity of Saturn's orbit is 49,000,000 yond the globe of the planet, and could percelve
of miles, which is about the 1-37th part of the that the globe of Saturn reflects less light than
diameter of the orbit.  Its inclination to the the inner part of the ring. It was not, however,
ecliptic is 20 2912'.  Its apparent diameter, as until Sir W. Herschel began to make observations
seen from  the earth, is seventeen minutes, six on this planet with his powerful telescopes, that
seconds; and its mean daily motion, two minutes Saturn was recognized as being invested with
of a degree.                                    two concentric rings. The following cut (Fig.
58) exhibits a view of Saturn and his rings, nearly
VIII. ON THr RINGS OF SATURN.          in their respective proportions, as they would appear were they placed perpendicular to our line
Beside the appearance above described, this of sight; but, on account of the oblique angle
planet is encircled with a double ring, one of the
most astonishing  phenomena which  have yet
been discovered in the heavens, and which, there-   * See "Philosophical Transactions," No. 378, for July,
1723; and Reid and Gray's Abridgment, Vol. vi, p. 153.
fore, requires a separate and particular doscrip-   t 1Philosophical Traensactions.",No. 378; or ALridgment,
tion.                                           Vol. vi, p. 154.




ROTATION OF SATURN'S RINGS.                                       67
they genrerally formn to our line of vision, we  being shifted from their equilibrium  by any exnever see them  through the telescope in this po- ternal force, such as the attraction of the satelsition.                                           lites, which might endanger their falling upon
Fig. 58.                     the planet.  That this double ring really consists
of two concentric rings, was demonstrated, says
Professor Robison, " by a star having been seen
through the interval between them."
This double ring is now found to have a swift
rotation round Saturn in its own plane, which it
accomplishes in about ten hours and a half.  This
is very nearly the periodic time which a satellite
would take in revdlving at the same distance from
the center of Saturn. This rotation was detected
by observing that some portions of the ring were
a little less bright than others.  Sir W. Herschel,
when examining the plane of the ring with a
powerful telescope, perceived near the extremity
of its arms or ansee several lucid or protuberant
points, which seemed to adhere to the ring. At
first he imagined them to be satellites, but afterward found, upon careful examination, that none
of the satellites could exhibit such an appearance,
The following are the dimensions of the rings, and therefore concluded that these points adhered
as determined by the observations of Sir W. Her- to the ring, and that the variation in their position
schel, which are here expressed in the nearest arose from a rotation of the ring round its axis in
round numbers. Outside diameter of the exterior the period above stated.  The circumference of
ring, a d, 204,800 miles, which is nearly twenty- the exterior ring being 643,650 miles, every point
six tinross the diameter of the earth.  Inside dia- of its outer surface moves with a velocity of more
meter of this ring, 190,200 miles; breadth of the  than a thousand miles every minute, or seventeen
dark space between the two rings, 2839 miles, miles during one beat of the clock. It is highly
which is 700 miles more than the diameter of our probable that this rapid rotation of the ring is one
moon, so that a body as large as the moon would  of the principal causes, under the arrangements
have room to move between the rings.  Outside  of the Creator, of sustaining the ring, and prediameter of the interior ring, b, 184,400, and the  venting it from collapsing and falling down upon
inside diameter, 146,300 miles. Breadth of the  the planet.  This double  ring is evidently a
exterior ring, 7200 miles; breadth of the interior, solid compact substance, and not a mere cloud
20,000 miles, or 2/. times the diameter of the  or shining fluid; for it casts a deep shadow
earth; so that the interior ring is nearly three  upon  different regions of the planet, which is
times broader than the exterior.  The thickness plainly perceived by good telescopes.  Beside,
of the rings has not yet been accurately deter- were it not a solid arch, its centrifugal force,
mined. Sir John Herschel supposes that it does caused by its rapid rotation, would soon dissipate
not exceed a hundred miles.  "So very thin is all its parts, and scatter them in the surrounding
the ring," says Sir John, "that it is quite invisi- spaces.  It is not yet ascertained whether both
ble, when its edge is directly turned to the earth, the rings have the same period of rotation.  This
to any but telescopes of extraordinary power."  magnificent appendage to the globe of Saturn is
On the 19th of April, 1833, "the disappearance  about 30,000 miles distant from  the surface of
of the rings was complete when observed with a the planet, so that four globes nearly as large as
reflector eighteen inches in aperture and twenty  the earth could be interposed between thern; it
feet in focal length.*  The breadth of the two  keeps always the same position with respect to
rings, including the dark space between them, is the planet; is incessantly moving around it; and
very nearly equal to the dark space which inter- is carried along with the planet in its revolution
vrenes between the globe of Saturn and the inside  round the sun.
of the interior ring. It appears to have been    The surface of the double ring does not seem
lately ascertained that this double ring is not ex- to be exactly plane.  One of the ansue* sometimes
actly circular, but eccentric.  This seems to have  disappears and presents its dark edge, while the
been first observed by M. Schwalz, of Dessau, in  other ansa continues to appear, and exhibits a part
1828. He informed M. Harding of it, who thought of its plane surface.  On the 9th of October,
he saw the same thing; M. Harding informed  1714, the ansme appeared twice as short as usual,
Professor Schumacher, who applied to M. Strove  and the eastern one much longer than the western.
to settle the question by means of the superb mi- On the first of the same month, the largest ansa
erometer attached to his great telescope.  M. was on the east side; on the 12th, the largest ansa
Strave measured the distance between the ring  was on the west side of Saturn's disc;t which led
and the body of the planet on five different days, the observers, even at that period, to conclude that
and ascertained that Saturn's ring is really eccen- the ring had a rotation round the planet.  On the
tric, and, consequently, that the center of the  11th of January, 1774, M. Messier observed both
planet does not coincide with the center of the the ansme completely detached from  the planet,
ring; but that the center of gravity of the rings
oscillates round that of the body of Saturn, describing a very minute orbit. This is considered   * The parts of the ring about the ends of the longest axis,
as of the utmost importance to the stability of the  reaching beyond the disc of the planet, are called the ans.
system  of the rings, in preventing them  from  Ansa signifies a handle, which name was given when telescopes were so imperfect as to represent Saturn as a globe
with two small knobs on each side. The same name is still
Sir John Herschel states the dimensions of these rings continued, though it is somewhat improper, now that the
on a somewhat lower scale than what his father determined. true shape of this appendage is known. Still the general
He says that thev were calculated from Professor Struve's appearance of Saturn is somewhat like a globe, with al
nicrometricai measures; but admits that some of the di- ansa or handle on each side.
mensions he states are perhaps too small.          t Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1715.




CELESTIAL SCENERY.
and the eastern one larger than the -other. In  of the power of the Creator. and of the grandeur,
1774, Sir W., Herschel likewise observed Saturn  and magnificence of his' plans and operations.
with a single ansa. From  these observations, it They likewise display the. depths of his wisdom
has been concluded.that,there are irregularities and intelligence; for they are so adjusted, both in
on the surface of the ring, analogous, perhaps, to respect to their position around the body of the
mountains and vales of vastY extent;' and that the planet and to the degree of motion impressed upon
occasional' disappearance of the ansEe' may possibly them,. as to prevent both' their falling in on the
arise from  a curvature in- its.surface, Sir W. planet and their flying off from  it through the
Herschel was of opiniol that the edge of the ex- distant regions of space. We have already stated
terior ring is not flat, but of a spherical, or rather that the rings are not exactly concentric with the
spherloidal form..                            body of: the planet. Now, it is demonstrable,
Dimensions of Saturn's Rings. -It is difficult fromn. physical considerations, that were they
for the mind' to form an adequate -conception of mathematically perfect in their circular form, and
the magnitude, the mechanism, and the mragnifi- exactly concentric with the planet, "they would
cence of these wonderful rillgs,'which form one form a system in a state of unstable equilibrium,
of the mo.st astonishing objects that the universe which the slightest external power," such as the
displays,' In orderto appreciate, in some measure, attraction of -the satellites, "might completely
the immense size of: these rings, it''may be proper subvert, by precipitating them unbroken on the
-tO attend-to- the following statements: Suppose a surface of the planet."  For physical laws must
person to travel round the outer edge of the be considered. as operating in the system of Saturn
exterior ring, and to continue his journey without as well as in the earth and moon, and the other,in'termission at the rate of. twenty-five miles every planets; and every minute. circumstance must be
day, it would require more than seventy years adjusted so as to correspond with these laws.
before he could finish his tour round this immense "The observed oscillation," says Sir J. Herschel,.
celestial arch. The interior boundary of the,' of the centers of the rings about that of the
ztnner ring incloses a space which'would be suffi- planet is, in itself, the evidence of a perpetual
client to contain within it three hundred and forty contest between  conservative and destructive
globes as large as the earth; and the outer ringcould powers, both extremely feeble, but so antagoniinclose within its inner circumference five hun- zing one another as to prevent the latter from.dredand seventy-five globes of the same magni- ever acquiring an uncontrollable ascendency and
tude, supposing every portion of the inclosed area rushing to a catastrophe."  " The smallest difto' be filled. This outer ring would likewise in- ference of velocity between the body and rings
close a giobe containing 2,829,580,622,04S,315 or must infallibly precipitate the latter on the former,
more than two thousand eight hundred billions of never more to separate; consequently, either their
cuhical miles, which globe would be equal to motions in their common orbit around the sun
more than ten thousand eight hundred globes of the must have been adjusted to each other by an exsize of the earth.  In regard to the quantity of. teinal power with the minutest precision, or the
surface contained in tliese rings,,the one'side of rings must have been formed about the planet
the outer ring contains an area of 4,529,401,800, while subject to their common orbitual mnotion
or more than four thousand five hundred millions and under the full fiee influence of all the acting
of square miles. The one side of the inner ring forces."  Here, then,'we have an evident proof
contains 9,895,780,818, or nearly ten. thousand of the consummate wisdom of the almighty Con.
millions of square miles. The two rings, there- triver in so nicely adjusting everything in refore, contain on one side above fourteen thousand spect to number, Weight, position and motion, as
four hundred millions'of square miles; and as the to preserve in undeviating stability and permaother sides of the rings contain'the same extent nency this wonderful system of Saturn; and we
of surface, the whole area comprehended in these have palpable evidence that everything conducive
rings will amount to28,850,365, 236, or more than to this end has been accomplished, from the fact
twenty-eight thousand eight hundred millions of that no sensible deviation has been observed in
square miles. This quantity of surface is equal this system for more than 220 years, or since the
to 146 times the number of square miles in the ring was discovered; nor, in all probability, has
terraqueous globe, and is more than 588. times the there ever been any change or catastrophe in this
area of all the habitable portions of the earth. respect since the planet was first created and
Were we to suppose these rings inhabited (which launched into the depths of space.
is. not at all improbable) they could accommodate   Appearance of the Rings from the body of Sa.
a population, according to the rate formerly stated, turn.-These rings will appear in. the firmament
of 8,078,102,266,080, or more. than eight billions, of Saturn like large luminous arches or semicirwhichi is equal to more than ten thousand times the cles of light, stretching across the heavens from
present population of our  globe; so that these the eastern to the western horizon, occupying thm
rings, in reference to the'space they contain, may one-fourth or one-fifth part of the visible sky.be considered, in one, point of view, as equal to As they appear more brilliant than the body of
ten thousand worlds.   -.   the planet, it is probable that they are composed
Were we to take into consideration the thickness of substances fitted for reflectin'g the solar light
of the rings, we should find a very considerable with peculiar splendor, and therefore, will present
addition to the area' above stated. Supposing, a most magnificent and brilliant aspect in the
according to Sir'J. Herschel's estimate, that they firmament of Saturn. Their appearance will be
are only one hundred miles thick, the area of the different in different regions of the planet. At a
exterior circumference of the'edge. of the outer little distance from the equator they will be seen
ring will be 64,365,700 miles; and that'of the nearly as complete semicircles, stretching along
interior edge, 59,777,100.' The exterior edge of' the whole' celestial hemisphere, and appearing in
the inner ring will contain an area of 57,954,200 their greatest splendor. In the day-time they
square miles, and the interior edge 45,980,000; in will present a dim appearance, like a cloud or like
all 228,077,000 square miles, which.is thirty-one  our moon when the sun is above the'horizon.millions of square miles more han the'whole area After sunset their brightness will increase, as our
of our globe.                                   moon increases. in brilliancy as the sun disapThese rings, therefore, exhloit a striking idea pears, and the'shadow of the globe of Saturn will




APPEARANCES -oFi THE RINGS OF SATURN.                                  69
be-seen on their eastern boundary directly oppo- semblage. Beside, during this period is the prinsite toathe sun. This shadow wilappear to move cipal opportunity they enjoy of contemplating the
gradually'along the rings.until midnight, when it starry firmament, and surveying the more distant
will be seen near the zenith, or the highest point' regions of the universe, in which they may enjoy
-of. these celestial -arches. After midnight it will a pleasure equal, if not Superior, to what is felt
appear to decline to the western horizon, where it amid the splendor of the solar rays; and it is not
will be seen near the time of.the: rising of the improbable that'multitudes may resort to these
sun..- After sunrise the brightness decays, and it darker regions for the purpose of making celestial
appears like a cloudy arch throughout the day. observations; for the bright shining of the rings
T_~hoe Ffollowing circumstances willadd to the. in- during the continuance of night will, in all proterest of.this astonishing spectacle:   1. The rapid bability, prevent the numerous objects in the
motion of- the rings, which will appear to move starry heavens from  being distinguished.  The
from  the eastern horizon tothe- zenith ill two very circumstances, then, which might, at first
hours and a half. 2. The diversity of surface view, convey to our minds images of gloom  and
which the rings will exhibit; for if we can trace horror, may be parts of a system  in which are
inequalities upon these rings by the telescope at displayed the most striking evidences of benefi*the distance of more than 800,000,000 of miles, cent contrivance and design. It must be a strikmuch- more must the inhabitants of Saturn per- ing scene when the sun is of a sudden altogether
ceive all the variety with which they are adorned intercepted, without any apparent cause, not to
-when they are placed so near them  as the one- return for fifteen years; and, on the other hand,
eighth part of the distance of our moon. Every when, at the end of this period, his light again
two or three minutes, therefore, a new portion of bursts all at once upon the astonished beholders,
the scenery of the rings will mate its appearance closing up, as it were, the prospects of the firmain the horizon'with all, their diversified objects; meat, and diffusing his splendor on every surand if these rings be inhabited, the various scenes rounding object; and both events may be attendand operations connected with their population ed with sentiments of admiration and emotions
might be distinguished from the surface of Saturn of delight. At certain times of the year of Sawith-such eyes as ours, aided by our most power- turn, and in certain latitudes from his equator, the
ful telescopes. 3. The motion of the shadow of sun will be eclipsed for a short time, every day at
the globe of, Saturn in a direction-contrary to the noon, by the upper part of the exterior ring, acmotion of the rings, which shadow will occupy a cording as he declines more or less to the opposite
space of many thousand miles upon the rings, side; and sometimes he will i partially eclipsed
will form another variety of scenery in the firma- by the under side of the exterior ring and the
ment. 4. If the two rings revolve around the upper side of the interior, and sometimes will be
planet in different periods of time, the appear- seen moving along the interval which separates
ance.in the celestial vault will be still more diver- these rings.
sified; then one scene willbe seen rising on the   The following figures are intended'to convey a
~upper, and another and a different scene rising on rude idea of the objects connected with the firmathe lower ring; and, through the opening between ment of Saturn.!he rings, the stars, the- planets, and obe or two
if the satellites may sometimes appear.ig. 9.
Near the polar regions of the planet only a.Cmparatively small portion of the rings will ap~8oar above the horizon, dividing the celestial hemiwhere into two unequal parts, and presenting the
same general appearance now described, but upon,, smaxeilr scale.  Toward the polar points the
-inga wlt,in all probability, be quite invisible. - Duhing tho.siace of fourteen years and nine months,
which it, half the year of this planet, the sun
shines oan Ste one side of these rings without intermJi 4ion, and during the same period -he shines
on the othae: side. During nearly fifteen years,
therefo'e, the inhabitants on one side of the equator:will be eni0bltened by the sun in the day-time
and the -ings ty night, while those on the other
hemisphere, who )ivoe under the dark side of the
ring, sufTar a solar eclipse of fifteen years' continuance, during which they never see the sun.At the time when the sun ceases to shine on one
side of tho ring, and in about to shine on the
other, the ri:ngs will:be invisible for a few days or
weeksto alli the.inhdbitaints of Saturn.
- At first viow we might be apt to suppose that
it must be a gloomy situation for those who live
under. the shadow of the rings during so long a
period as fifteen years; but we are not acquainted
with all-the circumstances of their situation, or the
numerous beneficent contrivances which may
tend to cheer them during. this period, and, therefore, are not warranted to conclude'. that such a
situation is physically uncomfortable. We know    Fig. 59, represents the appearance of the rings
that they e    tnjoy the light of their moons without at a little distance from  the planet's equator,
almost any interruption; sometimes two, some- where they will appear nearly as complete semitimes four, and sometimes all their seven moons circles. A B represents: a portion of the globe
are shining in their hemisphele-in one bright as- of Saturn; C D  the shadow  of Saturn  as it




70                                 -CELESTIAL SCENERY.
appears upon the rings at midnight, after which it  ing.' The following considerations will go a great
will appear to move gradually to the west until way in determining this question:  1. They are
slnrise, when it will disappear below'the horizon. intended to produce all the varieties of celestial
The sun, partly eclipsed bythe upper and lower and terrestrial scenery which I have described
edge of the rings in the day-time,'is represented at'above, and doubtless other varieties with which
e,f, g, and h. -The other objects are some' of the we are unacquainted; and this circumstance of
satellites in different phases, and-'-the fixed stars, itself, although we'could devise no other reason,
of which few will probably be seen, someof them  might be sufficient to warrant the Creator to
within and some of them beyond the -rings.- deviate from his general arrangements in respect
Fig. 60, represents the' illgs as they will appear to the other planets.  For variety is one characfrom places near the polar regions of the planet, teristic of his plans and operations, both in refrom  which situations they'will appear as only spect to the objects on our globe and to those
Small segments of circles near thle'horizon.  The which- exist throughout the planetary system, and
niearer the pole, the smaller the circles will appear. it is accordant with those dosires for novelty and
From  the above description, it appears that variety'which are implanted in the minds of in-'there is a, great variety in' the scenery presented telligent beings.  2. They are intended to give a
in the'firmament of Saturn; and this scenery is display of the grandeur of the Divine Being, and
different as viewed from  different regions of the of the effects of his Qmnipotence.  They are
planet.  From the regions near the equator the also intended to evince his inscrutable wisdom
rings'will appear to the greatest advantage and in and intelligence in the nice adjustment of their
all their splendor. From thesepositions the vari- motions and positions, so as to secure their staous objects connected with the rings will be most bility and permanency in their revolutions, along
distinctly observed,' as the spectators will be at with the planet, around the sun.  3. They are
the nearest distance from the innerring, which is doubtless intended to teach us what varied scenes
about thirty thousand miles.' At the latitude of of sublimity and beauty the Deity has introduced
450 they will be twenty thousand miles farther or may yet introduce into various regions throughfrom them; they will appear at a much lower ele- out the universe. We are acquainted with only a
vation above the horizon, a smialler portion of few particulars respecting one planetary system;
their curve will be seen, and their breadth will oc- but we have every reason to conclude that many
cupy a less space in the heavens. At a higher millions of similar or analogous systems exist
latitude a still'smiler portion will be seen, until throughout the unlimited regions of space. In
theydwindle to almall curve or speck of light in some of those systems the arrangements conthe horizon; and at the poles they will be quite nected with the worlds which compose them may
invisible by the interposition of equatorial parts be as different from those of our globe and.omo
of the planet.  Immediately under the equator the of the other planets, as the arrangements and
light of the rings will be scarcely visible, but the apparatus connected with Saturn are different
sun will occasionally illuminate the under edge of from those of the planet Vesta or Mars. Around
the interior ring, at f, e, D, and other places; some of these worlds there may be thrown not
which, at night, will appear like a- narrow lumi- only two concentric rings, but rings standing at
naus arch stretching: directly across the zenith -right angles to each other, and inclosing and refrom  the eastern to th'e- western horizon, and volving round each other; yea, for aught we
diversified with the motion of trihe -shadow of Sa- know, there may be an indefinite number of rings
turn.  Beside the different appearances of  le round some worlds, and variously inclined to each
starry regions, the various aspects: of the moons, other, so that the planet may appear like a terressome of them  rising, setting, and culminating,* trial globe suspended in the middle of an armilsome 0of. them appearing as crescents, half moons. lary sphere; and all those rings may be revolving
and full enlightened- hemispheies, some entering within and around each other in various directions
into an eclipse, and some, emerging from  it, and and in different periods of time, so as to produce
all of them appearing to move with a rapid velo- a variety and sublimity of aspect of which.we
city around/ the sky, will greatly add to the variety can' form  no adequate conception.   There is
and diversity of scenery wihich appears in the nothing irrational or extravagant in these suppofirmament of this planet. This diversity of as- sitions; for, had we never discovered the rings of
pect, which the scenery of nature presents from  Saturn, we could have formed no conception of
differenit regions of the planet, will, in all proba- such an appendage being thrown around any
bility,l have atendency to promote frequent inter- world, and it would have been considered in the
courses among the different tribes, of its inhabit- highest degree improbable and romantic had any
ants, in order to contemplate the different scenes one  broached the idea. We - are therefore led to
of nature and providence displayed throughout conclude, from  the characteristic of variety imthis spacious and magnificent' globe.  All these pressed on the universe, that Saturn is not the
circumstances, properly considered, form of them- only planet in creation that is surrounded with
selves aipresumptive argument to prove that the such an apparatus, and that the number and posisublime and exquisite contrivances connected with  tion of its rings are not the only models according
this planet were not, intended merely to illuminate to which the planetary arrangements in other
barren sands'and hideous.deserts, but to afford a systems may be constructed.'
comfortable and magnificent habitation for thou-   4. Beside the considerations now  stated, the
sands of: millions of rational inhabitants who em- chief. use, I presume, for which' these rings were
ploy their faculties in the contemplation of the created was, that they might serve as a spacious
wonders which surround them, and give to their abode for myriads of intelligent creatures.  If we
Creator the glory which isidue to his name.      admit that the globe of Saturn was formed for the
It has often been asked as a mysterious ques- reception of rational inhabitants, there appears no
ion, "What is the use of the rings with which reason' why we should not also admit that the
Saturn is environed? ". This is a question which rings were constructed chiefly for the same purI conceive there is no great-difficulty in answer- pose.  These rings, as we have already seen, contain a surface of about thirty thousand mnillions of
A heavenly body is said toculminate when it-comes to square. miles; and, if all the other plan6ts be
the meridian, or the highest point of its diurnal course.    inhabited, it is not likely that the Creator would




TELESCOPIC VIEWS OF SATURN'S RINGS.                                     71
eave a space equal to  nearly 6000 times the when viewed through our telescopes. Sometimes
habitable parts of our globe as a desolate. waste, the planet appears to be completely divested of its
without any tribes of either sensitive, or intelli- rings; sometimes they appear only like a short
gent existence.' It, forms no objection to this idea luminous line or streak on each sideof its body;
that the rings are flat, and not globular like the sometimes they appear like handles on each side of
planets; for the Creator can arrange any figure of the planet; and at other times like a large ellipse or
a world into asuitable abode for intelligent beings; oval almost surrounding the body of the planet.
and on our globe we find myriads of'animated These varied aspects of the rings are owing to the
beings fitted for every mode of existence, and in following circumstances. The rings never stand at
situations where we should scarcely ever have ex- right angles to our line of vision; otherwise wo
pected-to see them. Beside, three or four centuries should see them as represented in Fig. 58 (p. 67).
have scarcely elapsed since the earth was generally  Our eye' is never elevated more than thirty deconsidered. as a plane indefinitely extended; and grees above the plane of the rings. The plane
the idea of its being a globe, inhabited on all' of these rings- preserves a position parallel to itself
sides, was scouted as untenable, and considered  in every part of the planet's  revolution, being
far more ridiculous than it can be now to suppose constantly inclined at the same, or nearly the
the flat rings of' Saturn as serving'the- purpose of same angle to the orbit and to the ecliptic, which
a habitable world. What should hinder them  angle is about twenty-nine orthirty degrees. The
front serving this purpose as well as the globe of nodes'of the rings lie in 1900 and 3500.of longiSaturn?  They are solid arches, which is evident tude, which correspond to the twentieth degree
from their shadows and their-rapid motion; they  of Virgo and the twentieth of Pisces.. When,
contain an ample space for an immense popula- therefore, the planet is in these points, the rings
tion; they have the power of attraction, like other entirely disappear, because the thin, edge of the
material substances connected with the solar sys- outer ring only is turned toward our eye, and
tem; they are capable of being adorned with as every trace of: it is lost for some time, except the
great a diversity of surface, and'as great a variety, shadow of it, which appears like a dark belt across'of beautiful and sublime objects, as this earth or the planet.  This disappearance happens once
any other of the planetary bodies; and it can every fifteen years, but frequently with different
)make no great difference in the enjoyments of circumstances.  Two disappearances and two resentient and intellectual beings whether they live appearances may occur in the same year, but
on a globe, a'spheroid, a cylinder, or a plane sur- never more.  When Saturn is in the longitude
face, which the hand of Wisdom  and Omnipo- above stated, the plane of- the rings passes through
tonce has prepared for their reception; while it the sun,.and, the light then falling- upon it edgedisplays, at the same time, the variety of modes wise, it is to us no longer visible.. The' rings
in which the Universal Parent can convey happi- likewise disappear when their plane passes through
ness to his numerous offspring.  It may, perhaps, the earth; for its edge being then directed' to the
be objected to the idea of the habitability of these eye, and being too fine to be seen, the planet
rings, that; while one side is enlightened during appears quite round and unaccompanied With its
fifteen years without intermission, the other side rings. When the earth is placed on the side of
remains in the dark during the same period. But the rings which is turned from  the sun, we have
the same thing happens to extensive regions on a third cause of its disappearance.  As the planet
the globe of Saturn; and, doubtless, arrangements passes from the ascending to: the descending node
are made for the enjoyment of the inhabitants in  of the rings, the northern side of their plane is
both cases during this period. They enjoy in turned toward the sun. As it passes from  the
succession, and sometimes all at once, the light descending to the ascending node,'the southern
reflected from  at least seven moons, and they side of the rings is enlightened.  In proportion
behold occasionally the body of Saturn reflecting as it recedes from these nodes, the rings appear to
the solar rays from certain parts of its surface, widen and to present a broader ellipsis, until it
and appearing like a vast luminous crescent, in arrives at 900 from either node, or in 800 or 2600
different degrees of luster, suspended in the sky. of longitude, corresponding to 20~ of Gemini and
(See p. 69.)                                     200 of Scorpio; at which time the rings will be
Many other views and descriptions might be seen to the greatest advantage, and.appear almost
given of the phenomena connected with the sys- surrounding the globe of Saturn.  At the time
tem of Saturn, were it not that I do not wish to of the greatest opening of the rings, their shorter
exhaust the patience of the reader by dwelling diameter appears exactly one-half of the longer
too long on one subject. The circumstance of diameter.
two concentric rings being thrown around a pla-   The following figures. represent, the different
net, however simple it may at first sight appear, appearances of the rings, during half the period
involves in it an immense variety of peculiar and  of the revolution of Saturn, as seen through good
striking phenomena, in regard both to the inhab- telescopes. Fig. 60 shows the appearance of Saitants of the planet and of the rings, so that it is turn when the plane of the ring is parallel to the
difficult for the mind to form a precise and definite line of vision, and its thin edge turned to the eye.
conception of every particular.  To acquire even  In this manner the planet appeared during the
a general view of such phenomena, it would be months of October, November, and part of Derequisite to construct, a pretty large machine, ceomber, 1832, when nothing was perceptible exrepresenting the system  of Saturn, in all its cept the dark shade across its disc, as represented
known motions and proportions, and to make it in the figure.  The first time the weather perrevolve around a central light. An instrumentin itted observations on Saturn about this period.of this kind is as necessary'for illustrating the was December 27, when I per'ceived the ring,
subject on which we have been descanting, as an with a power of 180, appearing like a fine thread
orrery or planetarium to illustrate the seasons and of light on each side of the planet, as represented
the planetaiy motions.                           Fig. 61.  About the beginning of October the
Telescopic Views of Saturn and its Rings.-As plane of the ring passed through the center of the
these' rings present a variety of aspects as seen sun.  At that time the inhabitants of Saturn,
from different parts of the planet, so they appear who had previously been in darkness, would perto assume a different appearance at different times ceive the margin of the sun projecting over the




72                                 CELESTIAL SCENERY.
edge of the ring like a brilliant streak of light, tions in their orbits and motions, Some disturband, in the course of about, four of -our days, or ances or inequalities in the motions of Jupiter
nine days of Saturn, the whole body of the sun and Saturn, which could not be accounted for
would appear above the plane of the ring, gradu- from the mutual action of these planets, led cerally rising a little higher every day, as lie does tain astronomers to conclude that another. planet
after the 21st March to the:north pole of the of considerable magnitude existed beyond the orearth. The ring began to appear a little larger bit of Saturn, by the action of which these irreguduring the months of January, February, and larities were produced. It was not, however, until
March, 1833; but in April it again disappeared, as near the close of the eighteenth century that this
the earth was then in the plane of the ring, and happy conjecture was realized and confirmed.it continued invisible until near the end of June. To the late Sir W. Herschel astronomy is indebted
After which it again appeared, as represented in for discovering a new primary planet, which had
Fig. 61, and will now continue visible until the been previously unknown to all astronomers.
This illustrious astronomer, when residing in
Bath, had constructed reflecting telescopes of a.. F 6.0         61.          larger size and with higher powers than any that
~I.    r! -  I.had been previously in -use, and had devoted his
unwearied attention to celestial observations.While pursuing a design which he had formed, of
making minute observations on every region of
the heavens, on the 13th of March, 1781, while
examining, with one of his best telescopes, the
constellation of Gemini, he observed a star near
the foot of Castor, the light of which appeared to
differ considerably from that of the neighboring
stars, or those which he found described in catalogues.  On applying a higher magnifying power
it appeared evidently to increase in diameter; and
two days afterward he perceived that its place was
changed, and that it had moved a little from  its
former position.  From these circumstances he
concluded that it was a comet, and sent an account of it as such to the astronomer royal. As
a comet, however, it seemed particularly singular
that no tail or nebulous appearance could be perceived; on the contrary, it was found to show
with a faint steady light, somewhat paler than that
of Jupiter. The account of this discovery soon
spread throughout Europe, and was confirmed by
observations made at Paris, Vienna, Milan, Pisa,
Berlin, and Stockholm. The star was for some
time generally considered as an extraordinary comet, firee of all nebulosity, and astronomers were
occupied in determining the parabolic elements
year 1847, when itwill again disappear. In about of its course. " The President Bochard de Saron,
a year after its second disappearance, it appeared of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, and Lexel,
as in Fig. 62.  In about a year and a half after- an astronomer of St. Petersburg, who was in Lonward the opening between the rings appeared don at the time, were the first who discovered its
wider, as in Fig. 63; and in 1837 it appeared as circular form, and calculated the dimensions of its
in Fig. 64. In Fig. 65 the rings are represented orbit.  It was no longer doubted that Herschel's
at the utmost extent in which they are ever seen, star was a new planet; and all subsequent obseralong with the dark space that separates the two vations verified this unexpected result."*  We
rings, which can only be distinguished by a tele- have here a striking proof of the perfection of
scope magnifying from 220 to 300 times. In this modern theories; for the laws regulating the moposition it will be seen in 1840; after which it tion of this new planet were determined before it
will pass through all the gradations here repre- had accomplished the twentieth part of its course,
sented, appearing narrower every year until 1847, and that motion was not less accurately known
when it will be seen as in Fig. 61; soon after than that of other planets which had been obwhich it will entirely disappear, and the planet served during so many centuries. Since its discowill be seen as if divested of its ring, as repre- very to the present time, it has not yet moved
sented in Fig. 60. Such are the various aspects much more than two-thirds of a revolution round
under which Saturn and his rings appear, as view- the sun; and yet its motions are calculated, and
ed through powerful telescopes.                 its place in the heavens predicted, with as much
accuracy and certainty as those of the other plaiX. ON THE PLANET URANUS.             nets, a circumstance which demonstrates the preSince the time of Newton, when the physical cision of modern astronomers, and which should
causes of the celestial motions began to be studied lead the unskillful in astronomy to rely on the
and investigated, astronomers have had their at- deductions of this science, however far they may
tenltion directed.to the power or influence which transcend their previous conceptions.
the planetary bodies exert upon each other. This   When the motion of this new planet was cal.
power is termed attraction or gravitation, and is culated, the points of the heavens which'it sueinherent in all material substances, so far as our cessively occupied during the preceding century
knowledge extends. It is exerted in proportion
to the quantity of matter and the distances of the 
Biographical Memoir of Sir W. Herschel, by Baron
respective bodies; the planets, in their nearest ap- Fourier. Read to the Royal Academy of Sciences, June'
Droach to each other, causing some slight devia- 1824.




MAG(NITUDE AND DIMENSIONS OF URANUS.                                    70
could be pointed out; -and it occurred to some as- When nearest the earth, it is distant from  us
tronomers that it might possibly have been ob- about 1,705,000,000 of miles.  In order to acserved before, though not' known to -be a planet. quire a rude conception of this -distance, let us
Mr. Bode, of Berlin, who had just published a suppose a steam-carriage to set out from  the
woik containing all the catalogues of zodiacal earth, and to move, without intermission, tweun.
stars which had appeared, was induced to consult ty miles every  hour,' it would  require more
these catalogues in order to-discover whether any  than nine thousand, seven hundred and thirty
star marked by one astronomer, and omitted by  years before it could reach the planet Uranus,
another, might not be the new planet in question. so that, although the journey had been comIn the course of this *inquiry h-e found that the menced at the creation of our globe, it would still
star No. 964 in Mayer's catalogue had been unob- require more than three thousand seven hundred
served by others, and observed only once by  years to arrive at its termination.  Even a calMayer himself, so that no motion could have non ball, flying at the rate of twelve thousania
been perceived by him. On this Mr. Bode imme- miles every day, would require three hundred and
diately directed his telescope to that part of the eighty-nine years to reach the nearest point of the
heavens where he might expect to find it, but orbit of this planet. Yet the comet which apwith'out success. At the same time he found, by. peared in 1835, in all probability, pursues its
calculation, that its apparent place in the year course far beyond the orbit of Uianus, and will,
1756 ought to have been that of Mayer's star, and  doubtless, visit this part of our system again, as it
this was one of the years in Which he was busied  has done before, within the space of seventy-six
in his observations; and, on further inquiry, it years, although it must move more than double
was found that the star 964 had been discovered  the above distance before it returns.  The circumby Mayer on the 15th of September, 1756;:so ference of the orbit in which Uranus revolves
that it-is now believed -that this star was the ne'w  about the sun is 11,314,000,000 of miles, through
planet of Herschel. It appears likewise that this which it moves in 30,686 miean solar'days, or
star was seen several times by Flamstead, the as- about eighty-four years. It is the slowest movtronomer royal, in the year 1690; once by.Brad- ing planet in the system, and yet it pursues its
1ey; and eleven times by Lemonnier; all of whom  course at the rate of 15,000 miles every hour.considered it as one of the fixed stars, but. never Were a steam-carriage to move around the imsuspected that it was a planetary body. The dis- mense orbit of this planet at the rate above stated,
covery of this planet enlarges. our views of the it would require no less than sixty-four thousand,
extent of the solar system, and of the quantity of five hundred and seventy years before this ample
matter it contains, far more than if planets equal circuit could be completed; and yet a globe eighty
to Mercury, Venus, the Earth, the Moo1n, Mars, times larger than the earth finishes this vast tour
Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, were to be added  in eighty-four years!  This planet doubtless reto that system; for, although it is scarcely distin- volves round its axis as the other planets do, but
guishable by the naked eye on the vault of hea- the period of its rotation is as yet unknown.  Its
ven, it is more than twenty times larger than all great distance from  the earth prevents us from
these bodies taken together.                     observing any spots or changes on its surface by
After this body was ascertained to belong to the which its rotation might. be determined.  La
planetary system, it became a subject of conside- Place concludes, from  physical considerations,
ration by what name it should be distinguished.- that it revolves about an axis very little inclined
The old planets were distinguished by names bor- to the ecliptic; and that- the time of its diurnal
rowed from  the heathen doities, a nomenclature  rotation cannot be much less than that of Jupiwhich, perhaps,, it might now be expedient to  ter or Saturn.
change; but Galileo and Cassini gave to the celes-   Magnitude and Dimensions of Uranus. This
tial bodies they discovered the names of the planet is about 35,000 miles in diameter, and
princes who had patronized their labors. Hence  110,000 miles in  circumference, being  about
Galileo, when he had discovered;the satellites of  eighty-one times larger than the earth, and four
Jupiter, sent his drawings of themeto his patron, thousand times larger than the moon.  Its surCosmo Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, in honor face contains 3,848,460,000 of square miles, which
of whom  he called them  Medicean stars; and  is 19 times the area of our globe, and 78 times the
Cassini named the satellites of Saturn which he area of all the habitable portions of the earth. At
discovered after Louis XIV. In imitation of these the rate of population formerly stated, 280 to a
discoveries, Sir W. Herschel named his newly- square mile, it could, therefore, accommodate
discovered planet Georgium Sidus, in honor of his 1,077,568,800,000, or more than one billion of
patron George the Third. But foreign astrono- inhabitants, which is one thousand three hundred
nmers, for a considerable time, gave it the name of and forty-seven times the population of our globe.
Herschel, in honor of the discoverer; but after- So that this planet, which escaped' the - notice of
ward hesitated between the names Cybele, Nep- astronomers for -more than five thousand years,
tune, and Uranus. This last name, derived from  forms a very considerable portion of the solar
one.of the Nine Muses  who presided over astro-, system and of the scene of the Divine government,
nomy, ultimately prevailed, and will probably dis-    Proportion of Light on Uranus.-As this planet
tinguish this planet in future generations, unless' is nineteen times farther from  the sun than the
the present nomenclature of the planets be abo- earth is, and as'the square of 19 is 361, the intenlisbed.:  sity of light on its surface will be three hundred
Distance and Period of Uranus. —Uranus is the and sixty times less than what we enjoy. Yet
most distant planet of the:solar system, so: far as this quantity of light is equal to what we should
our knowledge yet extends; although it is by no have from the combined effulgence of three hunmeans improbable that planets may exist even be- dred and forty-eight full moons; and, with a slight
yond its orbit, distant as it-is; for comets pass modification of our:visual organs, such a proporfar beyond the  imits of this planet,.and again  tion of light would be quite sufficient for all the
return to the vicinity of the sun. Its distance purposes of vision. Though the light of the sun
from the sun, in rounud numbe~rs,:is 1,800, 000000; flies eighteen hundred millions of miles before it
that is, eighteen hundred millions of miles, which reaches this planet, and returns again by reflecis double the distance of the planet Saturn. — tion nearly the same distance before it reaches the




7A4                         - "    CELESTIAL! SCENERY.
earth, yet it is distinctly visible through our tele- find that the light of Uranus, though descending
scopes, and sometimes even- to the naked eye; upon us from a region 900 millions of miles farand Uranus, with a moderate magnifying power, ther than Saturn, appears as vivid as the light
appears about as bright as Saturn.: How small a which is reflected to us from  that planet.  The
quantity of solar light may suffice for the pur- apparent diameter of the sun, as seen from  Ura.
pose of vision will be obvious by attending to the nus, is only 1 minute, 38 seconds; whereas his
following circumstance: In the late solar eclipse-, mean apparent diameter as Zen from the earth is
which happened-on the 15th, of -May, 1836- little 32 minutes, 3 seconds; consequently this orb, as
more than the one-twelfth part of the sun was visi- viewed from  this planet, will appear very little
ble at those places where the eclipse was annular. larger than Venus appears to us in her greates.
Almost-every person imagined that a dismal gloom  brilliancy, or Jupiter when near his opposition
and darkness would-,ensue, yet the- diminution of The foregoing figure represents to the eye the uaplight appeared no greater than what frequently parent size of the sun as seen from  Uranus and
happens in a cloudy day.'At the time of the from the earth, the small circle representi-ng his
greatest obscuration there was more than half size as seen from Uranus.
the light which falls upon Uranus, and all the ob-   Temperature of Uranus.-If heat followed the —
jects of the surrounding landscape, though some- same law as the propagation of light, and dewhat deficient in brilliancy, were- distinctly per- creased as the square of the distance of the planet
ceived.  There can be ono doubt that the organs from  the sun increased, then the. surface of the
of' vision of the inhabitarits-, of.the different pla- planet Uranus would be a cold region indeed, in
nets, being-formed by Divine wisdom, are exactly which no life or animation, such as we see around
adapted -to the objects amid which;they are placed, us, could exist. Baron Fourier, in his "Memoir
and the quantity of, light reflected from  them; of Herschel," says, "Its temperature is more than
and there may be innumerable modes, unknown forty degrees below that of ice;" and if the deto us, by which this end may be effected., We grees of Reaumur's thermometer be meant, this
can easily conceive, that if the pupils of our eyes temperature will correspond to one hundred and
were rendered capable of a greater degree of ex- twenty-two degrees below the freezing point of
pansion than they now possess, or were Ithe retina, Fahrenheit; a cold enough region, truly. In acon which the images of objects are depicted, en- cordance with such representations, the poets of
dowed with a greater degree' of nervous sensibili- the last century'expatiated on the cold tempera.
ty, so as to be more easily affected by the impulses ture of Saturn in such strains' as the following:
of light, we might perceive as much splendor on    ", When the keen north with all its fury blows,
all the objects connected with Uranus, were we       Congeals the floods, and forms the fleecy snows,
placed on that planet, as we now do on the'T is heat intense to what can there be known;
sconery around us during the brightest' days of  Warmer our poles than-is its burning zone.
scenery around us during the brightest days of       Who there inhabit must have other powers,
summer. When we pass from  the light of the          Juices, and veins, and sense, and life, than ours.
sun into a darksome. apartment, on -our first en-    One moment's cold, like theirs, would pierce the bone,
trance we can scarcely distinguish any objects with  Freeze the heart's blood, and turn us all to stone."
distinctness; but after remaining five or six minutes, until the pupil has time to expand, every    This, it must.be admitted is a very cold poetic
object around us is readily perceived; and, from  strain, almost sufficient to make one shiver, and to
the same.cause, nocturnal animals can pursue freeze our very thoughts; and if such a descriptheir course with ease and certainty amid the tion were applicable to Saturn, it is imuch more
deepest shades. of night;'so that the inhabitants so to the planet Uranus, at double the distance.of the most distant planet of our system, although But I presume it is more in accordance with po.
it were removed from. the. sun to double the dis- etic license than with the deductions of sound
tance of Uranus, might perceive objects with all philosophy. We have no valid reason  to conthe distinctness requisite for the purposes of elude that the degree of heat on the surfaces of
vision; and if the pupils of the eyes of such be- the different planets is inversely proportional to
ings be much more expansive than ours (as is pro- the squares of their respective distances from the
bably the  case), it is highly probable they will sun. The sun is to be considered chiefly as the
be enabled to penetrate minuch farther into the great storehouse of light, and it may likewise be
celestial-regions, and to perceive'the objects in the viewed as the great agent in the production of
firmament with much greater distinctness and heat, without supposing it to be an enormous
"' space-penetrating power "-than we caln do, even mass of fire, which the common opinion seems to
with the aid of instruments. It is likewise probablo take for granted.  Its rays produce heat chiefly
by exciting an insensible action between caloric
-..... Fig. 166......'and the particles of matter contained in bodies;
and caloric appears to be a substance universally
diffused throughout nature.  If the degree of heat
were in proportion to the distance from the sun,
why should the upper regions of the atmosphere
be so intensely cold'?  Why should the tops of
lofty mountains be crowned withl perpetual snows,
while the plains below are scorched with heat?Why should an intense cold be felt in the latitude
400~, when a comparative mildness is experienced
in the latitude of 560?  In the state of Conneeticut, North America, in January, 1835, the ther_'.!.  _  _        E. mometer ranged from minus 250 to 270 of Fah~RE~bi. t;.                  I:  renheit; while in Scotland, during the same.period, it was seldom so low as the freezing point. —
But as I have already thrown out some remarks
that thle objects on the surfacm of the more dis. on this subject when describing the planet Mertant planets of our system are fittedto reflect the cury, I need not enlarge (see page 28). In order
rays of light with peculiar brilliancy.  Hence we to form correct ideas'of the distribution of heat




REFLECTIONS ON THE PLANETS.                                     75
among the planetary. bodies, we have only to sup- to 1807, no fewer than five primary planets and
pose -thatthe Creator has proportioned the quantity  eight secondaries were discovered, beside a far
of caloric (or that which produces sensible heat) to greater number of comets than had ever before
the distance at which every planet is placed from  been detected within a similar lapse of years; and
the sun, so that a large quantity exists in Saturn  therefore it would be obviously rash and premao
and a smaller quantity in Mercury.  If, therefore, ture to conclude that we have now discovered all
the quantity of caloric connected with Uranus be the moving bodies of our system. Far beyond
in proportion to its distance from  the sun, there the limits of even Uranus other planets yet
may be as much warmth experienced in that dis- unknown may be performing their more ample
tant region of the solar system as in the mildest circuits around the sun; for we know, from the
parts of our temperate zones. So that we are caseof comets, that even throughout those distant
under no necessity of associating the frigid and regions his attractive power and influence extend.
gloolny ideas of the poet with our contemplations In the immense interval of 900,000,000 of miles
of this expansive globe. At all events, we may  between the orbits of Saturn and Uranus, one, if
rest assured that the Creator, whose wisdom is not two planets may possibly exist, though they
infinite in its resources, and whose " tender mer- have hitherto eluded the observation of astronocies are over all his works," has adapted the mers. In order to detect such bodies, if any exist,
structure and constitution of the inhabitants of it would be requisite to survey, more minutely
every planet to the nature and circumstances of than has yet been done, a zone of the heavens
the habitation provided for them, so as to render extending at least twenty degrees on. each. side of
every portion of his dominions a comfortable the ecliptic, marking exactly the minutest objects
abode for his intelligent offspring; provided they  in every part of it which the most powerful teledo not frustrate his benevolent designs (as has scopes can enable us to descry. After which a
been done in our world) by their rebellion and  second survey should be made to ascertain if any
immoral conduct. For in no region of the uni- of the bodies formerly observed be found missing
verse, whatever may be its physical arrangements, or have shifted their position. It might likewise
can true happiness be enjoyed, unless love to God be expedient to compare with new observations
and love to all surrounding intelligences form the the stars marked in all the celestial atlases that
grand principles of action, and be uniformly dis- have hitherto been published, and to note particuplayed in every intercourse and association, and  larly those which are wanting where they were
amid all the ramifications of moral conduct. On  formerly marked, and those that have appeared in
-this basis chiefly rests the happiness of the intel- certain places where they were formerly unobligent universe; and, wherever principles directly served. If a taste for celestial investigations were
opposite to these prevail among any order of in- more common among mankind, and were the
tellectual beings, whatever may be the structure  number of observers indefinitely increased, there
or scenery of their habitation, misery and moral would be no great difficulty in accomplishing such
disorder must be the inevitable consequence.   an object; for certain small portions of the heaThe following additional particulars may be vens might be allotted to different classes of obstated in relation to this planet: Its density is servers, who might proceed simultaneously in
reckoned to be nearly equal to that of water. A  their researches, and in a comparatively short
body weighing one pound on the earth's surface period the whole survey might be completed.
would weigh  only fourteen  ounces, fourteen    It is not improbable that a planet may exist
drachms, if removed to Uranus.  The eccen- within the space of 37 millions of miles which
tricity of its orbit is 85,000,000 of miles, which is intervenes between the orbit of Mercury and the
about the 1-42d part of its diameter. Its mean sun. But such a body could never be detected in
apparent diameter, as seen from the earth, is about the evening after sunset, as its greatest elongation
four seconds. The inclination of its orbit to the from the sun could not be supposed to be more
ecliptic is forty-six minutes, twenty-six seconds, than ten or twelve degrees, and, consequently, it
so that it is never much more than three-fourths would descend below the horizon in about half an
of a degree from the ecliptic. This inclination is hour after sunset, and before twilight had disapless than that of any of the other planetary orbits. peared. The only chance of detecting such a
Six satellites are supposed to be connected with  planet would be when it happened to transit the
Uranus, but their periods and other phenomena sun's disc; but as this would happen only at dishave not yet been accurately ascertained.      tant intervals, and as it might make the transit in
cloudy weather, or when the sun is absent from
our hemisphere, there is little prospect of our
discovering such a body in this way. It might
In the preceding pages r have given a brief be of some importance, however, that those who
sketch of the principal phenomena connected  make frequent observations on the sun should
with the primary planets of our system. Whether direct their attention to this circumstance; as
any cAther planets beside those specified belong to there have been some instances in which dark
this system is at present unknown. We have no bodies have been observed to move across the
reason to believe that the boundaries of the plane- sun's disc in the space of five or six hours, when
tary system are circumscribed within the range no other spots were visible. An opaque body of
of our discoveries or the limits of our vision. this description was seen by Mr. Lloft and others
Within the space of little more than half a cen- on the 6th of January, 1818, which moved with
tury, the, limits of this system  have been ex- greater rapidity across the solar disc than Venus
panded to our view to double the extent which  in her transit in 1769. It is possible that a planet:hey were formerly supposed  to comprehend. within the orbit of Mercury might be detected in
Instead of an area of, only 25,400,000,000 of the day-time, were powerful telescopes applied to a
square miles, it is now found to comprise an space of the heavens about ten or twelve degrees
extent of 101,700,000,000 of square miles, which around the sun. Small stars have been seen even
is four- times tthe dimensions formerly assigned to'at noonday with powerful instruments, and, conit. There wou[d be no improbability in conceiv- sequently, a planet even smaller than Mercury
ing it extended to at least triple these dimensions. might be perceived in the day-time. In this case,
Within the space of twenty-six years, from 1781l  a round opaque body would require to be placed




76                               CELESTIAL SCENERY.
at a considerable distance from the observer, so as W. At this time he moves through the semicircle
completely to intercept the body of the sun, and B, S, W, and at noon he rises to the elevation of
about a -degree of the heavens all around him; thirty-eight degrees above the southern horizon,
and every portion of the surrounding space, ex- which may be represented by the line S C. This
tending to at.least twelve degrees in-every direc- is the period of the vernal equinox, when there is
tion, should then be carefully and frequently equal day and night throughout every part of the
examined. Such observations, if persevered in, earth, the sun being twelve hours above and
would undoubtedly afford a chance of detecting twelve hours below  the horizon.  After this
any revolving body that might exist within such period the sun rises to the north of the easterly
a limit. But I may afterward have an opportunity point, and sets to the north of the westerly, and
of describing more particularly the-observations, the length of the day rapidly advances until the
and the mode of conducting'them, to which I 21st of June, when he rises near the north-east
allude.  -  point, N E, and sets near the north-west point,
X. THE SUN.                    N W, describing the large curve fromN NE to 
Having taken a cursory survey of the most S W, and N  W. This period of the year is
prominent particulars connected with the primary called the summer solstice, when the days are
planets, I shall now proceed to a brief description longest, at which time the sun rises at noon to an
of the sun, that magnificent luminary on which elevation of 612 degrees above the horizon, which
they' all depend, from which they derive light, may be represented by the line S D, and he conand heat, and vivifying influence, and by whose tinues above the horizon for nearly seventeen
attractive energy they are- directed in their mo- hours.  The length of the nights at this time is
tions andi retained in their, orbits. Before pro- exactly the same as the length of the days on the
ceeding to a description- of the particular pheno- 21st of December. The sun's nocturnal arch, or
mena connected with the.sun, it may be'expedient the curve he describes below the, horizon, is that
briefly to describe some of his apparent motions. which is represented in the lower part of the figure
Apparent Motions of the Sun. —The most ob- from N W to N E. In more southern latitudes
vious apparent motion of the:sun, which is than fifty-two degrees, the sun rises to a higher
known to every one, is, that he appears to rise in elevation at noon; and in higher latitudes his
the morning in an easterly direction,to traverse a meridian altitude is less than what is stated above.
certain portion of the sky, and then to disappear From the time of the summer solstice the days
in the evening in a direction toward the west. gradually shorten; the sun rises in a more southWere we to commence our observations on the erly direction until the 23d of September, which
21st of December, in the latitude of 52c north, is' called the autumnal equinox, when he again
which nearly corresponds to that of London, we rises in the eastern point of the compass, and
should see the sun rising near the south-east point every succeeding day at a point still farther to tlihe
of the horizon, as at S E, Fig. 67, describing a south, until, on the 21st of December, or the
comparatively small -curve above the horizon, winter solstice, he is again seen to rise near the
from S E to S W, in the southern quarter of the south-east, and afterward to pass through all the
heavens, and setting at S W, niear the south-west. apparent variatiolls'of motion above described.
At this season the sun remains only between   Were we residing in southern latitudes, such as
seven and eight- hours above the horizon;- and those of Buenos Ayres., the Cape of Good Hope, or
when- he arrives at'S, at-.midday, which is the Van Dieman's Land, the apparent motions of the
highest point of his elevation,, he is'only about sun would be somewhat different. Instead of befourteen degrees above the horizon, which may holding the sun moving along the southern part of
Fig. 67.'                 the sky from the left hand to the right, we should
see him direct his course along the northern part
of the heavens from the right hand to the left.
In other respects his apparent motions would
-SE~ —----.t.,~'T..-..-X       nearly correspond to those above described. Were
W \   / \   we placed in countries under the equator at the
time of the equinoxes, the sun at midday would
shine directly from  the zenith, at which time
objects would have no shadows.  At all other
times the sun is~ either in the northern or the
lv.'1  H     IE         southern quarterS of the heavens.  During the
one-half of the year he shines. from  the north,
and the shadows of objects fall to the south;
during the other half he shines from the south,
and the shadows of all objects are projected toward
the north.  This is a circumstance which carn
*D'    vW           never occur in our climate or in any part of the
temperate zones. At the equator, too, the days
and nights are of the same length, twelve hours
each, throughout the whole year.  Were we
be represented by the line S B. After disappear- placed at the poles, the motion of the sun would
ing in our horizon in the evening, he describes present a different aspect from any of those we'
the large curve from S W to W, N, and E, until have described. At the north pole, on the 21st
he-again arrives in the morning near the point S of March, we should see a portion of the sun's
E. All this curve is described below our horizon, disc appear in'the horizon after a long night of
and, therefore, the nights at this season are much six months.  This portion of the sun would
longer than the days. After this period the sun appear to move quite round the horizon every
rises every day at points a little farther to the twenty-four hours;. it would gradually rise higher
north, between S E  and E, and sets in corres- and higher until the whole body of the sun made
ponding points in the west, between: S W and W,r its appearance. As the season advanced, the sun
until the 21st. of March, -when he rises at the would appear to rise higher and higher until he
point E, due east, and sets due west at the point' attained the altitude of 23Y  degrees above the




APPARENT -MOTIONS OF THE SUN.                                     77
horizon, which would take place on the 21st of - lions on the one hand, nor much above 96 millions
June; after which his altitude would gradually on the other. Small as this interval may appear
decline until the 23d of September, when he when compared with the vast distances of some
would again appear in the horizon.- During the- of the other celestial bodies, it is, in reality, a
whole of this period'of- six months there is per- most amazing distance when compared with-the
petual day, the stars are never seen, and the. sun spaces which intervene between terrestrial objects;
appears to go quite round, the heavens every a distance which the mind cannot appreciate
twenty-four hours without setting, in circles without a laborious effort. It is thirty-one thounearly parallel to the horizon. After the 23d of sand six hundred times the space which intervenes
September the sun disappears, and a night of six between Britain and America; and were a carriage
months succeeds, which is occasionally enlivened to-move along this space at the rate of 480 miles
by the moon, the stars, and the coruscations of every day, it would require 542 years before the
the aurora borealis, during which period the south  journey could be accomplished.
pole enjoys all the splendor of an uninterrupted    The magnitude of this vast luminary is an'day. Ill all places withinl the polar circles, the object which overpowers the imagination.  Its
length of the longest day varies from  twenty- diameter is 880,000 miles; its circumference,
four hours to six months. In the northern' parts 2,764,600 miles; its surface contains 2,432,800,Of Lapland, for example, the longest day is about 000,000 of square miles, which is twelve thousand
six weeks; during this time the sun  appears to three hundred and fifty times the area of the termove round the heavens without setting; but at raqueous globe, and nearly fifty thousand times
noon, when he comes to the meridian, he is about the extent of all the habitable parts.of the earth.
40 degrees above the southern horizon, and twelve Its solid contents comprehend 356,818,739,200,hours afterward he appears elevated about six 000,000,* or more than three hundred and fiftydegrees above the northern horizon, from which six thousand billions of cubical miles. Were its
point he again ascends until he arrives at the' center placed over the earth,- it would fill the
southern meridian.                             whole orbit of the moon, and reach 200.000 miles,Such are the apparent diurnal motions and beyond it on every hand. Were a person to
general aspects of the sun in different parts of travel along the surface of the sun, so as to pass
the earthywhich are owing partly to the inclination along every square mile on its surface, at the rate
of the axis of the earth to the plane of the eclip- of thirty miles every day, it would require more
tic, and partly to the different positions-in which than two hundred and twenty millions of years
a spectator is placed in different zones of the before the survey of this vast globe could be cmnglobe.: It is almost needless to remark, that these pleted. It would contain within its circumference
motions of the sun are not real, but only apparent. more than thirteen hundred thousand globes as
While' presenting all these varieties of motion, he large as the earth, and a thousand globes of the
is still a quiescent body in the center of the pla- size of Jupiter, which is the largest, planet of the
netary system. By the rotation of the earth round system.  It is more than five hundred' times
its axis, from west to east, every twenty-four larger than all the planets, satellites, and comets
hours, all these apparent motions of the sun are belonging to our system, vast and extensive as
produced. This we have already endeavored to some of them are. Although its density is little
prove in chap. i, pp. 16-17.                   more than that of water, it would weigh 336(0 pla-'Beside the apparent diurnal motion now  de- nets such as Saturn, 1067 planets such as Jupiter,
scribed, there is another apparent motion' of the 329,000 globes such as the earth, and more than
sun in a contrary direction, which is not so much two millions of globes such as Mercury, although
observed, and that is, his apparent motion from  its density is nearly equal to that of lead. Were
west to east through the whole circle of the hea- we to conceive of its surface being peopled with
vens, which he accomplishes in the course of a inhabitants at the rate formerly stated, it; would
year. This motion manifests itself bythe appear- contain 681,184,000,000,000, or more than six
ance of the heavens during the night. The stars hundred and eighty billions, which would be'which lie near the path of the sun, and which set equal to the inhabitants of eight hundred and fifty
a little time after him are soon lost in his light, thousand worlds such as ours.
and after a short time reappear in the east a little    Of a globe so vast in its dimensions, the hubefore his rising.  This proves that the sun man mind, with all its efforts, can form  no adeadvances toward them in a direction contrary to quate conception. If it is impossible for the mind
his diurnal motion; and hence we behold a dif- to take in the whole range of the terraqueous
ferent set of stars in our nocturnal sky in summer globe, and to form  a comprehensive idea of its
and in winter. This apparent revolution of the amplitude and its innumerable objects, how can
sun is produced by the annual motion of the earth we ever form a conception, approaching to the
round the sun, of which I have already given an reality, of a body one million three hundred thouexplanation (chap. i, p. 17,) along with certain sand times greater?  We may express its dimendemonstrative proofs that the sun is the center of sions in figures or in words, but in the present
the planetary system (see also chap. ii, pp. 22-26). state of our limited powers we can form no menDistance, and Magnitude of the Sun.-To find tal image or representation of an object so stuthe exact distance of the sun from the-earth is an pendous and sublime. Chained down to our terobject swhich. has much interested and engaged restrial mansion, we are deprived of a sufficient
astronomers for a century past. The angle of range of prospect, so as to form a substratum  to
parallax being so small as about eight and a half our thoughts, when we attempt to form concepseconds, rendered it for some time difficult to tions of such amazing magnitudes. The imagina.
arrive at an accurate determination on this point, tion is overpowered and bewildered in its boldest
until the transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769. l From: efforts, and drops its wings before it has realized
the calculations founded, upon the observations the ten thousandth part of the idea which it
made on these transits, it has been deduced that the
distance of the sun is about 95,000,000 of miles.
This distance is considered by La Place and other   * In some editions of the' - Christian Philosopher," under
the article A.stronomy, this number is inaccurately stated;
astronomersito be within the 1-87th part of the trce and the number which follows, two thousand millions, should
distance, so that it cannot be much below 94 mil  be two husured millions.




78                                 CELESTIAL SCENERY
attempted to grasp.' It- is not improbable that the orbit from east to west, and in some measure follargest ideas we have yet acquired or can repre- lowed the motion of the spot, the real time iln
sent to our minds of the Immensity of the uni- which the spots perform their revolutions is found,
Verse are inferior to a full and comprehensive idea by calculation,* to be twenty-five days, ten hours.
of the vast globe of the sun in all its connections Every part of the sun's equator, therefore, moves
and dimensions; and, therefore, not only must the at the rate of 4532 miles every hour. - The axis
powers of the human mind be invigorated and  of the sun, round which this revolution is perforlllexpanded, but also the limits of our intellectual ed, is inclined 7 degrees 20 minutes to the ecliptic.
and corporeal vision must be indefinitely- extended,   The Solar Spots, and the Physical Construction
before we can grasp the objects of overpowering of the Sun.-Although the sun is the fountain of
grandeur which exist within the range off-creation, light, and is incessantly pouring a flood of radiand take anl-enlightened: and comprehensive view  ance over surrounding worlds, yet the nature of
of the great Creator's empire.  And as such this vast,luminary, and the operations which are
endowments cannot be attained -in the present going on upon its surface and adjacent regions,
state, this very circumstance forms a presumptive are in a great measure involved in darkness.argument that man is destined to an immortal Before stating any opinions on this subject, it may
existehce, where his faculties will be enlarged and  be proper, in the first place, to give a brief dethe boundaries of -his Vision extended, so as to scription of the phenomena which have been
enable him to- take a large and comprehensive observed on the surface of the sun. The first and
view -of the wonders of the universe, and the most striking phenomenon is the dark spots to
range of the Divine government.  In the mean- which we have alluded.  These spots are of all
time, however, it may be useful to allow our sizes, from  one twenty-fifth part of the sun's
thoughts to expatiate on such objects, and to  diameter to the one five-hundreth part and under.
endeavor to form as'comprehensive an idea as The larger-spots are uniformly dark in the center,
possible of such a stupendous luminary as the and surrounded with a kind of border or fainter
sun, in order to assist us in forming conceptions shade, called a penumbra.  This penumbra, which
of objects still more grand and magnificent; for sometimes occupies a considerable space around
the sun which enlightens our day is but one out the dark nucleus, is frequently of a shape nearly
of countless millions of similar globes dispersed corresponding to that of the black spot. Somethroughout creation, some of which may far excel times two or more dark spots, and a number of
it in magnitude and glory.                       small ones are included within the same penutiRotation of the Sun.-This luminary, although  bra, and at other times a number of small spots
it is placed in the center of the system, in the in a train, forming a kind of tail, accompany the
enjoyment of perpetual day, and stands in no larger ones. The number of the spots is very
need of light from any other orb, yet is found to various; sometimes there are only two or three,
have a rotationhround its axis. This circumstance sometimes above a hundred, and sometimes none
seems to indicate that motion is essential to all at all. Scheiner, who was among the first that
the bodies of the universe, whether revolving in  observed these spots, remarks, that- "from  the
orbits around another body, or acting as the cen- year 1611 to 1629 he never found the sun quite
ters of light and attractive influence.:And from  clear of spots, except a few days in December,
what we know of the more- distant bodies in the 1624; at other times he was able to count twenty,
heavens, we have reason to believe that there is thirty, and even fifty spots upon the sun at a
none of- them  in a state of absolute quiescence, time."  Afterward, during an interval of twenty
but that they are all in incessant motion, either years, from 1650 to 1670, it is said that scarcely
round their axes, or around a distant center. - The any were to be seen. But, since the beginning
rotation of the sun -was discovered by the motion  of last century, no year has passed, so far as we
ofcertain dark spots across its disc. These spots know, in which spots have not been seen. I have
appear to enter the disc on the east side, to move had an opportunity of viewing the sun with good
from thence with a velocity continually increasing  telescopes several hundreds of times, but have
until they arriveat the middle of the disc; they then  seldom seen his surface altogether free of spots.move slower and slower until they go off at the In some years, however, they have been far more
sun's western limb; after which they disappear for numerous than in others. In the beginning of 1835
about the same space of time they occupied in  comparatively few  were seen, but during  the
crossing the disc, and then enter again on the latter part of it, the whole of 1836, and up to
eastern limb' and move onward in the same track  the present time (September, 1837), they have
as before, unless they suffer a change, as frequently  been exceedingly numerous.  On the 16th -of
happens, after they disappear from  the western  November, 1835, with an achromatic telescope,
limb. The apparent inequality in the motion of magnifying about a hundred times, I perceived
the spots is -purely optical, and is owing to the about ten different clusters; and, within  the
oblique view we have of the parts of a globe limits of two of the clusters, sixty different spots
which are near the margin; but the motion is were counted, and in the whole of the other clussuch as demonstrates that the spots are carried ters above sixty more; making in all about 120
round with a uniform  and equable motion.- spots, great and small. On the 19th of October,
From the motion of these spots we learn, 1. That 1836, and the 21st of February, 1837, I counted
the sun is a globe, and not aflat surface;  2. That about 130; and' on a late occasion I perceived
it has a rotation round its own axis; and, 3. That spots of all descriptions to the amount of about
this rotation is-performed in the same direction as 150. Such a number of spots are generally arthe rotation of the planets and their annual revo- ranged into tell or twelve different clusters, each
lutions, -namely, according to the order of the signs cluster having one or two large spots, surrounded
of the zodiac.  The time which a spot takes in with a number of smaller ones. -Fig. 68, repremovilng from the eastern to the -western limb is sents the spots of the sun nearly as they appeared
thirteen days and nearly sixteen hours, and, con- on the 19th of October, 1836, some of the smaller
sequently, the whole apparent revolution is twenty-seven days and nearly eight hours. But this  *The followingis the proportion by which the -true rotatioe
no~t~ thetru  prio hsn'sroatin;foasis found: 365d. 5h. 48m. +- 27d. 7h. 37m.; or, 392d. 13h.. 25m.
is not the true period of the, sun's-rotation; for as 365d. -. 48m.::27d. 7h. 37m.: 25d. 9t. 56m.the true tinme
the earth has, during  this timne, advanced in its of the sun's rotation.




VARIOUS SPECIES OF SOLAR SPOTS.                                    79
spots being.omitted. The largdr spots are repre- two hours. The spot marked d, near the large
sented on a somewhat larger scale than they should spot, though at least two or three thousand( miles
be in proportion to the diameter of the circle; but in length, disappeared about three days afterwarl.
they present~nearly the same relative aspect they. When any spot begins to increase or diminish,
exhibited when viewed through tile telescope at the nucleus, or dark part, and the penumbra coi-,he time specified. Fig. 69 shows the large spot tract and expand at the same time.  During the
on a larger scale; and Fig. 70 a large spot which piocess of diminution, the penumbra encroaches
tppeared in a subsequent observation, which had gradually upon the, nucleus, so that the figure of
a bright streak or two in the center.           the nucleus and the boundary.between it anrd the
The. magnitude of some of the solar spots is penumbra are ill a state of perpetual change; anid
astonishing.  One of the spots seen November it sometimes happens during these variations, that
16, 1835, was found to measure about the fortieth the encroachment of. the penumbra divides tilh
part of the sun's diameter; and as that diameter nucleus into two or more parts. These circutI,is equal to  880,000 miles, the diameter of the stances show that there is a certain connection 6bspot must have been 22,000 miles, which is nearly  tween the penumbra and the nucleus; yet it is
three times the diameter of the earth; and if we observed, that when the spots disappear the p)suppose it only a flat surface, and nearly circular, numbra continues for a short time visible after the
it contained 380,133,600 square:miles, which is nucleus has vanished. It is likewise observed
nearly double the area of our globe. The largest that the exterior boundary of the penumbra never
of the spots in the figure, including the penumbra, consists of sharp angles, but is always curvilimeasured about the one twenty-first ipart of the near, how irregular soever the outline of tihe
sun's diameter; and its breadth about the 1-54th  nucleus may be. The portions of the sun  on
part of the same diameter; consequently the length which spots of any description are perceived lie
of the spots and penumbra was 41,900 miles, its from  thirty to fifty degrees on each side of its
breadth 16,300, and its area 6,829,700,000 square equator. No spots are ever seen about its polar
tniles, which would afford room  for ten globes                Fig. 68.
as large as the earth to be placed upon                         North.
it. It consisted of a dark spot of a
longish form, about 12,000 miles in
length, and two or three smaller spots,
some of them several thousand miles
long, all included within one penumbra.
The smallest spots we can discern on the
solar disc cannot be much less than five   / 
or six hundred miles in diameter.          /'   \
These spots are subject to numerous    /                                               -
changes. When watched from  day to
day, they. appear to enlarge or contract,,               -
to change their forms, and at length to
disappear altogether, or, to break out on   
parts of the solar surface where there.'
were none before. Hevelius observed              Q                                    Y;
one which arose and vanished in the
space of seventeen hours. Nospot has 
been known to last longer than one that
appeared in the year 1676, which con-       \,' 0,
tinued upon the sun above seventy days;
but it is seldom that any spots last long-.
or than six weeks. Those spots that are
formed gradually are generally gradually dissolved; those which arise suddenly
are, for the most part, suddenly dissolved.  Dr. Long, in his "Astronomy,"                              South.
vol. ii, states, that "while he was view-      69                 70                    71
ing the image of the sun cast through
a telescope upon white paper, he saw ~
one roundish spot, by estimation not    i
much less in diameter than our earth,
break into two, which immediately receded from one another with a prodi-                                        -.
ous  velocity."   The Rev. Dr. Wol[aston, wvhen viewing the sun with a      i                                            -_ 
reflective telescope,- perceived a similar
phenomenon. A  spot burst in pieces    1 3  4  5    7    8           9  10    11   1.1
whil'e he was observing, it like a piece
of ice, which, thrown upon a frozen
pond, breaks in pieces and slides in various directions. On the 11th of October, 1833, at 21i.30' r. M., I observed a    --            -.arge spot, with several.smaller ones be-, - -.
linid it, as represented Fig. 71. Next  
day, at Oh. 30' P. PM.., the small spots      73            74
mnarked e had entirely disappeared, and no trace regions, though I have sometimes seen small spoQ,
of them  was afterward seen. Each of'these as distant from the equator as sixty degrees.
spots wva3 more than a thousand miles in diameter, I  Fig. 72 shows the progress of a spot across thsyet they were all changed in the space of twenty- sun's disc, from its eastern to its western limb,, asVOL. II.-16




:80                               CELESTIAL SCENERY.
observed and delineated- by Hevelius, in May, " great fountains, or bullitions of fire and light,
1644. The figures refer to' the number of days spread thick over the whole,: body of it; and in.
on which the spot was observed.' On the first many places dark spots, replresenting dens or caday of the observation,..when the'spot first ap- verns, which may be supposed the seats of the
peared on the eastern limb, it was seen as repre-: blackness of darkness."*  In - this picture the
sented at 1; the second day it was not visible, by smoke and flames are represented as rising beyond
reason of cloudy:weather.: The third, fourth, and the margin of the sun about a ninth part of its
fifth days it gradually increased in bulk; the sixth diameter or nearly 90,000 miles; a picture as unday it was not seen. On the tenth andfollowing like the real surface of the sun as the gloom  of
days the spot was vastly increased in bulk, with midnight is unlike the splendors of lay. But,
an irregular atmosphere about it and a dark cen- leaving such extravagant and untenable notions,
tral spot., Figs-. 73, 74, 75, 76, are representations even some philosophers have held opinions altoof spotsby Sir'W. Herschel. Fig. 75 shows the gether incompatible with reason and with:the
division of a decaying nucleus or-opening, where phenomena presented by the sun: Galileo, Hevethe luminous passage across the opening resem- lius, and Maupertius considered the spots as scoria
bles- a bridge thrown over a hollow.           floating in the inflammable liquid matter of which
Beside the dark spots now described, there are they conceived the sun to be composed. Others
other spots which hare a bright and mottled'ap- have imagined that the fluid which sends forth
pearance, which were formerly termed faculee, light and heat contains a nucleus or solid globe,
and which SirlW. Herschel distinguished by the in which are several volcanoes, like Etna or Veterms Nodules, Corrugations, and Ridges. These suvius, which from time to time cast forth quantispots are chiefly to -be seen near the margin of ties of bituminous matter up to the surface of the
the sun, in the same latitudes in which the other sun, and form those spots which are seen upon
spots appear.  They appear first' on the eastern it; and that, as this matter is gradually changed
margin, and continue visible for, three or four and consumed by the luminous fluid, the spots
days, but are invisible when they arrive near the disappear for a time, but are seen to rise again in,
middle of the disc, and when they approach near tlie same places when those volcanoes cast up new
the western limb they are again distinctly visible. matter. Others, again, have supposed that the
This circumstance shows that they are ridges or sun is a fiery luminous fluid, in which several
elevations, which appear in profile when near the opaque bodies of irregular shapes are immersed,
limb, but, in front or foreshortened when near the and that these bodies are sometimes buoyed up or
middle of the disc, -so as to become invisible.- raised to the surface, where they appear like spots;
They are generally seen in the immediate neigh- while, others imagine that this luminary consists of
borhood of dark spots, and in the places where a fluid in continual agitation, by the rapid motion
spots have appeared; and hence, f6r several years of which some parts more gross than the rest ar,
past, when any of these faculae or ridges have ap- carried up to the surface in like manner as scum
peared on the eastern margin, I have uniformly rises on the top of melted metal or anything thatis
been enabled to predict the appearance of a large boiling.  The futility of all such opinions is obvispot or two within the course of twenty-four or ous when we consider attentively all the varieties of
thirty hours; and in more- than twenty or thirty the solar phenomena, and when we reflect on the
instances I have never been disappointed. These immense magnitude both of the sun itself and of
facula and ridges present a mottled and. waving the spots which traverse its surface. What reappearance, like that of a country with gentli semblance can there be between such volcanoes as
elevations and depressions,:and bear a _strong re, Etna and Vesuvius, and spots on the sun 20.000
semblance to certain portions of that surface of miles in diameter, and several times larger than
the moon, particularly the more leveli'portions of the whole earth? between the vast and sublime
the orb, which present a number of gentle wav- operations going forward in this magnificent globe,
llgs or elevations and depressions. And as those and " the scum and scoria of melted metal?"  We
wavings or ridges which appear on the sun are,-in  err most egregiously when we attempt to compare
a clear atmosphere, as distinctly perceptible as the substances and the puny operations which we
the rough surface of -the moon, they must be ob- see around us on the globe we inhabit, with what
jects of immense extent and of very great eleva- takes place on so stupendous a globe as the sun,
tion, whether they consist of luminous clouds or whose constitution must be so,immensely diffeof more dense materials. Some, of those spaces rent from that of the planetary bodies, and from
or ridges have been found to occupy a portion of everything within the range of our observation
the solar disc equal to seventy-five thousand miles. on this earth. We talk of volcanoes, of scoria, of
Theyextend-over a large portion of the sun'ssur- boiling metals, of bituminous matter, of dens,
tace, and their shape and position are frequently and caverns, and fiery flames in the sun, as if
changing.                                      they were as common there as with us; whereas
Opinions and Deductions respecting the Nature there is every reason to believe that nothing simil
and Constitution of the Sn.- Having described lar to any of these is to be found in the constituthe principal phenomena connected with this im- tion of this vast luminary. We might, with as
rmense lumina~ry, we may now consider what con- good reason, attempt to compare the process of
elusions those appearances lead us to deduce ree- vegetation on our globe, and the tides and cur.
specting its construction and the processes which rents of our ocean, with what takes place on the
are going on near its surface. Very vague and surface of Jupiter or on the rings of Saturn. In all
foolish opinions have been entertained respecting such cases, it is most becoming rather to acknow.
the nature of the sun ever since the invention of ledge our ignorance than to caricature and dethe telescope.  It has very,generally been con- grade the sublimest works of Omnipotence by
sidered as a vast body of liquid fire; and in a large our puerile explanations and whimsical theories.
volume now- before me, published only-about a The following are some of the more rational concentury ago, it is considered as the local place clusions which have been deduced in reference to
of hell. A -large map of tie, sun, copied from the the constitution of the sun.
delineations of Kircher and Scheiner, is exhibitedature and Place of 
In which the solar -surface -is represented as all the Rev. T._ Swinden, M. A., Rector of'Cumton, in Kent,
over covered with flames, smoke, volcanoes, and 2(d edit.,p, 470. London, 1P727.




PHENOMENA OF THE SOLAR SPOTS.                                    81
In tile first- place, from a variety of observations, luminary, and of the processes that are going forIt is'now pretty well determined that the'solar ward on its surface or in its atmosphere. For
spots are depressions, and not elevations, and that'there is no similar body with which we are intimthe black nucleus of every spot is the opaque ately acquainted with which we can compare' it,
body-of the sun seen through an opening in the and which might enable us to form some definite
luminous atmosphere with Which it'is environed. conceptions of- the causes which produce the pheThis wvas first ascertained by numerous observe- nomena it presents. But, secondly, it appears
tions made by the late Dr. Wilson, professor of as. highly probable, if not absolutely certain, that the
tronomy in the university of Glasgow. This con- great body of the sun consists of an opaque solid
clusion is founded" on the following facts: When globe, most probably diversified with elevations
any spot is about to disappear behind the sun's west- and depressions, but of the nature or qualities of
ern limb, the eastern portion of the umbra first con- this interior globe, and the materials of which it
tracts- in its breadth, and then vanishes. The is composed, we are altogether unacquainted.
nucleus then contracts and vanishes, while the Thirdly, that this opaque globe is surrounded with
western portion of the umbra still remains visible. a body of light, which it diffuses throughout the
When a spot comes into view on the sun's eastern planetary system and far beyond it; but whether
limb, the eastern portion of the umbra first be- this'light consists of phosphoric clouds in perpetcomes visible, then the dark nucleus, and then the ual motion, or how it is produced and kept conwestern part of the umbra makes its appearance. tinually in action, is only matter of conjecture.
When two spots are near each other, the umbra But, in whatever it consists, it is pretty evident
of the one spot is deficient on the side next the that it forms a shell or covering around the dark'other;'and when one of the spots is much larger body of the sun of several thousand miles in
than -the other, the union of the largest will be thickness. Fourthly, there are stupendous mocompletely wanting on'.the side next the small tions and operations continually going forward in
one. From various micrometrical estimates and connection with the surface or the. luminous atcalculations in relation to the breadth of the um- mosphere of this immense body.
bra, and the manner of their appearance and dis-   That extensive and amazing operations and proappearance, the doctor was led to the conclusion cesses are going forward on the surface of the
that the depth of the nucleus or dark part of the sun, or in its immediate vicinity, appears from the
spots was, in several instances, from 2000 to nearly immense size of both the dark and luminous spots,
4000 miles. In order to confirm his,.theory, he and the sudden and extensive changes to which
constructed a globe' representing the sun, with they are frequently subjected. Spots have been
certain hollows cut out to represent the spots or observed on the solar disc so large as the one
excavations, which were painted black with In- twentieth of the sun's diameter, and, of course,
dian ink, and:the slope or shelving sides of the 44,000 miles in lineal extent, comprising an area
excavations were distinguished from the bright- of one thousand five hundred and twenty millions
ness' of the external surface by a shade of the of square miles.  Now it is known from observapencil, which increased toward the external bor- tion that such spots seldom or never last longer
der. Whe.n this artificial sun was fixed in a pro, than forty-four days, and, consequently, their
per frame, and examined at a great distance with borders must approach at the rate of at least a
a telescope, the umbra and the nucleus exhibited thousand miles every day, but in most cases with
the same phenomena which are observed on the a much more rapid motion. What, then, shall we
real sun.*                                     think of the motions and operations by which a
Sir William  Herschel, with his powerful tele- large spot has been made to disappear in *the
scopes, made numerous observations on the solar course of twenty-two hours, as I have sometimes
spots, and arrived at the same conclusion as Dr. observed, yea, which have disappeared in ll-the
Wilson had done, that the dark nucleus of the course of a single hour?  And what shall we.spots is the opaque body of the sun appearing think of the process by which a spot as large as
through the openings in its atmosphere, and that the earth was broken into two during the moment
the luminous surface of the sun is neither a liquid of observation, and made to recede from  each
substance nor an elastic fluid, but luminous or other, as was observed both by Dr. Long and Dr.
phosphoric clouds floating in the solar atmosphere. Wollaston?  (See page 79.)  How powerful the
He conceives, from the uniformity of color in the forces, how rapid the motions, and how extensive
penumbra or shallows, that below- these self-lu- the changes which must have been produced in
minous clouds there is another stratum of clouds such cases! Whether we consider such changes
of inferior brightness, which is intended as a  cur- to be produced in the solid globe of the sun, or
t;aim to protect the solid and opaque body of the in the luminous atmosphere with which it is en-sun -from the intense brilliancy and heat of the vironed, the scale on which such movements and
luminous clouds; and that "the luminous strata operations must be conducted is immense, and alare sustained far above the level of the solid body together overpowering to the imagination. What
by a transparent elastic medium, carrying on its should we think were we to behold the whole of
upper surface, or at some considerably lower level the clouds which float in the earth's atmosphere
within' its depth, a cloudy stratum, which, being dissipated in a moment; the continent of America
strongly illuminated from above, reflects aeconsid- detached from its basis and transported across the
erable portion of the light'to our eyes, and forms Atlantic; or the vast Pacific ocean; in the course
a penumbra, while the solid'body, shaded by the of a few days, overwhelming with its billows the
clouds, reflects little or none."              whole of Asia, Africa, and Europe?  Amazing as
What- then, are the conclusions which may be such changes and revolutions would appear, there
deduced in regard to the constitution of the' sun? are, in all probability, 9perations and changes,
In the first place, we must admit that, at-present, though of a very different description, taking place
we know very'little of the nature of'this immense on the solar surface or atmosphere upon a scale
of much larger extent. It is found by calculation
that the smallest space containing a visible area
i een  evol. aborat paper on this subjecti,by Dr Wilson, which can be distinctly perceived on the sun with
in vol. lxiv of the P" Philosophical Transactions;'m and an.
other, in reply to some objections of La Lande, in the vo9- g.Ud telescopes is about 460 miles; and a circle of
uame for 1783.                                 this diameter contains about 166,000 square miles.




a82.       CELESTIAL SCENERY.
Now those ridges or corrugations, formerly termed  operations connected with its physica. constitiujfculee, which are seen near the sun's margin, are tion, surpass the powers of the human mind to
more than twenty times larger than such a space; form any adequate conception. We are destitute
they evidently appear to be elevations and depres- of a substratum  of thought for enabling us: to
sions on the solar surface, and are, almost as dis- form a comprehensive conception on this subject.
tinctly perceptible as the wavings and inequalities When we ascend to the top of Mount Etna ox
on the surface of the moon. How immensely large  Mount Blanc, and survey the vast group of surand elevated, then, must such objects in reality be,.rounding objects which appear around and bewhen we perceive their inequalities so distinctly  neath us when the morning sun illuminates the
at the distance of ninety-five, millions of miles! landscape, we behold one of the largest and most
The elevated parts of such objects cannot be less expansive objects that can meet our eye in this
than several hundreds of mile~ above the level of sublunary scene; and we call compare it with
the valleys or depressions, and eitending in length  objects that are smaller and with  those that
several thousands of miles. Yet, sometimes in a are somewhat larger.   But the amplitude of
few days, or, at most, a few weeks, these extensive such a scene extends only to a hundred or a
objects are either dissipated or dark spots appear hundred and fifty miles in every direction, which
in their room.                                   is less than  the  least visible  point or spot
It'is evident, then, that stupendous powers are  which we can perceive on the sun with the
in action, and vast operations are going oni in con- most powerful telescopes.  Were we transportneetion with this august luminary, -far surpassing  ed to a point five or six thousand miles above
everything within the range of our contemplation  the'surface of the earth, so as to take in nearly at
in this, terrestrial sphere, and of which the human  one view the whole hemisphere of our g obe; and
mind can form  no distinct conception.  These  were our eyes to be strengthened so as to be able
operations appear to be carried forward in a sys-, to perceive every part of its surface distinctly, our
tematic order, and by the regular influence of  ideas of magnitude would be vastly enlarged, and
certain'physical agents. But what these agents we should be einabled to form  more correct and
are; how they produce their effects; wherein they  comprehensive conceptions than we can now do
differ in their nature and properties from. the phy-  of the still greater magnitudes of many of thue
sical agents connected with our: globe; whethier celestial bodies.  But even such an object as the
they be employed in keeping up a constant efilux  whole of thle earth's hemisphere, seen at one comof light and heat to the worlds which roll around; prehensive view, would afford us comparatively
or whether their activities have any relation to in- little assistance ill forming an adequate conception
telligentibeings connected with the sun, are ques- of stch a stupenldous globe as the sun; it would
tions which, in our present state, it is impossible  not equal the idea of magnitude which we ougtlt
to resolve. But we can easily conceive that scenes to attach to one of the smaller spots on its surface.
of overpowering grandeur and sublimity would  For the area of the solar surface is twenty-four
be presented to view could we suppose ourselves thousand seven hundred times greater; so that
placed in the immediate vicinity of'this luminary. 24,700 scenes equal in magnitude to the hemiWere we placed within a hundred miles of the  sphere of our globe must pass between us ill
solar luminous atmosphere, where the operations review before we c-uld acquire a cofnprehensive
which -we flow behold at a remote distance would  and adequate idea of the expansive surface of the
be distinctly perceived, we should doubtless behold  sun.  And were a scene of this description to pass
a scene of overpowering magnificence and splen- before our eyes every two hours, until an extent
dor, and a series of sublime phenomena far sur- equal to the area of the san passed under our
passing what" eye hath yet seen," or the mind of view, and were twelve hours every day allotted
man can yet conceive.  Were we placed within  for the observation, it would require more than
this luminous atmosphere, on the solid surface of eleven years before such a rapid survey of this
the sun, we should doubtless contemplate a scene  vast luminary could be completed. But, as we
altogether novel, and still more brilliant atnd aston- can have no adequate idea of a scene comprehendishing. To a spectator in this position an opening  ing a whole hemisphere of our globe, let us cotrin the luminous atmosphere several thousands of pare the view from Mount Etna with the armpJimiles in circumference, where none appeared be- tude of the sun.  "There is no point on tihe
fore, would be presented to his view, through  surface of the globe," says Mr. Brydone, "that
which the stars of heaven might possibly be per- unites so many awful and sublime objects as the
rceived;  and   in a short time this opening would  top of Etna, and no imagination has dared  to
gradually close, and he would find himself again  form  an idea of so glorious and magnificent a
surrounded with ineffable splendor; while, at the  scene. The body of the sun is seen rising,from
same time, he might have a view of the physical the ocean, immense tracts both of sea and aland
agents by which these astonishing effects are pro- intervenlig; the islands of Pinari, Alicudi, Liduced.  In a short time another opening of a dif- pari, Stromboli, and Volcano, with their smo'kil)g
ferent  kind would be perceived, and other scenes summits, appear under your feet, and you look
and transformations would be exhibited to the  down otl tile whole of Sicily as on a map, and
view  in regular succession. That such scenes can trace every river through all its windings
would actually be exhibited is a natural deduction  from  its source to its mouth.  The view is absofromn the theory (which may be considered as es- lately boundless on every side, so that the sight
tablished) that the sun consists of a solid globe, is everywhere lost in the immensity."  Yet tlis
surrounded with a luminous atmosphere, and that glorious and  expansive prospect is comprised
the' dark spots are the openings in that luminous within a circle about 240 miles in diameter and
fluid                                             754 in circumference, containing 45,240 square
It appears, then, that the sun which we daily  miles, which is only 1-53,776,608th part of thle
behold is a body of ineffable magnitude and splen- surface of the sun; so that fifty-three milliolsm
dor, and that the most magnificent operations are seven hundred and seventy-six thousand landincessantly going forward on its surface or in its scapes, such as beheld fromn Mount Etna, beimmediate vicinity. It is, indeed, a kitid of uni. hooved to pass before us before we could contemverse in itself, the magnitude, and extent, ano plate a surface as expansive as that of the sun;
grandeur of which, and the vast and sublime and if every such landscape were to occupy two




HABITABILITY OF THE SUN.                                        $3
hours in the contemplation, as supposed above, it ited?  Most astronomers have been disposed to
would require twenty-four thousand five hundred answer this question in the negative.  Sir W.
and fijfy-four years before the whole surface of Herschel, however, and several others, consider it
this immense globe could be in this manner sur- as not altogether improbable that the sun is peoveyed; and, after all, we should have but a very pled with rational beings. Viewing this luminary
imperfect conception of the solid contents of the as consisting of a dark solid nucleus, surrounded
sun, which contains 356,818,739,200,000,000 of by two strata of clouds, the outermost the region
cubical miles, which number is 146,670 times of that light and heat which is diffused to the
greater than the number of square miles upon its remotest parts of the system, they conceived that
surface.                                         the interior stratum was intended to protect the
What a glorious idea, then, does such an object inhabitants of the sun from the. fiery blaze of the
as the sun present to us of the GRANDEUR of the sphere of light and heat with which they are
Deity and the ENERGIES of OMNIPOTENCE! There surrounded. On either side of this question it
is no single object within the range of our know- becomes us to speak with diffidence and modesty.
ledge that affords a more striking and august We ought not to set limits to the wisdom  and
emblem of its Great Creator.  In its luster, in its arrangements of the Creator by affirming that
magnitude, in its energy, in its boundless infiu- rational beings could not exist and find enjoyment
ence, and its beneficial effects on this earth and on such a globe as the sun, on account of the
on surrounding worlds, there is a more bright intensity of light and heat which forever prevails
display of Divine perfection than in any other in that region.  For it is probable that the lumimaterial being with which we are acquainted:     noun  matter that encompasses the solid globe of
the sun does not derive its splendor from  any
" Great source of day! best image here below  intensity of heat.  If this were the case, the parts
Of thy Creator! ever pouring wideich are perpetal
From world to world, the vital ocean ounderneath, which are perpetually in contact with
From world to world, the vital ocean round,
On Nature write, with every beans, his praise "  that glowing matter, would be heated to such a
degree as to become luminous and bright, whereas
Could such a magnificent orb have been pro- we find that they have uniformly a dark appearduced by a fortuitous concourse of atoms, and aance: so that it is possible the interior region of
placed in its proper position to distribute light the sun may be in a state of comparatively low
and attractive influence to the worlds which roll temperature.  For anything we know to the conaround it?  Could chance have directed the dis- trary or can demonstrate, the sun may be one of
tance at which it should be placed from  the the most splendid and delightful regions of the
respective planets, or the size to which it should  universe, and scenes of magnificence and granbe expanded, in order to diffuse its energies to the deur may be there displayed far surpassinig anyremotest part of the system?  Could chance have thing that is to be found in the planets wlhichl
impressed upon it the laws requisite for sustaining  revolve around it, and its populationr rssay as far
in their courses all the bodies dependent upon it, exceed in number that of other worlds as this
or have endowed it with a source of illumination immense size of this globe exceeds that of all the
which has been preserved in action from age to other bodies in the system.'But, on tlhe other
age?  To affirm  such positions would be to un- hand, we know too little of the nature and condermine and annihilate the principles of all our stitution of the sun, and the plans of Diviine
reasonings. The existenceof the sun proves the Wisdom, to warrant us to make any positive
existence of an Eternal and Supreme Divinity, assertions on this point. Although no inltelligent
and at the same time demonstrates his omnipotent beings were connected with this great luminary,
power, his uncontrollable agency, the depths of its boundless influence in the planetary system;
his wisdom, and the riches of his beneficence. its beinsg the soul and center of surrounding
If such a luminary be so glorious and incompre- worlds; its diffusing lightt, and heat, and genial
hensible, what must its Great Creator be?  If its influences of various kinds, to all the tribes of
splendor be so dazzling to our eyes, and its mag- their inhabitants; and its cementing them all by
nitude so overpowering to our imagination, what its attractive energy in one harmonious system,
must He be who lighted up that magnificent orb, are reasons sufficient for the creation of this vast
and bade a retinue of worlds revolve around it; globe, without the influence of which perpetual
who "dwells in light inaccessible, to which no darkness would ensue, the planets would start
mortal eye can approacll?"  If the sun is only  from  their spheres, and the whole system  soon
one out of many myriads of similar globes dis- become one universal wreck.
persed throughout the illimitable tracts of crea-   It is owing to the existence of the sun that our
tion, how great, how glorious, how far surpassing  globe is a habitable world and productive of enhuman comprehension must be the plans and the  joyment.  Almost all the benign agencies which
attributes of the infinite and eternal Creator! are going forward irn the atmosphere, the waters,' His greatness is unsearchable, and his ways and the earth, derive their origin from  its powerpast finding out."  Could we thoroughly com- ful and perpetual influence.  Its light diffuses
prehend the depths of his perfections or the gran- itself over every region,and produces all that diverdeur of his empire, he would cease to be God, or sity of coloring which enlivens and adorns tile
we should cease to be limited and dependent landscape of the world, without which we should
beings. But, in presenting to our view  such be unable to distinguish one object from another.
magnificent objects, it is evidently his intention  By its vivifying action, vegetables are elaborated
that we should rise in our contemplations from  from inorganic matter, the sap ascends through
the effect to the cause, from the creature to the their myriads of vessels, the flowers glow witht
Creator, from  the visible splendors and magnifi- the richest hues, the fruits of autumn are matured,
cence of creation to the invisible glories of Him  and become, in their turn, the support of animals
who sits on the throne of the universe, " whose and of man. By its heat the waters of the rivers
kingdom  ruleth over all, and before whom  all and the ocean are attenuated and carried to the
nations are counted as less than nothing and higher regions of the atmosphere, where they cirvanity."                                         culate in the form  of vapor until they again deIt might here form a subjectof inquiry, whether scend in showers, to supply the sources of tihe
there be any reason to believe that the sun is inhab- rivers and to fertilize the soil   By the same




84                                CELESTIAL SCENERY
agency all winds are produced, whiclh purify the which he considered as favorable to his hypothe
atmosphere by keeping it in perpetual motion, sis. But it is evident that we are not yet in pos
which propel our ships across the ocean, dispel session of such a series of facts in relation to this
noxious vaporis, prevent pestilential effluvia, and subject as will warrant us to draw any geleral
rid our habitations of a thousand nuisances. By conclusions.  Beside, we know too little of the
its attractive energy the tides of the ocean are construction of the sun, and the nature of those
modified  and regulated, the  earth conducted processes which are going on in its atmosphere, to
in its annual course, and the moon sustained be able to determine the proportion of light and
and  directed  in  her motions.  Its influence heat which particular phenomena indicate. So
descends even to the mineral kingdom, and is felt far as my own observation goes, I should be disin the chemical compositions and decompositions posed to adopt an opposite conclusion, namely,
of the elements of nature.'The disturbances in that in those years when the spots of the sun are
the electric equilibriumn of the atmosphere, which numerous, the seasons are colder and more unproproduce the phenomena of thunder, lightning, ductive of vegetation.  This was remarkably the
and rain,and the varieties of terrestrial magnetism::; case in the year 1816, when the solar spots were
the slow degradation of the solid constituents of extremely numerous, and when the harvest was
the globe and their diffusion among the waters of so late and scanty, that the price of all kinds of
the ocean, may all be. trqced, either, directly or grain was more than double what it had been beindirectly, to the agency of the sun. It illumi- fore or what it has been since. The year 1836,
nates and cheers all the inhabitants of the earth and the present year, 1837, afford similar examfrom the polar regions to the torrid zone. When pies; for, during eighteen months past, the' solar
its rays gild the eastern'horizon after the darkness spots have been more numerous than in any other
of the night, something like a new; creation ap- period in my recollection; and the cold of the
pears. The landscape,is adorned with a thousand summer and harvest of 1836, and of the winter
shades and colors; millions of insects awake and and spring of 1837, and its unfavorable effects on
bask in its rays; the birds start from their slum- vegetation, were greater than  what had been
bers, and fill the groves with their melody; the experienced for more than twenty years before.
flocks and herds express their joy in hoarser accla- But on this point we are not yet warranted to
mations; "man goeth forth to his work and to draw any positive conclusions.  Before we can
hislabor;"all naturesmiles, and "'the hills rejoice trace any general connection between the solar
on every side."  Without the influence of this spots and the temperature and vegetation of our
august luminary, a universal gloom would ensue, globe in any particular season, we must endeavor
and surrounding worlds, with all their trains of to ascertain the effects produced on vegetation not
satellites, would. be shrouded in perpetual dark- only in two or three particular countries which
ness. This earth would become a lifeless mass, a lie adjacent to each other, but over all the regions
dreary waste, a rude lump of inactive matter, of the earth. It may be proper to direct our
without beauty or order. No longer should we future observations to this point, as they might
behold the meadows clothed with verdure, the probably lead to some important results; but a
flowers shedding their perfumes, or "'the valleys considerable period behooved to elapse before
covered with corn."   The feathered songsters we could be warranted to deduce any definite
would no longer chant their melodious notes; all conclusions.
human activity would cease; universal silence    Whether the sun has a proqgressive nmotion in absowould reign undisturbed, and this huge globe of lute space is another question which has engaged
land and water would return to irs original chaos. the attention of astronomers. If the sun have
Hence it appears that there is a sufficient reason such a motion directed to any quarter of the heanfor the creation  of this powerful luminary, vyens, the stars in that quarter must apparently
although no sensitive or intelligent beings of any recede from each other, while those in the oppodescription were placed on its surface. But, at site region will seem gradually to approach. Sir
the same time, when we consider the infinite wis- W. Herschel found that the apparent proper modom and intelligence of the Divine mind, and that tion of forty-four stars out of fifty-six are very
the thoughts and the ways of God as far surpass nearly in the direction which should result from
the thoughts of man as the heavens in hight sur- a motion of the sun toward the constellation
pass the earth; when we consider that animated  Hercules, or to a point of the heavens whose right
beings on our own globe are found in situations ascension is 2500 5212', and north declination
where we should never have expected them; that 490 38'. "No one," says Sir John Herschel,
every puddle and marsh, and almost every drop " who reflects with due attention on the subject,
of water, is crowded with living beings; and that will be inclined to deny the high probability, nay,
even the very viscera in the larger animals can certainty, that the sun has a proper motion in
afford accommodation for sentient existence, it some direction."  But it appears to be yet unidewould be presumptuous in man to affirm that the termined by modern astronomers to what point in
Creator has not placed innumerable orders of sen- the heavens this motion is directed, and whether
tient and intelligent beings, with senses and it be in a straight line or in a portion of the circonstitutions accommodated to their situations, cumference of an immense circle  If the sun,
throughout the expansive regions of the sun.   then, has a proper motion in space, all the planeJI has been a question which has'exercised the tary bodies and their satellites, along with the
attention of some astronomers, whether the solar comets, must partake of it; so that, beside their
phenomena have any effect upon the weather, or the own proper motions around this luminary, they
productiveness of our seasons.  Sir W. Herschel are likewise carried along with the. sun through
was of opinion, that when the corrugations and the depths of infinite space with a velocity peropenings of the solar atmosphere are numerous, haps as great as that with which they are carried
the heat emitted by the sun must be proportiona- round in their orbits. Our. earth will therefore
bly increased, and that this augmentation must partake of three motions: one round its axis,
be perceptible by its effects on vegetation; and, another round the sun, and a third in the direction
by comparing the solar appearances as given by in which the sun is moving, and, consequently, it
La Lande with the table of the price of wheat in is probable that we shall never again occupy that
Smith's "Wealth of Nations," he obtained results portion of absolute space through which we are




ON THE SECONDARY PLANETS OR MOONS.                                       85
no.wpassing tnrotghout all the succeeding periods 50 degrees. The following figure exhibits a view
of eterlity                     -.  of this phenomenon as it is seen about the begin0Tke. Zodiacal Light.-The zodiacal light is a ning of March, at seven o'clock in the evening,
phenomenon which has been generally considered
as connected with the sun, The light appears to                      Fig. 77.
hayo. been noticed  by Mr. Childrey-about the           E
year 1660; but it was afterward more particularly
noticed and described by Cassini in-the spring of
1683, which was the first time he had seen it, and
he observed it for about eight days. It appears
generally in a conical form, having its base directed toward the body of the -sun and its point toward some star in the zodiac. Its light is like the 
milky way, qr that of the faint twilight, or the                 _
tail of a comet, thin enough to let the stars be
seen through it, and seems to surround the sun in            A   Cthe form of a lens, the plane of which is nearly
coincident with the plane of the sun's equator.- 
The apparent angular distance of its vertex from
the sun varies from 40 to 90 degrees, and the
breadth of its base, perpendicular to its axis, from  when the twilight is ending, and the equinoctial
8 to 30 degrees. It is supposed to extend beyond point in the horizon. A B represents the'horithe orbit of Mercury, and even as far as that of zon; CD the base of the luminous triangle; and
Venus, but never so far as the orbit of the earth. E its apex, poilting toward the Pleiades or the
This. light is weaker in. the morning when day is star Aldebaran, its axis forming an angle of becoming on than at night when darkless is increa- tween 60 and 70 degrees with the horizon.
sing, and it disappears in full moonlight or in    Various opinions have been entertained as to
strong twilight.  In north latitudes it is most con- the cause of this phenomenon; but as it uniformly
spicuous after the evening twilight about the end accompanies the sun, it has been generally ascribed
of February and the beginning of March; and to an atmosphere of immense extent surrounding
before the appearing of, the morning twilight, that luminary, and extending beyond the orbit of
about the beginning of October; for at those Mercury. According to this opinion, the zodiacal
times it stands most erect above the horizon, and light is considered as a section of this atmosphere;
is therefore farthest removed from the thick va- but this opinion now appears extremely dubious.
pors and the twilikht. About' the time of the Professor Olmsted, of Yale College, the celebrated
winter solstice it may likewise be seen in the Arago, Biot, and others, are now disposed to idenimornings; but it is seldom perceptible in summer tify this phenomenon with the cause that proon account of the long twilights. It is more duces the'"November Meteors," or shooting stars,
easily and more frequently perceived in tropical which have, of late, excited so great a degree of
climates, and particularly near the equator, than public attention.  It appears highly probable that
in our country, because in those parts the obliqui- these meteors derive their origin from a nebulous
sty of the equator and zodiac to the horizon is less, body which revolves round the sun, and which,
and because the duration of twilight is much in certain parts of its course, comes very near the
shorter. Humboldt observed this light at Caraccas, orbit of the earth, so as to be within its attractive
on the 18th of January, after seven o'clock in the power; and if such a body be the source whence
evening. The point. of the pyramid was at the these meteors proceed, it may also account for the
hight of 53 degrees; and the light totally disap- phenomena of'the zodiacal light.  The subject is
peared about half past nine, about 334 hours after worthy of particular attention, and future obsersunset, without any diminution in the serenity of vations may not only throw light on this particuthe sky. On the 15th of February it disappeared lar phenomenon, but open to our view a species
2 hours and 50 minutes after sunset, and the alti- of celestial bodies with which we were formerly
tude of the pyramid on both these occasions was unacquainted.
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE SECONDARY PLANETS OR MOONS.
HAVING, in the preceding chapter, given a de- connection with the sun. They revolve at diftailed account of the phenomena connected with ferent distances from  their primaries; they are
tihe sun and the primary planets of our system, I regulated according to the laws of Kepler forshall now proceed to a brief description of what merly alluded to; their orbits are circles or ellipses
is known in reference to the satellites or moons of very moderate eccentricity; in their motions
which accompany several of the primary planets. around their primaries they describe areas very
A secondary planet or satellite is a body which nearly,proportional to the times; and the squares
revolves around a primary planet as the center of of the periodical times of all the satellites belongits motion, and whic'h is at the same'time carried' ing to each planet are in proportion to each other
along with its primary round the sun. The satel- as the cubes of their distances (see page 23)
lites form a system, in connection with their pri- The planets around which satellites have been
maries, similar to that which the:planets form in discovered, are, the earth, Jupiter, Saturn, and




sf                                 CELESTIAL SCENERY
Uranus.  Of the satellites belonging to these near the line of its course to the eastward   The
bodies I shall present a brief sketch in the order reason why the moon appears under the d'erent
in which they are here mentioned.                 phases now described will appear from  the following figure.
I. OF THE EARTH'S SATELLITE, OR THE MOON.        Ill this diagram  S represents the sun; E  the
earth; and MI, A, B, C, D, F, (C, H, the moon in
Before proceeding to a particular description of different positions in its orbit round the earth
this nocturnal luminary,' I shall present a brief When the moon is at M, as seen from  the earth,
sketch of its apparent motions.                  her dark side is completely turned to the earth;
The moon, like all the other celestial bodies, and she is consequently invisible, as at I, being
appears daily to rise in an easterly direction, and                   Fi  78
to set in the'western parts of the horizon.  Its
apparent motion in this respect is similar to that                      n
of the sun, formerly described, and is owing to
the diurnal motion of the earth. Its real motion            q p        J(
round the earth is in a contrary direction, namely, 
from  west to east, or in the same direction in
which all the planets move round the sun. This
motion may be traced every lunation, but more
distinctly during the spring months, when the
moon, in the first quarter, appears in a high
degree of north declination, and when its crescent.is sometimes visible within thirty-six hours of the   
change. About this period, on the second or
third day of the moon's age, it will be seen in the  A
west after sunset at a small elevation above the
horizon, and exhibiting the form of a slender
crescent. On the next evening it will appear at
a still higher elevation at the same hour, having
moved about thirty degrees farther to the east,
and its crescent will appear somewhat larger.
Every succeeding day it will appear at a greater
alevation, and farther to the east than before, and
its crescent will appear larger, until about the
seventh or eighth day, when it will be seen in the
south when the sun is setting in the west, at which
time it assumes the appearance of a semicircle, or nearly in the same part of the heavens with the
half moon. During this period the horns of the sun.  She is in this position at the period termed
crescent point toward the east, the enlightened  new moon, when she is also said to be in conjuncpart of the lunar disc being turned toward the tion with the sun. When she has moved from.M
sun.  After the first quarter, or the period of to A a small part of her enlightened hemisphere
half moon, the lunar orb still keeps on its course is turned toward the earth, when she appears in
to the eastward, and the portion of its enlightened  the form of a crescent, as at K.  In movilg from
disc is gradually enlarged, until about the fifteenth A to B a larger portion of her enlightened hemiday of the moon's age, when it appears as a full sphere is gradually turned toward the earth; and
enlightened hemisphere, and rises in the east when she arrives at B  the one-half of her enabout the time when the sun is setting in the lightened hemisphere is turned to the earth, and
west.  In this position it is said to be in opposition she assumes the figure of a half moon, as at L.
to the sun, and passes the meridian about mid- When arrived at C she appears under what is
night.  After this period the enlightened part of called a gibbous phase, as at N, more than oneits disc gradually diminishes, and it rises at a late half of her enlightened disc being turned to the
hour, until, in the course of seven days, it is again earth.  At D her whole enlightened hemispher.
reduced to a semicircle. and is seen only during is turned to our view, and she appears a fa..
one half of the night.  Some nights after it moon, as at 0.  After this period she again deappears reduced to a crescent, having its points creases, turning every day less and less of her
or horns turned toward the west, the sun being enlightened hemisphere to the earth, so that at F
thento the east of it.  After this it rises but a little  she appears as at P; at G a half-moon on the
time before the sun, and is seen only early in the decline, as at Q; at H a crescent, as at R; and at
morning; and its crescent daily diminishes until it M she is again in conjunction with the sun, when
at length disappears, when it rises at the same time her dark side is turned to the earth as before.
with the sun; and after having been invisible for The moon passes through all these changes in
two or three days, it reappears in the evening in the twenty-nine days, twelve hours, and forty-four
west a little after sunset. During this period the minutes, at an average, which is termed her
moon has made a complete circuit round the synodical revolution.  But the time which she
heavens from west to east, which is accomplished  takes in making one revolution round the earth,
in twenty-nine days and a half, in which period from a fixed star to the same againi, is only twentyit passes through all the phases now described. seven days, seven hours, and forty-three minutes,
The progressive motion from west to east, every which is called her periodical revolution.  For,
day, may be traced by observing the stars which after one revolution is finished, she has a small
lie nearly in the line of the moon's course.  If a are to describe in order to get between the sun
star be observed considerably to the eastward of and the earth; because, in consequence of the
the moon on any particular evening, on the fol- earth's motion in the same direction, the suii
lowing evening it will appear about thirteen de- appears to be advancing forward in theo eclipgrees nearer the star, and will afterward pass to tic, and, of course, the  moon  requires some
the eastward of it, and every succeeding day will time to overtake him, after having finished a
approach nearer to all the other stars which lie revolution.  This surplus of motion occupies




ROTATION OF. THE MOON.                                        87
two days, -five hours, and one minute, which, circle, and causing another person to carry round
added to the periodical, make the synodical revo- a terrestrial globe, without turning it on its axis,
lution, or the period between one new  or full whenl he will see every part of the surface of the
moon and another.  This might be illustrated by globe in succession; and in order that one hemithe: revolution of the hour and minute-hands of sphere-only should be presented to his view, he
a watch or clock.  Suppose the. hour-hand to will find that the globe will require to be gradually
repesent the sun, and a complete revolution of turned round its axis, so as to make a complete
it to represent a year; suppose the minute-hand rotation during the time it is carrie.d round the
to represent the moon, and its circuit round the circle. The axis of the moon is inclined 88~ 29'
dial-plate a month, it is evident that the moon or to the ecliptic, so that it is nearly perpendicular
minute-hand must go more than round the circle to it. Although the mooin presellts nearly tile
where it was last conjoined with the sun or hour- same side to the earth in till its revolutions around
hand before it can again overtake it. If, for ex- it, yet there is perceived a certain slight variation
ample, they were in conjunction at 12, the mi- in this respect. When we look attentively at the
nute-hand or moon must make a complete revo- disc of the moon with a telescope, we somretirles
lution and above one-twelfthl before they can observe the spots on her eastern limb, which were
meet, a little past I; for the hour,-hand, being in formerly visible concealed behind her disc, while
motion, call never be overtaken by the minute- others appear on her western limb which were
hand at that point from which they started at not seen before. The spots which appear on the
their last conjunction.                          western limb withdraw themselves behind the limb,
To a-spectator placed on the lunar surface, the while the spots which were concealed behind tihe
earth would every month exhibit all the phases of eastern limb again appear. The same phenomena
the moon. but in a reverse order from what the are observed in the north and south limb of tilhe
moon exhibits to the earth at the same time. Thus moon, so that the spots sometimes change their
(Fig. 78), when the moon is at D only the dark positions about three minutes on  the moon's disc,
hemisphere of the earth is turned toward the or about the eleventh part of her diameter.  This
moon, and, consequently, the earth would be then is termed the libration of the moon; the one her
invisible; so that when it is full moon to us, it libration in longitude, and the other her libration
is new moon to a lunar inhabitant; as tile earth  in latitude.
will then be in conjunction with the sun, and    From what we have stated above in relation to
nothing but its dark hernisphere presented to view. the phases and motions of the moon, it is evident
When the moon is at:   a snall portion of the that the mopon is a dark body, like the earth, and
enlightenied half of the earth is turned toward the derives all its light from the sun, for its enllightenmoon, and it appears as a crescent. When she is ed side is always turned toward that luminary. It
at Q the earth appears as a half-moon; when at likewise derives a faint light by the reflectioni of
R,a gibbous phase; and when she is at I,the time the sun's rays from the earth, in the same way as
of new moon to us, the earth then shillnes o  the we derive a mild light from the moon.  And as
dark side of the moon with a full einlightened  the earth has an uneven surface, composed of
hemisphere.  It is owing to this circumstance, mountains and vales, so the moon'is found to he
that when the new moon first appears like a slen- diversified with similar inequalities.  It is owing
der crescent, her dark hemispler e is seen illu- to these inequalities, or the roughness of the
minated with a faint light, perceptible even to the moon's surface, that the light of the sun is reflectnaked eye; and with the help of a telescope we ed from it in every direction; for, if the surface of
are enabled, by this fainlt illumination, to distin- the moon were perfectly smooth, like a polished
guish the plominent spots on this pomtioli of the globe or speculum, her orb would be inivisible to'lunar disc. This faint light, therefore, is nothing  us; except, perhaps, at certain times, whern the
else than the moonlight of the moon, produced by image of the sun, reflected from it, would appear
the earth shining with nearly a full face upon the like a bright lucid point.  This may be illustrated
dark surface of the moon.  And as the surface of by the following experiment. Place a silver globe,
the earth is thirteen times larger than the surface  perfectly polished, about two inlchcs diancter, in
of the moon, the light reflected from  the earth  the sun; the rays which frill upon it beinlg'reflectwill be nearly equal to that of thirteen full moons. ed variously, according to their several incidences,
As the age of tile moon increases, this secondary  upon the convex surface, will come to our eye
light is gradually enfeebled, and after the seventh  only from  onie point of the globe, whin1ch will
or eighth day from the change it is seldom visible. therefore appear a small bright spot, but the. rest
This arises from thediminution of theenlightened  of the surface will appear dark.  Let this globe
part of the earth, which then appears only like a then be boiled in the liquor used for whitening
half-moon, approaching to a crescent, and chnse- silver, and placed ill the sun; it will appear in its
quent!y, throws a more feeble light upon the full dimensions all over luminous; for the effect
moon, which is the more difficult to be perceived of that liquor is to take off the smootllhnessof the
as'the enlightened part of the moon increases.    polish, and  make the surfiace rough, alnd then
Rotation of the Moon. —While the moon is per- every point of it will reflect the rays of liyght in
forining her revolution round the earth every every direction.
month, she is also gradually revolving round her   The moon is nearest to tie earth of all the ceaxis; and it is somewhat relnarkable that her lestial bodies, and is a constant attenidanit upon it
revolution round her own axis is performed in the at all seasons. Her distance from  tile center of
same'time as her revolution rouind the earth. This the earth is, in round numbers, 240,000 miles, or
is inferred from  the circumstance that the moon somewhat less than a quarter of a million; which
always turns the same face to the earth, so' that we is little more than the fourth part of the diameter
never see the other hemisphere of tils globe.' For of the sun..Small as this distance is compared
If the moon had no rotation upon an axis, she with that of the other planets, it would require
would present every part of her surface to the five hundred days, or sixteen months and a half,
earth. Thlis does not, at filst sight appear obvious for a steam-carriage to move over the interval
to those who have never directed their attention which separates us fiom the lunar orb, althoiugh it
to the subject. Any oie, however, iay convince were moving day and night at the rate of t wenty
himself of the fact by standing in the center of a miles every hour. In her motion round t}he;earth




CSB                              - CELESTIAL SCENERY.
every month, she pursues her- course -at, the rate eclipse is never seen throughout the- whole hem!.
of 2300 miles anllhour. But she is carried at the sphere of the earth where the sun is visible; as
same time, along with the earth, round the sun the moon's disc is too small to hide the whole, oI
every year, so that her-real motion in space is any-part of the sun from'the whole disc or hemimuch more rapid than what has now been stated; sphere of-the earth. Nor does an eclipse of the
or while she accompanies the earth in its' motion sun appear the same in all parts of tile earth where
round the sun, Which is at the rate of'68,000 miles it is visible, but when in one place it is total, in
an -hour, she also moves thirteen times round the another it is only partial.
earth during the same period,'which is' equal to' a   The moon's orbit, like those of the other planets,
course' of nearly twenty millions of miles. -   is in the form  of all ellipse, the eccentricity of
The moon's orbit is inclined' to the'ecliptic in which is 12,960 miles, or about 1-37th part of its
arn angle of. 50 9'; so that, in one part of her longest diameter. The moon is, therefore, at difcourse, she is, above, and in another'below the ferent distances from the earth in different parts
level of the earth's orbit.' It is owing to this cir- of her orbit. When at the greatest distance from
cumstance that this orb is not'eclipsed at' every  the earth, she is, said to be in her apogee; when at
full mooin and the sun at every new moon, which the least distance, in her perigee. The nearer the
would regularly happen did the moon move in an moon is to the periods of full or chanzge, the greater
orbit exactly coincident with the plane of the is her velocity;'and the nearer to the quadratures,
ecliptic. The moon's orbit, of course,-crosses the or the periods of half-moon, the slower she moves
oilbit of the earth in two opposite points, called When the earth is in its perihelion, or nearest the
her nodes-; and it is:only when the new  or full sun, the periodical time of the moon is the greatmoon happens at or near these nodes that- an est. The earth is at its perihelion in winter, and,
eclipse of the sun or moon can take place; for it consequently, at that time the moon will describe
is only when she is in such a position- that the the largest circle about the earth, and her periodisun, the moon, and the earth are nearly in a cal time will be the longest; but when the earth
straight line, and that, the shadow of the one can is in its aphelion, or farthest from the sun, which
fall upon the other. The shadow of the moon happens in summer, she will, describe a smaller
falling upon any part of the earth produces an circle, and her periodical time will be the least; all
eclipse of the- sun, and the shadow of the earth  which circumstances are found to agree with
falling upon the moon causes an eclipse of the- observation.  These and many other irregularities
moon. An eclipse of the moon can only take in the motion of this orb, which it would be -too
place at. full moon, when the earth is between the tedious to particularize, arise from the attractive
influence of the sun upon the lunar orb in differFig. 79.                    ent circumstances and in different parts of -'ts
course, so as to produce different degrees of
accelerated and retarded motion. The irregularities of the moon's motion have frequently puzzled
astronomers and mathematicians, and they render
the calculations of her true place in the heavens
a work of considerable labor. No less than thirty
equations require to be applied to the mean longi.
tude in order to obtain the true, and about twentyfour equations for her latitude and parallax; bult
to enter minutely into such particulars would
afford little satisfaction to general readers.
Description of the surface of the Moon, as sleel
through telescopes.-Of all the celestial bodies, thi
telescopic view of the moon presents the most interesting and variegated appearance.  We perceive, as it were, a map or model of another
world, resembling in some of its prominent features the world in which we dwell, but differing
from it in many of its minute arrangements. It
bears a certain analogy to the earth in some of the
mountains and vales which diversify its surface;
but the general form and arrangement of these
elevations and depressions, and the scenery they
present to the spectator on the lunar surface, are
very diff'erent from what we behold in our terrestrial landscapes. When we view the moon with
a. good telescope when about three days old, we
perceive a number of elliptical spots with slight
shadows, evidently indicating elevations and depressions; we also perceive a number of bright
specks or studs in the dark uemisphere, immediately adjacent to the enlightened crescent, and
the boundary between the dark and the enulghtened portion' of the disc: appears jagged and unleven. At this time, too, we perceive the dark
part of the moon covered with a faint light; so
sun and the moon; and an eclipse of the sun can that the whole circular outline of the lunar hemlionly happen at new moon, when the moon comes sphere may be plainly discerned. When we take
between the sun and- the earth. Lunar eclipses a view of the lunar surface, at the period of half.
are visible in all parts of the earth which have the moon, we behold a greater variety of objects, and
moon above their hor;zdn, and are everywhere of the shadows of the mountains and caverns appear
the same magnitude and duration; but a solar larger and more prominent.  This is, on the




LUNAR MOUNTAINS.                                           89
who;e, the- best time for taking a telescopic view  than seventy of these mountains have been calof the surface of the moon. Whenwe view her culated by M'Schroeter, who.had -long surveyed
when;'advanced' to a gibbous phase we see a still the lunar face with powerful telescopes, and who
greater extent of the surface,.but the shadows of some time ago published the result of his observathe different objects are shorter and less distinct. tions in a work entitled'" Fragments of SelehograAt:the time of full moon, no shadows either of ph y."  Thirty of these insulated mountains are
the mountains or caverns are perceptible, but a from 2 to 5 miles in perpendicular hight; thirteen
variety of dark and bright streaks and' patches are above 4 miles; and about forty are from a quarappear-distributed in diffeirent shapes over all its ter of a mile to two mites in altitude.  The.length
surface. If we had' no other view- of the moon of their bases varies from 312 to 96 miles in extent.
but at this period, we should' scarcely be able to Some of these mountains will present a very grand
determine' whether mountains and vales existed and picturesque prospect around the plains on
on this orb. The view of the full moon, there- which they stand. 2. Ranges of mountains, exfore, however beautiful and variegated, can give tending in length two or three hundred miles.
us no accurate idea of the mountains, vales, cav- These ranges bear a distant resemblance to our
erns,-and other geographical arrangements which  Alps, Apennines, and Andes, but they are much
diversify its surface.                           less in -extent, and do not
Lunar  Mlountains.-That the surface of the form avery prominent fea-           Fig. 80.
moon is diversified with mountains or high ele- ture of the lunar surface.
vations, is evident from  an inspection  of its Some of them appear very
disc, even with a common telescope.  They are rugged  and  precipitous,
recognized-from various circumstances..1. From  and the highest ranges are,
the appearance of the boundary which separates in some places, above four
the aim_ fromn the enlightened hemisphere of the' miles in perpendicular almoon.  This boundary'is not a straight line or a titude.  In some instanregular curve, as it would be it ther moon were a ces they run nearly in a
perfectly smooth globe, but uniformly presents an straight line from northuneven or jagged appearance, cut, as it were, into east to south-west, as in
numerous notches and, breaks somewhat resem- that range called the Apbling the teeth of a saw, which appearance can ennines; in other cases
only be produced by elevations and depressions on. they assume the form of a
the lunar surface (Fig. 79).: 2. Adjacent to the semicircle or a crescent. 3.- Another class of the
boundary..between light and darkness, and within lunar mountains is the circular ranges which apthe; dark part of the moon, there are seen, in al- pear onlalmost every part of the moon's surface,
most every stage of the moon's -increase and de- particularly in its southern regions. This is one
crease, a number of shining points like stars, completely separated from the enlightened parts, and                    Fig. 81.
sometimes other small spaces or streaks which
join to tile enlightened surface, but run out into
the dark side, which gradually change their figure
until at length they come wholly within the enlightened  boundary.  These shining  points or
streaks are ascertained to be the tops or highest
ridges of mountains which the sun first enlightens
before his rays can reach the valleys; just as the
beams of the rising sun irradiate our mountain
tops before the lower parts of the landscape are.
enlightened. 3. The shadows of the mountains,
when they are fully enlightened, are distinctly
seen near the border of the illuminated part of the
moon, as the shadows of elevated objects are seen
on the terrestrial landscape. These shadows are
longest and most distinctly marked about the
time of half-moon; and they grow shorter as the
lunar orb advances to the period of full moon, in
the salne way as the shadows of terrestrial objects of the grand peculiarities of the lunar ranges, to
in summer gradually shorten as the sun approaches which we have nothing similar in our terrestrial arthe meridian. These considerations demonstrate, rangements. A plain, and sometimes.a large cavity,
beyond the possibility of doubt, that mountains is surrounded with a circular ridge of mountains,
of very considerable altitude and in vast variety  which encompasses it like a
of forms abound in almost every region of the mighty rampart. These an-             Fig. 82.
moon.                                            nular ridges and plains are of
The. lunar mountains in general exhibit an ar- all aimensions, from a mile to
rangementand an aspect very different from  the forty or fifty miles in diammountain scenery of our globe. They may be ar- eter, and are to be seen in
ranged into the four following varieties: 1. Insu- great numbers over every related mountains, which rise from  plains nearly  gion of the moon's surface.
level, like a sugar-loaf placed on a table,- and' The mountains which form
which ma-y be supposed to present an appearance  these ridges are of different
somewhat similar to Mount Etna -or the peak of elevations, from one-fifth of a
Teneriffe..The shadows of these mountains, in  mile to, 3   miles in altitude,
certain phases of the moon, are as distinctly per- and their shadows sometimes
ceived as the shadow  of an upright.staff when  coverthe one-half of theplain.
placed opposite -tothe sun; and their:: hights can  These plains are sometimes on a level with the
be calculated from (the length of their-shadows. general surface of the moon, and in other cases
The bights and the length of the base of more they are sunk a mile or more below the level of the




90                                  CELESTIAL SCENERY.
ground which surrounds theexterior circle of the in the same direction. Fig. 82 exhibits another
mounltains. In some of these circular ridges Illave of these circular ridges and plains. Several hunperceived a narrow pass or opening, as if intended dreds of these circular cavities and plains are disto form an easy passage orcomnlunication between tributed over the lunar surface, but they are most
the interior plain and the regions beyond the ex- abundant in the southern regions.
terior of the mountains. 4. The next variety is the   Fig. 83 exhibits a pretty correct view of the full
central mountains, or those which are placed in the moon, as seen through a telescope magnifying
middle of circular plains. In many of the plains above a hundred times, inu which the darker shades
and cavities surrounded by annular mountains represent, for the most part, the level portions of
there is an insulatel mountain, which rises from  thle moon's surface, and the lighter shades those
the center of tile plain, and whose, shadow some- which are more elevated or mountainous.  The
timesextends, in a pyramidal form, across the semi- bright spot near the' bottom, fi'om which streaks
diameter of the  plain to the opposite ridges. or streams of light-seem to proceed, is called Tycho
These central mountains are generally from  half by some, and Miount Etna by others. It consists
a mile, to a mile and a half in perpendicular alti- of a large irregular cavity, surrounded by mountlude.  In some instances they have two and tains; and the streaks of light are the elevated
sometimes three separate tops,- whose distinct ridges of ranges of mountains, which seem  to
shadows can be easily distinguished. Sometimes converge toward it as to a center. This is the
they are situated toward one -side of the plain or most variegated and mountainous region of the
cavity, but, in the great majority of instances, lunar surface.  Fig. 84 is a view of the moon,
their positioni is nearly or exactly central. The hastily taken, when in a gibbous phase. The shalengths-, of their bases vary from  five to about doews were then comparatively short, and it would
fifteen or sixteen miles.                         require to be engraved on a much more extenlsive
The precediing figures may perhaps convey a scale than our page admits to show distinctly the
rude idea of some of the objects now described; but elevations and depressions at the boundary between
light and darkness.  Fig. 85 (Nos. 1 and
Fig. 83.                        2) represent some detached spots near the
line which separated the dark and enlightNT,,rth.                       ened parts.of the moon.
From  what has now been stated respect______________             uing the lunar mountains, it will evidently
appear that there must he a great variety of
sublime and picturesque sceneryv connected
with the various landscapes of, the moon.
e.,~__: ~-* —---- ----— If the surface of that orb be adorned with a
_I_______=_~~:- ~    ~_ _  ~~ —: —:diversity of color and with something anal_______            ~-_~=~=~=-~~               ogous to the vegetation of our globe, there
must be presented to the view of a spectator
in the moon a variety of scenes altogether
dissimilar to those which we call contenmplate on this earth. The circular plains and
mountains will present three or four varieties of prospect, of which we have no examples on our globe.  In the first place, a
— ~=  =      _- _ - - -. spectator near the middle of the plane will
behold his view bounded on every hand by
a chain of lofty mountains, at tile distance
==__________- _' =~' —i ~! of 5, 10, 15, or 20 Mfiles, according to the
~I~ll~-~ ~  _.. __          - B    diameter of the plain; and as the tops of
____3___                     Ithese mountains are at different elevations,
scenery.  In the next place, when standing
on the top of tile central mountain, the
whole plain, with its diversified objects, will
be open to his view, which will likewise
it is impossible, by any delineations, to convey an take in all the variety of objects connected with
idea'of the peculiarities and the vast variety of the circular mountain-range which bounds his
scenery which the lunar surface presents, such as prospect. A third variety of view will be preis exhibited. by a powerful telescope during the sented in traveling round the plain, where tihe
different stages of^ the increase and decrease of various aspects of the central mountain will prethe moon.                                        sent, at every stage, a new landscape and a diverFig. 79 represents the moon in a crescent phase, sity of prospect. Another view, still more extenfor the purpose of showing how the enlightened  sive, will be obtained by ascendipg to the summit
tops of the mountains appear on the dark part of of the circular range, where the whole plain and
tile moon, detached as it were from the enlightened  its central mountain will be full in view, and a
part, and likewise to show how the boundary be- prospect will, at the same time, be opened of a
tween the light and darkness appears jagged and portion of those regions which lie beyond the
uneven, indicating the existence of elevations and exterior boundary of the mountains (see Fig. 81).
depressions upotn its surface.  Fig. 80 represents A diversity of scenery will likewise be presented
a circularor elliptical range of mountains, sur- by the shadows of the circular-range and the cenrounding a- plain of the same shape, where the tral mountain. When the sun is in the horizon,
shadow of that side of the range which is opposite the whole plain will be enveloped in the shadows
to the sun appears covering the half of the plain. of the mountains, even after daylight begins to
Fig 81 represents a circular plain, with the sha- appear.  These shadows will grow shorter and
dow of one side of the mountains which encom- shorter as the sun rises in the heavens; but a
pass it, and a central mountaiin with its shadow  space of time equal to one or two of our days




NO PROOFS OF LUNAR VOLCANOES.                                        91
rwill intervene before the body of the sun is seen  that such places are diversified'and adorned with
fioroi'the, opposite side of the plain, rising above [all the vegetable scenery which we reckon beautithe mouihtain tops; and a still longer
space: of timee before his direct rays are                       Fig. 84.:seen at- the opposite extremity.  These
shadows are continually varying; during:the increase of the moon- they are thrown
i one direction, and during the decrease 
ill a direction exactly opposite; and it is
-ally' about the time of full moon that
every part of the plain, and the mountains
which surround it, are fully enlightened,             r_
and the shadows disappear. There must,
Iherefore, be a far greater variety of sublime mountain-scenery, and of -pictu-              =_
resque objects connected with it, on the
lunar surface, than what is presented to
our view in terrestrial landscapes.              _-_-_   _ __
The Luniar Caverns. —These  form  a               ~ _ 
very peculiar and prominent feature of
the moon's surface, and are to be seen 
throughout almost every region; but are    - _       -
most 1numerous in the south-west part of
the moon. Nearly a hundred of them,                       Of
great and small, may be distinguished int                                  -    _
that quarter. They are all nearly of a            == —-_ _'
circular shape, and appear like a very
shallow  ergg-cup.: The smaller cavities                           \
appear within almost like a hollow cone,
with the sides tapering toward the center;               - 
bat the larger ones have, for the most
part,, flat bottoms, from  the center of                                  - _ _.A;
which there frequently-rises a small steep
conical hill, which gives them  a resem-           -t_ --
blance to the annular ridges and central_                                        s
mountains above described.  In some in-, Xstances their margins are level with the
general surface of the moon, but in most
cases' they are encircled with a high annular ridge of mountains marked by lofty
peaks. Some of the larger of these cav-    Fig. 85. (No. 1.)                   Fig. 85. (No. 2.)
ities contain smaller cavities of the same
kind and. form, particularly in their sides. The  ful and picturesque in a terrestrial landscape, and
mountainous ridges which surround these cavities with objects which are calculated to reflect with
reflect the greatest quantity of light; and hence brilliancy the solar rays, in order to give such an
that region of the moon in which they abound  idea of the grandeur of the scene. And that tite
appears brighter than any other. From their lying  objects connected with these hollows are formred
ini every possible direction, they appear, at and  of substances fitted to reflect the rays of the sln
near the time of full moon, like a number of bril- with peculiar luster, appears from  the brilliancy
liant streaks or radiations.  These radiations ap- which most of them exhibit when either partially
pear to converge toward a large brilliant spot sur- or wholly enlightened; presenting to view, especirounded by a faint shade, near the lower part of ally at full moon, the most luminous portions of
the moon, which is known by -the name of Tychlo, the lunar surface, so that former astronomers'were
and which every one who views the full moon, led to compare them to rocks of diamond.
even with a common telescope, may easily distin-    Whether there be any evidence of Volcanoes in
guish..In regard to their dimensions, they are of the Moon. —From  a consideration of the:broken
all sizes, from three miles to fifty miles in diam- and irregular ground, and the deep caverns which
eter at the top; and their depth below the general appear in different parts of the moon's surface,
level of the lunar surface varies from one-third of  several astronomers were led to conjecture that
a nile to three miles and a half. Twelve of these such irregularities were of volcanic origin. These
cavities, as measured by Schroeter, were found to conjectures were supposed to be confirnied by the
be above two milesin perpendicular depth. These appearance of certain luminous points, which
cavities constitute a peculiar feature in the scenery were occasionally seen on the dark part of the
of the moon, and her physical constitution, which  moon. During the annular eclipse of the sun on
bears scarcely any analogy to what we observe in the 24th of June, 1778, Don Ulloa perceived, near
the physical arrangements of our globe. But, how- the north-west limb of the moon, a bright white
ever different such arrangements may appear from  spot, which he imagined to be the light of the
what we see around us in the landscapes of the sun shining through an opening in the moon.
earth, and however unlikely it may at first sight This phenomenon continued about a minute and
appear that such places should be the abode of in- a quarter, and was noticed by threedifferent oh,
telligent beings, I have no doubt that, in point of servers. Beccaria observed a similar spot inl 1772.
beauty variety, and sublimity, these spacious hol- M. Bode, of Berlin, M. de Villeneuve, M. Nouet,
lows, with all their assemblage of circularand cen- Captain Kater, and several others, at different
tral mountain-scenery, will exceed in interest and times observed similar phenomena, some of which
grandeur any individual scene we can contema- had the appearance of a small nebula, or a star of
plate on our g obe   We have only to-conceive the sixth magnitude, upon the dark part of tihe




92                                CELESTIAL SCENERY.
lunar disc. Sir W. Herschel, in 1787, observed They are thus to be-considered as an evidence or
similar phenomena, which he ascribes to the erup- indication that man is -no longer in a state of
tion of volcanoes. The following is an extract moral perfection and that his habitation now corfrom his account of those phenomena: "April 19, responds with his-character as a sinner. To sup1787, 10h7. 36m.  I perceive three volcanoes in pose, therefore, that such destructive-agents exist
different places of the dark part of the new moon. in the moon, would be virtually to adrmit that the
Two of them are- already nearly extinct, or other- inhabitants of that planet are in the same depraved
wise in a state of going to break out; the third condition as the inhabitants of this world. The
shows an eruption - of fire or luminous matter. same thing maybe said with regard to a pretended
The distance of the crater from the northern limb discovery which was announced some years ago,
of the moon is3' 57'"; its light is much brighter that "there are fortifications in the moon;" for, if
than the nucleus of the comet which M. Mechain such objects really existed, it would be a plain
discovered at Paris on the, 10th of -this mouth." proof that the inhabitants were engaged in wars
"-'April 20, 10h. The volcano burns With greater and contentions, and animated with the same
violence than last night; its diameter cannot be diabolical principl!es of pride, ambition, and re-less than three seconds; and hence the shining or venge, which have ravaged our globe and denloral
burnilg matter must be above three miles in di- ized its inhabitants.
ameter..iThe appearance resembles a small piece    Whether there be Seas in the Moon is a question
of burniing charcoal when it is covered by a very which has engaged the attention of astronomers,
thin coat of white ashes, and it has a degree of and which demands a few remarks.  When we
brightness about as strong as that with which such view the moon through a good telescope, we pera coal would be seen to glow in faint daylight."   ceive a number of large dark spots, of different
Such- are some of- the phenomena from which dimensions, some of which are visible to the naked
it has- beenli oncluded that volcanoes exist in the eye. These spots, in the early observations of
moon.  That such appearances indicate the exist- the. moon with telescopes, were generally supposed
ence of fire or-some species of luminosity on the to be large. collections of water similar to our seas,
lunar surface, is readily admitted; but they by no and the names given them  by Hevelius, such as
means prove that anything similar to terrestrial Mare Crisium, Mlare Imbriumn, &c., are founded
volcanoes exist in that orb. We err egregiously  on this opinion.  The general smoothness of
when we suppose that the arrangelnents of other these obscure regions, and the consideration that
worlds must be similar to those on our globe, es- water reflects less light than the land, induced
pecially when we perceive the surface of the moon some astronomers to draw this conclusion. But
arranged in a manner so very different from that there appears no solid  ground for entertaining
of the earth. We have no right to conclude that such an opinion; for, in the first place, when
burning mountains  abound in' the moon because these dark spots are viewed with good telescopes,
these are-the only large streams of fire that occa- they are found to contain numbers of cavities,
sionially burst forth from certain points on our whose shadows are distinctly perceived falling
globe. For there are many other causes of which within them, which can never happen in a sea or
we are ignorant, and which may be peculiar to smooth liquid body; and beside, several insulated
the moon, which may produce the occasional mountains, whose shadows are quite perceptible,
gleams or illuminations to which we allude. The are found here and there in these supposed seas.
conflagration of a large forest, such as happened In the next place, when the boundary of light
a few years ago at Miramichi, the blazing of large and darkness passes through these spots, it is not
tracts of burning heath, the illumination of a exactly a straight line or a regular curve, as it
large town, or the conflagration of such -a city as ought to be were those parts perfectly level like a
_Moscow,would, in all probability, present to aspec- sheet of water, but appears slightly jagged or
tator in the moon luminous specks such as those uneven.  I have inspected these spots hundreds
which astronomers have observed on the dark  of times, with powers of 150, 180, and 230 times,'
portion of the lunar orb. Such luminosities in the and in every instance, and in every stage of the
moon may possibly be of a phosphoric nature, or a moon's increase and decrease, gentle elevations
mere display of some brilliant artificial scenery by and depressions were seen, similar to the wavings
the inhabitants of that planet. Schroeter is of or inequalities which are perceived upon a plain
opinion that most of these appearances are to be or country generally level.  There are scarcely
ascribed to the light reflected from the earth to any parts of these spots in which slight elevations
the dark part of the moon's disc, which returns it may not be seen. In many of hleon the light and
from  the tops -of the mountains under various shade, indicating the inequality of surface, are
angles, and with different degrees of brightness; quite perceptible; and in certain  parts ridges
and from various observations I have made on nearly parallel, of slight elevation, with interja,
the dark portion of the moon, when about two or cent plains, are distinctly visible. These dark
three days old, and from the degree of brightness spots, therefore, must be considered as extensi-v
with which'some of the small spots have frequently  plains diversified with gentle elevations and deo
appeared, I- am disposed to consider this opinion pressions, and consisting of substances calculated
as highly probable.                             to reflect the light of the sun with a less degree of
The existence of volcanoes on our globe is intensity than the other parts of the lunar surface.
scarcely to be considered asa part of its original con- These plains are of different dimensions, from 40
stitution. Such appalling and destructive agents or 50 to 700 miles in extent, and they occupy
appear altogether inconsistent with the state of more than one-third of that hemisphere of the
an innocent being formed after the Divine image; moon which is seen from the earth, and, conso —
and, therefore, we have no reason to believe that quently, will contain nearly three millions of
they existed in the primitive age of the -world, square miles. As the moon, therefore, is diversiwhile man remained in his paradisiacal state, but fled with mountains and cavities of forms altobegan to operate only after the period of the uni-  gether different- from  those of our globe, so tho
versal deluge, when the primitive constitution of plains upon the surface of that orb are far more
our globe was altered and deranged, and when varied and extensive than the generality of plains
earthquakes, storms, and tempests- began, at the which are foundton the surface of the earth. It
sane time, to exert their destructive energies. is a globe diversified with an immense variety of




MAGNITUDE OF THE MOON.                                         93
mountain-scenery, and, at the same time, abound- I their direction. In our reasonings on this subject
ing with plains and valleys of vast extent. -But we too frequently proceed on the false principle
there appear to be no seas, oceans, or any large that everything connected with other worlds must
collections of water, though it is possible that hbear a resemblance to those on the earth. But as
small lakes o rivers may exist on certai'n parts of we have seen-that the surface of the moon, in
its surface.  As we see-only'-one Side of the moon respect to its mountains, caverns, and plains, is
from the earth, we cannot tell what objects or very differently arranged from  what appears on
~-rrangements may exist on its opposite hemi- the landscape of our globe, so we have every
Sphered though it is probable that that hemisphere reason to'conclude that the atmosphere with which
does not differ materially in /its' scenery and that orb may be surrounded is materially different
arrangements from those which are seen on the in its constitution and- properties from that body
side which-is turned toward the -earth.          of air in which we move and breathe; and it is
Atmosphere of the Moon.-Whether the moon highly probable, from  the diversity of arrangehas an atmosphere, or body of air similar to that ments which exists throughout the planetary
which surrounds the earth, has been a subject of system, that the atmospheres of all the planets
dispute among astronomers.  On the one side, are variously constructed, and have properties
the existence of such an atmosphere is denied, different from each other. Whatever may be the
because the stars which disappear behind the body  nature of the moon's atmosphere, it is evident
of the moon retain their full- luster until they  that nothing similar to clouds exist in it,otherwise
seem to touch its very edge, and then they vanish they would be quite perceptible by the telescope;
in a moment; which phenomenon, it is supposed, and hence -we may conclude that neither hail,
would" not happen-if the moon were encompassed snow, rain, nor tempests disturb its serenity; for
with an atmosphere.  On the other hand, it has all the parts uniformly present a clear, calm, and
been maintained that the phenomena frequently  serene aspect, as if its inhabitants enjoyed a perattending eclipses of the sun furnish arguments petual spring.
for the existence of a lunlar atmosphere. It has    Magnitude of the Moon. —The distance of the
been observed on different occasions that the moon moon from the earth is determined from its horiin a solar eclipse was surrounded with a luminous zontal parallax; and this distance, compared with
ring, which was most brilliant on the side nearest its apparent angular diameter, gives its real or
the moon; that the sharp horns of the solar' linear diameter.  The mean horizontal parallax
crescent have been seen blunted at their extremi- is fifty-seven -minutes, thirty-four seconds, and
ties during total darkness; that, preceding the the mean apparent diameter thirty-one minutes,
emersion, a long narrow streak of dusky red twenty-six seconds.  From these data it is found
light has been seen to color the western limb of that the real diameter of the moon is 2180 miles,
the moon; and that the circular figure of Jupiter, which is little more than the one-fourth of the
Saturn, and:the fixed starshas been seen changed  diameter of the earth. The real magnitude of the
into an elliptical one when they approached either moon, therefore, is only about one-forty-ninth
the dark or the enlightened limb of the moon; part of that of the earth. This is found by
all which circumstances are'considered-as indica- dividing the cube of the earth's diameter by the
tions of a lunar atmosphere.  The celebrated M., cube of the moon's, and the quotient will express
Schroeter, of Lilienthal, made numerous observa- the number of times that the bulk of the earth
tions in order to determine this question, and exceeds that of the moon; for the real bulk of
many respectable astronomers are of opinion that globes is -in proportion to the cubes of their
his observations clearly prove the existence of an diameters. Although the apparent size of the
atmosphere around the moon.  He discovered moon appears equal to that of the sun, yet the
near the moon's cusps a faint gray light of a difference of their real bulk is very great, for it
pyramidal form, extending from both cusps into would require more than sixty-three millions of
i he dark hemisphere, which, being the moon's globes of the size of the moon to form  a globe
twilight, must necessarily arise from  its atmo- equal in magnitude to that of the sun. Its sursphere. It would be too tedious to detail all the face, notwithstanding, contains a very consideraobservations> of Schroeter on this point; but the ble area, comprising nearly 15,000,000 of square
following are the'general conclusions: "-That the miles, or about one-third of the habitable parts
Jnferior or more dense part of the moon's atmo. of our globe; and were it as densely peopled as
phere is not more than 1500 English feet high; England, it would contain a population amount-'.nd that the hight of the atmosphere where it ing to four thousand two hundred millions, which
could affect the brightness of a fixed star, or is more than five times the population of the
inflect the;solar rays, does not exceed 5742 feet," earth; so that the moon, although it ranks among
or- little more than an English mile. A  fixed the smallest of the'celestial bodies, may contain
star will pass over this space in less than two a population of intelligent beings far more nuseconds of-time; and if it emerge at a part of the merous, and perhaps far more elevated in the
moon's limb-where there is a ridge of mountains, scale of intellect, than the inhabitants of our
scarcely any obscuration can be perceptible.    globe.
On the whole, it appears most probable that the    Whether- it may be possible to discover the inhabmoon is surrounded with a fluid which serves- the itants of the moon is a question which has been
purpose of an atmosphere, although this atmo- sometimes agitated. To such a question I have
sphere, as to its nature, composition, and refractive no hesitation in replying, that it is highly impropower, may be verydifferent from the atmosphere bable that we shall ever obtain a direct view ol any
which surrounds.the earth. It forms no proof living beings connected with the moon by means
that the moon or any of the planets is destitute  of any telescopes which it is in the power of man
of an atmosphere because its constitution, -its to construct.  The greatest magnifying power
density, and its power: of refracting the rays of which has ever been applied, hWith distinctness, to
light are. different from- ours.,' An atmosphere the moon, does not much exceed a thousand times;
may surround a planetary body, and yet its parts that is, makes the objects in the moon appear a
be so fine and transparent that the rays of light thousand times larger and. nearer to the naked
from a star or any other body may pass through eye. But even a power cf a thousand times
it without being in the least obscured or changing represents the objects on the lunar surface at a




94                                     CELESTIAL SCENERY
distance of 240 miles, at which distance no living  habitants; for, in other worlds, intelligent hiehgs
beings, although they were nearly of the size of  may probably enjoy all the happisness cong.01gciil
a kraken, could be perceived.  Even although we  to their natures without those edifices oi ai ti icist
could apply a power of ten thousand times, lunar accommodations which are requisite for mian in
objects would still appear 24 miles distant; and at this terrestrial abode.  In reference to tle sub, eel
such a distance no animal, even of the size of an  under consideration, Dr. Olbers is fully o opinioll
elephant or a whale, could be discerned.  Beside, " that the moon is inhabited by rational crealurwtis
we ought to consider that we have only a bird's-  and that its surface is more or less covered will a
eye view of the objects on the moon; and, conse- vegetation not very dissimilar to that of our own
quenltly, supposing any beings resembling man to  earth."  Gruithuisen maintains that he l:as Cisexist otin' that orb, we could only perceive the  covered, by means of his large achromatic telediameter of their heads, as an aeronaut does when  scope, "great artificial works in the moon, erected
he surveys  the  crowds  beneath  him  from  ain  by the lunarians."   And  lately, anothler foreign
elevated balloon.  Nay, though  it were possible  observer maintains, from actual observation, "tllat
to construct a telescope with a power of one hun-  great edifices do exist in the  noon."   I am  of
dred thousand times, which would cause the moon  opinion that all such announcements are prerna.
to appear as if only' two and a half miles distant,  ture and uncertain.  Without calling in question
it is doubtful if, even with such an instrument, the  accuracy of the  descriptions  published  by
living beings could be perceived.  We ought also  these astronomers, there is some reason to suspect
to consider that nature has set certain limits to  that what they have taken for " edifices" and
the magnifying power of telescopes; for, alth'ough  " artificial works"  are  only small portions of
we could apply such powers as now stated to any  natural scenery, of which an  immense variety,
telescope, the vapors and undulations of the atmo-  in every shape, is to be found oni the surface of
sphere, and  the diurnal motion  of the earth, the moon.  Future  and more minute  observtwould interpose a barrier to distinct vision; and  tions may, however, enable us to form  a definite
as the quantity of light is diminished in propor-  opinion on this subject.*
tion to the magnifying power, the loss of light in
such high powers would prevent the distinct perceatiotl of aly object.i A short timnle ago a hLoax was attetnptedl to be played off
Buc t althoufagh we cat  never hope to see any of   n the public in relation to this subject. An article entitled
Bt altough we can never hope to see ay of'onderful Discoveries in the Moon, by Sir John Hlerschliel,"
the inhabitants of the moon by any instrument was copied into most of the American, French, andl British
constructed by human ingenuity, yet we may be  newspapers and other periodicals, andi was likewise pub-!ished in a separale pamphlet. It is not a little astonishing
able to trace the operations of sentient or intelligent  ihe  i a separae pmhlet.  It is no a little astonisin
how easily the public is gulled by such extr:tvagant dlescrip.
beings, or those eftects which indicate the agency  tions as were contained in this pamphlet, and it shows tlh
of living beings.    A  navigator who approaches  ialtoraZce which still prevails among the great mass of the
within a certain  distance  of a small island, al- community in every country in relation to astronomy and
though  he perceives nio human beitngs upon  it, optics, that such pretended discoveries should have been
though   e perceives no human beings upon it, listened to even for a noment. For even some editors of'
call Judge witIl certainty that it is itnhabited  if ho  newspapers treated the affair in a Crave manner, anti only
perceive human habitations, villages, corn-fields, expressed their doubts on the subject, plainly indicating that
or traces of cultivatioi.  In like mtanner, if we  they had falr less knowledge of the science of astronomy
coslud perceive chalnges   or operationis in the  Coon  thal   many schoolboys now acquire. Tile title of the pam..
opera tions  in the  phlet was sufficient to convince any man of common underwhich could be traced to the agency of intelligent standing, who directed his attention tbr a moment to the
beings, we should then obtain demonstrative evi-  sulbjet, that the whole was a piece of deception; for it
dunce that such beings exist oss that plaiet,; ansliad   atedi that' the object-glass weighed seven tenls," and had
c "a magnifing power of 42,000 times."  Now, suipposing
I have no doubt that it is possible  to trace sich  such a power had been usel, the objects on the snrface of
operations.  A  telescope which  magnifies  1200  the moon would still have appeared more than five sliles
times will enable us to perceive, as a visible point and two-thirds  distant; and how could anl anilnal, evenl of
oaa the  slurface  of the  moon, an  object whose. the largest size, be seen at such a distance? Yet tss
writer of the pamphlet declares that animals such as sheep
diameter is only about 100 yards or 300  feet.and cranes, and smaiil birds were not only distinguitished, but
Such  all object is not larger than many of our the shape and color of their horns, eyes, beard, and the difpihblic edifices; and, therefore, were  any such  ference of sexes, were perceived. To perceive such objects
esifices realrling iln the moon, or were. a town or  it was requisite that they should have been brolght within
six yards instead of six miles. The author niilght have
city extending its boundaries, or were operations  rendered his description more consistent by putting a power
of this description carrying on in a district where  of o00,000 times upon his imaginary telescope, since lie had
no such edifices had previously been erected, such  every power at lis command, so as to have brought tire
objectsando rati    mightprbablybedetecte objects, at least, within the distance of a mile. Tile author
obects and o perations might pro ly beof this deception, I understand, is a young man in the
by a minute inspection.  Were a multitule of  city of New Yorl, who makes some pretensions to scientitia
living creatures moving from  place to place in a  acquirements, and he may perhaps he disposed to conigr:atu
body, or were they etncampig  in an extensive, late himself on lte success of his experiment on the publis.
But it ought to be remembered that all such attempts to
plain like a large army, or like a tribe of Arabs in  deceive are violations of the laws of the Creator, who is
the desert, and afterward removing, it is possible  the "God of truth," and who requires " truth in the inward
that sutch movetneits might bhe traced by  the  parts;" and, therefore, they who willfully and deliberately
difference of sh~ade or color vw~hich  such misove*   - contrive such impositions ought to be ranked in the class of
liars and deceivers.'The" Law of Truth" ought never for
mlents would produce.  In  order to detect such  a momentto be sported with. On the universatl observal   o
minute objects and operations, it would be requi- of this law depends the happiness of the whole intelligenc
site that the surface of the moon should be this- system  and the foundations of the throne of the Eternal.
tributed  aumong at least a htnmdred astrollome~rs,  The greatest part of the evils which have afflicted our world
have risen from a violation of this law, anti were it to he
each  having a spot or two allotted him  as the  u.n'iversally violated, the inhabitants of all worlds would bo
object of his more particular investigation, and  thrown into a state of confusion and misery, andI creation
that the observations be continued for a period of transformed into a             chaos. Beside, the propagation of sech
at least thirty or forty years, during which time  deceptions is evidently injurious to the interests of science.
t least thirty or forty yearsduring which time  For when untutored minds and the mass of the community
certain  changes would  probably  be perceived, detect such impositions, they are apt to call in question the
arising either from  physical causes or from  the  real discoveries of science, as if they were only attempts to
operations of livitng  agents.  But although  no  impose on their credulity. It is to be hloped that the author
opersuch  changesof should agenter  Beude  dt   ould  of the deception to which I have adverted, as tie advances
such changes should ever be detected, it would  in years and in wisdom, will perceive the folly and sihnoi
form  no proof that the moon is destitute of in- rality of such conduct.




GORRESP0,NDENCE WITH THE MOON                                           9j:Ithas sometimes been a subject-of speculation  apparent.revolutionr  of the sun marks otit the
whether it might be possible, byany symbols,to iyear and the course of the seasons, the revolutios'
correspond with  the i-liabitants.of tthe moon. of the moon round the heavens marks out our
"'Gruithuisen, il a conversation, with'the great mo nths; and, by regularly changing its figure at
corntinental astronomer  Gauss,'after de.scriibing:the the four'quarters of its course, subdivides the
regular figures he had,/discovered. in the mInoo, i month into periods of weeks; and thus exhibits
spoke of'the possibility of a corresponidence with  to all the nations of the earth a "watchlight" or
the lunar inihabitanbts..  He brought to'Gauss' signal, which every seven days presents a formn'
recoliection the idea  he had co mmunicated.m:iany  esltirely new, for marking out the shorter periods
yeai.s ago to'Zimmerman.'Gauss answered, that  of duration.  By its nearness to the earth, and
ithe plan of erecting a geometrical figure on tl)e the consequent increase of its gravitating power,
lailns:of Siberia  corresponded:p with his opinion, it produces currents in the atmosphere,  which
tecause, according- to' his view, a correspondence direct the course of the winds and purify the
witih the inhabitarnts ofd the- moon could only be aerial fluid from noxious exhalations; it raises the
begun by means of. such m~athematical- contem- waters of the. ocean, and produces the regular
Pplations and ideas whichl we and they must have returns of ebb and flow, by which the liquid elein: -common."*    Were the inhabitants of the ment is. preserved from filth and putrefaction.  It
1mioin to,recognize such  a' figure, erected od. an  extends its sway even over the humtnan frame, and
immense scale, as a signal of correspondence, our:health and disorders are sometimes partially
they might perhaps erect a similar one in reply. dependent on its influence.~ Even- its eclipses,
But it its questionable -whether the intention of and those it produces of the sun, are not without
Such  a signal would be recognized; and our:ter-  their use.: They tend to arouse mankind to the
restria- sovereigns are too mXnuch engagedin plun- study' of astronomy and the wonders of the
delrand warfare to think of spending their revenues.firmamentt;    they serve to confirm  the deductions
in socostly an experiment; and, therefore, it is of chronology, to direct the,-lnavigator, and to
likely/that, for ages to come, we shall.remain in settle the geographical positions of towns and
ignorance of the genius of thle lunar inhabitants. countries; they assist the astronomer in his celesSchemnes, however, farmore foolish -and prepos- tial illvestigations, and exhibit an agreeable variety
-trous,hal the above have -bee'n contrived and- of phenomena in the scenery of:the heavens. In
acted upon in every age of the world.  The- mil-  hort, there are terrestrial scenes'presented in
lions wlich are now wasting'in the pursuits of moonlight, which, in point of sol'emrnity, grandeur,
mad anmbition and destructive warfare might, with and picturesque beauty, far surpass in interest, to
far greater propriety, be expended-in constructing  a poetic imagination, all the brilliancy and splen,
a iarge triangle or ellipsis, of many miles in dors of noonday. Hence, in all ages, a.moonlight
extext, in Siberia or any other country,  which  scene has been. regarded, by all ranks of men,
-nightat the same time- accommodate thousands with feelings of joy and sentiments of admiration.
of-inhabitants who are now roaming the' deserts The following description of. Homer, trainslated
like the beasts of the forest.                    into English verse by Mr. Pope, has been csitLemed
Whatever may be the arrangements of the one of the finest night-pieces in poetry:
moon or the genius of its inhabitants, we know
that it forms a -most beautiful (and   beneficial      Behold the moon, refulgent lamp of night,
O'er heaven's clear azure spread her sacred igl!'.,
appendage to our globe.  When the sun has de-         When not a breath disturbs the deep serene,
scended- below  the western horizon, the moon         And not a cloud o'ercasts the solemn scene;
lights up her lamp in the azure firmament, and        Around her throne the vivid planets roll,
diffuses a mild radiance over the landscape of the    And stars unnumbered gild the glowilgpole;
world.  She- pours hr. r on s.      O'er the darktrees a yellower verdllure shed,
World-. She pours her luster on spacious cities       And tip with silver every mountain's head;
and lofty mountains, glittering on the ocean, the     Then shine the vales; the rocks in prospect risa,e
lakes, and rivers, and opening a prospect wide as     A flood of glory bursts from all the skies.
The conscious swains, rejoicing in the sight,
the eye can reach, Which Iould  otherwise be
-ioo                      Eye the blue vault, and bless the useful light."'
ilvolved in the deepest gloom.-  As the son of
Sirach has observed  "She is the beauty of heaven,   Without the light of the moon, the iluhabitanti,
the glory of the stars, an ornament giving light of the polar regions would be for weeks andl
in the high places of the Lord."  She cheers the months immersed in darkness.  But the moon;.
travelerinhis journeys, the shepherd whiletending  like a kindly visitant, returns at short iutervals Ini
hisfleecy charge, and tne mariner while conducting  the absence of the sun, and cheers themi with her'
his vessel at midnight through  the boisterous beams for days and weeks together.. So-thlat, ils,
ocean. She teturns to us, during night, a portion  this nocturnal luminary, as in all; tile other:
of the,solar light which we had "lost, and diffuses arrangements of nature, we behcokl a display of'
a. brilliancy far superior to that which we derive, the paternal care and beneficence ofi'that Alulmightyfrom- all tile stars of heaven.  If we intend to Being who ordained " the moon and stars to rule
rosecute our journeys after the sun hasl eft our the night," as an evidence of his superabundant'
hemisphere, the moon, in her increase, serves as goodness, and of " his mercy, which, endureth for'
a magnificent lamp to guide our footsteps.  If we ever."
wish to commence our progress at an early hour
in the morning, the moon- in' her decrease, diffuses      I.  ON THE SATELLrrES OF- JUPITER.
a miln  radiance in tlie east, and enables us to
anticipate the, dawn;' and if we choose to defer   There are four moons or satellites. attending'
our jouriley until thie period of full moon, thlis the planet Jupiter, which revolve around it from
celestial lamp enables us':to enjoy, as it were, anll west to east, according to the order of thle signs,
uninterrupted day of twenty-four hours long. By- or in the same direction as the mooon  revolves
this' meails we can either a-void tle burning heats round the earth-and the planets round' the sun.
of summer, or dispatch -such business as may be They are placed at different, distances from  the
inexpedient during the light, of day.:,While the center of Jupiter; they revolve round it in dif-      -......    /  -ferent periods of time, and they accompany theEdinburgh New Philosophical Journal 3for October, planetin its twelve yars'  revolutioround the
1826, p. I3.      1                                 sun, without deviating in thIe-least in their disVoi. HI. —17




CELESTIAL SCENERY.
tances from  the- planet, as the more immediate - body of Jupiter, are perceived by powerful tele.
center of their motions.  These,. bodies were scopes. Sometimes the satellites themselves ma)
discovered by Galileo,'ho:first applied the tele- be seen crossing the disc like luminous spots; and
scope to celestial observations.. Three of them  sometimes the body of the planet interposes bewere first seen on the night of the 7th of January,'tween our eye, and -the satellites,:when they are
1610, and were at first supposed to be telescopic said to suffer an occultation.  It has been,ascer-.tars; but by the observations of three or four tained, by the calculations and investigations of.
subsequent, evenings, he discovered them  to be La Place, that the whole number of these moons can
attendants on the planet'Jupiter. /On the 13th never be eclipsed at the same time, and that scarcely
of the. same nmonth he saw the fourth satellite, ever more than two of them  call be eclipsed at
and continued "'his observations,until'March 2, once.
when he: sent, his drawings of them, and an    The following diagram  (Fig. 86), exhibits the
account of his observations, to his patron,- Cosmo system of Jupiter's satellites nearly in the proporledici, Great Duke.of Tuscany, in'honor'of tion of their distances from  the planet.  The
whom he called, them the Medicean stars.  This small circles on the orbit of -the third satellite rediscovery soon excited the attention of astrono- present the enlightened side of the satellites turnmers, and every one hastened  With eagerness to ed toward the sun, and the dark side in an opposite
view the new celestial wonders. The senators of direction. The enlightened side of every satellite
Venice who were eminent for their learning,. is always very nearly turned toward the earth;
invited.Galileo to come to the tower of St. Mark, but in their revolutions round Jupiter they preand in their presence:make a trial of his new  sent to that planet all the phases of the moon, as'instruments.  He complied with. their request,' represented'in the figures marked on theorbit of
and in a finenight, neither cold nor cloudy, showed the fourth satellite.  In the direction A, when in
them with his' instrument the new  phenomena opposition to the sun, they appear like fullmoons;
which had excited attention; the satellites of in the direction B they assume a gibbous phase;
Jupiter, the crescent of Venus, the triple appear- at C they appear like a half moon; at D  like a
ance of Saturn, and the inequalities on the sur- crescent; at E, the dark side being turned toward
face of the moon, which many -of the learned' the planet, the satellite becomes invisible; at F,
refused to admit, because they  overthrew  the  A, and H, it again successively appears under a
system of.the.schools and the philosophical notions crescent, a half moon, and a gibbous phase. In
w.hich.hadpreviously prevailed. At this conference  the direction A the satellites are in opposition to
with the Venetian senators Galileo demonstrated  the sun, as seen from Jupiter, at which time they
the truth of the Copernican system, and showed -pass through his shadow, and are eclipsed for the
how all his discoveries had a tendency to prove space of more than two hours, with the exception
that the earth is a moving body, and that the sun  of the fourth, which sometimes passes the point
Is the center of the planetary motions.          of its opposition without falling  into the shadow.
The following.are the respective. distances of At E the shadow of the satellite passes across the
the satellites of Jupiter, in round numbers; and disc of Jupiter, producing a solar eclipse to "11
the periodic times in which they revolve around those regions on his surface over which -he
that planet.  The mean distance of the first satel- shadow moves.
lite from the center of Jupiter is 260,000 miles, or
somewhat more than the distance of the moon                                86
from the earth; and it revolves around the planet
in 1 day, 18 hours, 2712 minutes.  The second'
satellite is distant 420,000 miles, and finishes its                     9
revolution ill 3 days, 13 hours, 1323 minutes.The third is distant 670,000 miles, and performs its
revolution in  7 days, 3 hours, 4212 minutes.  The
fourth satellite is distant 1,180,000 miles, or more
than four times the distance of the first, and requires 16 days, 16 hours, and 32 minutes to complete.its revolution.. These satellites suffer numnerous eclipses in passing through the shadow of
Jupiter, as our moon is eclipsed in passing.through
the shadow of the. earth. But as their orbits are
very little inclined to the orbit.of Jupiter, their
eclipses~are much more frequent than those of our.
moon.: The first three satellites are eclipsed every
time they are in opposition to the sun.  The first
satellite is in opposition once in 42,1}  hours, and,
consequently, suffers an eclipse about eighteen                 8
times every month. The second suffers eight or                              C           b
nine eclipses, and.the third about four eclipses
every month. But the fourth satetlite frequently
passes through its opposition without being involved in the shadow of Jupiter, and, consequently, its eclipses are less frequent than those of.the
other three, only a few of them -happening in the
course of' a year. As those -satellites are opaque 
globes like our moon-when they are in.their inferior conjunction, or in a line between Jupiter    These satellites, when viewed from  the ertbh,
and the sun-their bodies are interposed between do not appear to revolve round Jupiter ii the
the sun and certain parts of the disc of the planet, manner here represented, but seem  to oscillate
so as to cause an eclipse of the sun to.those places backward and forward nearly in. a straight line.
over which their sl1adow passes.' These eclipses, This is owing to our being nearly on a level witg
or the shadows of'the satellites passing across the the plane of their orbits. When the earth is it




SYSTEM OF JUPITER'S SATELLITES.                                      97
one of the geocentric nodes of a satellite, the ing the period of its variations, it was conc:luded
plane of its orbit passes through our eye, and that it had a rotation round its axis.  These cirtherefore it appears to be a straight line, as a b, cumstances form  a presumptive proof that the
(Fig. 87), so that, in passing the half of its orbit surface of these satellites, like our moon, are diwhich is most distant from the earth, it first seems versified with objects of different descriptions, and
to move from b to c, when it is hidden for some with varieties of light and shade. Cassini sustime by the planet, and then from d to a, the point pected the first satellite to have an atmosphere,
of its greatest elongation; after which it seems to because the shadow of it could not be seen, when
return again in the same line, passing between us he was sure it should have been, upon the disc of
and the disc of the planet, until it arrives at its Jupiter, if it had not been shortened by its at
greatest elongation at b. In every other situation  mosphere, as in the case in respect to the shadow of
of the earth. the orbit of a satellite appears as an the earth in lunar eclipses.
ellipsis more or less oblong, as represented in Fig.   From what has been stated respecting the mo88. When it passes through its superior semicir- tions, magnitudes and eclipses of these satellites, it
cle, or that which is more distant from the earth is evident they will present a most diversified and
than Jupiter is, as e, f, g, its motion is direct, or sublime scenery in the firmament of Jupiter.according to the order of the signs; when it is The first satellite moves along a circumference of
in its inferior semicircle, nearer to us than Jupiter, 1,633,632 miles in the space of 422 hours, at the
as h, i, k, its apparent motion is in the opposite rate of 38,440 miles an hour, which is a motion
direction, or retrograde.  Hence these satellites, as sixteen times more rapid than that of the moon in
seen through a telescope, appear nearly in a its circuit round the earth. During this short pestraight line from  the body of Jupiter, as repre- riod it presents to Jupiter all the appearancesof a
sented in Fig. 89.                                new  moon, crescent, half moon, gibbous phase,
Magnitude of the Satellites. —These bodies, and full moon, both in the increase and decrease;
though invisible to the naked eye, are neverthe- so that, in the course of twenty-one hours, it
less of' a considerable size.  The following are passes through all the phases which our moon extheir diameters in miles, as stated by Struve. The hibits to us; beside suffering an eclipse in passing
first satellite is 2508 miles in diameter, which is through the shadow of the planet, and producing
considerably larger than our moon.  The second either a partial or total eclipse of the sun to ceris 2068 miles in diameter, or about the size of the tain regions of Jupiter on which its shadow falls.
moon. The third is 3377 milesin diameter, which  The rapidity of its motion through the heavelns
is more than seven times the bulk of the moon.-  will also be very striking; as it will move through
The fourth is 2890 miles in diameter, or about the whole hemisphere of the heavens in the course
three tiunes the bulk of the moon; so that the of twenty-one hours, beside  its daily apparent
whole of Jupiter's satellites are equal to nearly  motion, in consequence of the diurnal rotation of
thirteen of our moons.*  The superficial contents Jupiter.  The other three satellites will exhibit
of the first satellite is 19,760,865 square miles; of similar phenomena, but in different periods of
the set:ond, 13,435,442; of the third, 35,827,211; time. Sometimes two or three of these moonls,
and of the fourth, 26,238,957 square miles.  The and sometimes all the four, will be seen shining in
number of square miles on all the satellites, is the firmament t the same time; one like a cretherefore, 95,262,475, or more than ninety-five scent, one like a half-moon, and another in all its
millions of square miles, which is about double splendor as a full enlighitened hemisphere; one
the quantity of surface on all the habitable parts entering into an eclipse, another emerging from it;
of our globe. At the rate of 280 inhabitants to one interposing between the planet and the sun,
every square mile, these satellites would, there- and for a short time intercepting his rays; one
fore be capable of containing a population  of advancing from the eastern horizon, and another
26,673 millions, which is thirty-three times greater setting in the west; one satellite causing the
than the population of the earth.                 shadows of objects on Jupiter to be thrown in one
The satellites of Jupiter may be seen with a direction, and another satellite causing them to be
telescope magnifying about thirty times; but in projected in another, or in an opposite, direction;
order to perceive their eclipses with advantage, a while the rapid motions of these bodies among the
power of one hundred or one hundred and fifty fixed stars will be strikingly perceptible. Eclipses
times is requisite.  When the brilliancy of the of the satellites and of the sun will be almost an
satellites is examined at different times, it appears every-day phenomenon, and occultations of the
to undergo a considerable change.  By comparing fixed stars will be so frequent and regular as to
the mutual positions of the satellites with the serve as an accurate measure of time.
times when they acquire their maximum of light,   The eclipses of Jupiter's satellites afford signals
Sir W. Herschel concluded that, like the muon, of considerable use for determining the longitude
they all turned round their axis in the same time of places on the earth.  For this purpose tables
that they performed their revolution round Jupi- of these eclipses, and of the times at which tihe
ter.  The same conclusion had been deduced by satellites pass across the disc of Jupiter or behind
former astronomers in reference to the fourth  his body, are calculated and inserted in the nansatellite. Thissatellite was sometimes observed to tical and other almanacs. These tables Bre adapted
take but half the usual time in its entrance on the to the meridian  of the Royal Observatory  at
disc of Jupiter or its exit from it, which was sup- Greenwich; and by a proper use of them, in conposed to be owing to its having a dark spot upon nection with observations of the eclipses, the true
it that covered half its diameter; and, by observ- meridian, or the distance of a place east or west
from  Greenwich, may be ascertained.  For example: suppose, on the 27th of December, 1837.
*Former astronomers reckoned the bulk of the satellites the immersion of Jupiter's first satellite be oblarger than the dimensions here stated. Cassini and Maraldi served to happen, in an unknown meridian, at 15
reckoned the diameter of the third satellite to be one-eight- hours, 23 minutes, 10 seconds, I find by the
eeith of thile diameter of Jupiter, and, consequently, nearly tables that this immersion will happen at Greent1) miles in diameter; and the first and second to be one.
twe ntieth of Jupiter's diameter, or about 4450 miles; which WiCh at 13 hours, 34 minutes, 50 seconds of the
est natioli would make the magnitudes of these bodies same day.  The difference of the timne is 1 hour,
msa'l> larger than stated by Sitruve.              48 minutes, 20 seconds, which, being converted




98:.CELESTIAL -SCENERY;
into degrees of thle equator (allowing 15 degrees              TE                 ATU.
for. an hour), will make 27 degrees, 5- minutes,
which is the longitude of the-place of observation.   Saturn is surrounded with no less than seven;
This longitude is east -of Greenwich, because the satellites, which revolve around him, at. differelit
time of observation was in advance   f the time distances, in a manner similar to those of Ju'piter.
at the British observatory.  Had the time of. As they are more difficult to be perceived than
observation been behind that of Greenwich, for the satellites of Jupiter, ovwinog to the great disexample, at 13 hours, 4 minutes, 5 -seconds, tile tance of Saturn from ithe earth, none of them
place must then have been 7z  degrees west of were discovered until the telescope was considerthe RoyalObservatory. BeforeJupiter's opposition  ably improved; and more than a century interto-the sun, or when he passes the meridian in the vened after the first five satellites until tle sixth
morning, the shadow is situated to the west of the and seventh werhe detected. As was to be supposed,
planet, and the immersions happen ol that side; the larger satellites were-first discovered. In thle
but after the opposition the. emersions happen to year 1665, about forty-five years'after the inven*the:east.  These eclipses cannot be observed with tion of the telescope, M. Huygens, a celebrated
advantage unless Jupiter be eight degrees above, Dutch mathenmatician and astronomer, discovered
and the sunb at least eight:dgrees below the the fourth satellite, which is -tlie largest, with a.horizon.                                       telescope twelve feet long. Four of the others
The eclipses of Jupiter's moons filrst suggested  were discovered by Cassini; the fifth in 1671,
the idea of the motion of light.'As the orbitof  which is next in brightness to the fourth; the
the earth is concentric with that of Jupiter, the third  in December,' 1672;  and the first anid
mnutual distance of these two bodies iscontinually  second in the month of March, 1684.  These four
varying. In the following figure let S represent satellites were first observed by common refractingi
Fig. 90.        the sun; B, C,D,E, the  telescopes of 100 and 136 feet' in length; but,
orbit of the earth; and after being acquainted with them, he could see
_-, Pi.:     G, H, a portion of the them all, in a clear sky, with a tube of thirty-four,orbit of Jupiter.  It is feet.  The sixth and seventh satellites, were.disg;         A....,. -evident that when the covered by Sir W. Herschel in August, 1789, soon
\*'~~~'~" ~t  earth is at E  and Jupi- after his large forty feet refleting  telescope was
ter at A, the earth will completed. These are nearer to Saturn than the:be the semidiarneter of other five; but, to avoid confusionthey are niamed
its orbit nearer Jupiter in the order of their discovery. The following
than when it is at B or is the order of the satellites in respect of their
D; and when at C it will distance from Saturn:
be the..whole diameter
of its orbit, or 190,000,-  Seventh. Sixth. First. Second. Third. Fo hrth. Fifth.
000 of miles farther from    1     2    3      4      5    6      7
Jupiter than when it is
at E.   Nbw  if light   The motions and distances of these bodies havs
were instantaneous, the not been so accurately ascertained as those of
satellite i, to a spectator Jupiter. The followingstatement contains a neat
at._B,'would appear to approximation of their perio's and distances. Thn,
enter intoJupiter's~shad- seventh satellite, or that nearest to Saturn, is
ow, ki, at the same mo- distant, 120,000  miles fiom  the center of theu
ment of time  as  to planet, about 80,000 from  its surface, arid only
D       -              another spectator at E. about 18,000 miles beyond the edge of the outer
~    ~  -  g..But, from numerous ob- ring.  It moves round the planet in twenty-two
servations, it was found, hours, thirty-seven minutes, a circuit of 377,0(00
that when the earth was miles,'at the rate of 16,755 miles an hour. The
at E, the immersion of sixth satellite, or the second from  Saturn, is disthe satellite into the shadow happened sooner by taunt 150,000 miles, and finishes its revolution in
eight minutes and a quarter than when the earth  one day, eight hours, fifty-three minutes.  The
was at B, and sixteen minutes and a half sooner first of the old satellites, or the third fiom Saturn,
than wlhen- the earth was at C. It was therefore finishes its periodical revolution in one day,
concluded that light is not instantaneous, but twenty-one hours, eighteen minutes, at the disrequires a certain space of time to pass from one tance of 190,000 miles.  The second (or fourth.region of the universe to another, and that the' from Saturn), in two days, seveniteen hours, forty
time it takes in passing from the sun to the earth, four and three-quarter minutes, at the distance of
or across the semidiameter of the earth's orbit, is 243,000 miles.  The third (fifth from  Saturn),
eight minutes and a quarter, or at the rate of in four days, twelve hours, fifty-five minutes, at
192,000 miles every second, which is more than  the distance of 340,000 miles. The fourth (sixth
ten hundred thousand times swifter than a cannon from'Saturn), in fifteen, days, twenty-two hours
ball the moment it'is projected from, the mouth  fifty-one minutes, at the distance of 788,000 miles.
of the cannon; and therefore it is the swiftest The fifth (seventh from Saturn), in seventy-nille
movement with which we are acquainted' in days, seven hours, and fifty-four and a half rainnature.  It follows that, if the sun was annihi- utes, at the distance of 2,297,000 miles.
lated, we should see- him for eight minutes after-   The orbits of the six inner satellites are inclined
ward; and if he were again created, it would be about thirty degrees to the plane of Saturn's.eight minutes before his light would be perceived. orbit, and lie almost exactly in the plane of the
The motion of light.deduced from the eclipses of rings, and therefore they appear to move in ellipses
Jupiter's satellites has been, confirmed by Dr. similar to the ellipses of the rings. But the orbit
Bradley's discovery of the aberration of light pro- of the fifth or outer satellite, makes an angle with
duced by, the' annual motion of the earth, from  the plane of Saturn's orbit of 24 degrees, 45 minwhich it appears that the light fom the fixed stars utes. These satellites, having their orbits inclined
moves with, about the same velocity as the light at so great angles to Saturn, cannot cross.'he
of the sun.                                     body of that planet, or go behind it, or pass




SATELLITES OF URANUS.                                       99
lth  ugh its shadow, as Jupiter's satellites do, ex- variegated appearance in the firmament of Saturn;
cept on rare occasions, and hence they very  the nearest satellite, being only 80,000 miles from
seldom suffer eclipses or occultations.  The only  the surface of the planet, which is only the onetime when eclipses happen is near the periods third of the distance of the moon from the earth,
when the ring is seen edgewise. The fifth or most will exhibit a very large and splendid appearance.
distant satellite is sometimes invisible in the east- Supposing it to be only about the diameter of our
ern part of its orbit, which is supposed to arise moon, it will present a surface nearly nine times
from one part of the satellite being less luminous larger than the moon does to us; and ill the course
than the rest.  Sir W. Herschel observed this of twenty-two and a half hours will exhibit all
satellite through all the variations of its light, and  the phases of a crescent, half moon, full moon,
concluded, as Cassini had done before, that it &c., which the moon presents to us in the course
turned round its axis like our moon, in the same of a month; so that almost every hour its phase
time that it performed its revolution round Saturn. will be sensibly changed, and its motion routed the
In consequence of this rotation, the obscure part heavens will appear exceedingly rapid. While, in
of its disc is turned toward the earth when in the consequence of the diurnal rotation of Saturn, it
part of its orbit east of Saturn; and the luminous will appear to move from east to west, it will also
portion of' its surface is turned to the earth and  be seen moving with a rapid velocity among tilhe
becomes visible while it passes through the west- stars in a contrary direction, and will pass over a
orn part of its course.                          whole hemisphere of the heavens in the course of
Of these satellites the two innermost are the  eleven hours.  The next satellite ill order from
smallest and the most difficult to be, perceived.- Saturn, being only 110,000 miles from its surface,
They have never been discerned but with most will also present a splendid appearance, much
powerful telescopes, and then under peculiar cir- larger than our moon, and will exhibit all the
cumstances.  At the time of the disappearance of phases of the moon in the course of sixteen hours.
the ring, " they have been seen threading, like All the other satellites will exhibit somewhat simibeads, the most infinitely thin fiber of light to  lar phenomena, but in different periods of time.
which it is then reduced, and, for a short time, They will appear, when viewed from the surface
advancing off it at either end."  Few astronomers of Saturn, of different sizes; some of them nine
beside Sir W. Herschel and his son have been able times larger than the moon appears to us, some
to detect these small bodies.  The celebrated  three times, some double the size, and it is probaSchroeter and Dr. Harding, on the 17th, 20th, 21st, ble that even the most distant satellites will appear
and 27th of February, 1798, obtained several nearly as large as our moon, so that a most beauviews of the sixth satellite (the second fiom  Sa- tiful and sublime variety of celestial phenomena
turn) by means of a reflecting telescope 13 feet will be presented to a spectator in the heavens of
long, carrying a power of 288. Their observa- Saturn, beside the diversified aspects of the rings
tions fully confirmed the accuracy of Sir W. to which we formerly adverted, all displaying the
Herschel's statement of the period of its revolu- infinite grandeur and beneficence of the Creator.
tion. The first and second satellites (third and
fourth from Saturn) are the next smallest; the           Iv. ON THE SATELLITES OF URANUS.
third (fifth from Saturn) is greater than the first
and second  the fourth (sixth from Saturn) the    This planet is attended by six satellites, all of
most conspicuous and the most distant satellite, which were discovered by Sir W. Herschel, to
according to Sir John Herschel, is by far the  whom we owe the discovery of the planet itself.
largest, although it is not so conspicuous in one The second and fourth satellites were detected in
part of its orbit. In order to see anyof the satel- January, 1787, about six years after the planiet
iites of this planet, a good telescope, with a power was discovered; the other four were discovered
of at least 70 or 80 times, is requisite, and with  several years afterward, but their distances and
such a power only the two outermost satellites periodical revolutions have not been so accurately
will be perceived. To perceive all the five old  ascertained as those of the two first discovered.
satellites requires a power of at least 200 times,   The first of these satellites, or the nearest to
and a considerable quantity of light.           Uranus, completes its sidereal revolution in 5 days,.Maqnitude of Saturn's Satellites.-The precise 21 hours, and 25 minutes, at the distance of 224,bulk of thesesatellites has not yet been accurately  000 miles from the center of the planet. The sedetermined. Sir John Herschel estimates the most cond in 8 days, 17 hours, at the distance of 291,distant satellite, which he thinks the largest, as 000 miles. The third in 10 days, 23 hours, at the
not much inferior in size to the planet Mars, distance of 340,000 miles. Thefourth in 13 days,
which is 4200 miles in diameter. The fourth  11 hours, at the distance of 390,000 miles. The
satellite, which is the most conspicuous, cannot fifth in 38 days, 1 hour, 48 minutes, at the distance
be supposed to be much inferior to it in bulk.- of 777,000 miles.  The sixth in 107 days, 16
But as the precise dimensions of most of the in- hours, 40 minutes, at the distance of 1,556,000
ncr satellites cannot be estimated with accuracy, miles.
we shall not, perhaps, exceed the dimensions of    These bodies present to our view some remark-these bodies if we. suppose for the whole a general able and unexpected peculiarities.  Contrary to
average of 3000 miles diameter for each. On this the analogy of the whole planetary system, the
assumption, the surface of each satellite will con- planes of their orbits are nearly perpendicular to
taimn 28,274,400 of square miles, which is nearly  the ecliptic, being inclined no less than 79 degrees
double the area of ounrmoon. The area of all the to that plane. Their motions in these orbits are
seven satellites will therefore amount to 197,920,- likewise found to be retrograde, so that, instead of
800 square miles, which is four times the quantity  advancing from west to east round Uranus, as all
of surface on all the habitable parts of the earth. the other planets and satellites do, they move in
At the rate of 280 inhabitants to the square mile, the opposite direction. Their orbits are quite
these satellites would therefore contain 55,417,- circular, or very nearly so, and they do not appear
824,000, or more than fifty-five thousand millions to have undergone any material change of incliof inhabitants, which is sixty-nine times the popu- nation since the period of their discovery. "These
lation of our globe.                             anomalous peculiarities," says Sir John Herschel,
These satellites will present a beautiful and  "seem to occur at the extreme limits of the system,




100                                CELESTIAL SCENERY.
as if to prepare us for.further departure from all of Uranus is' from  its- center.  But as the innetits analogies in other systems which may yet be:satellites may be supposed to be tlie smallest, and
disclosed to us" ill the remoter regirnrs of{ space. yet present as large a-sur'ace to the planet as the
The satellites of Uranus are themost difficult exterior ones, it -is probable that, on account of
objects to perceive of any withir the, boundary  their diminutive size, they, may never be detected.
of the planetary system, excep'.,g the two' inte  It is likewise not improbable that two satellites
rior satellites of Saturn; and' Lherefore' few  ob- may exist in the large spaces which intervene beservers, excepting Sir Williaml and Sir John Her- tween the orbits of the fourth and fifth, and the
schel, have' obtained a, view  of them.  Their fifth and sixth satellites.  All these satellites will
xnagiitudes, of course, have never been precisely- not only pour a flood of light on thils'distant planet,
determined; but. there is every reason to believe but'will' exhibit a splendid "and- variegated apthat they are, on' an average, as large  a's the pearance in its nocturnal firmament.
sqtellites of Saturn,: if not. larger, otherwise they    The satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus,
could not- be perceived at the immense distance at of which we have given a brief description in the
which they are placed from  our globe. Suppo- preceding pages, form, as it were, so many dissing them, on an average, to be 3000U miles.in dia- tinct' planetary systems in connection with the
nmeter-and they can scarcely be conceived to.be great system of the sun.  The same laws of moless-the surfaces of- all thetsix satellites will con- tion and  gravitation which apply to the primary
tain 169,646,400 square miles,-,or about 3,1 times planets are also applicable to the secondary planets
the area of-all the habitable:portions of the earth; or moons. The squares  of their periodical times
and which, at-the rate formerly stated, would af-  are in proportion to the cubes of their distances.
ford scope for a population of 47,500,992,000 or They are subject to the attraction of their primaabove forty-seven  thousand millions, which is ries, as all the primary planets are attracted by the
about sixty times the present number of the in- sun; and as the sun, in all probability, is carried
habitants of the earth.                          round a distant center along with all his attendThe satellites of Uranus seldom suffereclipses; ants, so the satellites are carried round the sun
but as the plane in which they move must pass along with their respective planets;.partly by tlie
twice inll the year through the, sun, there may be, influence of these planets, and partly by the ateclipses of them at those times; but they can be tractive power of the great central luminary.seen only when the planet is near its opposition. Each of these secondary systems forms a system
Some eclipses were visible in 1799 and 1818, when  by itself, far more grand and extensive than the
they appeared to ascend through the shadow  of whole planetary system  was conceived to be in
thle planet in a direction almost perpendicular to former times.  Even tihe system of Saturn itself,
the plane of its orbit. It is probable that this including its rings and satellites, contains a mass
planet is attended with more satellites than those of matter more than a thousand times larger than
which have yet been discovered.  It is not unlike- the earth and moon.  The system  of Jupiter
ly that two satellites, at least, revolve between the  comprises a mass of matter nearly fifteen hunbody of the planet and the first satellite; for the dred times the size of these two bodies; and even
third satellite of Saturn is not nearly so far distant that of Uranus is more than eighty times the
from the surface of that planet as the first satellite dimensions of our terrestrial system.
CHAPTER V.
ON THE PERFECTIONS OF THE DEITY, AS DISPLAYED IN THE PLANETARY
SYSTEM.
ALL the works of nature speak of their Author effect produced. In the planetary system we find
int language which can scarcely be misunderstood. bodies a thousand times larger than the earth moThey proclaim  the; existence of an original, un- viug with a velocity sixty times greater than a
created Cause, of an eternal Power and Intelli- cannon ball, and carrying along with them  ill
ligence, and of a supreme agency which no crea- their train other expansive globes in the same
ted being can control.  "The heavens," in a par- swift career. Such motions could only proceed
ticular manner, "declare the glory of God, and from a power which is beyond calculation or huthe firmament showeth forth his handiwork."-  man comprehension; and such a power can only
When  wve consider the heavenly orbs in their reside in an uncreated, self-existent, and indesize, their distance, the rapidity of their motions, pendent Intelligence. The continuance of such
and tlie regularity and- harmony with which they motions must likewise depend upon the incessant
perform their respective revolutions, it is obvious agency of the same Almighty Being, either dito the least attentive observer that such bodies rectly, or through the medium  of such subortit.
could not have formed themselves, or have ar- nate agents as he is pleased to appoint for the actanged their motions, their periods, and their laws complishment of his designs.  In this respect the
in the beautifull order in which we noww behold laws of motion, of attraction, gravitation, electrithem.  Motion of every kind supposes a moving city, and other powers, are so many agents, under
power.  As matter could not make itself, so the direction and control of the Almighty, for
neither can it set itself in motion. Its motion carrying forward the plans of his physical and
must commence from a power exterior to itself, moral government of the universe.
and that power must correspond.in energy to the    The study of astronomy ought always to'Lave




OMNIPOTENCE OF THE DEITY.
in viewas its ultimate object, to trace the Divine worlds, and has supported them in their rapid
perfections as displayed in the phenomena of the career'for thousands of years, can cause "new
h6aveens. For, as our. poet Milton expresses it, heavens and a new earth, wherein dwelleth right-'"Heaven is as the book of God before us set, eousless," to arise out of its ruins, and to remain
wherein to read his wondrous works.',' There is in undiminished beauty and splendor.'no scene we can cointempl4te in which the'attri-   "The heavens," says an inspired Writer, "debutes of the Divinity are so magnificently dis- clare the glory of the Lord,.and there is no speech
played. It is in the heavens alonethat we perceive nor language where their voice is- not heard."
a sensible evidence of the infinity of his perfec- Even the pagan nations were. impressed with the
tions, of the grandeur of his operations, and of power of a supreme intelligence from  a contemthe immeasurable extent of his universal domin- plation of the nocturnal firmament.  "When we
ions. Even the planetary system, small as it'is behold the heavens," -says Cicero, "when we conin comparison of the whole extent of creation, template the celestial- bodies, can we fail of concontains within it Wonders of creating Omnipo- viction?  Must we not acknowledge that there is
tence  and  skill which almost overpower the a Divinity, a perfect being, a ruling intelligence
human faculties, and: demonstrate the " eternal that governs, a God who is everywhere, and directs
power and godhead " of Him who at first brought all by his power?  Any one who doubts this may
it into existence. To consider astronomy'merely as well deny that there is a sun that elllightens
as a secular. branch.of knowledge, which improves us."  Plato, when alluding to the motions of the
navigation, and gives scope to the mathematician's sun and planets, exclaims, "How is it possible for
skill, and to overlook the demonstrations.it affords such prodigious masses to be carried round for so
of the invisible Divi-nity, would be to sink this long a period by any natural cause? for whicli
noble study far below its native dignity, and to reason I assert God to be the great and first cause,
throw into the shade the most illustrious manifes- and that it is impossible that it should be othertations of the glories of the Eternal mind.    wise."When we conltemplate the stupendous  globes   A very slight view of the planetary system is
of which the planetary system  is composed, and sufficient to impress our minds with an overpower
the astonishing velocity with which they run ing sense of the grandeur and omnipotence of the
their destined rounds, we cannot but be struck Deity. In one part of it we behold a globe fourwith an impressive idea of the POWER of the Deity; teen hundred times larger than our world flying
of. the incomprehensible ENERGIES of the Eternal through the depths of space, and carrying along
Mind that first launched them  into existence. with it a retinue of revolving worlds in its swift
What are all the efforts of puny rnmn as displayed career. In a more distant regioil of this system
in the machinery he has set in motion, and in the we behold another globe, of nearly the same size,
most magnificent structures he has reared, in com- surrounded by two  magnificent rings, which
parison with worlds a thousand times larger than would inclose 500 worlds as large as ours, wingthis earthly ball, and with forces which impel ing its flight through the regions of immensity,
them in their courses at the rate of thirty thous- and conveying along_ with it seven planetary
and, and even a hundred thousand miles an hour! bodies larger than our moon, and the stupendous
The mind is overpowered and bewildered when it arches with which it is encircled, over a circumcontemplates such august and magnificent ope- ference of five thousand seven hundred millions
rations. Man, with all his imaginary pomp and of miles. Were we to suppose ourselves placed
greatness, appears, on comparison, as a mere mi- on the nearest satellite of this planet, and were
croscopic animalcula, yea, as "less than nothing the satellite supposed to be at. rest, we should
and vanity;" and such displays of the omnnipo- behold a scene of grandeur altogether overwhelmtence of Jehovah are intended to bring down the  ig; a globe filling a great.portion of the visible
"lofty looks of men," and to stain the pride of heavens, encircled by its immense rings, and surall human grandeur, "that no flesh should glory rounded by its moons, each moving in its distinct
in his presence."  Without materials, and with- spliere and around its axis, and all at the same
out the aid of instruments or machinery, the time flying before us in perfect harmony with the
foundations of the planetary system  were laid, velocity of 22,000 miles an hour. Such a scene
and all its arrangements completed. " He only would far transcend. everything we now behold
spake and it was done;" he only gave the com- from our terrestrial sphere, and all the conceptions
mand, and mighty worlds started into existence we can possibly form  of motion, of sublimity,
and ran their spacious rounds. "By the word and grandeur. Contemplating such an assemof the Lord were the heavens made, and all. the blage of magnificent objects moving through the
host of them by the breath of His mouth." That ethereal regions with such astonishing velocity,
Almighty Being who, by a single volition, could we would feel the full force.of the sentiments of
produce such stupendous effects, must be capable -inspiration:  "THE  LORD  GO-D  OMNIPrOTENT
of effecting what far transcends our limited con- REIGNETH. His power is irresistible; His greatness
ceptions.  His agency must. be universal and is- unsearchable; wonderful tihings doth lie which
uncontrollable, and no created being can ever we cannot comprehend."  The motions of the
hope to frustrate the purposes of his will or bodies which compose this system convey an imcounteract the designs of his moral government. pressive idea of the agency and the energies of
Whatever he has promised' will be: performed; Omnipotence. One of these bodies, eighty times
whatever he has predicted by his inspired messen- larger than the earth, and the slowest moving orb
gers must assuredly be accomplished. " For the in the system, is found to move through its exkingdom is, the Lord's, He is the Governor among pansive orbit at the rate of fifteen thousand miles
the nations," and all events, and: the movements an hour; another at twenty-nine thousand miles
of all intelligent beings, are subject to his sove- iih the same period, although it is more than a
I reign control. "Though the mountains should thousand times the size of our globe; another at
be carried into the midst of the seas, and the the rate of eighty thousand miles; and a fourth
earth reel to and fro like a drunkard;" yea, though with a velocity of more than a hundred thousand
this spacious globe should be wrapped in flames, miles every hour, or thirty miles during every
and "'all that it inherits be dissolved," yet that beat of our pulse. The mechanical forces requipower which brought into existence the planetary site to produce such motions surpass the mathe



102:  CELESTIAL - SCENERY
matician'sskill toestimate or th- power ofnumbers had the direction of their axes been liable to
to express. Such astonishing.veocities,in bodies frequent.and sudden changes, the -most alarming
of so- stupendous a m'aginiitude,.though incompre- and disastrous catastrophes might have ensued
hensible and overwhelrning to our limited facul- In such a'globe as'ours, the shifting of its axis
ties, exhibit a most'conviicing demonstration of might change the. equatorial parts of the earth
the existence of an agency aid a power which no into the polar, or the polar into the equatorial, to
created beings can ever counteract, and wliich no the utter destruction of those plants and animals
limits can control.  Above'all, the central body which are not capable of interchanging their situof this~ systenm:presents: to -our view an object ations.  Such a, change would likewise cause the
which is altogether overpowering to human intel- seas to abandon. their former positions, and, to
Iects, and of which, in ourIpresent state, we shall rush to the new equator; the consequence of
never be able to form an: adequate conception. A  which would be, that the greater part of the men
luminous globe, thirteen hundred thousand times and allimals with.which it is now peopled would
larger; than our world, and five hundred times be again.overwhelmed  ina general deluge, and the
more capacious than all the planets, satellites, and habitable earth reduced to a cheerless desert. But
comets taken -together, and this body revolving all such disasters are prevented by the permanent
round its axis aild through the regions of space, position of the axis of our globe and of the other
extending its influences to the remotest spaces of planets during every part of their annual revoluthe system, and retaining by its attractive power tions, as; fixed and determined- by Him  who is
all thie planets in their orbits, is an object which "wonderful incounsel and excellent in working."
the limited faculties of the human mind, however   The same wisdom  is conspicuous in so nicely
improved, can. never grasp,.in all its magnitude balancing arnd proportioning the magnitudes, moand relations, so as to form a full and comprehen- tions, and distances of the planetary orbs.  We
sive idea of -its magnlificene'e. But it displays in find that the larger planets move in orbits most
a most astonishing manner the GRANDEUR of Him  remote from  the smaller planets anld' from  the
who launched it into existence, and lighted it up center of the system. If the great planets Jupiter
"by the breath of his mouth;" and it exhibits to and Saturn had moved in lower spheres and at no
all intelligences a demonstration of his "eternal great distance from the smaller, their attractive
power and godhead."  So that, althouglh there force would have had a much more powerful
were no bodies existing in the universe but those influence than it now has in disturbing the plane.
of the planetary system, they would afford an tary motions, and might have introduced con.evidence of a power to which no limits can be siderable confusion into the system. But, while
assigned; aP rOWER which is infinite, universal, and they revolve at so great distances from  all the
uncontrollable.                                 inferior planets, their influence is inconsiderable,
The planetary system likewiseexhibitsa display and the slight perturbations they produce are not
of the wisdom and intelligence of the Deity.'If it permanent, but periodical; they come to a limit,
is all evidence of wisdom in an artist that he has and then go back again.to the same point as before.
arranged all the parts of a machin9, and propor- Again, the law of gravitation, by which the planets
tion:ed the movements of its different wheels and are directed in their motions, is also all evidence
pinions so as exactly to accomplish the end in- of Divine intelligence.  The law is found to act
tended, then the arrangelnent of the planetary reciprocally as the square of the distance; that
system  affords a bright display of "the manifold is, at double the distance it has one-fourth, and at
wisdom of God."'In the center of this system is triple the distance one-ninth of the force; at oneplaced the great sourceof light andheat; and from  half the distance it has four times, and at oneno other point could those solar emanations be third the distance it has nine times the strength
propagated, in han equable and uniform manner, to or influence. Now it could easily be shown, that
the worlds which' roll around it. Had the sun a law directly opposite to this, or even differingboen placed at a remote distance from  the center, materially from it, would not only derange the
or near one of the planetary orbits, the planets in harmony of the system, but might be attended
one part of their couarse would have been scorched with the most disastrous consequences.  If, for
with the most intense heat, and in another part instance, a planet as large and as remote as Saturn
would have been subjected to all the rigors of had attracted the earth in proportion to the quanexcessive cold; their motions would have been tity of matter it contains, and, at the same timer,
deranged, and their present constitution destroyed. in any proportion to its distance; in other wordm
The enormous bulk of this central'body was like- had its attractive power been greater the farther
wise requisite to diffuse light and attractive influ- it was removed from  us, it would have dragged
ence throughout every part of the system. The our globe out of its course, deranged its motions,
diurnial rotations of the planets evince the same and, in all probability, deprived us of the security'
wisdom and intelligence.' Were these bodies des- we now-possess, and of all the prospects and
titute of diurnal motions, one-half of their sur- enjoyments which depend upon its equable and
face would be parched with per'petual day, and harmonious movements. There is no contrivance
the other half involved in the gloom of a perpet- in the system  more wonderful than the rings of
ual night. To the inhabitants of one hemisphere Saturn.  That these rings should be separated
the'sun would never appear, and to the inhabitants thirty thousand miles from the body of the planet;
of the other the stars would be invisible; and those that they should, notwithstanding, accompany the
expansive regions of the universe, where the planet in its revolution round the sun, preserving
magnificence of God is so strikingly displayed, invariably the same distance from it; that they
would:be forever vailed from their view. The should revolve round the planet every ten hours,
permanency of the:axes on which the planets at the immense velocity of more than a thousand
revolve was likewise necessary, in order to the miles in a mniinute; and that they should never
stability of tlile system_-and' the comfort of its fly off to the distant regions of space, nor fall
inhabitants; -and so we find that their poles point down upon the planet, are circumstances which
invariably in the- same' direction or to the same require adjustments far more intricate and exquipoints of the lieavents, with only a slight variation site than we call conceive, and demonstriate that
scarcely perceptible until after the lapse of cen- the almighty contriver of that stupendous appenturies. As the planets are'of a spheroidal figure, dage to the globe of Saturn is " great in counsel




PLANETARY ARRANGEMENTS                                         103
and mighty il operation." Yet theseadjustments, enjoyed the benign influence of the sun, while
in whatever they may consist, have been coIn- another might have been within the shadow of
pletely effected. For this planet has been flying  elevations a hundred miles high, aind in regions
through the regions of space in a regular curve  of insufferable cold.  In short, while one country
for'thousands of years, and the system  of its might have resembled a paradise, others would
satellites and rings still remains permanent and  have  been  transformed  into  a chaos, where
unimpaired as at its first creation.            nothing was to be seen  but barrenness and
An evidence of wisdoin may likewise be per- hideous desolation; but the globular figure which
ceived in the distance at which each planet is the Creator has given to our world prevents all
placed from the great central body of the system. such inconveniences and evils, and secures to us
In the case of our own globe, its distance from  all the advantages we enjoy -fiorn the equable
thie su  is so adjusted as to correspond to the  distribution of light and gravity, of the waters of
density of the earth and waters, to the temper our seas and rivers, and of the winds and motions
and constitution of the bodies of men and other of the atmosphere; and arrangements similar or
animals, and to the general state of all things  analogous are enjoyed by all the other planetary
here below. The quantity of light which the worlcks, in consequence of the globular figure
central luminary diffuses around us is exactly  which has been impressed upon them.
adapted to the structure of our eyes, to the width    The same Divine Wisdom is displayed throughof their pupils, and the nervous sensibility of the  out the solar system in the nice adjustlment of the
retina.  The heat it produces, by its action oiln the  projectile velocity to the attractive power.  The
caloric connected with our globe, is of such a natural tendency of all motion, impressed by a
temperature as is exactly suited to the nature of single force, is to make the body move in- a
the soil and to the constitution of the animal and  strai/ght line.  The projectile force originally given
vegetable tribes.  It is placed at such a distance  to the planets, if not counteracted, would carry
as to enlighten and warm  us, and not so near as them  away from the sun, in right liines, through
to dazzle us with its splendor or scorch us with  the regions of infinite space. On the other hand,
its excessive heat; but to cheer all the tribes of had tile planets been acted upon solely by an
living beings, and to nourish the soil with its attractive power proceeding from the center, they
kindly warmth. Were the earth removed fifty  would have moved with an increased velocity
millions of miles farther from the sun, everything  toward that center, and, in a short time, have
around us would be frozen up, and we should be fallen upon the body of the sun. Now the Divine
perpetually shivering amid all tile rigors of exces- Intelligence striliingly appears in nicely proporsive cold.  Were it placed as much nearer, the  tioning and balancing these two powers, so as to
waters of the rivers and the ocean would be make the planets describe orbits nearly circular.
transformed into vapor; the earth would be har- If these powers had not been accurately adjusted,
dened into an impAletrable crust; the process of the whole system would have run into confusion.
vegetation would cease; and all the orders of ani- For, were the velocity of any planet double to
mated beings would faint under the excessive  what would make it move in a circle or ellipse, it
splendor of the solar beams.  There can be no  would rush frommi its sphere through the regiolns
doubt that the distances of the other planets are  of immensity, and  never again return. to its
likewise adapted to the nature of the substances former orbit. Or, should half its velocity be
of which they are composed and the constitution  taken away, the planet would descend obliquely
of their inhabitants.  We find that'the densities toward the sun until it became four times nearer
of these bodies decrease in proportion to their dis- him  than before, and then ascend to its former
tance from the sun; and it is highly probable that place; and by ascending and descending alterthis is one reason, among others, why they are nately, would describe a very eccentric orbit, and
placed at different distances, and are thus adapted  would feel the influence of the solar light and
to the greater or less degree of influence which  power sixteen times greater in one part of its
the central luminary may produce on their sur- course than in another; which would prevent
faces.                                          such a globe as ours, and probably all the planeThe figures of the planetary bodies likewise  tary bodies, from  being habitable worlds. But,
indicate contrivance and intelligence.  They are in this respect, every part of celestial meclhanism
all either of a spherical or spheroidal form, and  is adjusted with the nicest skill, and the wvhole
this figure is evidently the best adapted to a habi- system  appears a scene of beauty, order, and
table world. It is the most capacious of all forms, stability worthy of the intelligence of Him " who
and contains the greatest quantity of area in the hath established the. world by his wisdom, and
least possible space. It is the best adapted to stretched out the heavens by his understanding."
motion, both annual and diurnal, every part of And as the power of gravitation was first imthe surface being nearly at the same distance from  pressed upon matter by the hand of the Creator,
the center of gravity and motion. Without this so its continued action is every moment depenfigure there could have been no comfortable and dent on his sovereign will. Were its influence to
regular alternations of day and night in our world  be suspended, the whole system  would immeas we now enjoy, and the light of the sun and  diately dissolve and run into confusion. Tihe
the mass of waters could not have been equably  centrifugal force of the planets, in whirling round
distributed.  Had the earth been of a cubical, their axes, would shatter them  into pieces and
prismatic, or pentagonal form, or of any other dissipate their parts throughout tile circumamnangular figure, some parts would have been com- blent spaces; every portion of matter would fly
paratively near the center of gravity, and others in straight lines, according as the projectile force
hundreds or thousands of miles farther from  it; chanced to direct at the moment this power was
certaini countries would have been exposed to suspended; and the regions of infinite space,
furious tempests, which would have overturned  instead of presenting a prospect of beauty and
and destroyed every object, while others would  order, would become a scene of deranigement,
have been stifled for want of currents and agita- overspread with the wrecks of all the globes inl
tion in the air; one part would have been -over- the universe; so that the order and stability of
whelmed with water, and another entirely desti- universal nature entirely depends upoll the will
Lute of the liquid element; one part might have and the omnipotence of the Deity in sustaining




104                                CELESTIAL SCENERY.
in constant action the power of universal gravita- creatures.  Now all the movements and arrangeo
tion. Were it his pleasure that the material worldi ments of the planetary.. bodies are so ordered and
should be dissolved and its inhabitants: destroyed, directed as to act in subserviency to the happiiess
he has only-to interpose his: Almighty-fiat, and  of sentient and intelligent beings.  This is eviproclaim, "Let the power of attraction be sus- dently the grand design of all the wise contrivances
pended," and the vast universe- would soon be to which we have adverted.  The spherical.figure
unhinged -and return to its original chaos.      given to all the planets for the-regular distribution
In'short,:the depth of'the Divine Wisdom  of- the waters. of the seas and rivers, and of the
might have been illustrated from -the constant currents of the atmosphere; their rotation on their
proportion between -the times of the- periodical axes, to produce the alternate succession of day
revolutions of all the planets', primary and secon- and night; the situation of the sun in the center
dary, and the cubes of their mean distances; from  of the system, for.the, equable distribution of
the constancy and regularity'of their motions, light and heat to surrounding planets; and an apthat, amid so immense a variety of moving masses, paratus of rings and moons, to reflect a mild
all should observe their due bounds and keep their radiance in the absence of the sun, are contriappointed paths, to answer the.great ends of their vanlce  which can only have a respect to the comcreation; from the exactness with which they run  fort and convenience of animated beings; for
theirdestined rounds, finishing theircircuits with so they can serve no purpose to mere inert matter
much accuracy as not to deviate from- the periods devoid of life and intelligence, and the Creator,
of theirirevolutions a single minute in a hundred  so far as we know, never employs means without
years; -from the distances of the several planets a corresponding end in view.  In our world, the
from,. the sun,  compared with their respective'utility of these ariangements, in order to our
densities; from their velocities in their orbits com- happiness, is obvious to the least reflecting mind.
pared with their' distances from the central lumi- Without light our globe would be little else than
nary; from  the-wonderful simplicity of the laws a gloomy prison; for it is this that cheers the
on which so- much beauty, harmony, and enjoy- heart of man, and unvails to our view the beauties
ment depend; a-lnd from various other considera- and sublimities of creation; and had the earth no
tions, all which would telnd to demonstrate that rotation, and were the sun continually shining on
He who framed the planetary system is " the only  the same hemisphere, the temperate zones as well
wise God," whose " understanding is infinite,"  as the equatorial regions would be parched with a
and the depth of whose intelligence is "past find- perpetual day, the moisture of the soil evaporated,
ing out."                                        tile earth hardened, vegetables deprived of nourFrom  what we have now  stated, we may see ishment, the functions of the atmosphere deranged,
what a beautiful and'divine fabric the solar system  and numerous other inconveniences would ensue,
exhibits.'Like all the arrangements of Infinite from which we are now protected by the existing
Wisdom its foundations are plain and simple, but arrangements of nature; and as such contrivances
its superstructure is wonderful and diversified.-  are essential to the comfort of the inhabitants of
The causes which produce the effects are few, but the earth, so we have every reason to conclude
the phenomena are innumerable. While the ends that these and all the additional arrangements
to be accomplished are numerous and various, the connected with other planets are intended to promeans are the fewest that could possibly bring the mote the enjoyment of the different orders of
design into effect. What a striking contrast is sensitive and intelligent existence with which they
presented between the works of Omnipotence as are peopled.
they really exist, and the bungling schemes of the    As the object of the wise contrivances of the
ancient astronomers? who, with all their cycles, Deity is the communication of happiness, it would
epicycles, concentric and eccentric circles, their be inconsistent with every rational view we can
deferents, and solid  crystalline spheres, could  take of his wisdom  and intelligence not to admit
never account'for the motions of the planetary  that the same end is kept in view in every part of
orbs, nor explain their phenomena. The plans his dorinions, however far removed from  the
-of the Almighty, both in the material world and  sphere  of our immediate  contemplation, and
in his moral government, are quite unlike the cir- though we are not permitted, in the mean time, to
cumscribed and complex schemes of man. Like inspect the minute details connected with the
himself, they are magnificent and stupendous, and economy of other worlds; for the Creator must
vet accomplished by means apparently weak and  always be considered as consistent with himself,
simple.  All -his works are demonstrations, not as acting on the same eternaland immutable prinonly of his existence, but of his inscrutable wis- ciples at all times, and throughout every  departdom and superintending providence. As'theac- ment of his empire. He cannot be supposed to
complishments of every workman are knownfrom  devise means in order to accomplish important
the work which he executes, so the operations of ends'in relation to our world, while in other rethe Deity evince his supreme agency and his gions of creation he devises means for no end at
bound'less perfections. What being less than infi- all.  To suppose, for a moment, such a thing
nite could have arranged the solar system, and possible, would be highly derogatory to the Divine
launched from  his hand the huge masses of the character, and would confound all our ideas of the
planetary worlds?; What mathematician could so harmony and consistency of the attributes of him
nicely calculate their distances and arrange their who is "the'only wise God."  We have, theremotions?  Or what mechanic so accurately con- fore, the highest reason to conclude, that not only
trive their figures, adjust their movements, or this earth, but the whole of the planetary system.
balance their projectile force with the power of is a scene of divine benevolence; for it displays to
gravitation? None -but He whose power is su- our view a number of magnificent globes, with
premne and irresistible, whose agency is universal, special contrivances and arrangements, all fitted
and whose wisdom is unsearchable.:                to be the abodes of intelligent beings, and to conIn the last place, the planetary system  exhibits tribute to their enjoyment.  Every provision has
a display of the GOODNESS of the Creator aind of been made to supply them with that light which
his superintending care. The goodness of God is unfolds the beauties of nature anld the glories of
that perfection of his nature by which he-delights the firmament.  All the arrangements for its
to communicate happiness to every order of his equable distribution have been effected, arid several




SUMMARY VIEW OF THE PLANETARY SYS rEM.                                  105
wonderful modes unknown in our world have  on every hand, the inhabitants adorned with
been contrived for alleviating their darkness in  the beauties of moral perfection, and every societhe absence of the sun, all which contrivances  ty cemented by the bond of universal love, and
are, doubtless, accompanied with many others displaying the virtues of angelic natures, it is
which'lie beyond the range of our conception, and  highly probable that all the enjoyments of this terwhich our remote distance prevents us from con- restrial sphere would appear only "as the drop of
templating.  In proportion, then, as the other a bucket and the small dust of the balance," and
planets exceed the earth in size, in a similar pro- as unworthy of our regard in comparison of the
portion, we may conceive, is the extent of that overflowing fountains of bliss which enrich the
theater on which the Divine goodness is displayed. regions and gladden the society of the celestial
If this "earth is full' of the goodness of the worlds. In this point of view what a glorious
Lord," if the benevolence of the Creator has dis- and amiable being does the eternal Jehovah aptributed unnumbered comforts among every order pear! "God is love."  This is his name and his
of creatures here below, what must be the exu- memorial in all generations  and throughout all
berance of his bounty, and the overflowing  worlds. Supremely happy in himself and indestreams of felicity enjoyed in worlds which con- pendent of all his creatures, his grand design in
tain thousands of times the population- of our forming and arranging so many worlds could
globe! If a world which has been partly de- only be to display the riches of his beneficence,
ranged by the sin of its inhabitants abounds with  and to impart felicity, in all its diversified forms,
so many pleasures, what numerous sources of  to countless orders of intelligent beings, and to
happiness must abound, and what ecstatic joys every rank of perceptive existence. And how
must be felt ii those worlds where mortal evil has extensive his goodness is, not only throughout the
never entered, where diseases and death are un- planetary system, but over all the regions of uniknown, and where the inhabitants bask perpetu- versal nature, it is impossible for the tongues of
ally in the regions of immortality   Were we men or angels to declare, or the highest powers
permitted to take a nearer view of the enjoyments of intelligence to conceive. But of this we are
of some of those worlds, were we to behold the certain, that "Jehovah is good to all;" that "his
magnificent scenery with which they are encir- bounty is great above the heavens;" and that "his
cled, the riches of Divine munificence which appear tender mercies are over all his works."
CHAPTER VI.
SUMMARY VIEW OF THE MAGNITUDE OF THE PLANETARY SYSTEM.
HAvING, in the preceding pages, given a brief planets, which is the only accurate view we can
description of the principal facts and phenomena take of their magnitudes, when we compare them
connected with the solar system, and offered a few  with each other as habitable worlds.  The populareflections suggested by the subject, it may not be tion of the different globes is estimated, as in the
inexpedient to place before the reader a summary preceding descriptions, at the rate of 280 inhabview of the magnitude of the bodies belonging to itants to a square mile, which is the rate of
this system, as compared with the population and population in England, and  yet this country
magnitude of the globe on which we live. In is by no means overstocked with inhabitants,
this summary statement I shall chiefly attend to but could contain, perhaps, double its present
the area or superficial contents of the different population.
Square Miles.      Population.        Solid Cqntents.
Mercury...........  32,000,000...... 8,960,000,000...... 17,157,324,800
Venus.....    191,134,944...53,500,000,000.....  248,475,427,200
Mars............. 55,417,824.... 15,500,000,000...... 3,79',00,000)
Vesta...............          229,000........64,000,000..........10,035,000
Juno............... 6,380,000        1,786,00(),000....... 1,515,250,000
Ceres...................  8,285,580.....2,319,962,400....... 2,142,630,320
Pallas............0..... 14,000,000....... 4,000,000,000....... 4,900,000,000
Jupiter.............24,8384,00o9,000..6,967,520,000,000.. 368,283,200,000,000
Saturn............19,6)i00,0)0~.5,488,000,000,000.2. 61,326,800,000,000
Saturn's outer ring...9,058,803,600
Inner ring'....19,791,561,636   8,141,963,826,080.... 1,442,518,261,800
Edges of the rings....... 228,077,000
Uranus................ 3,84,46(),000....1,077,568,8.00,000... 22,437,804,620,000
The Moon...............15,000,000..... 4,200,000,000....... 5,455,000,000
JupFiter's satellites.......  95,000,000  26,673,000,000...... 45,693,970,126
Saturn's satellites......  197,920,800..... 55,417,824,000...... 98,960,400,000
Uranus's satellites.....    169,646,400.....47,500,992,000...... 4,823,200,000'Amount......... 78,195,916,784..21,894,974,404,480.:. 654,038,348,119,246
From the above statement, the real magnitude to the amplitude of our own globe, we have only
of all the moving bodies connected with the solar to divide the different amounts stated at the bottom
system may at once be perceived.  If we wish to of the table by the area, solidity, or population of
ascertain what proportion these magnitudes bear the earth. The amount of area, or the superficial




106                               CELESTIAL SCENERY.
contents of all the planets, primary and secondary, 000,000, the number of cubical miles in the ear'
is 78,195,916,784; or above seventy-eight thousand  the quotient will be 2483, which shows that tb
millions of square miles. If this sum  be divided  solid bulk of the other planets is two thousand font
by 197,000,000, the number of square miles on the  hundred and eighty-three times the bulk of our
surface of our globe, the quotientwill be397; show-  globe. Such is the immense magnitude of our
ing that the surfaces'of these globes are 397 times planetary system, without taking into account
more expansive than the whole. surface of the ter- either the sun or the hundreds of comets which
raqueous globe;, or,-in other words, that they co-  have been observed  to travperse the planetary
tain. an amplit-deof space fo:..animated beings regions.
equal -to iearly four hundred Worlds such as ours.   Great, however, as these magnitudes are, they
If we divide the sam'e amounit by 49,000,000, the are far surpassed by that stupendous globe which
numbe.r of square miles in the habitable parts of, occupies the center of the system.  The surface
the earth, the quotientwill be 1595; showing that of the sun contains 2, 432,800,000,000 square
the surface of all the/ pla:nets contains.a space  miles (nearly two and a half billions).  If this
equ al to one-thousa nd five hundred and ninety- sum be rightly divided by 197 millions, the lnunfive times the areaof all the continents and islands ber of square miles on the earth's surface, the
of o/ur globe.' If the amount of population-which  quotient will he 12,350, which shows that the
the planets might; containi, nam1nely, 21,894,974,- surface of the sun contains twelve thousand three
404,480, or nearly twtnnty-two billio'ns,?be divided  hundred and Jifty times the quantity of surface
by 800,000,000, the population of the'earth, the  on our globe. If the same sum  be divided by
quotient will be 27,368; which shows that the  78,195,916,784, the number of square miles in all
planetalry -globes could contain a population more  the planets, the quotient will be 31, showing that
than twelnty-seven, thousand times the population  the area of the surface of the sun is thirty-one
of our globe; in other words, if peopled in the  times greater than the area of all the primary
proportion of, England, they are equivalent to planets, with their rings and satellites. The solid
twenty-seven thousand worlds such as ours-in its contents of the sun amount to 356,818,739,200,present state of population.  The amount of the 000,000, or nearly three hundred and fifty-seven
third column.:xpresses the number of solid miles thousand billions of cubical miles, which number,
comprised in all the planets, which is 654,038,- if divided by 654,038,348,119,246, the number of
348,119,246, or more than six hundred and ffty- solid miles ill all the planets, will produce a quofourbillions. If thisnumberbedivided by263,000,- tient of 545, which shows that the sun is five
hundred and forty-five times larger than
Fig 92.                  Fig. 91.                   all the planetary bodies taken together.
Such is the vast and incomprehensible
magnitude of this stupendous luminary,
whose effulgence sheds day over a retinue
of revolving worlds, and whose attractive
energy controls their motions and pre.
serves them all in one harmonious system.
If this immense globe be flying through
the regions of space at the rate of sixty
thousand miles an hour, as is supposed,
and carrying along with it all the planets
of the system, it presents to the mind one
of the most sublime and overwhelming ideas
of motion, magnitude, and grandeur which
the scenes of the universe can convey.
The comparative magnitudes of the different bodies in the system are represented
to the eye in Fig. 91, where the circle at
the top, No. 1, represents Jupiter; No. 2,
Saturn; No. 3, Uranus; No. 4, the Earth;
adjacent to which, on the left, is the
Moon; No. 5, Mars; No. 6, Venus; and
No. 7, Mercury. The four small circles
-Saturn           i-i  X                            |at the bottom are the planets Vesta, Juno,
Ceres, and Pallas, whose proportional sizes
cannot be accurately represented.  The
other small circles connected with Jupiter,
Saturn, and Uranus, are intended to represent the satellites of these planets,
which in general may be estimated as
considerably larger than our moon. These
comparative magnitudes are only approximations to the truth; for it would require
(Pallas.                               B            a large sheet were we to attempt delineatCeres.                                            ing them  with accuracy; but the figure
-Juo.                                              will convey to the eye a general idea of
Vesta.                                             the comparative bulks of these bodies, in
so far as it call be conveyed by a compar
M-Earth i111ison of their diameters;* but no represen-Earth                                                  ________i______
-Venus. -          a                                       The reader will find a comparative view of
— Mercury.                                             the distances and magnitudes of the planets, en.
graved on a very large sheet, in" Burritt's Geogra.
o) Sun. 0                                              phy of the Heavers " published at Hartford, North
C) Su~~~~~li.  _..  ~~~~America.          




ON rIHE MAGNITUDES OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES.                                   107
tatin on a plane surface can convey an idea of the scarcely perceptible.  It is chidfly by the aid of
solid contents of these globes as compared with such tangible representations that the mind call
each other. The reader will perceive the great form  any, idea approximating to the reality of
disparity; of globes, whose diameters do'nt differ
very widely from each other, if he place a globe                      Fig. 93
of: twelve inches diameter beside one of eighteen
inches diameter.  Though these globes differ only
six inches ill their diaieters, yet he will at once
perceive that. the eighteen-inch globe contains
more than double the surface of the twelve-inch;
and the solid space which it occupies contains
3a times the space occupied by the smaller globe.
Were the sun to be represented in its proportional
size to Jupiter and the other planets, it would fill
a space twenty inches in diameter.  On the same
scale in which the planets are delineated, Saturn's
ring would occupy a space four and a half inches
in diameter.. From these representations we may
see how small a space our earth occupies in the
planetary system, and what an inconsiderable appearance.it presents in comparison with Jupiter,
Saturn, and Uranus. Fig. 92 represellts the proportional distances of the primary planets from the
sun, from which it will be seen that Saturn, which
was formerly considered the most distant planet,
occupies nearly the middle of the system.In Fig. 93 is represented a comparative. -view
of the earth and the rings of Saturn.  The small
circle at' the right hand side represents the lineal
proportion of our globe to those stupendous arches,
so that the eye may easily perceive that hundreds
of worlds such as ours could be inclosed withiil 
such expansive rings. Fig. 94 represents the proportion which the sun bears to the planet Jupiter,
the'largest planetary orb in the system.  The
large circle represents the sun, and the small such magnitudes and proportions; and, after all
circle Jupiter. If the earth were to be represent- its efforts, its views of such stupendous objects
ed on the samne scale, it would appear like a point are exceedingly imperfect and obscure.
CHAPTER VII.
ON THE METHOD BY WHICH THE DISTANCES AND MAGNITUDES OF THE
HEAVENLY BODIES ARE ASCERTAINED.
THERE is a degree of skepticism among a cer- geometry and trigonometry.  A very slight actain- class of readers in regard to the conclusions quaintance with these branches of the mathematwhich astronomers have deduced respecting the ics, however, is sufficient to enable a person to
distances and magnitudes'of the celestial bodies. understand the mode by which the distances of
They are apt to suspect that the results they have the heavenly bodies are determined; but a certain
deduced are merely conjectural, and'that it is im- degree of information on such subjects is. indispossible for human beings to arrive at anything pensably requisite, without which no satisfactory
like certainty, or even probability, in regard to'explanation can be communicated.
distances' so immensely great,:and to magnitudes   In offering a few  remarks on this subject, 1
so far surpassing everything we see around us on shall, in the first place, state certain considerations,
this globe.' Hence it is that the' assertions of: level to the comprehension of the general reader,
astronomers as to. these points are apt to be called'-which prove that the celestial bodies are much
in question,,or to be received with a certain de- more distant from  the earth, and. consequently,
gree oQfdoubt and hesitation, as if they were be- much larger than they are generally supposed to
yond the limits of truth or probability.  And be by the vulgar, and those who are ignorant of
hence such persons are anxious to inquire, "How  astronomical science; and, in the next place, shall
can astronomers-find out such things?"  "Tell us give a brief -view  of the mathematical principles
by what methods they can measure the distances on which astronomers proceed in their calculations.
of the planets and determine their bulks?"  Such    When a common observer views the heavens
questions, however, are more easily proposed than for the first time, previous to having received any
answered; not from  any difficulty in stating the, information on the subject, he is apt to imagine
principles on which' astronomers proceed in-th'eir -that the sun, moon, and stars are placed in the
investigations, but from the impossibility,-in miany canopy of the sky at nearly the same distance
instances, of conveying' an idea of these princi- from  the earth, and that this distance is on.y a
ties to those who are ignorant of the elements of little beyond the region of the clouds; for it is




] 08                               CE- LESTIAL SCENERY.
impossible, mere'y-by the eye,to. judge of the re- the time of; his'rising, and: the difference   oould
lative distances of such objects.'Previous to-expe- easily be determined,; but no such difference is
rience, it -is probable)that we could form no correct perceptible; therefore the suI is still more distant
idea of the relative distances-of any objects whatever than one hundred and twenty thousand miles.The young man who was born blind, and who was And, as the real size of any body is in proportion
restored, to sight at the age,of thirteen, by anll ope- to its distance; conlpared with its apparent size,
ration performed by'lr./Cheselden, c:ould form  the sun must, from  this consideration alone, be
nO idea of the.distances'of -the: new 0objects pre- more than 1200- miles in diameter, and must con.
sented to his visual.organs. He -'supposed'::every- tain more than nine hundred millions of cubical
thinghe saw touched hiseyes, in thesame:man- miles. But how much greater his distance and
ner'as everything he felt touched his skin.  An  magnitude are than what is now stated cannot be
object of an inchidiameter-ip lagced before his-eyes,: determined from such observations.
which concealed a hoise'from::hio s:sight,,appeared    The same idea may be illustrated as follows:
to- him:as' large as:r thel.house.,'-What he had  Suppose a'spectator at Edinburgh, which may be
judged to  be round by thlie h'help of his' hands he represented by the point A (Fig. 95), and another
could not distinguish fromi what: he had judged to  at Capetown, in the Southern extremity of Africa,.be; square;nor co.u,ld he,-discern by,' his eyes about the time of our winter solstice, which powhether-wllat his hands had pereived to be above  sition may be represented by the point E; both
o9rbelow was really above or;' elow; and it was spectators might see the sun at the same moment,
not iuntil.after two'montths' thiat he could. distinguish  and he would appear exactly of the same size
pictuies from solid bodies.' In like:manner we are from  both positions.- Yet such spectators would
apt to be deceived,i. our estimate  of the distances- be more than 4000 miles distant from  each other
of'objects by the eye, particularly, of those which  in a straiqht line, and the observer- at Capetown
appear in the:concave of' the:heave.ns; and:reason  would be several thousands of miles nearer the
andlreflectionnmust supply the deficiency of our vi- sun than the one at r;dinburgh.  Now if the sun
sual-organs before we can arrive at any definite con- were only a few thousands of miles from  the
clusions respecting objects so-far beyond our reach. -earth, he would appear of a very different magni-:That-the heavenly bodies, particularly the sun, tuob to observers removed so far from each othler
are much greater than they appear to the vulgar which is contrary to fact. Consequently, the sunl
eye, may be proved by the following considera-' must.be at a very great distance from the earth,
tioiln  When the sun rises due east in -the morn- and his real size proportionable to that distance.
ing, his orb appears just as large as it'does when  For experience proves that objects which are of
he comes to the meridian at midday.  Yet it can  great magnitude may appear comparatively small
be shown thiat:thesun-, when, he is on- our meri- when removed from us to a great distance.  The
dian, is about 4000 mriles nearer us: than when he  lofty vessel, as it recedes from the coast toward
rose in the morning.' This may be illustraled by  the ocean, gradually diminishes in its apparent
the following figure.                             size, until at length it appears as a scarcely dias'  Fig. 95.                   tinguisalble, speck on the verge of the horizon;
-—' -.                        and the Eeronaut with his balloon, when they have
*                         ascended beyond the region of the clouds, appear
only as a small dusky spot on the canopy of the!...                    slsky, and sometimes entirely disappear.
1..-.."`.'~.i....._..?'. *'The following argument, which is level to the.    comprehension of every reflecting mind, proves? that the sun is larger than the whole globe of the
earth, and that the moon is considerably less.
Previous to the application of the argument to
a-;:,-. cwhich I allude, it may be proper to illustrate the
Let A B C D represent the earth, and
S the sun at the point of his rising. Sup-97 
pose the line A E: C  to represent the           96
meridian of a certain place, and A or E
the place of a spectator. When the sun,
in his apparent diurnal motion, comes
opposite the meridian A  C, he is a whole
semidiameter of the earth' nearer the spectator at E than when he appeared in the
eastern horizobn. This semidiameter is represented by the lines A H, E B, C G,
and is equal to 3965 miles. Now  were
the sun only four thousand miles distant
from  the earth, and consequently, eight
thousand miles from  us:at his rising, he
would be nearly,four thousand  miles
nearer us when on the meridian than at
his rising;. and,, consequently, he would
appear twice the diameter, and four times
as large in surface as he does at the time
of his rising.  But observation proves that 
there is no perceptible'difference in his  i:..
apparent magnitude in these different po- 
sitions; therefore the sun mnust be': much
more distant from  the earth`,than four
thousand miles.' If- his distance were only 120",' law  of shadows.  The law  by which the shad000 miles, his'apparent' diameter would appear| ows of globes are projected is as follows: When
1-30th part broader when on the meridian than at l the luminoui body is larger in diameter than the




LAW OF SHADOWS.                                        109
opaque body, the shadow which it projects con- of all these bodies increasing in proportion to their
verges to a point which is the vertex of a cone, distance, and interrupting, periodically, for a
as in Fig. 96. When the luminous and the opaque length of time, the communications of light and
body are of an equal size, the shadow is'cylindri- heat. But as none of these things ever happen,
cal,; and passes on from  the opaquet body to all it is evident that the sun is much larger than the
indefinite extent, as represented in Fig. 97.; When  whole terraqueous globe.
the luminous body is less than the opaque, the   All that requires to be taken for granted by the
shadow, extends in breadth beyon-d. the opaque unlearned reader in this argument is, that the
body, and grows broader ald broader in propor- earth is aglobular body; that an eclipse of the
tion to its distance from the opaque globe, as in moon is caused by the shadow of the earth falling
Fig.'98. This may be illustrated by holding a upon that orb; and that the shadow of the earth,
ball three or four inches in diameter opposite to at the distance of the moon, is of less breadth
a candle, when the'shadow of -the ball-will be than the earth's diameter. The first two posiseen to be larger in diameter in proportion to the tions will readily be admitted; and the third posidistance of' the wall or. screen on which the., tion, respecting the breadth of the earth's shadow,
shadow is projected. Now it is well'known, and may be received on the ground of what has been
will''readily be. admitted, that an eclipse of the above stated, and on the authority of astronomers.
moon is caused by the shadow of the earth  fall- For, if they were ignorant of this circumstance,
ing upon the moon, when the sun, earth, and they could not calculate eclipses with so much
moon are nearly in a straight line with respect accuracy as they do, and predict the precise moto each other; and that an eclipse Iof the sun is ment of the beginning and end of a lunar eclipse
caused by the shadow of the moon falling upon              100
a certaina portion of the earth. Let S (Fig. 99)
represent the sun; E, the earth; and M, the moon,
nearly ill a straight line,'which is the position of
-these three bodies in an eclipse of the moon. The                     D
shadow of the earth, at the distance of the moon,
is found to be of a less diameter than the diame-     B
ter of the earth.  This is ascertained by the time
which the moon takes in passing through the
shadow. The real breadth —of that shadow,'at the..&
moon's distance -from the- earth, is about 5900
miles, sometimes more and sometimes less, accor-                          1L
ding as the moon is nearer to or farther from the  a
earth; but the diameter of the earth is nearly
8000 miles; therefore the shadow  of the earth
gradually decreases in breadth in its progress
through' space, and, by calculation, it is found'hat it terminates in a point, as in Fig. 96, at the
distance of about 850,000 miles. But when a.0t 
luminous globe causes the shadow of an opaque
globe to converge toward a point, as in Fig. 96,
the luminous body must be larger in diameter
than the opaque one. The sun is the luminous
body which causes the earth to project a shadowi
on the moon; this shadow, at the moon, is less in
breadth than the diameter of the earth; therefore
it:inevitably follows that the sun is larger than the
earth; but how much larger cannot be determined
from such considerations.                            P
From the same premises it necessarily follows
that the moon is less than the earth. For the                       10.
moon is sometimes completely covered by the                          1
shadow of the earth, although this shadow is less
than' the earth's diameter, and not only so, but
sometimes takes an hour or two in passing through
the shadow. If-.the sun were only equal to the
earth in' size, the earth's shadow would -be projec-'' 
ted to a:i indefinite extent, and be always of the
same breadth, and might sometimes eclipse the                       106 
planiet'Mars when in opposition to the sun.' If                     A.
the'sun were less than the earth, the shadow of
the'earth would increase- in bulk the farther it
extended through space (as represented in Fig. 98),
and would eclipse.the great planets Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, with all their moons, when they
happened to be near their opposition to the sun;                           \
and in this case they would' be deprived of the
light of the sun for many days together. In such
a case, too,. the sun'would'sometimes be eclipsed
to the earth by the planet Venus, when in its
inferior conjunction with  that luminary: an
eclipse which might cause a total darkness -of If, then, any individual is convinced, from  the
several hours' continuance. In- short, in the sun consideration above stated, that the sun must be
were less than any one of the planets, the system  much larger than the earth, he has advanced one
would be thrown into confusion by the shadows step in his conceptions of the magnificence of the




1 10          -CELESTIAL SCENERY.
heavenly bodies, and- may rest with confidence -on parallax.  A parallax denotes the,change of the
the assertions of astronomers in reference to the apparent place of aly heavenly body, caused by,real'distances and magynitudes -of these,; orbs, al- being seen from  different- points of view.'This
though ll enav inot Ibei acquainted.with tlhe mathe- may be illustrated by terrestrial objects'as follows:
matical prinlciples aind  investigatiols on which'' Suppose a tree 40 or 50 yards distant from  twe
their calculations proceed.     --               spectatois, who are 15 or 20 yards distant fr0ro
- Before. proceeding tothe: illustration of the trig- each other; tile onle will perceive thlle tree in  liile
oniometrical principles on whicih astronomsrs pro- with certain objects near tlle horizon, whicht are
ceed, in determinlling the true distances of thle considerably distant from thlose which appear is
heiavenly bodies, it may be, requisite, for the un- the direction of the tree, as viewed from tlie sta -
learned- reader to give a description bf the nature tion occupied by the other spectTator.'The uifltrof: angles-and the mode-by. which they are meas- ence between the two points near the horizon
-'ed.  Au angle is the openilng between ally two where the tree appears to coincide to the two liflines Which touch each other in a point; and the  ferent spectators is the parallax of the object.  If
widlth of the opening dietermlines the extent of the the tree were only 20 or 25 ya!ds distatit, thle. parangle, or the nuumber of degrees or minutesit con- allax would be twice as large; or, in otlher words,
tailu-s.. fiThus if we open a pair of compasses, the the points in the horizon where it was seen by tle
legs of wlh-ich may be represented by A- B, B C, two spectators would be double tile distance, as iII
F:ig. 10,.an angle is — foimed: of different di-men- the former case; alld if the tree were two or tlteeO
sions, according as the extremities of the legs are hundred yards distant, the parallax would be proremoved farther from  or, -.brought nearer to each portionably small. Or, suppose two persons sitting
other. If the legs are. made to stand perpendicu- near each othler at one side of a room, and a callnlar to each other, as in-Fig. 101, the angle is sai-d die placed on a table in the- middle of tihe room, the
to be a right anyle, and contains ninety degrees, or points on the opposite wall where the candle would
tlle:fourthi p:rt of a circle. The NWialls of a room  appear to each of the two persons would be considgenerally stand at right algles to the floor. If the erably distallt from each other; and this distalce
legs be separated mnore than a right angle, they  may be called the parallax of the candle as viewed
form what is'termed an obtuse angle, as -in Fig. by the two observers.  This may be illustrated by
102. When the angle'is less than a right angle, Fig. 105, where R and S may represent thle posiit is called an acute'angle, as in Fig. 100, and, tinoIs of the. observers; a- the candle or tree; and'T
consequently, contains a less nuinber- of degrees and  U the points on the opposite wall or ill the
than lilety.- All angies are measured by the arc horizon where the candle or tile tree appears tc
of a circle described on thie angular point; -'and the respective observers. Tile observer at R1 sees
every circle., whether great or small,'is divided  the intermediate object at U; and the one at S sees
into 360 equal parts, called degrees. -Thus, if I it in the direction S T. TiLe angle R a S, whicht
want to know  the quantity of an angle at K, is equal to the angle T a U, is called the angle of
(Fig. 103) I place one point of the compasses at parallax, which  is the difference of position in
the angular point K, and describe the are of a which the object is seen by the two observers.  If,
circle between the two sides L K, K Ml, and wllat- then, the distance between the observer.e R S be
ever number of degrees of a circle is contained  known, and, the quanltity of the angle R a S, the
between them is: the quantity or mneasure of the distance between tie observers anicl,the object can
angle.  If, as in the present case, the angle con- also be known by calculation.
tains the eighth part of a — circle or half a r-ight   Let us now apply this princip le to the heavenly
angle, it is saild to be an angle of forty-five de- bodies. InFig. 106 let the sericircle S, T,A,R, S,
grees. A triangle is a figure which contains three represent a section of tlie concave of the heavens;
angles- and three sides, as O P Q, Fig. 104. It is the middle circle, E C, the earth; lM, the lnoon; C.,
de-molstrated' by mathematicians, thalt the three tle center of the earth; and E H, the sensible hoorangles of every triangle, whatever proportion  izon of a spectator at E.  It is evident that if tile
these angles may bear to- each.other, are exactlvy.moon be viewed from  tile earth at the point E,
equal to two right angles, or 180 degrees.  Thus, she will be seen in thle horizon at tlle point i;
in-' the triangle O P Q; the angle at Q is a right but were she viewed at the same time frorn C, the
angle, or niinety degrees, and the other two angles, center of the earth, she would appear among the
O and P, are together equal to ninety degrees; so stars -at the point K, in a more elevated position
that, if one of these angles be known, the other than when seen firom  the surfa ce of tile earth at
is found-by subtracting the number of degrees in /E.  The difference between these two apparent
the known anigle friom ninety.  Thus, if the angle positions of the moon, or the aingle K M  H, is
at:P be; equal to'thi'ty degrees, the angle at O  called the. moon's horizontal parallax.  Astronowill be equal to sixty degrees. HIence, if ally two  mers know from calculation in. what point of the
angles of a triangle be known,, the third may be  heavens the moon would appear as viewed fromt
found by'subtracting the sum  of —the two known  the earth's center; and they know fiorn actual ob1
angles from- 180 degrees, the remainder will be, servationt where she appears as viewed from tho
the number of degrees in the third angle.  All surface; and, therefore, can find the differenelle of
the triaugles have their greatest sides opposite to! the two positions, or the angle of parallax.  This
their greatest anlgles; and if all the angles of the angle might likewise be found by supposing two
triangle be: equal, the sides will also be equal to spectators on different parts of the earth's surface
each- otler.                                     viewing the moon at the'same time.  Suppose a'If any three of the.six parts of a:triangle be spectator at-E, who sees the moon in the horizou
knoum  (excepting the three angles) all the cther at H; and another observer, on tilhe same meridian,
parts may be known fromn thenm. Thus, if the side at B, who sees her in hlis zenith at K; the parallax,
P  Q, and:the angles at P and Q. be k nown, we as formerly, will be K H.
can find the length' of the sides P O and'O Q.   The parallax of a heavenly body decreases  in
Iti is on tlhis general principle that the distances proportion to its-altitudel above the horizon, and at
and magnitudes ofth  heavenlybodies are deter- the heavenodies are dzenith (A) it is nothing, for the line from the
mined.               -                            center of the' earth coincides with that from  the
Ill order to understand and apply this principle, surface, as C E A   Thus the parallax of the mnoon
it is necessary that we explain the  nature of a at N  (a b) is less than the horizontal parallaa




DISTANCE: OF THE MOON.                                    ln
KHi; but from the parallax observed at any alti- from E to, F (Fig. 108), suppose 200 yards, in a
tude, the horizontal parallax canlbe deduced; and right line, and then find the angles E and F at
it. is. from this parallax that -the distance of the each end of this line. Suppose thile angle at E to be
moon or any other heavenly body is'determined. seventy-three degrees and thle angle at F sixtyT7h'e greater the distarnce of any body from the earth, eight degrees. As all the angles of a triangle are
thle less is its parallax.  Thus the heavenly body equal to two right anG, w hich is farther fromthe earth than'the moon, gles, or 1800, if we add     107.
has a-less parallax (c d) than that of the moon, these two angles and                       G
K H.,           subtract their sum from
Now the parallax of the moon beidig known, it 1800, the  remainder,
is easy to find the distance of that orb from the 390, will be the meaearth; for in every triangle, if one side and two sure of the angle at D.
angles be known, the other angle and the other It is a demonstrated
two sides call also be found. In the present case, proposition in trigonowe, have, a triangle E M C, in'which the side E C, metry, that in anyplane          I   \
or the sdmidiameter of the eaith, is known. The triangle, the sides are in
aligle M E C is a right angle, or ninety degrees; the same proportion as   /
aild the parallatic angle E M C is supposed to be the sines of the opposite  /
found by observation. From these data, by-an easy angles. A\sine is a line A       d     
trigonometrical calculation, the length of the side drawn through one extremity of an are perpenC il, or the distance of the moon from the center dicular upon the diameter or radius passing
of the earth, can be determined with the utmost through  the other exprecision, provided the angle of parallax has been tremity, as a d (Fig. 107).  108.
accurately'ascertained.                        In order, then, to find
Before proceeding to illustrate by examples the the distance (E D) bemethod, of calculating the distances of the heavenly tween the -tree and the
bodies when the parallax is found, I shall present house on the other side  
an example or two of the mode of computing the of the river, we state
hights and distances of terrestrial -objects, the the following proportion:
principle on which we proceed being the same in As the sine of D, 380,
both cases. Suppose it were required to find the the angle opposite to E
hight of the tower C B (Fig. 107), we first mea-', the known side: is
sure the distance from the bottom of the tower, to the sine of the angle  -
B, to a station at the point A, which suppose to F, 680, opposite the side  A
be one hundred feet. From  this station, by a sought, E D:: so is the 6-'-  -
quadrant or.other angular instrument, we take length of the lineE,  = E F.
the angle of elevation of the top of the tower, 200 yards: to the distance, E D, between the tre
or the angle CA B, which suppose to be forty- and the house-=294-3 yards. The following is
seven and a half degrees. Here we have a trian- the operation by logarithms:
gle in which we have one side, A B, and two
angles; Inamely, the angle at A==47'2%, and the 2d term-Sine of angle, F  680       9.9671659
angle at B, which is a right angle,.or 900, as 3d term —E F=200 yards. Log.         2.3010300
the tower is supposed to stand perpendicular to
the ground; therefore, the side C B, which is the                                  12.2681959
bight of the tower, can be found, and likewise lst-term —Sine of angle, D=39o       9.7988718
the other side, A C, if required. To find C B,                  
the hight of the tower, we make A B the radius 4th term-D E-294% yards=             2.4693241
of the circle, a portion of which measures the
angle A; and the side B C, or the hight of the   In these examples the logarithms of the second
tower, becomes the tangent of that angle.  And and third terms of the proportion are added, and
as' there is a certain known proportion between from their sum the logarithm of the first term is
the radius of every circle and the tangent, the subtracted, which leaves the logarithm  of the
hbight of the tower will be found by the following fourth term; as in common numbers, the second
proportion: As the radius: is to the tangent of and third terms are multiplied together, and their
the angle A, 4712~:: so is the side A B, 100 feet: product divided by the first term; addition of logto'C B, the hight of the tower=109y feet. The arithms corresponding to multiplication of whole
following is the calculation by logarithms:    numbers, and subtraction to division. The logarithms of common numbers, and of sines and
Logarithm of the 2d termTangent   of 47e~2................ 10.0379475 tangents, are found in tables prepared for the purTagenthof' A-.        1.0379475t-poses of calculation.
Logarithm ofA:'B-100 feet-                       I shall now state an example or two in refe3d term  2.0000000 fence to the celestial bodies. Suppose it is requi12.0379475 red to find the distance of the moon from the
Logarithm of' radiu-lst term......10..0000000 earth. In Fig. 109, let E C represent the earth;
109.
logaithm of C B, 4th term-09.
i509/ feet....... 2.0379475
By tthis calculation the hight of the tower is
found with the greatest nicety, provided the measurement of the side A B, and, the angle A, have
been -taken with accuracy.
Again: Suppose it were required to measure the M, the moon; E, the the place of a spectator obdistance between a tree E, and'a house D, on the serving the moon in his sensible horizon; E M b
opposite side of a river. We first measure a space and C ll a the direction of the moon as seen from,
VOL. II.-18




112                               CELESTIAL SCENERY.
the center of the earth at C, or from its surface at 2d term-C G=238,800-Log.        5,3780"8
B; a the place of the Inoon as seen from  the 3d term-Sine of AC G,15'43"            7.660059
center, and b its place as seen from the surface at
E; or, in other words, the moon's horizontal paral-                                 13.038087
ttax. This parallax,:at the moon's mean distance 1st term-Radius....    10.00000
from  the earth, is found to be 57 minutes, 5
seconds. Here, then, we have a triangle, C E M, Semidiameter of the moon,  1,0911-= 3,03808^
of which we have one side and two angles given.                                2
The side given is the semidiameter of the earth,
E C, which is equal to 3965 miles; the angle at E  Diameter of the moon=  2,183
is a right angle, or ninety degrees, for it forms a
tangent to the circle at E;. the: angle at M  is the   Such is the general mode by which the disiorizontal parallax, which;is found by observa- tances and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies are
tion. From these data, the:side M  C, or, the dis- calculated. I am aware that the general reader
tance of the moon from the center of the earth, who is unacquainted with the principles of trigomay be easily found. If we make C M radius, E  nometry, may find a little difficulty in compreG will be the sine of the angle M; and the dis- hending the statements and calculations given
tance of the moon is found from  the following above; but my design simply was to convey an
proportion: As E C, the sine of fifty-seven min- idea of the principle on which astronomers proutes, five. seconds: is to 3965, the number of. ceed in their computations of the distances and
miles in the semidiameter of the earth: so is M  bulks of the celestial orbs, and to excite those
C, the radius: to a fourth number, 238,800=M  who are anxious to understand the subject, to enC=the distance of the moon from the center of gage in the study of plane trigonometry, a study
the earth.                                     which presents no great difficulty to any one who
is already a proficient in common arithmetic.  I
2d term-3965=the earth's semidiameter 3.598243 conclude the subject with the following
3d term -Radius... 10.000000   General Remarks.-i. Before the bulks of the
heavenly bodies can be determined, their distances
13.598243 from the earth must first be ascertained. When
Ist term-Sine of 57 minutes, 5 seconds 8.220215 their distances are found, it is quite an easy mat-  ter to determine their real bulks from their appaof C, distance of the moon, 238,800            rent magnitudes. 2. The senzidiameter of the earth
miles=......... 5.378028 jbrms the groundwork of all our calculations respecting the distances of the celestial orbs.  Were
According to this calculation, the moon is two we ignorant of the dimensions of the earth, we
hundred and thirty-eight thousand, eight hundred could not find the real distance and magnitude of
miles  from  the earth. In round numbers we any heavenly body; and it is owing to the conlgenerally say that the mioon is 240,000 miles dis- paratively small diameter of the earth that it bqtant; and, in point of fact, she is sometimes con- comes difficult in some cases to determine with
siderably more than 240,000 miles distant, and accuracy the parallaxes of certain heavenly bodies
sometimes less than the number above stated, as Were we placed on a planet such as Jupiter, whose
she moves in an elliptical orbit, her horizontal diameter is more tan eleven times that of oum
parallax varying from 54 to above 60 minutes.    globe, it would be much more easy to find the
parallaxes of the sun and planets. The parallaxes. To find the Diameter of the Moon.-In Fig. 110 of Jupiter's moons, as observed from that planet,
let A G B represent the moon, and C an observer will form pretty large angles and be easily perat the earth. The apparent diameter of the moon ceptible; and so likewise will be the parallaxes of
at its mean distance, as measured by a microme- the sun and the other planets which are visible from
ter, is 31 minutes, 26 seconds, represented by the that globe. 3. The chief difficulty in finding the
angle A C B; the half of this, or the angle formed distances of the heavenly bodies is to deternnisne
by the semidiameter of the moon, A C G, is 15 accurately the precise quantity of their parallaxes.
minutes, 43 seconds. The distance of the moon, In the case of the moon there is no difficulty, as
a C, is supposed to be found as above stated, her horizontal parallax amounts to nearly one degree, and can be taken with the greatest nicety;
110.                      but the sun's parallax is so small that it was some
time before it was accurately determined. It was
_A A_                      ^         for this purpose, among others, that Captain
Cook's first expedition to the Pacific Ocean was
undertaken, -in order that the astronomers connected with -it might observe the transit of Venus
at the Island of Tahiti; since which time the sun's
distance has been ascertained within the one
eighty-seventh part of his true distance, which
namely, 238,800 miles. Here, then, we have the likewise determines very nearly the true propor.
angle C A G, which is a right angle, and the angle tional distance and magnitudes of all the planets.
A G G0=15' 43", which is' found by observation; -This circumstance accounts for the fact, that in
and the side GC, or the distance of the moon books of astronomy published about a century
from the earth. We can -therefore find the side A  ago, the distances and magnitudes of the sun and
G, or the s ernid.atlleter of the moon, by the fol- planets are estimated somewhat lower than they
lowing proportion: As radius: is to C 0, the dis- are now found to be, the improvements which
tance of the moon, 238,800 miles:: so is the sine have been made in the construction of astronomiof A C G, 15' 43': to the number of miles con- cal instruments having enabled modern observers
tained in the moon's semnidiameter, A G-1091w-, to measure parallactic angles with greater nicewhich, being doubled,- gives 2183 miles as -the ness and accuracy. 4. When the parallax of any
dilameterof thewooon.                         heavenly body is once accurately found, and ito




CERTAINTY OF ASTRONOMICAL DEDUCTIONS.                                  113
apparent diameter measured, its real distance and he calculated the precise hour in which the planet
-balk can be as certainly known as the price of would appear to touch the limb of the sun as seen
any quantity of merchandise which is calculated fiom different places; the particular part of the
by the rule of proportion.  5. From what has sun's margin where the planet would appear and
been stated above, we may learn the importance disappear, and the precise course it would take in
of knowing all the properties of a triangle, and passing across the disc of the sun; the appearance
the art of measuring angles. At first sight it may it would present in different regions of the globe,
appear to be a matter of trivial importance to and the most proper places in both hemispheres
know that the radius of a circle bears a certain were pointed out where either its beginning,
known proportion to the sine or tangent of a cer- middle, or end would be most distinctly observed,
tain angle; that the sides of any triangle are in in order to accomplish the object in view; namely,
the same proportion as the sines of the opposite the determination of the exact distance of the
angles; and that the three angles of every plane sun. All which calculations and predictions were
triangle are exactly equal to two right angles.- ultimately found to be correct; and astronomers
Yet such truths form the foundation of all the were sent to different parts of the globe to observe
discoveries which have been made respecting the this interesting phenomenon, which happens only
magnitudes and distances of the great bodies of once or twice in the course of a century. The
the universe, and of the ample conceptions we are same astronomer calculated the period of a comet,
now enabled to form of the vast extent of crea- distinguished by the name of "Halley's Comet,"
tion, and of the attributes of its adorable Creator. and predicted the periods when it would return.
Those persons who feel themselves unable to It was seen in England in 1682, and Dr. Halley
comprehend clearly the principles and calculations calculated that it would again appear in this part
above stated, may rest satisfied with the general of the system in 1758; and it accordingly made
deductions of astronomers respecting the distances its appearance in December, 1758, and arrived at
and magnitudes of the sun and planets, from the its perihelion on the 13th of March, 1759. The
following considerations:  1. The general agree- validity of'these calculations and predictions has
ment of all modern astronomers as to these deduc- been again verified by the reappearance of the
tions. However much astronomers may differ in same comet in 1835, just at the time when it was
regard to certain subordinate opinions or conjec- expected, which proves that it completes its course
tures respecting certain phenomena, they all agree in the period which had been predicted, namely,
with respect to the bulks and distances of the seventy-six years, and will, doubtless, again revisit
planetary orbs, and the mode by which they are this part of the system in the year 1911 or 1912.
ascertained. If there were any fallacy in their Astronomers can likewise point out, even in the
calculations, such is the tendency of human na- day-time, the different stars and planets which are
ture to find fault, it would soon be pointed out.-  above the horizon, though invisible to the unas2. The consideration of the accuracy with which sisted eye. I have sometimes surprised even genastronomers predict certain  celestial phenomena tlemen of intelligence by showing them, through
should induce persons unskilled in this science to an equatorial telescope, the star Arcturus, and,
rely on the conclusions deduced by astronomers. in a minute or two afterward, the star Altair in
They are fully aware that the eclipses of the sun another part of the heavens, and the planet Venus
and moon are calculated and predicted with the in another quarter in the form of a brilliant cresutmost accuracy. The very moment of their be- cent, while the sun was several hours above the
ginning, middle, and end, and the places where horizon, and shining in its greatest brightness,
they will be visible, are foretold to a nicety; the and while these bodies are every moment shifting
nature and magnitude of the eclipse,.and all the their apparent positions; all which is quite easy to
circumstances connected with it, determined; and be accomplished by every one who understands
that, too, for more than a century tocome. All the the motions of the heavenly bodies and the first
eclipses which have happened of late years were principles of astronomy.
calculated more than half a century ago, and are to    Now as the above -facts are indisputable, and
be found recorded in the writings of astronomers. every one who feels an interest in the subject
They can likewise tell when Mars, Jupiter, or Sa- may satisfy himself as to their reality, it is evident
turn is tosuffer an occultation by the moon, thetime to a demonstration that the principles of science
when it will begin and end, the particular part of on which such calculations and predictions prothe moon's limb behind which the planet will dis- ceefd are not mere conjectures or precarious supappear, the point on the opposite limb where it positions, but have a real foundation  in  the
will again emerge, and the places of the earth constitution of nature and in the fundamental
where the occultation will be visible. Theycan  laws which govern the universe. And as the
likewise predict the precise moment when any of knowledge of astronomers cannot be questioned
the fixed stars-even those invisible to the naked in relation to the phenomena to which I refer, it
eye —shall suffer an occultation by the moon or by would be unreasonable, and injurious to the moral
any of the planets; and such occultations of the characters of such men, to call in question their
stars and planets are stated in the " Nautical Al- modes of ascertaining the distances of the sun
manac," and similar publications, three or four and the planetary bodies, and the deductions they
years before they actually happen.             have made in relation to their astonishing magniThe precise time, likewise, when the planets tudes. There is no science whose principles are
Mercury and Venus will appear to pass across the more certain and demonstrable than those -of
sun's disc, has been predicted for a century before astronomy. No labor or expense has been spared
such events happened, and such transits have been to extend its observations, and to render them
-calculated for several centuries to come, and will accurate in the extreme; and the noblest efforts
most assuredly take place, as they have hitherto of genius have been called forth to establish its
done, if the laws of nature continue to operate as truths on a basis immutable as the laws of the
in ages past. Dr. Halley, in 1691, predicted the universe; and, therefore, the man who questions
transit of Venus that happened in 1761, seventy the leading facts and deductions of this science
years before it took place; and not only so, but only proclaims his own imbecility and ignorance.




CHAP TER  VIII.
ON  lIHE SCENERY OF THE HEAVENS, AS VIEWED FROM THE SURFACES 0Pk
THE DIFFERENT PLANETS AND THEIR SATELLITES.
THis is a department of -descriptive astronomy  and reflected by the same laws, and must produc
which is seldom  noticed in books professedly  colors similar or analogous to those which diver
written to illustrate the -objects of t:his science. sify the surface of our-globe; thoug-h,l perhaps,
It-ishere introduced not only as an interesting  susceptible of numerous modifications in other
subject of contemplation, but as an illustration of  regions, according to the nature of the atmo
the variety which the Creator has introduced into spheres through which it passes, and the quality
the scenes of the universe, and as -a collateral or of the objects on which it falls. The descriptions
presumptive argument in support of the doctrine that follow likewise proceed on the supposition
of a plurality of worlds.                        that the extent of vision is the same as ours. This
Before proceeding to the particular descriptions in all probability, is not the case.  It is more
I intend to give, it may be proper to state the probable that, in certain worlds, the organs of
following  General Remarks:: 1. The  different vision of their inhabitants may be far more exqui
clusters of stars or the constellations will appear site than ours, and capable of surveying with
exactly the same when viewed from  the other distinctness a much more extensive range of
planets as to the inhabitants of our globe. For view. But as we are ignorant of such particu
example, the constellations of Orion and of the lars, we can only proceed on the assumption of
Great Bear will appear of the same shape or what would appear to eyes constituted like ourt
figure, and all the stars of which they are cornm- were we placed on the surfaces of the different
posed will appear to have the same arrangement planets.
and the same relative distances from  each other   Scenery of the Heavens from the Planet PMer
and from  neighboring stars, as they do to us. cury.-This planet being so near the sun ha
2.-The apparent magnitudes of the fixed stars will prevented us from discovering various particulan
appear exactly the same as they do when viewed  which have been ascertained in relation to severa
from, our world; that is, they will appear no  of the other planets; and, therefore, little can be
larger than shining points of different magni- said respecting its celestial scenery.  The starr3
tudes, even when viewed from  the most distant heavens will appear to move around it ever)
planets. The reason of this and of the preceding  twenty-four hours, as they do to us, if the obser
position is obvious from the consideration of the vations of M. Schroeter, formerly stated (p. 27)
immense distance of those bodies; for although  be correct; but the direction of its axis of rotawe are 190 millions of miles nearer some of the  tion is not known, and, therefore, we cannot tell
fixed stars at one time of the year than at another, what stars will appear near its equator or its poles.
yet there appears no sensible difference in their The sun will present a surface in the heavens
size or arrangement, and although we were placed  seven times as large as he does to us, and, of
on the remotest planet of the system, we have no  course, will exhibit a very august and brilliant
reason to believe that any material difference in  appearance in the sky, and will produce a corresthis respect would be perceived; for the distances poending brightness and vividness of color on the
of the remoter planets bear no sensible proportion  objects which are distributed over the surface of
to the distances of the fixed stars. Even the the planet. Both Venusand the earth will appear
distance of the planet Uranus, great as it is, as superior planets; and when Venus is near its
which would require four hundred years for a opposition to the sun, at which time it will rise
cannon ball to move over the space which inter- when the sun sets, it will present a very brillian
venes between that orb and us, is less than the ten- appearance to the inhabitants'of Mercury, ana
thousandth part of the distance of the'nearest serve the purposes of a small moon, to illuminate
star; and, therefore, can produce no sensible dif- the evenings in the absence of the sun. As
ference in the general aspect of the starry firma- Venus presents a full enlightened hemisphere at
ment.  3. Though the general arrangement of this period to the inhabitants of Mercury, it will
the stars and constellations will appear the same exhibit a surface six or seven times larger than it
as to us, yet the different directions of the axes does to us when it stiines with its greatest brilof some of the planets from that of the earth  liancy, and, therefore, will appear a very bright
will cause a d      aerent appearance in their apparent and conspicuous object in the firmament of this
diurnal revolutions. Some stars which appear in  planet. At all other times it will appear at least
our equator' may, in other planets, appear near two or three times larger than it ever does as seen
one of their poles, and our pole star may appear from the earth. It will generally appear round,
near their equator.                              but at certain times it will exhibit a gibbous
In the following descriptions it is taken for phase, as the planet Mars frequently does to us.
granted that the general laws of vision are ma- It will never appear to the inhabitants of Mercury
terially the same in all the planetary bodies as in  in the form  of a crescent or half moon, as it
that part of the system which we occupy.'Of sometimes does through our telescopes. There
thlis we have no reason to doubt, as the same is no celestial body within the range of this
identical light which illuminates the earth like- planet with which we are acquainted which will
wise enlightens all the planets and their satellites. exhibit either a half moon or a crescent phase
It originates from the same source, it is refracted  unless it be accompanied with a satellite. The
(114)




THE HEAVENS AS VIEWED FROM VENUS.                                     115
earth is another object in the firmament of Mer- and the earth's diurnal rotation, would, in all
fury which will appear next in splendor to Venus. probability, be distinctly perceived.  Even the
The earth and Venus are nearly of an equal size, varieties which distinguish the surface of our
Venus being only 130 miles less in diameter than moon, would be visible with telescopes of high
the earth; but the earth being nearly double the magnifying power. The circumstances now stadistance of Venus from  Mercury, its apparent ted prove the connection of the different parts of
size, at the time of its opposition to the sun, will the planetary system with one another, and that
be only about half that of Venus. The earth, the Creator has so arranged this system  as to
however, at this period, will appear in the sky of render one world, in a certain degree, subservient
Mercury of a size and splendor three or four to the benefit of another. The earth serves as a
times greater than Venus does to us at the period large and splendid moon to the lunar inhabitants;
of its greatest brilliancy.  Our moon will also be it serves,. in a certain degree, the purpose of a
seen like a star accompanying the earth, some- small moon to Mercury; it serves the purpose of
times approaching to or receding fartheri from the a larger moon, by exhibiting a surface and a raearth, and sometimes hidden from  the view  by diance four times greater to the inhabitants of
passing across the disc of the earth or through its Venus; and.it serves as a morning and an evening
shadow.  It will probably appear about the size star to the planet Mars. So that, while we feel
and brightness of Mars or Saturn, as seen in our enjoyment in contemplating the moon walking in
sky.  The earth with its satellite, and Venus, will brightness, and hail with pleasure the morning
be seen near the samne point of the heavens at the star as the harbinger of day, and feel a delight in
end of every nineteen months, when they will surveying those nocturnal orbs through our telefor some time appear the most conspicuous objects scopes, the globe on which we dwell affords simiin the heavens, and will diffuse a considerable lar enjoyments to  the intellectual beings  in
portion of light in. the absence of.the sun. At neighboring worlds, who behold our habitation
other periods, the one will rise in the eastern from afar as a bright speck upon their firmament,
horizon as the other sets in, the western; so that diffusing amid the shades of night a mild degree
the inhabitants of Mercury will seldom be without of radiance. From Venus the planets Saturn and
a conspicuous object in their heavens, diffusing a Jupiter will appear nearly as they do to us, but
luster far superior to that of any other stars or the planet Mars will appear considerably smaller.
planets. The earth will be in opposition to the The sun in this planet will present a surface twice
suin every four months, and Venus after a period as large as he does in our sky, and will appear to
of five months. The planets Mars, Jupiter, and make a revolution round the  heavens in the
Saturn will appear nearly as they do to us, but course of seven months and a half, which comwith a somewhat inferior degree of magnitude pletes the year of Venus.
and brilliancy, particularly in the case of Mars.   The Heavens as viewed from Mars. —From this
The period of the annual revolution of Mercury planet the earth will at certain periods be disbeing.eighty-eight days, the sun will appear to tinctly seen, but it will present a different aspect
move from west to east through the circle of the both in  its general appearance and its appaheavens at a rate more than four times greater rent motions from what it does to the inhabitants
than his apparent motion through the signs of of Venus. To Mars the earth is an inferior
our zodiac.                                     planet, whose orbit is within the orbit of Mars.
Appearance of the Heavens as viewed from Ve- It will therefore, be seen only as a morning and
nus.-To the inhabitants of this planet the heavens an evening star, as Venus appears to us; but with
will present an aspect nearly similar to that of a less degree of magnitude and brightness, since
Mercury, with a few variations. Mercury will Mars is at a greater distance from  the earth than
be to Venus an inferior planet, which will never the earth is from Venus.. It will present to Mars
appear beyond thirty-eight or forty degrees of the successively the form of a crescent, a half-moon,
sunl. It will appear in the evening after sunset and agibbous phase, but will seldom  or never be
for the space of two or three hours when near its seen as a full enlightened hemisphere, on account
elongation, and in the morning before sunrise of its proximity to the sun, when its enlightened
when in the opposite part of its course, and will surface is fully turned toward the planet; nor
alternately be a morning and an evening star to will it ever appear farther removed from the sun,
Venus, as that planet is to us, but with a less de- either in the mornings or evenings, than fortygree of splendor. The most splendid object inll eight degrees, so that the earth will never appear
the- nocturnal sky of Venus will be the earth, in the firmament of Mars about midnight. The
when in opposition to the sun, when it will appear earth will likewise be sometimes seen to pass
with a magnitude and splendor five or six times across the sun's disc like a round black spot, as
greater than either Jupiter or Venus appear to us Venus and Mercury at certain periods appear to
at the time of their greatest brilliancy. It will us; but the planet Mercury will never be seen
serve, in a great measure, the purpose of a moon from  Mars on account of its smallness and its
to Venus, if this planet have no satellite, and will nearness to the sun; for at its greatest elongation
cause the several objects on its surface to project it will be only a few degrees from the sun's mardistinct and well-defined shadows, as our moon gin, and will consequently be imnmersed in his
does when she appears a crescent. Our moon, in rays. The only time in which it might happen
its revolutions round the earth, will likewise ap- to be detected will be when it makes a transit
pear a prominent object in the heavens, and will across the solar disc. Venus will be as seldom
probably appear about the size that Jupiter appears seen by the inhabitants of Mars as Mercury is to
to us.  Her occultations, eclipses, and transits us. Our moon will likewise be seen from Mars
across the earth's disc will be distinctly visible. like a small star accompanying the earth, someWilth telescopes such as the best of ours the earth times appearing to the east and sometimes to the
Gwould appear from  Venus a much larger and  west of the earth, but never at a greater distance
more variegated object than any of the planets do from each other than fifteen minutes of a degree,
to us when viewed with high magnifying powers. or about half the apparent breadth of the moon;
The forms of our different continents, seas, and and with telescopes such as ours all its phases and
islands, the different strata of clouds in our at- eclipses might be distinctly perceived. The planets
rnosphere, with their several changes and motions, Jupiter and Saturn will appear to Mars nearly as




116,            CELESTIAL SCENERY.
they do to us. At the time -of Jupiter's opposi- other'periods, when near the time of its- conjuin,
tion to the sun that planetwill'appear:aslightde- tion with the sun, it will appear consideraoly
gree larger,,-as Mars is then fifty millions of miles smaller than when viewed from  the earth; as, at
nearer-it than we are; but Saturn will not appear such periods, Saturn is nearly fourteen hulndred
sensibly larger than to us; and it is likel-y that millions of miles distant fiom Jupiter, while it is
the planets Uranus, Vesta, Juno, Ceres and'Pallas never beyond ten hundred millions from the earth,
will not be mnore distinguishable than' they are evenat its remotest distance.  The planet Uranus,
from our globe. Thepoint Aries, on the ecliptic which is scarcely visible to our unassisted sight,
of Mars, or one of the points where its ecliptic  will not be much more distinguishable at Jupiter
and equator intersect each other, corresponds to  than with us, even at the period of its opposition,
190 2"' of' our sigli'Sagittarius. -In consequence  although Jupiter'is at that time' 400,OU,000 of
of this, the p oles of Mars will be directed to  miles nearer it than a spectator on the earth.  At
points of the heavens considerably different from  other times, when near its conjunction with the
our polar points, And its-equator will pass through  sun, it will be 2,300,000,000 of miles from Jupiter,
a different series of stars from  that which marks which-is 400,000,000 of miles more distant than it
our equator, which will cause the different stars ever' is from us. Mars will scarcely be seen from
and constellations in tlieir apparent diurnal revo- Jupiter, both on account of his smallness and his
lultion to present a different aspect'from: what proximity to the sun; for at his greatest elevation
they do in their apparent movements round our he can never be more than  eighteen degrees from
globe.                                           that luminary. The earth, too, will be invisible
Thee Heavens, as viewed from  Vesta, Juno, Ce- from Jupiter, both on account of its small size, its
res and Pallas. - These planets, being so very  distance, and its being in the immediate viCinity
-nearly at the same mean distance from  the sun, of the sun, and:immersed in its rays; so that the
the appearance of the heavens will be nearly the  inhabitants of this planet will scarcely suspect
same to -the inhabitants [if any] of each of these  that such a globe as that on which we dwell exists
bodies. The planet:'Jupiter will be the most con- in the universe. It is a humiliating consideration
spicuous object in the nocturnal sky of all these  to reflect, that before we have passed over one
planets, and will appear with nearly three times fourth part of the extent of our system, this earth,
the size and splendor that he does when seen from  with all its kingdoms and fancied gralldeur, of
the earth -so as to exhibit the appearance -of a  which mortals are so proud, vanishes from  the
sniall brilliant moon. Saturn will appear some- sight, as if it were a mere atom in creation, and is
what larger and brighter than to us, but the dif- altogether unnoticed and unknown.  It is calcuference in his appearance will be iinconsiderable; lated to convey a lesson of humility and of humannor will Uranus be more distinctly visible than  ity to those proud and ambitious mortals who
from the earth.  At other times, when near their glory in their riches, and in the small patches of
conjunction with the sun, these planets will ap- earthly territory they have acquired at the expense
pear smnaller than to us. Mars will sometimes ap- of the blood of thousands of their fellow-men,
pear as a morning and an evening star, but he and who fancy themselves to be a species of demiwill always be in the immediate neighborhood of gods, because they have assisted in the conquest
the sun, and will present a surface much less in  of nations, and in spreading ruin and devastation
apparent size than lie does to the earth.  The  over the earth.  Let us wing our flight to Jupiter
earthwill seldom be seen on account of its prox- or Saturn, which appear so conspicuous in our
imity to the sun; and Venus and Mercury will be nocturnal sky, and before we have arrived at tha
altogether invisible, unless when they transit the  middle point of the planetary system this globe on
solar disc. It is likely that, at certain times, the  which we tread, with all the proud mortals that
planets Vesta, Julbo, Ceres, and Pallas will exhibit dwell upon its surface, vanishes from the sight as
an uncommon, and occasionally a brilliant' ap- a particle of water, with its microscopic animalpearance in'the firmament of each other.  As culte, dropped into the ocean, disappears for ever.
their distances from  the -sun are so nearly the  In those regions more expansive and magnificent
same, theymay occasionally approach  each other scenes open to view, and their inhabitants, if ever
so as to be ten times nearer to one another in one  they have heard of such beings as fallen man,
part of their course than at another. It is even  look down with an eye of pity and commiseration,
possible that they might approach within a -few  and view their characters and conduct with a holy
miles of each other, or even come into collision. indignation and contempt.
These different positions in which they may be    Venus aa l Mercury willm of course, be altoplaced in relation to one another will doubtless gether invisible from  the surface of Jupiter, and
produce a great variety in the appearances they  it is questionable whether even the planets Vesta,
present in their respective firmaments; so that at Juno, Ceres, and Pallas will be perceived. But
one time they may present in the visible firma- although so few of the primary planets are seen
R'ent a surface a hundred or even two hundred  in the nocturnal sky of this planet, its firmnament
timps greater than they do in other parts of their will present a most splendid and variegated aspect
annual revolutions.. It is probable, therefore, by the diversified phases, eclipses, and movements
that the diversified aspects of these planets, in  of the satellites with which it is encircled; so that
respect to each other, will form the most striking  its inhabitants will be more charmed and interested
phenomena which diversify their nocturnal hea- by the phenomena presented by their own moons
vens.  In conseqence of the great eccentricity of  than by their coltemnplation of the 9ther bodies
the orbit of Pallas, the sun will appear much  of the system. But as I have already described
larger to this planet in one part of its revolution  the appearances of the moons, as seen from Jupiter
thau'it does at another.'                       (p. 95, chap. iv, sec. ii.) it is unllecessary  to
Celestial Scenery from Jupiter.-The only planet enlarge.
whose appearance will be conspicuous in the fir-    Scenery of the Heavens as viewed from Saturn. —
mament'of Jupiter is the' planet Saturn, which  The firmament of Saturn will unquestionably prewill appear With a surfacefour times greater than  sent to vie'w a more magnificent and diversified
is exhibited in our sky, and will appear larger than  scene' of celestial phenomena than that of any
either Jupiteror Ven us does to us, particularly at other planet of our system.  It is placed nearly il
the timhe of its opposition to the sun   At certain  the middle of that space which intervenes betweeu




CELESTIAL SCENERY FROM SATURN.                                       117
^the sun and the orbit of the remotest'planet. In- compare them together, and to investigate the doccluding its rings and satellites, it maybe consid-  trineof parallaxes, before they come. to the concla.
ered as the largest body or system of bodies within sion that the phenomena alluded to are caused by
the limits of the solar system; and it excels them  mighty rings which encompass their habitation.
all in the sublime and diversified apparatus with    As the diameter of Saturn is tell times the diamwhich it is accompanied.  Ill these respects Sat- eter of the earth, it will be comparatively easy for
urn may justly be considered as the sovereign its inhabitants to find the parallaxes, distances,
among the planetary hosts.  The prominent parts and magnitudes of its different satellites, and likeof its celestial scenery may be considered as be- wise of Jupiter and Uranus, which are the only
longing to its own system of rings and satellites, planets visible from Saturn.  To those who dwell
and the views which will occasionally be opened in its equatorial regions, the motion of the rings
of the firmament of the fixed stars; for few of the around their axis will furnish an accurate measure
other planets will make their appearance in its of time, as well as the diurnal rotation of the
sky. Jupiter will appear alternately as a morning planet; and to all places on its surface the periodanid an evening star, with about the same degree of ical revolutions of its different satellites will afford
brilliancy it exhibits to us; but it will seldom  be various measures, divisions, and subdivisions of
conspicuous except near the period of its greatest the lapse of duration. The sun will appear from
elongation, and it will never appear to remove this planet of a size about five times the diametel
from  the sun farther than thirty-seven degrees, which Jupiter presents to our view, or about 1-9th
and, consequently, will not appear so conspicuous or 1-10th part of the diameter of the sun as seen
nor for such a length of time, as Venus does to from the earth; but, notwithstanding, there appears
us. Uran us is the only other planet which will no deficiency of light on the surface of Saturn.
be seen from Saturn, and it will there be distinctly    Let us, then, suppose two mighty arches in Satperceptible, like a star of the third niagnitude, urn's nocturnal sky, appearing to the inhabitants
whenl near the time of its opposition to the sun. of one region like broad semicircles of light exBut near the time of its' conjudnction: it will be tending completely across the heavens, to other
completely invisible, being then eighteen hundred regions like large segments of al arch, the highest
millions of miles more distant than at the opposi- point of which elevated only twenty or thirty detioii, and eight hundred millions of miles more grees above the horizon, and to the places adjacent
distant from Saturn than it ever is from the earth to the polar regions as a zone of light hovering in
at any period.- All the other eight planets, together the horizon; let us suppose the distant stars
with our moon, will be far beyond the reach of a twinkling through the dark space which separates
spectator in Saturn, unless he be furnished with the rings; the sun eclipsed at noon, in one place,
organs of vision far superior to ours in their by the upper edge of the rings, and in another
" space-penetrating power."  It is not improbable place by the lower; the brightness of this luminary
that more comets will be seen in their course~ from  waxing dimmer and dimmer, and in a few hours
the: sun, from the distant regions in which Saturn hidden by an invisible object, not to appear again
moves, than from that part of the system in which  until after a lapse of fourteen years; and the inwe are placed. Some of these bodies, when they  habitants of this region of shadows occasionally
pass beyond the limits of our view, will be visible traveling to those countries where the rings are
beyond the orbit of Saturn; and as their motions enlightened and the sun is constantly shining: let
in those distant spaces are much slower than when us suppose one moon, nine times as large in apnear the sun, they will remain visible for a longer parent size as ours, suspended in the canopy of
time, when they happen to make their appearealce,  heaven: another, three times as large as ours, in
than they do when passing through our part of another quarter of the sky; a third twice as large;
the system.                                       a fourth about the apparent size of our moon; and
Having already given a pretty full description  a fifth, sixth, and seventh of different apparent
of the, appearance of the rings of this planet as magnitudes; some of them appearing with a cresviewed from its surface (p. 69-71), and of the phie- cent, some with a gibbous phase, and others with
nomena exhibited by its satellites (p. 98), it is un- a full enlightened hemisphere; some rising, some
necessary to introduce the subject in this place. setting; one entering into an eclipse, and another
I shall only remark further, in regard to the rings emerging from  it; let us suppose such' scenes as
which encompass this planet, that, beside the light these, and we may acquire a general idea of the
they reflect on the planet, and the brilliant aspect phenomena presented in the heavens of Saturn.
they present in its firmament, they cast a great   Scenery of the Heavens in Uranus.-The orbit
diversity of shadows upon the surface of the planet, of this planet, so far as we know, forms the exof different breadths at different times and places, treme boundary of the planetary: system. Being
and it will require a considerable degree of atten- so far removed from the center of the system, altion and investigation on the part of its inhabit- most all the other planets and their satellites will
ants to determine whence the shadows proceed. be invisible to a spectator placed on this orb. The
For when the dark sides of the rings are turned  only planet which will be Mistinctly visible is Satoward them, they will, in all probability, be in- turn, which will be seen occasionally as a mornvisible in their sky, as the dark side of the moon inllg and an evening star, and will appear nearly
or of Venlus is to us, and, therefore, they may be of the same size as to us; but as it will always be
at'a loss, ill some instances, to discover the causes seen in the immediate neighborhood of the sun, it
of such varieties of light and shade. For, although will only be visible at certain distant periods, or
we are placed in a convenient position to perceive intervals of fifteen years, and will appear about as
that they aire in reality complete rings which envi- near to the sun as Mercury does when viewed
roll the body of Saturn, yet it will not be so.asy from the earth.  Its rings and satellites might oc
for its inhabitants to discover this fact; as only a casionally be perceived with such instruments as
portion of the rings will be visible in -some places, our best telescopes when it is near the points of its
and in the regions near the poles they will appear greatest elongation.  It is not probable that Jupionly like a bright streak: inl the horizon.  They ter will be visible from  this planet on account of
will naturally conclude that; the shadows proceed its proximity to the sun. If ever it be visible, it
from some body in their firmament; but they will will only be for a short time, after periods of six
require to make a great variety of observations, to or eight years have elapsed. From Uranus it is




118                                CELESTIAL SCENERY
likely that the motions of some of the comets viewed with a telescope in the night-time, and
will be seen to advantage, and for a considerable likewise from  the well-known phenomenon that
length of time, as the motions of these bodies must when the sun is eclipsed to us, so as to have only
be comparatively slow in those distant regions.-  the one-fortieth part of its disc left uncovered by
It is not improbable that, in their course from the the mnoon, the diminution of light is not very
sun, the motions of some of these bodies may be sensible; and it has been frequently nlticed that,
followed to the extreme point of their trajectories, at the end of the darkness in total eclipses, when
and their courses traced in their return toward the the sun's western limb begins to be visible, and
central luminary; and that they may be visible in  seems no bigger than a thread of fine silver wire,
the firmament of this planet for nonths, and even  the increase of light is so considerable, and so
for years together. It is likewise probable that, from  quickly illuminates all surrounding objects, as to
Uranus, the parallax of the nearest fixed stars, and, strike the spectators with surprise. But whatever
consequently, their distance, may be ascertained. deficiency of light there may be on this planet,
For the diameter of its orbit, which is 3,600,000,- we may rest assured, from a consideration of the
000 of miles, will form  a pretty extensive base wisdom and benevolence of the Creator, that this
line for this purpose, and will produce a parallax  deficiency is amply compensated, either by the
nineteen times greater than that of the diameter objects on which it falls being endowed with a
of the earth's annual orbit, which is only 190  strong reflective power, or by the organs of vision
millions of miles. But the determination of such  being adapted to the light received, or by some other
a parallax would require a series of observations contrivances with which we are unacquainted
made at intervals of forty-two years, namely, at
two opposite points of the orbit of Uranus, in  scE'ERa  OF THE HEAVENS AS SEEN FROt TIE
moving between which it occupies a space of                        SATELLITES.
nearly forty-two years.                            Celestial Scenery of the Moon.-Although  the
The most splendid and interesting scenery in  moon is the nearest body to the earth, and its
the firmament of this planet will be produced by  constant attendant, yet its celestial phenomena
the phases, eclipses, revolutions, and  various will, in a variety of respects, be very different
aspects of its moons. Six of these bodies have  from ours.  The earth will appear to be the most
been discovered revolving around it, and it is not splendid orb in its nocturnal sky, and its various
improbable that several more (perhaps three or phases and relative positions will form  a subject
four) may be connected with this distant orb, the  of interesting inquiry and contemplation to its insmallness of which, and their nearness to the  habitants.  It will present the appearance of a
planet, may forever prevent them from being de-  globe in the skvy thirteen times larger than the
tected by our most powerful instruments.  Let us moon does to us, and will diffuse nearly a corresuppose, then, one satellite presenting a surface in spending portion of light on the Inountains and
the sky eight or ten times larger than our moon; vales on the lunar surface. As the moon always
a second five or six times larger; a third three times presents nearly the same side to our view, so the
larger;afourthtwiceaslarge; afifthaboutthesame  earth will be visible to only one half of the lunar
sizeasthemoon;asixthsomewhatsmaller;and, per- inhabitants.  Those who live on the opposite side
haps, three or four others of different apparent di- of the moon, which is never turned toward our
mensions: let us suppose two or three of these, of globe, will never see the earth in the sky unless
different phases, moving along the concave of the they undertake a journey to the opposite hemisky, at one period four or five of them dispersed  sphere for this purpose; and those who dwell near
through the heavens; one rising above the horizon, the central parts of that hemisphere which is
one setting, one oil the meridian, one toward the turned from our globe will require to travel more
north, and another toward the south; at another than 1500 miles before they can bellold the larg8
period five or six of them displaying their luster in  globe of tile earth suspended in the sky. To all
the form of a half moon or a crescent in one those to whom the earth is visible, it will appear
quarter of the heavens, and at another time the fixed and immovable in the same relative point of
whole of these moons shining, with full enlight- the sky, or, at least, will appear to lhave no cirened hemispheres, in one glorious assemblage, and  cular motion round the heavens.  To a spectator
we shall have a faint idea of the beauty, variety, placed in the middle of the moon's visible hemiand sublimity of the firmament of Uranus. Whlat sphere, the earth will appear directly ill the zenlith
is deficient in respect of the invisibility of the  or over head, and will always seem  to be fixed
other planets is amply compensated by its assem- very nearly in that position.  To a spectator
blage of satellites, which illuminate and diversify  placed in any part of the extremity of that hemniits nocturnal sky. Although this planet is more sphere, or what seems to us to be tie margin of
than seventeen hundred millions of miles nearer the moon, the earth will appear always nearly in
some of the fixed stars than we are, yet those lu- thile horizon; and to spectators at intermediate pomninaries will not appear sensibly larger, as seen  sitions the earth will appear at higher or lower
from Uranus, than they do from our globe. For elevations above the horizon, according to their
even this immense interval would not subtend an  distance from the extremities or the central parts
angle of nineteen seconds, or the 1-190th part of a of that hemisphere.  But, although the earth
degree, as seen from  the nearest star; and, of appears fixed nearly in the same part of the sky,
course, all the constellations will present the same  there is a slight variation produced by whllat is
figures and relative aspects as they do to us, with  termed the libration of the moon (see p. 87), by
this difference only, that those stars which are which it appears to turn occasionally a -smnall pornear our equator or tropics may be near the poles tion of its hemisphere toward the earth.  In conor polar circles of Uranus. This depends entirely  sequence of this libration the earth will appenr
upon the position of its axis of rotation, which is now and then to shift its position a little by a ki::d
to us unknown. The sun will appear so small of vibratory motion, so that those at the extremifrom  this planet, that its apparent diameter will ties of the hemisphere, who see the earth in their
not exceed 2,4 times the apparent diameter of horizon, will sometimes see it dip a little below,
Jupiter; but its light is not so weak as we might and at other times rise a little above their horizon
be apt to imagine from this circumstance, as is This vibratory motion they will probably be
evident from  the brightness it exhibits when  disposed, at first view, to attribute to the earth,




THE EARTH-VIEWED FROM: THE MOON.                                       11:9
Which they will naturally consider as a body nearly  on our maps and globes; and the'regions ne-ar
at rest, but subject to a vibratory. movement like our poles, which we have never yet had it in our
that of apendulum,whereas this apparent vibration  power to explore, will be distinctly seen by thle
proceeds from the moon itself.                   lunarians, who will be enabled  to determiniou
The earth is continually shifting its phases as whether they chiefly consist of land or of water
seen from the moon. When it is new moon to us The several continents, seas, islands, lakes, peninit is full mwon to the lunar inhabitants, as the sulas, plainis, and mountain-ranges, will appear
hemisphere of the earth next the moon is then like so many spots, of difftrent forms and degrees
fully enlightened; so that, at' the time when the of brightness, moving over its surface.  When
sun is absent, they enjoy the effulgence of a full the Pacific Ocean, which occupies nearly half
moon thirteen timeslarger tlian ours. When the the globe, is presented to view, the great body of
moon is in the first quarter to us, the earth is in  the earth will assume a dusky or somber aspect,
the third quarter to them; and, in every other except toward the  north, the north-east, and
case, the phases of the earth are exactly opposite north-west; and the islands connected with this
to.those which the moon presents to us (see p. ocean will exhibit the appearance of small lucid
87). The earth passes through all the phases of spots on a dark ground.  But when the eastern
the moon in the course of a month; but the pro- continent turns round to view, the earth (espegress of these phases will be more regularly and cially its northern parts) will appear to shine with
accurately perceived than that of the moon's a greater degree of luster. These appearances
phases are by us. When it is night in the moon, will be diversified by the numerous strata of
and the nights there are a fortnight long, the in- clouds which are continually carried by the winds
habitants see at first only, a small part of the over different regions, and will occasionally interearth enlightened, like a slender crescent; then a cept their view of certain parts of the continents
larger and a larger portion, until at length it be- and seas, or render their appearance more obscure
zomnes entirely luminous.  During the whole of at one time than at another.  It is likewise prothese changes the earth is every moment visible, bable that the occasional storms in tropical cliand apparently fixed in the same immovable posi- mates, and the changes produced in different
tion;'and as there are no clouds in the lunar at- countries by summer and winter, will cause the
mosphere, the view of the earth and of the varia- earth to present a diversity of aspect to the
tion of its phases will never be interrupted; inhabitants of the moon. The bands of ice which
whereas these changes in the moon are visible to surround the poles will alternately exhibit a kind
us only from  one night to another, and, by the in- of lucid circle, while the verdant, plains will
terpositiol of clouds, the moon is frequently hid- appear of a different color and assume a milder
den.from our view for seven or eightdays together. aspect. By means of these different spots, the
By means of the light thus diffused by the earth lunarians will be enabled to determine the exact
upon the moon, it so happens that the side of the period of the earth's rotation, as we determine
mnoon next the earth is never in darkness; for, that of the sun by the appearance and disappearwhen the sun is absent, the earth shines in the ance of the spots on its surface.  And as the
firmament with a greater or less degree of splen- period of the earth's rotation never varies, it may
dor; but when the sun is absent from the other serve as a clock or dial for the exact measu re of
hemisphere, the inhabitants have no light but what time; and the lesser divisions of this period may
is derived from the stars and planets. It is proba- be ascertained by the appearance on the margin
ble, however, that the light of these luminaries is or the central parts of the earth's hemisphere of
more brilliant as seen from the moon than from the certain seas,' continents, or large islands, which
earth; and as the lunar atmosphere is more pure and will constantly appear on certain parts of the
transparent than that of the earth, and as no clouds earth's disc at regular intervals of time. Through
or-dense vapors exist in it to intercept the rays of telescopes such as ours, the variegated aspect of
those distant orbs; and the stars and planets will the earth in its diurnal motion would present to
constantly shine in the firmament.of that hemi- us, were we placed on the moon, a novel and
sphere of the rmoon with undiminished luster. — most interesting appearance.
Peihatps, too, there may be some arrangement for    The apparent diurnal motions of the sun, the
providing additional light to that hemisphere in the planets, and the stars, will appear -much slower,
absence of the sun, either by the coruscations of and somewhat different in several respects fronm
some phosphoric substance, or by something- ana- what they do to us. When the sun rises in their
logous to our aurora borealis.                   eastern horizon, his progress through the heavens
Whether the earth will throw as much light will be so slow that it will require more than
upon, the moon, in proportion to its size, as the seven of our days before he comes to the memoon diffuses upon the earth, is somewhat doubt- ridian, and the same time before he descends
ful. I am  disposed to think that the greater to their western  horizon; for the days and
part of the surface of the terraqueous globe will nights of the moon  are nearly  fifteen days
not reflect so much light, in proportion to its each, and they are nearly of an equal length on
hulk, as'the general surface of the moon; for, as all parts of its surface, as its axis is nearly perthe greater, part of the earth is covered with water, pendicular to the ecliptic, and, consequently, the
and as water absorbs a considerable portion of the sun never removes to any great distance from the
rays of light, the seas and ocean will present a equator. During the day the earth will appear
more dark and somber. aspect than any part of like a faint cloudy orb, always in the same posithe lunar orb presents to us; but it is highly tion; and during night the stars and planets will
probable that the continents and  islands will be visible, without interruption, for fifteen days,
exhibit a luster nearly equal to that of the moup- and will be seen moving gradually during that
tainous regions of the moon.                      time from  the eastern to the western horizon
Although the earth will seem  nearly fixed in Though the earth will always be seen in the surae
one position, yet, its rotation roround its axis-will be point of the sky both by day and night, yet it
distinctly pel'ceptible, and will present a variety of will appear to be constantly shifting its position
different appearances.  Europe,'Asia, Africa, and with respect to the planets and the stars, which'America., will present themselves one after another will appear to be regularly moving from  the east
in different shapes, nearly as they are represented  to the west of it, and some of them  will occa




:120                               CELESTIAL SCENERY.'sionally be hidden  or suffer an occultation for moon can never experience a solar eclipse, as th8
three or four hours behind its body. The sun, earth call never interpose between the sull and
planlets, and fixed stars will appear exactly of the any part of that hemisphere, so that they will
same apparent magnitudes'as they- do from the only know of such phe-nomena by-rieport, unless
earth; but as the poles of the moon are directed they undertake a journey for the purpose of
to points of the heavens different from  those to observing them.
"which the poles of the earth are -directed- the   The study of astronomy in the moon will, on
pole-stars in the lunar firmament, and -the stars the whole, be more difficult and complex than to
which mark its equator; and- parallels,. will'all be'us on the earth.  The phenomena exhibited  by
different -from  ours; so that the stars, in their the earth will be the most difficult to explain.
apparent diurnal revolutions, will appear to de- The lunarians, at first view, will be apt to imagine
scribe circles- different from  those which -they that the earth is a quiescent body il their firmadescribe in our- sky. The inferiorr planets,Mer- ment, because it appears in the same point of the
cury  and Venus will generally be seen in the sky, and that the other heavenly orbs revolve
neighborhood of the sun, as they are from  the around it.- It will require numneous observations
earth; but they',.will be more distinctly perceived, of the apparent motions of the Sun, the earth,
and be visible for a much longer: period'l of- time the planets, and the stars, and numerous traiins of
after sunset than they are from our globe. This reasoning respecting the phenomena'they exhibit,
is owing,'first, to the transparency of the lunar before they are convinced that the globe on which
atmlosphere, and the absence of dense vapors near they dwell really i-moves round the earth, and that
the horizon, which, in our case, prevent any dis- both of them  move, in a certain period, around
tiict observations of the celestial bodies when at the sun. If they are endowed with no higher
a low altitude; and, secondly, to the slow appa- powers than man, or if they are as foolish and
rent diurnal motion of these bodies. When Mer- contumacious as the great bulk of mankind, it
cury is near its greatest elongation, it will remain  will- be more difficult to convince them  of the
above the horizon more'than thirty hours after true system of the world than it has been for our
the sun has set, and, consequently, will be visible astronomers to convince a certain portion of our
for a much longer time in succession than it is to community that the earth turns round its axis,
us. When Venus is near its greatest elongation, and performs a revolution round the sun.  They
it will be seen, without intermission, either as a will naturally think, as we did formerly, that their
morning or an evening star, for a space of time habitation is in a quiescent state in the center of
equal to more than three of our days. The so- the universe, and that all the other bodies in the
perior planets, as with us, will be seen in different heavens, except the earth, revolve around it; and
parts of the heavens, and occasionally in opposi- the singular phenomena which our globe exhibits
tion to the sun; but they will appear to be con- in their sky, with its diversified aspect, its diurnal
tinually shifting their positions with' respect to rotation, and occasional vibrations, will puzzle
the earth, and in the course of fifteen days will them not a little in attempting to find out a propel
be seen in the very opposite quarter of the hea- explanation.  It will be somewhat difficult for
yens, and in other fifteen days will be again in them to ascertain the exact length of their year
conjuncltion with the earth; and nearly the same or the time of their revolution round the sunt
appearances will be observed in reference to the There are only two ways by which we can con
other planets, but the periodic timesrof their con- ceive they will be enabled to determine this poilt'
junctions with the earth and -oppositions to it will 1. By observing wheni either of the poles of the
be somewhat different, owing to the difference of earth begins to be enlightened and the other pole
their velocities in their annuail revolutions.  to disappear, which is always at the time of our
The eclipses of the sun which happen to the equinoxes.  2. By observing the coulrse of the
lunarians will be more-striking, and total darkness sun among the stars, and endeavorieng to ascertain
will continue for a much longer time than with  when he returns to the same relat.ve position in
us. When a total eclipse of the moon happens to reference to any of these orbs. The length of
us; there will be a total eclipse -of the sun' to the the lunar year is about the sanme  as ours, but
lunarians.  At that time the dark side of the earth different as to the number -of days, the lunarians
is completely turned toward the moon, and the having only 12 7-19 days il their year, every day
sun will appear to pass gradually behind the earth and night being as long as 2912 of ours. On the
until it entirely disappears.  The time of the other hand, the lunar astronomers will enjoy some
continuance of total darkness in central eclipses advantages in making celestial observations which
will be nearly two hours; and, of course, a total we do not possess. Those who live on the side
eclipse of the sun will be a far more striking and next the earth will be enabled to determine the
impressive phenomenon to the inhabitants of the longitude of places on the lunar surface with as
moon- than to us.  A  complete darkness will much ease as we find the latitude of places on our
ensue immediately after the body of the sun is globe.. For as the earth keeps constantly over
hidden, and the stars and planets will be as clearly  one meridian of the moon (or very nearly so), the
seen as at midnight.  When a partial eclipse of east and west distances of places from that methe moon happens to us, all that portion of the ridian may be readily found, by taking the altitude
moon's surface' over which the shadow -of the of thle earth above the horizon, or its distance
earth passes will sutffer a total eclipse of the sun from  the zenith, onl the same principle as we
during the period of its continuance.  On other obtain the latitude of a place by taking the altiparts of the moon's surface there will be a partial tude of the pole-star, or tile hight of the equator
eclipse of the suli, and to those who are beyond above the horizon.  The lunar astroncueners will
the range of'the earth's shadow no eclipse will likewise-possess advantages superior to ours in the
appear.  Whenl an eclipse of the sun happens to purity of their atmosphere, and the gruater degree
us, the lunarians will behold a dark spot, with a of brilliancy with which the heavenly bodies will
penumbra or fainter shades around it, moving appear; and, in particular, they enjoy a singular
across the disc-of the earth, which then appears advantage above a terrestrial astronomer in the
a full enlightened hernisphere,.excepting the ob- length of their nights, which gives them an opporcurity -caused  by the progress of the shadow. tunity of contemplatinig the heavenly bodies, parThe inhabitants on' the other hemisphere of the ticularly Mercury and Venus, and tracing their




SCENERY FROM JUPITER'S SATELLITES.                                   121
motions and aspects for a length of time without face. This expansive and variegated surface of
intermission.                                   Jupiter, its diurnal rotation, and its rapid change
Such are some of the peculiar phenomena of of phases, will therefore form  a most wonderful
the heavens as beheld from the moon. However and interesting spectacle to the inhabitants of
dlifferent these phenomena may appear from those this satellite.
which are beheld in our terrestrial firmament,  -The three other satellites will likewise increase
they are all owilng to the following circumstances: tile variety and the luster of its firmament.  The
that the moon moves round the earth as the more second satellite, in its -course round Jupiter, will
immediate center of its motion; that it turns frequently come within 160,000 miles of the first,
always the same side to the earth, and, conse- which is its nearest approach to it; at which time
quently, it moves round its axis in the same time the satellite will appear with a face nearly three,
in which it moves round the earth. These slight times as large as our moon. At other times it
differences in the motions and relative positions will be 680,000 miles distant, and will appear more
of the earth and moon are the principal causes of than sixteen times smaller than in the former poall the peculiar aspects of the lunar firmament sition. At the timewhen Jupiter presents its dark
which we have now described. And this consid- hemisphere to the first satellite, if the second saoration shows us how  the Creator may, by the tellite be then at its nearest distance, or in opposislightest changes in the positions and arrange- tion to the sun, it will shine with a full enlightened
ments of the celestial orbs, produce an indefinite hemisphere upon the first satellite.  At other
variety of scenery throughout the universe, so times it will assume a half moon, a crescent, or a
that no world or system  of worlds shall present gibbous phase; and these phases will not only be
the same scenery and phenomena as another. rapidly changing, but the apparent magnitude of
And so far as our knowledge and observation ex- the satellite will likewise be rapidly increasing or
tends, this appears to be one of the grand princi- diminishing. While at one period it shines with
pies of the Divine arrangements throughout tie a large and full enlightened face, in the course of
system of Creation, which will be still more ap- two or three of our days it will appear as a slenparent from the sketches I am now'about to give der crescent, and more than twelve or sixteen
of the phenomena presented from the surfaces of times less in apparent diameter than before.  The
the satellites connected with the other planets.    third and fourth satellites will exhibit phenomena
The Scenery of the Heavens from the Satellites somewhat similar; but as their distance is greater
qf Jupiter.- The scenery of the firmament as than that of the second, their apparent magnibeheld from the satellites of this planet will bear tudes will be smaller, and the changes of their
a certain analogy to what we have now described phases will be less frequent, in proportion to the'in relation to the moon, but it will be much more slowness of their motions and the length of the
diversified and resplendent.  The most striking periods of their revolutions. The eclipses of the
and glorious object in the firmament of the first sun, which so frequently happen to the first sa&stellite is the planet itself. The distance of this tellite from the interposition of the body of Jupiter,
satellite from  the center of Jupiter being only  will form very interesting and impressive phenomabout three diameters of that body, it will appear ena.  Every forty-two hours this satellite suffIrs
in the heavens like an immense globe, above thir- a solar eclipse for the space of more than two
teen hundred times larger than the apparent size hours; and it is highly probable that it is chiefly
af our moon, and will occupy a considerable por- at such times that the starry firmanlent appears
rtion of the celestial hemisphere. To those who  in all its splendor, and affords its inhabitants an
live in the middle of the hemisphere of this sa- opportunity of tracing the motions and contemtellite, opposite to Jupiter, this vast globe will plating the phenomena of the distant bodies of
appear in the zenith, filling a large portion of the the universe; for at other times the blaze of resky directly above them, equal to 19 degrees of a flected light from the body of Jupiter and fiom
great circle, so that nine or tenll of such bodies the other satellites will, in all probability, prevent
would reach from  one side of the heavens to the greater part of the fixed stars from being disanother. To those in other situations it will ap- tinctly perceived; so that these eclipses, instead
pear at different elevations above the horizon, ac- of being an evil or a cause of annoyance to tile
cording to their distances from  the central parts inhabitants, will increase their enjoyment, will
of that hemisphere.  This huge globe, in the add to the variety of their celestial scenery, and
course of twenty-one hours, will exhibit a cres- open to them  prospects of the grandeur of the
cent, a half moon, a gibbous phase, and a full en- starry firmament and the distant regions of crelightened hemisphere, so that its appearance will ation.
be perpetually changing. - When it shines with a   What has been now stated in reference to the
full face, itwill exhibit a most glorious appearance; first satellite may also be applied in general to tile
it will reflect an immense quantity of light upon other three satellites, with this difference, that
the satellite, and all the varieties on its surface Jupiter will appear of a different apparent magwillbe beautifully perceived. In the day-time it nitude from each satellite; and the motions, magwill present a cloudy appearance, continually  nitudes, and aspects of the other satellites will
changing its form, and when its dark side is turned  likewise be somewhat different. In each satellite
to the satellite it will probably become invisible; the great globe of Jupiter, suspended motionless
but it will never be altogether invisible beyond in the sky, will be the most conspicuous object
two or three hours at a time, until its enlightened  in the heavens.  To the second satellite this globe
trescent again begins to appear. We find by the will appear about 470 times larger than our moon;
telescope that the surface of Jupiter is diversified to the third 180 times; and to the fourth about 80
with a variety of belts, which frequently change times the apparent size of the full moon. But
their appearance, and sometimes by bright and each satellite will have certain other phenomena
dark spots. Now all the varieties on its surface, peculiar to itself, which it would be too tedious to
and the changes which may take place in its at- describe. To all of them  the occultations of tlhe
mosphere, will be pretty distinctly seen from the other satellites by the body of Jupiter; tlhir
surface of this satellite; and as Jupiter turns eclipses by falling into its shadow; the varieties
round its axis in the space of less than ten hours, on its surface, caused by its diurnal rotation; the
avery hour will present a new scene upon its sur- shadows of the satellites passing like dark spots




122                                  CELESTIAL SCENERY.
across its disc; the transits of the satellites them- the outer edge of the rings, tile globe of Saturn
selves, like full moons crossing the orb of Jupiter; and its stupendous rings must present a very authe diversified phenomena of eclipses, some -of gust and striking appearance in its nocturnal
them happening when the satellite is like a cres- firmament.  The hemisphere of Saturn contains
cent or half moon, and some of them'when it an area more than 1300 times larger than that of
appears as a full enlighte:ned  hemisphere, and va- our moon; consequently, if the first satellite were
rious other circumstances, will afford an indefi- placed at the same distance from  Saturn as our
nite variety of celestial phen6m enia,;; and scarcely  moon, the surface of that planet would, appeal,
a single day will pass in which: some of these from  the satellite,' 1300 times larger than  the
phenomena are not observed:'The length of the moon does to us.. But the satellite is only 129,000
day is different in each satellite.'  In-the -first sat- miles from the center of Saturn, or half the disellite, the length, of the day and night is 42 hours tance of the moon from  the center of the- earth;
27 minutes; in' the -second, 3 day's, i13 -hours; in  therefore Saturn will appear four times larger, or
the third, 7 days,.3/'  hours;'and in:the fourth, 5200 times greater, as seen from  this satellite,
16 days, 16~  hours.  The starry heavens will than the moon when viewed from the earth. The
thereforeappear to make a re volutioli round each'moon occupies only the 1-90,00Oth part of our cesatellite in these respective: times.  The other lestial hemisphere, but the globe, of Saturn will
satellites will also appear to make'a diurnal revo- fill one-seventeenth part of the visible firmament
lution, but in periods of time somewhat different, of: its first satellite; and if we take the extent of
The variety of motions, and  other phenomena to the rings into account, they will occupy a space
which we have now alluded,- and parti'cularly the two or three times greater; so that the planet and
rotation of -Jupiter and? the variation of its phases, its rings will present a most grand and magnifiwill afford various accurate measspres of time to cent object in the canopy of heaven, of which we
atil the satellites.  Thie following figure contains a can form only a very faint conception.  It is not
rude sketch of a portion of the firmament as it likely that more than one-half of the globe of Sawill appear from one of the satellites of Jupiter. turn will be visible from this satellite on account
of the interposition of the rings;- and as it moves
Fig. 111.                      in an orbit which is nearly parallel with the plane
of the rings, the surfaces of these rings will be
seen in a very oblique direction; but still they will:  l.@4    exhibit a very resplendent appearance.  When the
edge of the exterior ring is opposite to the satellite, and enlightened by the sun, it will present a
large arch of light in the heavens on each side of
the planet, above which will'appear half the hemisphere of Saturn.  If the satellite turn round its
_g   0; ffi   <)  x    axis in the same time in which it revolves round
the planu.t, as is probable, Saturn and its rings
will appear stationary in the heavens, and the
planet will present to the inhabitants of the satellite a variety of phases, such as a half moon and
a crescent, beside the variety of' objects which
will appear on the surface. of Saturn during its
rotation on its axis.  The rings will likewise ap-.
pear to vary their aspect during every revolution,
beside the variety of objects they will present duIn this figure, suppose the larger circle at tile ring their rotation.  At one time they will exhibit
top to represent one of the satellites as seen in the  large and broad luminous arches; at another time
firmament of'the fourth satellite, and suppose it they will appear as narrow streaks of light; and.
appeals with a surface twice the size of our moon; at another they will appear like dark belts across
Jupiter would require to be double the size here the disc of Saturn.  And as this satellite moves
represented, and mrrore than fifteen times larger to round the planet in the course of twenty-two and
represent its comparative size as viewed from the a half hours, these appearances will be changing
first satellite.  The larger circle represents Jupi- almost every hour.  The appearances of the six
ter when exhibitilg.  a gibbous phaseto the satel-  other satellites, continually varying their phases,
lite; the three other figures are the other satellites their apparent magnitudes, and their relative asunder different phases.                            pects; their positions in respect to the body of
Celestial Sce7nery of the Satellites of Saturn.-  Saturn and its rings; their occultations by the inWhat has been stated above in relation to Jupi- terposition both of the rings and the planet, and,
ter's satellites will apply, in part, to those of Sal the eclipses to which they are frequently subjectturn.  But the satellites of this planet have like- ed, will produce a diversity of phenomena and a
wise celestial scenery peculiar to themselves, and grandeur unexampled in the case of any other
the scenes presented to one satellite' are, in some moving bodies inour system.  The second satelrespects, different from those presented to all the lite, when in opposition, or at its nearest position
rest.  One of the most singular phenomena in  to the first, will be only thirty thousand miles distheir firmament is the:diversified appearance of tant; and although its real size is not greateir than
the body'of Saturn, and that of its rings, which  our moon, it will present a surface sixty-four
will be beheld in their sky under a great-variety  times larger than the full moon does in our;aky
of aspects.  To describe all the variety of pheno- It will appear in all the phases of the moo-n in ths
mena peculliar to each; satellite connected with- course of less than thirty-six lioeurs, and will be
Saturn would almost require a separate treatise, continually changing its apparent magnitude, onI
and therefore I shall state pnly two or three pro- account of its removing farther from or nearer to
mlinent facts in relation to the first and seventh, the first satellite.  The third satellite* will appear
or the innermost and outermost satellites.  The
first satellite, being oely 80,000 miles distant fom    Here the satellites are distinguished according to the orthe surJace oi Saturn'and only 18,000 miles from  der of their distances from Saturn.




SCENERY FROM SATURN'S SATELLITES.                                     123
nearly half as large, as it is only seventy thousand  now described. Fig. 112 exhibits a rude idea of
miles distant at its nearest approach; and will the firmament as viewed fromn the first or second
present nearly the same varieties as'the other.- satellite of Saturn; but' the body of Saturn and
All the other satellites will appear smaller in proportionto to their distance from the orbit of the first;                Fig. 112.
but they will all appear much larger -than our
moon, except the seventh, or outermost satellite,
which will appear considerably smaller.  Perhaps
the sixth satellite from  Saturn will not appear
larger than our moon.
The seventh or outermost satellite, which -is
reckoned among the largest, will have a sceneryi
in its: sky somewhat different from  that of the
first. As its orbit is materially inclined to the
rings, its inhabitants will have a more ample prospect of these rings and of the body ofSaturn than
several of the other satellites, although these objects are beheld at a greater distance, and, consequently, will not fill so large a portion of its sky.
Their appearance, however, will not be destitute
of splendor; for this satellite is 400 times nearer
Saturn than we are, and the body of this planet
will appear sixteen times-larger than the moon to the ring should be eight or ten times larger in prous, and its rings will occupy a space proportiona- portion to the size of the moons or satellites hero
bly more expansive.- The phases of Saturn and represented.  As the orbits of the inner satellites
its rings, and the various changes of aspect which  are nearly on the same plane as the rings, they
they assume, will be more distinctly perceptible, Will appear, in an oblique position, and it is questhough on a smaller scale, than from some of the tionable whether the division between the rings
Interior satellites; for the whole body of the pla- will be distinctly visible. The opposite part of the
net, as well as the rings, will in most cases appear ring, or that which is most distant from the satelfull in view. The other six satellites will be seen lite, will appear smaller than the side which is
n tall the different phases and aspects above de- nearest it; and. only one-half of the body of Sascribed, and they will never appear to recede to  turn will be seen, the other half being hidden,
any great distance from the body of Saturn; but either in whole or in part, by the ring.
will appear first on one side and then on another,   Fig. 113 represents the firmament of the seand sometimes either' above or below the planet, as venth or outermost satellite. As its orbit is conMercury and Venus appear to us in respect to the'siderably inclined to the plane of the ring, the
sun, and, consequently, that portion of the heavens in: which Saturn appears will present a most                     Fig. 113.
splendid appearance.  In this respect the relative
positions of the satellites, as seen from the outermost, will be different from their aspects and positions as viewed from  the innermost satellite,
where they will sometimes appear in regions ofI
the sky directly opposite to Saturn.  All the other
satellites of this planet will have phenomena peculiar to themselves in their respective firmaments,
and in all of them  these phenomena will be exhibited on a scale of grandeur and magnificence.
But to enter into details in reference to each satellite might prove tedious to the general reader.
Let us, then; conceive a firmament in which is
suspended a globe five thousand times larger than
the apparent size of our moon; let us conceive
luminous arches, still more expansive, surround- whole body of the planet will frequently be seen
ing this globe; let us conceive six moons of within  the rings, which will appear as ovals
different apparent magnitudes, some of them sixty  around it.  The six other satellites will appear
times larger in apparent size than ours; let us in the vicinity of Saturn and its rings, none of
conceive, further, all these magnificent bodies them ever removing to any considerable distance
sometimes appearing in one part of the heavens from the edge of the rings, and some of them may
and sometimes in another, changing their phases occasionally be seen moving in the open space beand apparent magnitudes and distances from each  tween the planet and the rings.  In this figure Saother every hour; appearing sometimes like a turn and the rings should be considerably larger
large crescent, sometimes like a small, sometimes in proportion to the moons than they are here reshining with a full enlightened face, and some- presented.
times suffering a total eclipse; sometimes hidden    Celestial Scenery as viewed from  the RINGs  oJ
behind the large body of the planet, and sometimes Saturn.-Supposing the rings to be inhabited,
crossing its disc with a rapid motion, like a cireu- which there is as much reason to believe as that
lar shadow; let us suppose these and many other the planet itself is a habitable globe, it is probable
diversified phenomena presenting themselves with  that there is a greater diversity of celestial sceneunceasing variety in the canopy of heaven, and ry and of sublime objects presented to view than
we shall have some faint idea of the grandeur of any we have yet described.  There will be at
the firmament as seen from some of the satellites least six varieties of celestial scenery, according
oafSaturn.                                        as the spectator is placed on different parts of the
No delineations, except on a very large scale, rings.  One variety  of scene will be exhibited
could convey anlly toler/ble idea of the objects from the exterior edge of the outer ring; a second




124                               CELESTIAL SCENERY.
variety from the interior edge of the inner ring; the firmament will in all probability be monst vivid
a third variety from the interior edge of the outer and striking.  This portion of the rings will not
ring; a fourth from the exterior edge of the inner -be in absolute dalkness during the absence of the
ring; a fifth from the sides of the rings enlighten- sun, for some of the seven satellites will always
ed by the sun; andsa sixth variety from the oppo- be shining upon it; sometimes three, sometiines
site sides, which are turned- away from  the sun,. four, and sometimes all the seven, in one bright
and enjoy, for a time,-only the reflected light from  assemblage.  It is probable, too, that the planet,
the satellites.:  To describe all these varieties in a like a large slender crescent, will occasionally difminute detail would bp tedious, and at the same fuse a mild splendor; and, in the occasional abtime unsatisfactory, without the aid of diagrams sence of these, the fixed stars will display their
and figures on a very enlarged: scale, and there- radiance in the heavens, which will be the princifore I shall chiefly confine myself to a general pal opportunity afforded forstudying and conterndescription of one of these celestial views.     plating these remote luminaries.  Those who are
Those who live on _the sides- of the rings will on the outermost ring will behold the other ring,
behold the one-half' of the hemispher. of Saturn, and the opposite parts of their own, like vast
which Will fill, perhaps, th  one-fifthl or the one- arches in the heavens; and although only 2800
sixth part of their celestial hemisphere, while the miles intervene between the two rings, that space
other portions'of:the planet will be' hidden by the may be as impassable as is the space which interinterposition of the rings'Those who are near venes between us and the moon.
the inner edge of the interior. ring:   are only thirty    If the two rings have a rotation round Saturn
thousaiid miles' from  the surface of Saturn, and in different periods of -time, as is most probablce
consequently all the varieties upon its surface it will add a considerable variety to the scenery
will be distinctly perceived.  Those near the'outer exhibited by the different objects which will sucedge of the' exterior ring are about sixty thousand  cessively appear in the course of the rotation.
miles distant from  the planet, which will conse-   The numerous splendid objects displayed in tire
quently appear to them fourtimes less in size than  heavens, as seen firom  these rings, would afford a
to the former; but being only eighteen thousand  grand and diversified field for telescopic observamliles from  the first satellite at the time of its tions, surpassing in variety and sublimity whatever
opposition to Saturn, that satellite will present isdisplayed in any other region of the solar system;
an object more than three hundred and fifty times
-larger than our moon, which will rapidly assume                       Fig. 114.
different phases, and will be continually varying
in its apparent magnitude; and at its greatest distance beyond the opposite side of the rings it will
appear at least 170 times less than when in the
nearest point of its orbit; and all the intermediate
varieties of magnitude and aspect will be accomplished within less than two days. So that this
satellite will be continually changing its apparent
size, from an object two or three times the apparent bulk of our moon to one 350 times greater.
The same may be affirmed in respect-to the other
six satellites, with this exception, that they will
appear f- a smaller magnitude, and the periodic
times-of their phases and the changes in apparent
magnitude will be different.
Another object which will. diversify the firmament of those who are on one of the sides of the rings
is the opposite portions of the rings themselves.These will appear proceeding from each side of the by which some of the objects might be contemplaplanet like large broad arches of light, each of ted as if they were placed within the distance of
then some what less than a quadrant, and will fill forty or fifty miles.
a very large portion of the sky, so that the inhabi-   The preceding figure (114) represents a view
tants of the same world will behold a portion of of the firmament from  one of the sides of tlhe
their own habitation forming a conspicuous part rings, in which is seen half of the hemisphere of
of their celestial canopy, and, at first view, may  Saturn, with a portion of the opposite sides of the
imagine that it forms a celestial object with which rings projecting, as it were, from each side of the
they have no immediate connection. WXTere they planet, the central part being hidden by the interto travel to the opposite part of the ring, they position of its body. From the inner edge of the
would see the habitation they had left suspended  interior ring the whole hemisphere of Saturn
in the firmament, without being aware that the will be visible.  The body of Saturn and the rings
spot which'they left forms a portion of the phe- should be at least twenty times larger than here
nomenon they behold. As the rings revolve round  represented, so as to be proportionate to the ap-.the planet, and the planet revolves round its axis, parent size of the satellites.
the different parts of the surface' of the planet   Celestial Scenery from the Satellites of Uranus.
will present a different aspect, and its variety of -After what we have stated respecting the satelscenery will successively be presented to the view. lites of Jupiter, it would be needless to enter into
The eclipses of the sun and of the satellites, by detail respecting'the celestial views from the satelthe interposition of the body of Saturn and of the lites of this planet, as they will bear a striking
opposite sides of the rings, will produce a variety analogy to those of the nloons of Jupiter; bht the
of striking phenomena, which will be diversified firmament of each satellite of Uranus will be
almost every hour.                                 more diversified than that of. any of the satellites
From  the dark side of the rings, which are of Jupiter, as there are six satellites connected
turned away from the sun for fifteen years, a great with this planet, and probably three or four more
variety of interesting phenomena will likewise be which lie beyond the reach of our telescopes.presented; and, during this period, the aspect of From  its first satellite the body of Uranus will




PLURALITY; OF THE SOLAR WORLDS.                                     125
appear noarly three hundred times larger than the which exists throughout the universe, and shows
apparent size of the moon in our sky, and, conse- us by what apparently simple means this variety
quently, will appear a very grand and magllificent is produced. We'are thus led to conclude, that
object in its firmament, while the other five moons,  among all the systems and  worlds dispersed
in different phases and positions, will serve both. throughout boundless space, there is no-one deto illuminate its surface, and to diversify the. partment of creation exactly resembling another.
Scenery of the heavens.' To the second satellite  This is likewise exemplified in the boundless variUranus will appear about one hundred and eighty  ety exhibited in our world, ill the animal, vegetatimes larger than the moon to us; and to the other ble, and mineral kingdoms.  5. The alternatior s
satellites it will present a smaller surface in pro- of light and darkness, and'the frequent eclipses of
portion to their distance. Each satellite will have, the celestial luminaries which happen among the
its own peculiarity of celestial phenomena; but bodies conected with Jupiter, Saturn, uid Uranus,
after what we have already stated, in the preceding  so far from being incoveniences and evils, may be
descriptions, it would be inexpedient to enter into  considered as blessings and enjoyments; for it is
details.  I shall therefore conclude these descrip-, only or chiefly when their inhabitants are deprived
tions with the following remarks:                 of the direct light of the sun, or its reflection
1.- In the preceding descriptions, the apparent from  the satellites, that the starry leavens will
magnitudes of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, as appear in all their glory; and as the interval in
seen from the satellites, and the apparent magni- which they are thus deprived of light is short,
tudes of the satellites, as seen from each other, are and as it adds to the variety of the celestial scene,
only approximations to the truth, so as to convey  it must be productive of pleasure and enjoyment.
a general idea of the scenes displayed in their re- 6. The same planets will be seen in the firmaspective firmaments; perfect accuracy being of no  ments of the satellites as in those of their primaimportance in such -descriptions,-. 2. The variety  ries; but they will be seldom visible on account
of celestial phenomena in the firmaments of these  of the large portion of reflected light which will
bodies is much greater than we have described.- be diffused throughout their sky, except- iin those
Were we to enter into minute details in relation  cases when their nocturnal luminaries suffer. aln
to such phenomena, it would require a volume of.  occultation or a total eclipse. The bodies more
considerable size to contain the descriptions; for in  immediately connected with their own system
the system  of Saturn itself there is more va- will form the chief objects of their attention and
riety of phenomena than in all the other parts contemplation, and will appear more interesting
of the planetary system. 3. Machinery  would  and magnificent than any phenomena connected
be requisite  inl order'to convey  clear ideas, with more distantworlds. 7.. On all the satellites,
of some of the views alluded to in the prece- and particularly on the rings of Saturn, it will be
ding descriptions, particularly, in relation to the more difficult to ascertain the true system  of the
rings and satellites of Saturn, in which the propor- universe than in any other point of the solar systional distances and magnitudes of the respective  tem. I have already alluded to the difficulty of
bodies w'ould require to be accurately represented. determining the true system of the world as obAn instrument of considerable size and complica- served from  the moon: but it will be still more
tion of machinery would'be requisite for exhibi- difficult in the case of observers placed on the
ting all the phenomena connected with Saturn; rings or satellites of Saturn.  The numerous
and one of the principal difficulties would be to  bodies which are seen every hour shifting their
produce a diurnal rotation of the rings round Sa- aspects and positions, the apparent complication
turn, while at the same time they had no immedi-  of motions which they will exhibit, their phases,
ate connection with it, and while their thickness  eclipses, and rapid diminution of apparent size,
was no greater in proportion to their breadth than  combined with the apparent diurnal revolution of
what is found in nature, which is only about the' the heavens and of all the bodies in their firmament,
one three hundredth part of the breadth of the two will require numerous and accurate observations,
rings, including the empty space between them. and powers of intellect superior to those of man,
4. The diversity of celestial scenery to which we in order to determine with precision their place ii
have alluded is an evidence of the infinite variety the solar system and the true theory of the universe.
C HAP T ER I X.
ON THE DOCTRINE OF.A PLURALITY OF WORLDS, WITH AN ILLUSTRATION
OF SOME OF THE ARGUMENTS BY WHICH IT MAY BE SUPPORTED.
IN the preceding descriptions of the facts con- conviction. As in the preceding pages 1 have
wected with the bodies which compose the planet- stated, with some degree of minuteness, the promary system, and of the celestial scenery displayed  inent facts connected with all the bodies of the
in their respective firmaments, I have assumed the solar system  (except comets), so far as they are
position that they are all peopled with intellectual yet known, the way is now prepared for bringing
beings. This is a conclusion to which the mind forward a few arguments founded on these facts,
is almost necessarily led, when once it admits the which will require less extensive illustrations than
facts which have been ascertained by modern as- if I had attempted to discuss this topic without
tronomers. -It requii'es, however, a minute know- the — previous descriptions.  It may be proper,
ledge' of the whole scenery. and circumstances however, to state, that in this volume I propose
connected with the planetary system  before this to bring forward only a few of those arguments
truth comes home to the understanding with full I or considerations by which the position announced




126                               CELESTIAL SCENERY.
above may be corroborated and supported, leaving I to serve the purpose of gratifying the senses or
the discussion of the remaining arguments to an.. of affording a medium of thought to the mental
other volume, in which the other portions of the faculty, or of exhibiting to the mind a sensible
scenery of the, heavens will be described. This display of the existence and perfections of the
is rendered almost-indispensable on account of the supreme Intelligence. And if it serve such pursize to which the present volume has already poses in this part of the creation which we occupy,
swelled.                                        reason says that it must serve similar purposes
in other regions of the universe.  How incongruous would it be to maintain that matter serves
such purposes in our terrestrial sphere, and no-'where else throughout the range of the planetary
system?  In other words, that it is useful to sellnsitive existences within the compass of the one
THE first argument I shall adduce in support of four hundredth part of that system, but serves
the doctrine of a plurality of worlds is, that there no useful or rational purpose in the other three
are bodies in the planetary system of such  MAGNI- hundred and ninety-nine parts;'for the area of
TUDES -as to afford ample scope for the abodes of, the earth, as above stated, is only about the one four
myriads of inhabitants.                         hundredth part of the area of all the other planThis position has been amply illustrated in the ets. Such a conclusion can never be admitted in
preceding parts of this volume, particularly, in consistency with those perfections which both
chapter iii. From  the statements contained in natural and revealed religion attribute to the Deity.
chap. vi, it appears that the whole planetary If matter was not created merely for itself, but for
bodies, exclusive of the sun, comprehend an area the enjoyment of a superior nature, then it necof more than'seventy-eight thousand millions of essarily follows, that wherever matter exists, that
square miles, which is three hundred and ninety- nobler nature, whether sensitive or intellectual,
seven times the area of otir globe; so that the sur- for whose sake it was created, must likewise exist
faces of all the planets and their satellites are throughout some portions of its extent. To reequal, in point of space, to 397 worlds such as plenish one comparatively little globe with senours. But as the greater part of our globe is cov- sitive and rational inhabitiints, and to leave several
ered with water, and, consequently, is unfit for hundreds empty, desolate, and useless, is the perthe permanent residence of rational beings, and fect reverse of art and contrivance, and altogether
as we have no reason to believe that the other incompatible with the conceptions we ought to
planets haversuch a proportion of water on their form  of Him  who is "the only wise God," and
surface, if we compare the habitable parts of the who is declared to have displayed himself, in all
earth with the extent of surface oni the planets, his operations, as "wonderful in colunsel and exwe shall find that they contains one thousand five cellent in working."
hundred and ninety-five times the area of all that   In accordance-with this sentiment, we find the
portion of our globe which can be inhabited by inspired writers, when speaking in the name of
human beings. If we take into consideration the Jehovah, admitting the validity of such reasonling.
solid contents of these globes, we find that they "Thus saith Jehovah that created the heavens;
are more'than two thousand four hundred and God himself that formed the earth and made it:
eighty times the bulk of our globe; and the num- he hath established it; HE CREATED IT NOT IN VAIN;
ber of inhabitants they would contain, at the rate HE FORMED IT TO BE INHABITED. I am Jehovah,
of England's population, is no less than 21,895,- and there is none else."*  Here it is plainly and
000,000,000, or nearly twenty-two billions, which pointedly declared, that to create the earth withis more than twenty-seven thousand times the pres- out the design of its being inhabited would have
ent population of our globe. In other words, the been a piece of folly inconsistent with the perfecextent of surface on all the planets, their rings tions of Him whose intelligence and wisdom are
and satellites, in respect of space for population, displayed throughout all his works. To have left
is equivalent to 27,000 such worlds as ours in its it empty and useless would have been "to create
present state.                                  it in vain."  It would neither have contributed
Now, can we for a moment- imagine that the to the enjoyment of intellectual beings, nor served
vast extent of surface on such magnificent globes as a manifestation of the intelligence, wisdom,
is a scene of barrenness and desolation; where and beneficence of its Creator.  This passage
eternal silence and solitude have prevailed, and likewise intimates that it is the ultimate design
will -for ever prevail; where no sound is heard of Jehovah that this world shall, ere long, be fully
throughout all their expansive regions; where peopled with inhabitants, and that its forests and
nothiing appears but interminable deserts, diversi- desolate wastes shall, in future ages, be transtied with frightful precipices and gloomy caverns; formed into scenes of beauty and fertility, fitted
where no vegetable or mineral beauties adorn the for being the abodes of renovated moral agents
landscape; where no trace of rational intelligences at that period when "' the knowledge of tile Lord
is to be found throughout all their wastes and shall cover the earth;" and this extension of popwilds:- and where no thanksgivings, nor melody, ulation and of cultivation is evidently going fornor grateful adorations ascend to the Ruler of the! ward with rapid progress at the preseont time in
skies?  To suppose that such is the state of these different quarters of the globe. In connection
capacious globes would exhibit a most gloomy with'this declaration respecting the earth, it is
and distorted view of the character and attributes also declared, that the same Almighty Being thaiul
of the Creator. It would represent him as exert- arranged the earth for the purpose of replenishilng
lug his creating power to no purpose; and as it with inhabitants, likewise "createdtheheavens;'
acting in a different, and even in an opposite char- I plainly intimating, that as both the fabrics were
acter, in different parts of his dominions; as dis- erected by the same all-wise and omnipotent inplaying wisdom  in one part of his creation, and telligence, the same wisdom is displayed iin both,
an opposite attribute in another. For, so far as and that the same grand and beneficent design;
we are able to penetrate, it appears demonstrable
that -matter exists chiefly, if not solely, for the
sake of sensitive and intellectual' beings; either              * Isaiah xlv. 18.




GENERAL SIMILARITY 1OF THE PLANETS                                   127
are:accomplished in the globes which roll in the
heavens as well as in the constitution of the'         S E-CTION II'.
earth in which we dwell.. If the oine was created
for use, for the enjoyment of rational natures,   ARGUMENT II. There is a GENERAL STMILARrrY
and as a theater in which the Divine perfection among all the bodies of the Planetary System, which
mnight be.displayed, so was the other.  Itf is added, tends to prove that they are intended to subserve the
". I am Jehovah, and there is none else;;" implying same ultimate designs in the arrangements of ihe
that there is a unity of principle, design, and Creator.
operation, in  all: his, plans and'arrangements   In the elucidation of this argument it will be
throughout the universe, however different in the requisite that a variety of facts, some of which
means employed, and however varied. the effects have been noticed in the preceding pages, should
produced in different:parts of his dominions.'    be brought under review. We are not to imagine
Some, however, may be. disposed to insinuate that the planets, considered. as habitable worlds,
that the Deity may have designs in view, in the are arranged exactly according to the model of
creation of matter, of which we are altogether our terrestrial habitation; for the Creator has inignorant, and that the'plariets and other bodies in troduced an infinite variety in every department
the heavens may display the Divine glory in some of His works; and we know from  observation
Way or another, although they be not peopled with that there are certain arrangements connected
inhabitants. It is readily admitted that we are with those bodies which are very different from
ignorant of many of the purposes of the Deity, those which are found in connection with our
of the details of his operations in the distant re- globe. But in all worlds destined for the habitagions of creation, and of many of the plans'and tion of intellectual nature we should expect to
movements of his moral government; and that, find some general analogy or resemblance in their'
through an eternal lapse of ages, we- shall always prominent features, and in those things which
remain ignorance of some of the works-and appear essential to the enjoyment of such beings.
ways.of- the Almighty.  But there are: certain Were we to attend the dissection of any animal —general principles and views with. which the Deity a dog, for example —alid perceive the heart, the
evidently intends that all his rational creatures stomach, the liver, the lungs, the veins, arteries,
should be acquainted. It was evidently intended and other parts' essential to life and enjoyment,
that the visible creation should adumbrate,-as it we could scarcely doubt that the same organs,
were, the character of Him  who'produced it; or though perhaps somewhat modified, were likewise
that it should serve as-a mirror, in which'His ex- to be found in a cat, a bullock, or any other quad —
istence and some of His perfections might clearly ruped, and that they served the same purposes in
be perceived. But if tho great globes of the uni- all these animals.  In like manher, when we find
verse were destitute of inhabitants, how could on our globe certain parts and arrangements esthe Divine glory be discovered in their structure? sentially requisite to its being a habitable world,
How could a confused mass of rubbish and deso- and when we likewise observe similar contrivanlation, however vast and extensive, display the in- ces connected with other distant globes, we have
telligence, the wisdom, and the benevolence of every reason to conclude that they are intended
its Maker?  It might indicate a power surpassing to subserve similar designs. In accordance with
our comprehension, bhut it would display no -other this principle, I shall now proceed to detail a few
perfection which tends to excite the admiration, contrivances and arrangements in the other planets!
the love, and the adoration of rational beings. Yet which evidently indicate that their grand and ulwe are informed in the Scriptures that celestial in- timate design is to afford enjoyment to sensitive
telligences celebrate- the perfections of Jehovah, and intellectual natures.
",because he hath created all things," and because   1. All -the planets, both primary and secondary,
they perceive  "His works " to be " GREAT ANI are of a spherical or spheroidal figure similar to
MARvELOUS."  They ascribe to Him " wisdom, that of the earth. I have already shown (p. 103)
and glory, and honor, and power, and thanksgiv- that this figure is the most capacious and the best
ing," from  the display of His character which adapted to motion, both annual and diurnal, and
they perceive in his works. But how could they that the greatest inconveniences would be proascribe to him such perfections, if the mightiest duced were aly world constructed of an angular
of his works were a scene of barrenness'and des- figure.  The only deviation from this figure is to
olation. Wisdom can be attributed only where be found in the rings of Saturn. But these rings
there appears to be a proportionating of means to are not angular bodies; for even the thin exterior
ends; and goodness can:have no place where edge of the rings is supposed, from some minute
there are no sensitive or rational Ibeings to enjoy observations, to be curved; and, if so, it prevents
the effects of it. It is, therefore, a mere evasion the inconveniences which would arise from  an
to assert that the Divine glory may be manifested angular construction. The flat sides of the rings,
in the celestial globes, although destitute of in- too, appear to have no angular elevations or prohabitants. Every part of the character of God, tuberances more than what may be supposed from
by which he is rendered amiable and adorable in a gently-waving surface such as that of our globethe'eyes of his intelligent offspring, would be and although they are not globular bodies, they
obscured and distorted were we for a moment to are circular, with thin edges, and are thus calcuharbor-such a sentiment. -For wherein does, the lated for rapid motion along with the planet; and
Divine'glory consist?  It chiefly consists' in the the flat sides, having no angular projections, apdisplay' of: infinite wisdom, rectitude, holiness, pear perfectly adapted for being places of habitaand unbounded beneficence; and whe.e' such at- tion, without any of those inconveniences or
tributes are not manifested there cannot be said to catastrophes which might ensue had they -apploxbe a display, of Divine glory. But such attributes imated to a cubical, prismatic, or pentagonal form.
could never be traced'by;man, or by any other' The rings,''in short, approximate nearer to the
order -of intelligences, were'the planetary bodies globular figure and its conveniences than any
and the 6ther orbs of heaven a scene of eternal other construction could have done, and show us
silence, solitude, and waste;' where no percipient that, although the Creator proceeds in his operabeing existed to taste the goodness or to adore the tions on some grand general principles, yet he Is
yerfections of its Creator.''          not limited or confined to one'articular figure or
VOL. I.- 19




128                                CELESTIAL SCENERY.
construction  in arranging the celestial worlds. anyplanet, it has uniformly been found to have a
The planets, then,'being all of a globular or cir- diurnal rotation. But where no spots or promi
cular form, appear completely adapted for being nences have been observed, it is obvious that no
the abodes of living beings.                      such motion, though it really exist, can be do2. The planets are solid bodies similar to the tected.'  No- spots have been observed on the
earth.  They are not merely a congeries-of clouds planet Mercury, onl account of its smallness and
and vapors formed into a globular shape, but pos- its proximity to the stni nor on the planet Urasessed of weight, solidity, or gravity.  This is nus, on account of its very great distance from
evident from the dark and well-defined shadows the earth; but there can be no doubt whatever
which they throw on: other bodies, and from  the that they have a diurnal motion as well as the
attractive  influence they exert throughout the other planets. By this motion every part of their
system.  Their figure is a proof'that they possess surface is turned in succession toward the sun,
such qualities; for their roundness proceeds from  and the alternate changes of day and night are
an equal pressure of all their parts tending toward produced.  Were no such motion existing, onethe same center. Nay, astronomers, by the aid half of these globes would be entirely uniuhabitof observation and mathematical calculations, can able, for the enlivening rays of the sun would
tell what are the relative gravities or weights of never cheer its desolate regions, and the other
thedifferent planets; what proportion, for instance, half might be dazzled or parched with heat under
the gravitation of Jupiter or Saturn bears to that the perpetual effulgence of the solar beams. Boof our earth, and what influence their attractive side, the continuance of a perpetual day, and the
power produces on their, own sate'lites, on the illumination of the sky by an uninterrupted effiux
motiont of comets, and on the smaller and inferior of solar light, would prevent the distant regions
planets. In consequence of this solidity-and at- of creation from being seen and contemplated, so
tractive power, all things connected with their that no body, except the sun himself, and the
surfaces are preserved in security and prevented planet on which the spectator stood, would be
from flying off to the distant regions of space; known to exist in the universe. But it appears to
f6rit is this power, variously modified and directed, have been the intention of the Creator not only
that preserves the material universe, and all the to cheer the planets by the invigorating influence
orders of beings connected with it, in compact of the sun, butlikewise to open to the view of their
order and harmony, without the influence of inhabitants a prospect into the regions of distant
which all things in heaven and earth would soon worlds, that they may behold a display of his
be reduced to a universal chaos. In this respect, wisdom and omnipotence, and of the magnificence
then, as well as in the former, the planets are fit- of his empire; and this object has been completely
ted for the support of intellectual beings, furnished effected in every part, of the systemr by impressing
with material organs.                             upon the planets a motion of rotation, so that
3. All the planets have an annual revolution there is no body within the range of the solar in.
round the sun. This revolution, in the case of fluence that does not, at one period or another,
the earth, combined with the inclination of its enjoy this advantage.
axis to the plane of its orbit, produces the-variety    The idea of night among the celestial bodies
of seasons; and although we are not to suppose ought not to be associated with gloom, and dark-that all the planets have seasons similar to ours, ness, and deprivation of comforts.  In our world
or that the heats of summer and the cold of winter this is frequently the case. A cloudy atmosphere,
are experienced in other worlds (see pp. 44, 45), combined with the fury of raging winds, hurriyet there is a certain variety of scene produced canes, and the appaling thunder-storm, frequently
by this revolution in all the planets, particularly  renders our nights a scene of gloom  and terror
in those which have their axes of rotation inclined especially to the benighted traveler and the marimore or less to the, plane of their orbits.  This ner in the midst of the ocean. But such gloomy
variety of scene will be particularly experienced and terrific scenes would never have taken place
on Saturn and on the surface of its rings; for in had our globe and its inhabitants remained in that
the course of one-half of the annual revolution state of order and perfection in which they were
the sun will shine on certain parts of these bodies, originally created; and, therefore, we are to conand during the other half they will be deprived sider such physical evils as connected with the
of his direct influence.  The annual revolutions moral state of the present inhabitants of the earth.
of the planets, therefore, appear expedient, in or- But even here, amid the gloom  and darkness
der to produce an agreeable interchange and vari- which frequently surround. us, night not unfreety of scenes, for the purpose of gratifying their quently opens to view a scene of incomparable
inhabitants.  The periods of these revolutions, splendor and magnificence; a scene which, were
too, are adjusted with the utmost exactness. The it confined to one quarter of the globe, millions
planets perform their circuits, without deviating in of spectators would be eager to travel thousands
the least from the paths prescribed, and finish of miles in order to behold it. In a clear and
their revolutions exactly in the appointed time, so serene sky, night unfolds to us the firmament,
as not to vary the space of a minute in the course bespangled with thousands of stars, twinkling
of centuries.  Now, were these bodies merely ex- from  regions immensely distant, and. the planets
tensive regions of uncultivated deserts, or were revolving in their different circuits, all apparently
they placed in the vault of heaven merely that a moving around us in silent grandeur. When the
few terrestrial astronomers might peep at them  moon appears amid the host of stars, the scene is
occasionally through their glasses, it is not at all diversified and enlivened. Poets and philosophers
likely that so much care and accuracy would have in all ages, have been charmed and captivated with
been displayed in marking out their orbits and the mild radiance of a moonlight scene, which
adjusting their motions and revolutions.         partly unvails even the distant landscape, and
4. The planets perform a diurnalrotation round throws a soft luster and solemnity both on earth
their axes. This has been ascertained in reference and sky altogether different from  their aspect
to Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, and we may under the meridian sun. But we have already
justly conclude, from  analogy, that the same is shown (chapter viii) that the splendor of the
the case in respect to all the other planets. Wher- heavens during night in some of the other planets
ever spots have been discovered on the surface of is far more magnificent and diversified than what




PLANETS, OPAQUE BODIES.                                      129
is exhibited in. our firmament.  The nocturnal tem are all connected togethe by one common prinscenes in the heavens of Jupiter, Saturn, U/anus, ciple or law, namely, the lawof gravitation. They
and'their rings and satellites, in point of sublimity  are all subject to the attractive influence of the
and variety, exceed every conception we can now  great central -luminary; they revolve around it in
form  of celestial grandeur and magnificence; conformity to the general law, that the squares
and, therefore, it is highly probable, that in those of their periodical times are proportional to the
regions the, scenes of night will be far more inter- cubes of their distances; they describe equal areas
esting and sublime, and w.ill afford objects of con- in equal times; their orbits are elliptical; they
templation more attiactive and gratifying than all are'acted upon by centripetal and centrifugal
the splendors of their noonday. In this rotation forces; and they all produce an attractive influof-the planetary orbs there is a striking display ence on each other, in proportion to their disboth of wisdom and goodness, in causing a means tances and the quantity of matter they contain
so apparently simple to be: productive of so rich a Being thus assimilated and combined into one
variety of sublime and beneficent effects; and this harmonious system, the  presumption is, that,
circumstance of itself affords a strong presumptive however different in point of distance, magnitude,
evidence that every globe -in the universe which and density, they are all intended to accomplish
has such a rotation is,either a world peopled with  the same grand and beneficent design, namely, to
inhabitants, or connected, with a system  of habi- serve as the abodes of living beings, and to protable worlds; for, without such a motion, the one- mote the enjoyment of intellectual natures.
half, at lekst, of every globe would be unfit for   Since the planets, then, are all similar to one
the residence of* organized intelligences.  It is another in their spherical or spheroidal figures;
not improbable that most, if not all the globes of, in their being solid and opaque globes; in their
the universe have a diurnal rotation impressed annual and diurnal revolutions; and in being acted
upon them..We find that even the'globe of the upon by the same laws of rotion; and since these
sun has a motion of this kind, which it performs circumstances are all requisite to the comfort and
ill the course of twenty-five days; and the phe- enjoyment of living beings, it is a natural and
nomena of variable stars have induced some astro- reasonable conclusion that their ultimate destinanomers to conclude that their alternate increase tion is the same, and that they are all replenished
and diminution of luster is owing to a motion-of with inhabitants.  This earth on which we dwell
rotation around their axes.                      is one of the bodies possessed of the qualities and
5. All' the planets and their satellites are opaque arrangements to which we allude; and we know
bodies, which derive their luster from  the sun. that its chief and ultimate design is to support a
That Venus and Mercury are opaque globes, multitude of sensitive and intellectual beings, and
which have no light in themselves, is evident from  to afford them  both physical and mental enjoytheir appearing sometimes with a gibbous phase, ment. Had not this been its principal destination,
and at other times like a crescent or a half moon; we  are assured, on the authority of Divine revelaand'particularly'from  their having been seen  tion, that "it would have been created in vain.,"
moving across the disc of the sun like round  We must therefore conclude that all the other
black spots. Mars being a superior planet, can globes in our system were destined to a similar
never appear like a crescent or a half moon;, but end, unless we can suppose it to be consistent
at the time of its quadrature with the sun' it with the perfections of Deity that they were creassumes a gibbous phase, somewhat approaching ated for no purpose.
to-that of a half moon, which likewise prove that
it is-an opaque globe. Jupiter and Saturn must
always appear round, on account of their great
distance from the earth; - but that Jupiter is opaque          S E C TI O N  I I I.
appears from  the dark shadows of, his satellites
moving across his disc when they interpose be-   ARGUMENT IIIL  In the bodies which constitute
tween him and the sun; and that Saturn is'like- the solar system, there are SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS
wise a dark body of itself appears from  the which indicate their ADAPTATION to the enjoyments of
shadow  of the rings upon its disc.  That the sensitive and intelligent beings; and which prove
moon has an opaque body has been already shown that this was the ultimate design of their creation.
(p.88), and it is obvious to almost every ob-   This argument is somewhat similar to the
server; and that the satellites of Jupiter and former; but it may be considered separately, in
Saturn are opaque appears- from  their eclipses, order to prevent an accumulation of too many
and the shadows they project on their respective particulars under one head.
planets.  In this respect both the primary and    1. The surfaces of the plains are -diversified
the secondary planets are bodies analogous to the with hills and valleys, and a variety of mountainearth, which is likewise -opaque, and'derives its scenery.  This is particularly observable in the
light either directly from the sun or by-reflection moon, whose surface is diversified with an imfiopn the moon, except the feeble rays which pro- mense variety  of elevations and  depressions,
ceed from  the stars. It forms, therefore, a pre- though in a form and arrangement very different
sumptive argument that all these bodies have a from ours (see pp. 88-91). It cannot be ascersimilar destination; for we cannot conceive any  tained by direct observation that there are mounother'globe so well fitted for the habitation of tains on the surfaces of Jupiter, Saturn, or Urarational' beings- as that-which is illuminated by nus, by reason of their great distances from  the
light proceeding from another body. An inherent earth. But that they are rough or uneven globes
splendor on "the surface of any globe would'dazzle appears from their reflecting the light to us from
the eyes with its brilliancy, and could never pro- every part of their surfaces, and from  the spots
duce such a beautiful diversity of form, shade, and differences of shade and color which are
and coloring as appears on the landscapes of the sometimes distinguishable on their discs. For if
earth, by me.ans of the reflections of the solar the surfaces of the planets were perfectly smooth
rays. And.. therefore, if the sun be inhabited, it and polished, they could not reflect the light in
can only be its dark central nucleus, and not the every direction; the reflected image of the sun
exterior surface of its luminous atmosphere.      would be too small to strike our eyes, and they
6. The bodies belonging to'the planetary sys- would consequently be invisible. (See p. 88.)




130-                            - CELESTIAL  SCENERY.
Indications of mountains, however, have been view. Nor need we-imagine there will be ally
seen on somne of the other planets, particularly  great difficulty in ascending such lofty eminences
on Venus. Spots have been observed on this' for the inhabitants'f such worlds may be furplanet on different occasions, and the boundary nished with' bodies different -from  those of the
between its dark and enlightened hemisphere has human race, and endowed with locomotive powers
appeared jagged or uneven, a clear proof that its far superior -to ours. If, therefore, the planets
surface -is diversified with mountains and vales. were found to be perfectly smooth globes-,-without
One of these mountains was calculated by Schroe- any elevations or depressions, we should' lose one
ter' to be'ne:rly eleven, and  another twenty-two argument in support of their being designed for
miles in perpendicular elevation; and there'dan  the abodes of' rational beings; but having the
be but little doubt that such inequalities are to be characteristic now stated, when taken into considlfounld on-the surfaces of all; the planets' and their eration with other arguments, it corroborates the.
satellites, although they are not distinctly visible idea of their being habitable worlds.
to us on account of their distance.                2. The planets, in all probability, are environed
The existence of mountains on the planets is with atmospheres.  It appears pretty certain  that
therefore a proof, or, at least, a strong' presump- the moon is surrounded with such an appendage
tive evidence, that they are habitable worlds; for' (see pp. 93, 94). The planet Mars is admitted
a perfectly smooth' globe could presentno great by all astronomers to be- environed with a pretty
variety of objects or picturesque scenery, such as dense atmosphere, which is the cause of its ruddy
We behold in our world, and would doubtless be appearance (see pp. 49, 50 ); and indications of an
attended -with many inconveniences.  The view  atmosphere have been observed on Venus and
from aly point.of such a gl'obe would be'dull and some of the other planets. To our world an atmonotonous, like the expanse of the ocean, or imosphereis a mostessential appendage. Without
like the deserts of Zahara or Arabia. I is the its agency our globe would be unfit for being the
beautiful variety of hills and dales, mountains and residence of living beings constituted as they now
plains, and their diversity of shadows and aspects, are; and were it detached from the earth, all the
that render the landscapes of the earth interesting  orders of animated nature, and even the vegetable
and delightful to the painter, -the poet, the man of tribes would soon cease to exist. Atmospheres
taste and the traveler. Who would ever desire to somewhat analogous to ours may likewise be nevisit distant'countries, or even distant worlds, if cessary in other worlds. But we have no reason
they consisted merely of level plains, without any to conclude that they are exactly similar to ours.
variety, of several thousands of miles in extent? While our atmosphere consists of a compound of
The mountains add both to the sublimity and the several gaseous substances, theirs may be formed
beauty of the surface of our globe; and from the of a pure homogeneous ethereal fluid, possessed
summits of lofty ranges the most enchanting of very different properties. While ours is improspects are frequently enjoyed of the rivers and  pregnated with dense vapors, and interspersed with
lakes, the hills'and vales, which diversify the- numerous strata of thick clouds, the atmosphere
plains below. But beside the beauty and variety  of some of the other planets may be free of every
which the diversity of surface produces, moan- heterogeneous substance, and perfectly pure and
taiiis are of essential euse in the economy of our transparent.  Their reflective and refractive powglobe. They afford many of the most delightful ers, and other qualities, may likewise be different
and salubrious places for the habitations of man; from  those of the atmosphere which surrounds
they -arrest the progress of stormy winds; they  the earth.  Hence the folly of denying the existserve for the nourishment of animals, and the ence of an atmosphere around the moon or any
production of an infinite-variety of herbs and  other planet, because a fixed star or any other orb is
trees; they are the depositories of stones, metals, not rendered dim or distorted when it approaches
minerals, and fossils of every description, so ne- its margin. For if its atmosphere be either of
cessary for the use of man; and they are the'por- small dimensions, or perfectly pure and transtions of the globe where fountains have their rise, parent, or of a differenlt refractive power from
and whence rivers are conveyed to enliven and  ours, such a phenomenon cannot be expected.
fertilize the plains. For, if the earth were divested We have no more reason to expect that the atof its mountains, and ~every part of its surface a mospheres of other planets should be similar to
dead level, there could be no running streams or ours, than that these bodies should be of the same
conveyance for the waters, and they would either size, have the same diversity of objects on their
stagnate in large masses or overflow immense surface, or be accompanied with the same number
tracts of land. Hence it has been arranged by  of moons.
the wisdom of Providence.that mountains should   It is not likely that our atmosphere is precisely
exist over all our globe, and that every country  in the same state as at the first creation.  Its inshould enjoy the numerous benefits which such vigorating powers had then an influence sufficient
an arrangement is fitted to produce.             to prolong human existence to a period of a thouAs mountains, then, are part of the arrange- sand years; but, since the change it underwent at
ments of other globes in the solar system, and as the deluge, the period of human life has dwindled
they are essentially requisite in such a world as -down to little more than "threescore years and
ours, they may serve similar and even more im- ten." The present constitution of our atmosphere,
portant purposes in other worlds. In some of the therefore, ought not to be considered as a model
planets they appear to be more elevated and of by which to judge of the nature and properties of
greater dimensions than on the earth. -Although  the atmospheres of other worlds. Their atmothe moon is much less in size tlian our globe, yet spheres may be so pure and transparent as to ensome of- its mountains are reckoned to be five able their inhabitants to penetrate much farther
miles in perpendicular hight. Some of the moun- into space thanwe can do, and to present to them
tains on Venus are estimated to, be four, times the heavenly bodies with more brilliancy and lushigher than even this elevation. We may easily  ter; and the properties with which they are enconceive what an extensive and magnificent pros- dowed may be fitted to preserve their corporeal
pect would be presented:from. the top of such  organs in undecaying vigor, and to raise their
sublime elevations, and what a diversity of objects spirits to the highest pitch of ecstasy, similar to
would be presented to the eye.from one point of some of the effects produced on our frame by




APPLICATION  OF- THE ARGUMENT.                          -       13-1
lnhalinig that gaseous fluid called the nitrous- with no fewer than seventeen of those nocturnal
oxide. There is only one planet whose atmosphere luminaries, and probably with several more which
appears to partake of the impurity and density of'lie beyond the reach of our telescopes.  Our earth
that of the earth, and that is the planet Mars; and has one; and it is not improbable that both Mars
several other circumstances tend to show that it and Venus are attended.by at least one satellite.
bears too near a resemblance to our globe. In These attendants appear to increase in number in
this respect, then, it'gives indication of being a proportion to the distance of the primary planet
habitable world; but several of the other planets from the sun. Jupiter has four such attendants;
may be abodes of greater happiness and splen- Saturn, seven; six have been discovered around
dor, although no-traces of such an appendage can Uranus; but the great difficulty of perceiving
be distinguished by-our telescopes. And this very them, at the immense distance at which we are
circumstance, that their'atmospheres are invisible, placed, leads to the almost certain conclusion that
should lead us to conclude that they are purer and several more exist which have not yet been demore transparent than ours, and that the moral tected. While these satellites revolve round their
and physical condition of their inhabitants is pro- respective planets, and diffuse a mild radiance on
bably superior to what is enjoyed upon earth.   their surfaces in the absence of the sun, they also
3. There is provision made for the distribution serve the same purposes to one another; and their
of light, and heat, and color among all  the planets primaries, at the same time, serve the purpose of
and their satellites. On every one' of these bodies large resplendent moons to every one of their
the sun diffuses a radiance, and, in order that no satellites, beside presenting a diversified and magportion of their surfaces may be deprived of this nificent scene in their nocturnal sky. No satellite
influence.- they appear all to have a motion round has yet been discovered attending the planet Mertheir axes. Light is an essential requisite to every cury, nor is it probable that any such body exists.
wodrld, and color is almost equally indispensable. But we have already shown (pp. 114, 115) that
Without color we should be unable'to perceive Venus and the earth serve the purposes of satelthe forms, proportions,, and aspects of the objects lites to this planet, Venus sometimes appearing
which surround us; we could not distinguish one six times as large, and the earth two or threo
object from  another; all the beauties, varieties, times as large as Venus does to us at the period
and sublimities of nature would be annihilated, of its greatest brilliancy; so that the nights of
and we should remain destitute of the noblest en- Mercury are cheered with a, considerable degree
tertainments of vision. It is color which enlivens of illumination.  Here, then, we perceive an
every scene of nature, which adds a charm  to evident design in such arrangements, which call
every landscape, and gives an air of beauty and have no other ultimate object in view than the
magnificence to the spacious vault of heaven. comfort and gratification of intelligent beings.
Now color exists in the solar rays, without which, For a retinue of moons, revolving around their
or some similar radiance, every object is'either in- primary planets at regular distances and in fixed
visible or wears a uniform aspect. On whatever periods of time, would serve no useful purpose in
object these rays fall, color is produced; they have throwing a faint light on immense deserts, where
the same properties in every part of the system as no sensitive beings, furnished with visual organs,
on our globe, and, therefore, must produce colors were placed to enjoy its benefits; nor, if this were
of various hues on the objects connected with the the case, is it supposable that so much skill and
remotest planets, according to the nature of the accuracy would have been displayed in arranging
substances on which they fall. Light and color, their distances and their periodical revolutions,
then, being essential to every globe intended for which is accomplished with all the accuracy and
the habitation of living beings, abundant provision precision which are displayed in the other departhas been made for diffusing their benign influence ments of the system of nature.
through every part of the planetary system. Heat   The small density of the larger and more reis likewise an agent which appears necessary to mote planets, and the diminution of the weight of
every world, and it is, doubtless, distributed in bodies on their surfaces on this account, and by
due proportions throughout the system, according their rapid rotation on their'axes, appear to be into the nature of the substances of which the plan- stances of design which have a respect to sentient
ets are composed, and the constitution of their beings. The density of Jupiter is little more
inhabitants. But light, and color, and heat are than that of water, and that of Saturn about the
agencies which can only have an ultimate respect density of cork. Were these planets as dense as
to sensitive and intellectual beings; and, therefore, the planet Mercury, or had they even the density
where no such beings exist or are intended to of the earth, organized beings like man would be
exist, no such provision would be made by a wise unable to traverse their surfaces. If the density
and intelligent agent. Such care as appears to of Jupiter, for example, were as great as that of
have been taken for the communication of the the earth, the weight of bodies'on its surface
agencies of light, heat, and color, would never would be eleven times greater than with us; so
have been exercised for the sake of rocks and that a man weighing 160 pounds on the earth
deserts, and scenes of sterility and desolation. would be pressed down on the surface of Jupiter
The existence of light, with all the enchanting with a force equal to one thousand seven hundred
effects it produces, necessarily supposes the exist- and sixty pounds. But the gravity of bodies on
ence of eyes, in order to enjoy its beneficial influ- the surface of this planet is only about twice as
ence; and, therefore, organized beings, endowed great as on the surface of the earth; and this
with visual organs, must exist in all those regions gravitating power is diminished by its rapid rotation
where contrivances have been adapted for its re- on its axis. For the centrifugal force which digular and universal.iffusion;  otherwise the uni- minishes the weight of bodies is sixty-six times
verse might have remained a scene of eternal greater on Jupiter than on the earth, and will redarkness.                                      lieve the inhabitants of one-eighth part of their
4. The principal primary planets are provided weight, which they would otherwise feel if there
with secondary planets or moons, to afford them  were no rotation; so that a body weighing 128
light in the "absence of the sun, as well as to ac- pounds if the planet stood still, would weigh only
complish other important purposes.  The three 112 pounds at its present rate of rotation, which
largest planets of the system are accommodated will afford a sensible relief and diminution of




132                             CELESTIAL SCENERY.
weight (see p. 59, Art. Jupiter)  The same may pose, as that telescopes were constructed to disco.
be said, with some slight modificatiols, in relation ver the colors, shapes, and motions of distant obto Saturn. There must, therefore, have;" been a jects. And as the eye was constructed of a numn
design, or a wise and prospective';ontrivance inl ber of nice and delicate parts for the purpose of
such arrangements,.to suit the e.gencies and to vision, so light was formed for the purpose of
promote the comfort of orga'.ied intelligences; acting upon it and producing the intended effect,
otherwise, had Jupiter and SI turn been as much without the agency of which vision could not be
denser than the earthi as they are: lighter, every produced. The one is exactly adapted to the other:,body would have been riveted to their surfaces for no other substance but light can affect the
with a force which beings like man could never eye-so as to produce vision, and no other organ
have overcome; and moving beings with such or- of sensation is susceptible of the impressions of
ganical parts as-those of men would have had to light, so as to convey a perception of any visible
drag along with them a weight of eight or ten object. In all such cases, the adaptation of one
thousand pounds.                               contrivance to another, and the intention of the
Contriver, are quite apparent.
It is true, indeed, that we cannot pretend to explore all the ends or designs which God may have
In the preceding statements I have endeavored had in view in the formation of any one object or
to show that there'is a general similarity among department' of the universe. For an eternal and
all the bodies of the planetary system, and that omnisciejit Being, whose wisdom is unsearchable,
there are special arrangements which indicate their and whose eye penetrates through all the regions
adaptation to the enjoyment of sensitive and intel- of immensity, may have subordinate designs to
lectual beings. Let us now consider more parti- accomplish, which surpass the limited faculties of
cularly the force of the argument derived from  man, or even of angels, to comprehend. But to
such considerations:                          investigate and to perceive some of the main and
That the Divine Being. has an end in view in leading ends which were designed in the arrangeall his arrangements, and that this end is in com- ment of certain parts of the universe, is so far
plete correspondence with his infinite wisdom and from being presumptuous and unattainable, that it
goodness, and the other perfections of his nature, would be blindness and folly in a/rational creature
is a position which every rational Theist will rea- not to discover them; particularly in such indily admit. That some of the prominent designs stances as those to which we have now alluded,
or general ends which the Deity intended to ac- For it appears to be the intention of the Deity, in
complish may be traced in various departments of displaying. his works to intelligent minds, that
his works, is likewise a position which few  or these works shall exhibit a manifestation of his
none will deny. That design may be inferred attributes, and particularly of his wisdom, goodfrom  its effects, is- a principle which mankind ness, and intelligence; and he has endowed them
generally recognize in their investigations of the with faculties adequate to enable them to perceive
operations both of nature and of art. That man some traces of his footsteps and of the plan of his
would justly be accused -of insanity who, after operations. But while he permits us to perceive
inspecting the. machinery of a well-constructed some of the grand lineaments of his designs, there
clock, and perceiving that it answered the pur- may be numberless minute and subordinate ends'pose of pointing out the divisions of time by which lie beyond the sphere of our investigations.
hours, minutes, and seconds with the utmost ac- Were a peasant brought into the observatory of
curacy, should deny that its various parts were an astronomer, and shown an instrument caIculaformed and arranged for the very purpose which ted to point out the sun's place in the ecliptic, its
the machine so exactly fulfills; at least, that the declination and right ascension, the day of the
pointing out of the hours and minutes was one mollth, &c., and particularly the hour of the day,
of the main and leading objects which the artist it would be presumptuous in such a person' to
-had in view in its construction.  It is a law of'our pretend to ascertain all the intentions of the arnature which w.e cannot resist, that from the ef- tist, or all the uses for which such a machine was
fect the design may be inferred; and that, wher- constructed; but when he beheld the ordinary
ever art or contrivance appears exactly adapted to marks of a sun-dial, and the shadow of the gnoaccomplish a certain end, that end was intended to mon accurately pointing to the hour, he could not
be accomplished. We cannot doubt for a moment fail at once to perceive that this was one principal
of the final causes of a variety of objects and con- end which the contriver had in view. In like
trivances which present themselves to view in the manner, while we evidently perceive'that one
world we inhabit. We cannot err in concluding, principal design of the creation of the sun was
for example, that the ears, legs, and wings of ani- to enlighten the earth and other bodies which
nlals were made for-the purpose of hearing, walk- move around it, it also serves several subordinate
ing, and flying.  On the same principle we are purposes. It directs the course of winds, proled to conclude, that as animals are formed with motes evaporation and the growth of vegetables;
mouths, teeth, and stomachs to masticate and d:i- it retains the planets in their orbits; it kindles
gest their food, so vegetables and other organized combustible  substances by means of convex
bodies were formed for the purpose of affording glasses and concave mirrors; it enables us to
that nourishment which theanimal requires. No measure time by means of dials;, it directs the
one will take upon him to deny that the eye was geographer to determine the elevation of the
intendeid  for the purpose of vision. The coats pole and the latitude of places; it guides the naviand humors of which itis composed, and the mus- gator in his course through the ocean, and even
Cles which move it in every direction, in their its eclipses serve many useful purposes, both in
size, shape, connection, and positions, are so ad- chronology and astronomyeland it may serve simimirably adapted to this end, and the transparency lar or very different purposes with which we are
of the cornea, and the humors, the opacity of the unacquainted, among the inhabitants of other
lvea, and the semi-opacity and concavity of the worlds. All these purposes, and many more of
retina, are so necessary to transmit and refract the which we are ignorant, may have entered into the
"ays of light'in order to distinct vision, that it designs of the almighty Creator, although, in the
appears as evident, it. was designed for this pur- first instance, we mighthave been unable to discover




PLANETS INHABITED.                                     133
or appreciate them.  As "the. works of the Lord as wise, amiable, and adorable, and as "great in
are great," so they must "be sought out," or dili- counsel and mighty in operation."!'  If we beheld
gently investigated, in order that we may clearly an artist exerting his whole- energies, and spendperceive the manifold designs of infinite wisdom.  ing his whole life in constructing a large complex
Let us now apply these principles to the sub- machine which produced merely a successive reject moie immediately before us. We'have seen volution of wheels and pinions, without any usethat, ill the distant bodies of our system, there are ful end whatever in view, however much we might
special contrivances and arrangements, all calcu- extol the ingenuity displayed in some parts of the
lated to promote the enjoyment of myriads of in- machine, we could not help viewing him as a fool
telligent agents. We have presented befqre us a or a maniac in bestowing so much labor and exmost august and astonishing assemblage of means; pense to no purpose. For it is the end orl design
and if' the Contriver of the:universe is possessed intended which leads us to'infer the wisdom of the
of wisdom, there must be an end proportionate to artist in the means employed. And shall we conthe utility and grandeur of the means provided. sider the ALL-WISE AND ADORABLE CREATOR, OF THE
Arrangements nearly similar, but much inferior UNIVERSE as acting in a similar manner? The
in point of extent and magnificence, have been thought would be impious, blasphemous, and abmade in relation to the globe on which we live. surd. It is onlywhen we recognize the Almighty
We know the final cause, or, at least, one of the as displaying infinite wisdom in all his arrangeprincipal designs for which it was created, namely, ments throughout creation, and boundless benefito support sensitive and intellectual beings, and to'cencein diffusing happinessamong countless ranks
contribute to their enjoyment. If, then, the Cre- of intelligent existence, that we. perceive him  to
ator acts on the same principle-in other words, be worthy of our admiration -and gratitude, and
if he displays the same intelligence-in other re-  of ourhighest praises and adorations. We are,
"gions of the universe as he does in our, world, we therefore, irresistibly led to the conclusion, that
must admit that'the -planetary globes are furnished the planets are the abodes of intelligent beings,
with rational inhabitants. There is one essential since every requisite arrangement has been made
attribute which enters into all our conceptions of for their enjoyment. This is a conclusion which
the Divine Being, namely, that he is possessed of is not merely probable, but absolutely certain; for
infinite wisdom. This perfection'of his nature is the opposite opinion would rob the Deity of the
displayed in all the general arrangements he has most distinguishing attribute of his nature, by
made in this lower world, where we find one part virtually denying him the perfection of infinite
nicely adapted to another, and everything  so wisdom and intelligence.
balanced and arranged as to promote the comfort
of sentient beings. In consequence of His being
possessed of this perfection, He must be considered,
fMi all His operations throughout the immensity              S E C TION  I V.
Df:space, as proportionating the means to the end,
and selecting the best meanspossible for the ac-   ARGUMENT IV. The scenery of the heavens as
complishment of any design; for in such contri- viewed from the surfaces of the larger planets
vances and operations true wisdom consists.    and their satellites, forms a presumptive proof that
But now let us suppose for a moment that the both the planets and their moons are inhabited by
vast regions on the surfaces of the planets -are intellectual beings.
only immense and frightful deserts, devoid of in-   In the preceding chapter I have described at
habitants; wherein does the wisdom of the Creator some length the celestial phenomena of the plaappear on this supposition?  For what purpose nets, both primary and secondary. From these
serves the grand apparatus of rings and moons descriptions it appears that the most glorious and
~ for adorning their sky and reflecting light on their magnificent scenes are displayed in the firmament
hemispheres?  Why are they made to perform  of the remoter planets, and particularly in those
annual and diurnal revolutions, and not fixed in of their satellites.  Even the firmament of the
the same points of infinite space?  Why are the moon is more striking and sublime than ours.
larger and remoter planets furnished with more But in the firmaments of some of the satellites
moons than those which are nearer the source of of Jupiter and Saturn theie are celestial scenes
light?  Why are their firmaments diversified with peculiarly grand and splendid, surpassing everyso many splendid and magnificent objects?  Why thing which the imagination can well represent,
is their surface arranged into mountains and vales? and these scenes diversified almost every hour.'Why has so much contrivance been displayed in What should we think of a globe appearing in
devising means for the illumination of every por- our nocturnal sky 1300 times larger than the aption of their surfaces, and diffusing over them a parent size of the moon, and every hour assuming
variety of' colors? The answers to such questions a different aspect? of five or six bodies twenty or
would, then, be, to illuminate an immense numrber thirty times larger than our moon appears, all in
of dreary wastes, and to produce days and nights, rapid motion, and continually changing their phaand a variety of seasons, for the sole benefit of in- ses and their apparent magnitudes?  What should
terminable deserts, or, at most, of mountains of we think of a globe filling the twentieth part' of
marble or rocks of diamonds; to afford them light the sky, and surrounded with immense rings, in
enough to see to keep their orbits, lest they might rapid motion, diffusing a radiance over the whole
miss their way in the pathless spaces through which heavens?' When Jupiter' rises to his satellites,
they move!'Is'such an apparatus requisite for and especially when Saturn and his rings rise to
such a purpose?  Would this be an end worthy of his nearest moons, a wholequarter of the heavens
INFINITE WISsDoM? Would it at all correspond with will appear in one blaze of light.  At other times,
the dignity and granideur of the means employed? when the sun is eclipsed, or when the dark sides
Would it comport with the boundless intelligence of- these globes are turned to the- spectator, the
of Him "who formed the earth by his wisdom, starry firmament will open a new scene of wonand stretched out the heavens by His understand- ders, and planets andcomets be occasionally beheld
ing?"' To maintain such'a position would be to in their courses through the distant regions' of
distort the Divine character, and to'uundermine all space.
the conceptions we ought to'form  of the Deity,   The sublime and magnificent scenes displayed




134.CELESTIAL SCENERY'
in those regions, the diversified objects presented  ganization of animated existences, in the various
to view; the incessant changes in their phases parts of which they are composed, in the adaptaand aspects; the rapidity -of their. apparent mo- tion of one part or organ to another, in their diftions; and the. difficulty of determining- the real ferent functions, and the multifarious movements
motions and relative positions of the bodies in the of- which they are susceptible, without taking
firmament, and the true system of -the world, lead into consideration the soul that animates them,
us to the conclusion that the- globes to which we there is a display of the most admirable mechanallude are replenished, not merely with sensitive, ism and the nicest contrivance, which is not to be
but with intellectual beings.  For such sublime found in earth or stones, in rocks of diamonds, or
and interesting scenes cannot affect inanimate even in the figure of a planet and its motion
matter, nor even mere sentient. beings such as round, the sun.
exist in our world; and we cannot. suppose that   Hence we find that the world in which we livo
the Creator would fornm such magnificent arrange- teems with animated existence. Man is the prinlments to be beheld and studied by no rational be- cipal inhabitant, for whose use and accommocaings capable of appreciating their grandeur and' tion, chiefly, the terraqueous globe was formed
feeling delight in. their contemplation. If crea- and arranged. Had not the Creator intended to
tion was intended as a display of the perfections place upon its surface beings endowed with raand grandeur of the Divine Being, there must ex- tional faculties, capable of enjoying happiness and
ist intelligent minds to whom such a display is recognizing the perfections. of its author, it is'exhibited; otherwise the material universe cannot not probable that it would have been created.Answer this end, and might, so far as such a design  "God made man in his own image," "and gave
is concerned, have remained forever shut up in  him dominion over the fish of the sea, over the
the recesses of the Eternal Mind. Such -scenes fowls of the air, and over every living thing that mo-,could not have been intended merely for the in- veth upon the earth." After the light was formed,
struction or gratification of the inhabitants of the bed of the ocean prepared, and the waters sethe earth.  For no one of its population has parated from the dry land; after luminaries were
yet beheld them  from  that point of view  in  placed in the firmament, and plants and animals
which their grandeur is displayed, and not one of all kinds brought into existence, the world apout of a hundred  thousand yet knows that peared so magnificently adorned that it might
such objects exist. We are, therefore, irresist- have been thought perfect and complete. Butall
ibly led to the conclusion that intelligent minds nature was yet destitute of sentiment and grati.
exist in the regions of Jupiter, Saturn, and Ura- tude; there were no beings capable of recognizing
nus, for whose pleasure and gratification these  the Power that formed them, or of praising the
sublime scenes were created.and arranged. Those Author of their varied enjoyments. The world
minds, too, in all probability, are endowed with  was still in a state of imperfection, until an intelfaculties superior in intellectual energy and acu- ligence was formed capable of appreciating the
men to those of the inhabitants of our globe. For perfections of the Creator, of contemplating his
the rapidity and complexity of the motions pre- works, and of offering to him a tribute of grateful
sented in the firmament of some of the satellites adoration. Therefore " God created man -in his
of Jupiter and Saturn, the variety of objects ex- own image," as the masterpiece of creation, the
hibited to view, and the frequent and rapid chan- visible representative of his Maker, and the subges of their phases and apparent magnitudes, are ordinate ruler of this lower world.
-such as to require the exertion of intellectual fac-   But although this globe was created chiefly for
ulties more powerful and energetic than ours in  the residence of man, it was not destined solely for
order to determine the real motions and positions his enjoyment. It is impossible for him to occupy
of'the globes around them, and to ascertain the the whole of its surface, or of the appendages with
order of the planetary system of which they form  which  it is connected.  There are extensive
a part. And it is likewise probable that their or- marshes, impenetrable forests, deep caverns, and
gans of- vision are more acute and penetrating  the more elevated parts of lofty mountains, where
than those of men; otherwise they will never be human feet have never trod. There is a vast body
able to discover either the earth, Mars, Mercury, of water which covers more than two-thirds of
or Venus, and, consequently, may suppose that the surface of the globe, and the greater part of
such bodies have no existence.                 the atmosphere which surrounds the earth, which
men cannot occupy as permanent abodes. Yet
these regions of our world are not left destitute
of inhabitants. Numerous tribes of animals range
S E C T I O N V.                through the uncultivated deserts, and find ample
accommodation suited to their nature, in rocks
ARGUMENT V. The doctrine of a plurality of and mountains, in dens and caves of the earth.-worlds may be argued from the consideration that, The regions of the air are filled with winged creain the world.we inhabit, every part of nature is tures of every kind, from  the ostrich and the:destined to the support of animated beings.   eagle to the numerous tribes of flying insects alThere is, doubtless, a certain degree of pleasure  most invisible to the unassisted eve. The ocean
in contemplating the material world, and survey- teems with myriads of inhabitants which no man
ing the various forms into which matter has been can number, of every form  and size, from  the
wrought and arranged, particularly in the admi- mighty whale to the numerous tribes of Medusce,
rable structure and movements of systems of of which several thousands of billions are conbodies such as those which compose the planetary  tained in a cubical mile of water. Every sea,
system. But there is something still more inter- lake, and river is peopled with inhabitants; every
esting and wonderful presented to the mind when  mountain and marsh, every wilderness and wood
we contemplate the worlds of life. The material is plentifully stocked with birds and beasts, and
world is only, as, it were, the shell of the universe, numerous species of insects, all of which find
the mere substratum  of thought and sensation; ample accommodation, and everything necessary
living beings are its inhabitants, for whose sake for their comfort and subsistence. In short, every
alone. matter is valuable, and for whose enjoy- part of matter appears to be peopled; almost every
meaen it appears to have been created...n the or- green leaf and every particle of dust has its peculiar




MULTITUDE  OF LIVING  BEINGS.                                135
I}nbeh} Its.  Not only  tre the larger parts similar marks of intelligence are to be found in
of:natvre occupied with living beings, but even  other regions of the:universe?  Such conclusions
the most minute portions of matter teem with  can never be admitted, unless we suppose that
animated existence.  Every plant and shrub-, and  infinite wisdom and goodness have been exhausted
almost every drop of water, contains its respective in the arrangements which have been made in reinhabitants. Their number, in some instances, is latiot to our world, or that the Great Source of
so great, and their minuteness so astonishing, that felicity is indifferent about the communication of
thousands of them are connected within a space happiness.
not larger than a grain of sand. In some small   As far as our, observation extends, it appears
pools covered with a greenish scum, of only a few  that the material world is useless, except in the
yards in extent, there are more -living: creatures relation it bears to animated and intellectual bethan there are human beings on the surface of the ings. Matter was evidently framed for the purwhole earth.                                   pose of mind; and if we could suppose that the
Multitudes of animated beings are found in vast masses of matter in the heavens had no rela*situations and circumstances where we should  tion to mind, they must, then,have been created in
never have expected to perceive the principle of vain; a supposition which would derogate from the
life. The juices of animals and plants, corrupted  moral character and the perfections of Him who
matter, excrements, smoke, dry wood, the bark  is "the only wise God."  A superior nature canand roots of trees, the bodies of other animals, not be supposed to-be formed for the sake of an
and, even their entrails, the.dung-hill, and the dir- inferior. A skillful artist would never think of
ty puddle, the itch, and other disorders which are designing -that which is of the greatest dignity,
attended with blotches and pimples, and even the or which requires the utmost precision and the
hardest stones and rocks, serve to lodge, and in nicest mechanism, for the sake of the inferior
some measure to feed numerous tribes of living part of his workmanship.  He does not construct
beings. The number- of such creatures exceeds the wheels and pinions of an orrery for the sake
all human calculation and conception.  There  of the handle by which they are moved, or of the
may be reckoned far more than a hundred thou- pedestal on which the instrument stands; nor does
sand species of animated beings, many of these he contrive a timepiece merely for the sake of
species containing individuals to the amount of the shell or case in which it is to be inclosed. In
several hundreds of times the number of the hu- like manner, we cannot imagine that man was
man inhabitants of our globe. It is supposed by made for the sake of the brutes, or the inferior
some that the tremulous motion observed in the animals for the sake of vegetables, or the yearly
air during summer may be produced. by millions production of vegetables for the relief and comof insects swarming in the atmosphere; and it has fort of the soil on which they grow. This would
been found that the light which is seen on the,be to invert the order of the universe, and to insurface of the ocean during the nights of summer volve us in the most palpable absurdity.  The
is owing to an innumerable multitude of small order of things always rises upward, by gentle
luminous worms or insects sporting in the waters. and  regular degrees, from  inanimate matter,
All the numberless species of animals which ex- through all the gradations of vegetable, animal,
ist on the different departments of our globe are and immaterial existence; until we arrive at the
likewise infinitely diversified in their forms, or- Eternal and Incomprehensible Divinity. Hence
gans, senses, members, faculties, movements, and it appears that the earth must have been formed,
gradations of excellence. As Mr. Addison has not for itself, but for the sake of the- vegetable,
observed, " the whole chasm of nature, from  a sensitive, and intellectual beings it supports; and,
plant to a man, is filled up with divers kinds of by a parity of reasoning, the planets, most of
creatures rising one above another by such a gentle which are much more spacious and more magniand easy ascent, that the little transitions and de- ficently adorned, must have been formed and arviations from one species to another are almost in- ranged for the sake of superior natures.'sensible. This intermediate space is so well hus-   "Existence," as a certain writer has observed,
banded and managed, that there is scarce a degree "; is a blessing to those beings only which are inof perception which does not appear in some one dued with perception, and is, in a manner, thrown
part of the world of life."  Here we have an evi- away upon dead matter, any further than as it is
dence both of the infinite wisdom  and intelli- subservient to beings which are conscious of their
gence of the Divine Being, and of his boundless existence."  Accordingly we find,from the bodies
goodness in conferring existence and happiness on which lie under our observation, that matter is
such a countless multitude of percipient beings.   only made as the basis and support of living beSince, then, it appears that every portion of ings, and that there is little more of the one than
matter in our world was intended for the support what is necessary for the existence and the ample
and accommodation of animated beings, it would  accommodation of the other. The earth, as to
be absurd in the highest degree, and inconsistent amplitude of space, would contain a' hundred
with the character of the Deity' and his general times the number of animated beings it actually
plan of operation, to suppose that the vast regions supports; and the ocean might perhaps contain
of the planets, so exceedingly more expansive thousands more.. than what are found amid its
than our globe. are left destitute'of inhabitants.-  recesses; but, in such a case, they would not
Shall one small planet be thus crowded with a have free scope for their movements, nor experience
population of percipient beings of all descriptions, all the comforts and accommodations they now
and shall regions four hundred times more expan- enjoy.
sive beleft without one living inhabitant?  Can    From what has been stated, it appears that the
the Deity delight to communicate enjoyment in Divine Goodness is of so communicative a nature
so many thousands of varied forms-to unnumber- that it seems to delight in conferring existence and
ed myriads'of sensitive existences in our terres- happiness on every order of perceptive beings,
trial-sphere, and leave the noblest planets of the and therefore, has left no part connected with the
system without a single trace of his benevolence? world in which we live without its inhabitants;
Uan we suppose, -for a moment,'that while his and that no creature capable of feeling the pleawisdom shines so conspicuous in the mechanism  sure of existence might be omitted in the plan of
of the various tribes of animals around us, no benevolence, there Is an almost infinite diversity




136                                CELESTIAL SCENERY.
in the rank and order of percipient existence.- some of the planets of our system there are inteiThe scale of sensitive b6ing begins with those lectual natures far superior, in point of mental
creatures which are raisedjust above dead matter. vigor and capacity, to the brightest geniuses that
Commencing at the polypus,and certain species have ever appeared upon earth; and in other sysof shell-fish, it ascends by numerous gradations tems of creation the scale of spiritual progression
until it arrives at main. How far it may ascend may be indefinitely extended far beyond the limits
beyond this point is beyond the limits of our to which human imagination can penetrate.  Inl
knowledge to determine. Had only one species the contemplation of such scenes of percipient
-of animals been created\ none of the rest would and intelligent existence, we perceive no boundahave enjoyed the pleasures of existence. But in ries to the prospect; the mind is overwhelmed
the existing state of things, all nature is full of amid the immensity of being, and feels itself unaenjoyment, and that enjoyment endlessly diversi- ble to grasp the plans of Eternal Wisdom, and the
fled, according to the rank and the percipient pow- innumerable gradations of intelligence over which
ers of the different species of animated existence. the moral government of the Deity extends; and)
It would, therefore, be a reflection on the goodness therefore, we may justly conclude wonders of
as well as on the wisdom  of the Divine Being, power, wisdom, and benevolence still remain for
were we to suppose that no traces of Divine bene-  the admiration of intellectual beings, which the
ficence were to be found amid the expansive re- scenes of eternity alone can disclose.
gions of the planetary globes. It would form a   Intellectual beings may likewise be distinguishperfect contrast to -the operations of Infinite Be- ed into those which are linked to mortal, and those'nevolence, as displayed in our terrestrial system, which are connected with immortal bodies.  In the
and would almost lead us to conclude that the present state of our terrestrial system immortal bosame Almighty Agent did' not preside in both dies cannot exist. Had immortality been intended
these departments of the universe., But we may for man on earth, Infinite Wisdom  would have
rest assured that the Deity always acts in harmony  adopted another plan; for the constitution of the'with his character throughout every part of his earth, the atmosphere, and the waters, is not
dominions; and, therefore, we may confidently  adapted to the support and preservation of immorconclude that countless multitudes of sensitive tal beings; that is, of those intelligences which
and intellectual beings, far raore numerous and inhabit a system of corporeal organization. From
diversified than on'earth, people the planetary the reciprocal action of solids and fluids, of earth,
regions.                                         air, and water, life results; and this very action
From what has been stated on this subject, we continued, according to the laws which now opemay likewise conclude with certainty that the rate, is the natural cause of death, or the dissoluplanetary worlds are not peopled merely with ani- tion of the corporeal system. But in other worlds
mal existences, but also with rational and intellect- a system of means may be adapted for preserving
ual natures. For the scenes displayed in most of in perpetual activity, and to an indefinite durathe planets cannot be appreciated by mere sensi- tion, the functions of the corporeal machine which
tive beings, nor are they calculated to afford them  is animated by the intellectual principle; as would
any gratification.  Beside, if it be one great de- probably have happened in the case of man, had
sign of the Creator to manifest the glory of his he retilned his original moral purity and his anile-perfections to other beings, none but those who glance to his Maker.  Intelligent beings may
are furnished with rational faculties are capable likewise exist which are destined to pass from one
of recognizing his attributes as displayed in his state of corporeal organization to another, in a
works, and of offering to him a tribute of thanks- long series of changes, advancing from one degree
giving and adoration.  Such  intelligences, we of corporeal perfection to another, until their orhave every reason to believe, may far surpass the ganical vehicles become as pure and refined as
human race' in their intellectual powers and ca- light, and susceptible of the same degree of rapid
pacities. There is an infinite gap between man motion.  The butterfly is first an egg, then a
and the Deity, and we have no reason to believe worm, afterward it becomes a chrysalis, and it is
that it is entirely unoccupied. There is a regular not before. it has burst its confinement, that i'
gradation from inanimate matter and vegetative wings its flight, in gaudy colors, through the air
life through all the varieties of animal existence Man is destined to burst his mortal coil, to enter'until we arrive at man. But we have no reason a new vehicle, and at last to receive a body " into believe that the ascending scale terminates at corruptible, powerful, glorious, and immortal."the point of the human faculties, unless we sup- Varieties analogous to these may exist throughout
pose that the soul of man is the most perfect in- other regions of the universe. If there are not in
telligence next to the Divinity. If the scale of nature two leaves precisely alike, or two trees,
being rises by such a regular process to man,-by two cabbages, two caterpillars, or two men and
a parity of reasoning we may suppose that it still women exactly similar in every point of view in
proceeds gradually through those beings that are which they may be contemplated, how can we
endowed with superior faculties; since there is an suppose that there can be two planets or two sysimmensely greater space between man and the tems of planets exactly alike, or that the corpoDeity than between man and the lowest order of real organs and faculties of their inhabitants in
sensitive existence.  And although we were to every respect resemble each other?  Every globe
conceive the scale of intellectual existence above and every system  of worlds has doubtless its pec
man rising thousands of times higher than that culiar economy, laws, productions, and inhabitwhich intervenes between inanimate matter and ants.  This conclusion is warranted from all that
the human soul, still there would be an infinite we know of the operations of the Creator; it exdistance between the highest created intelligence hibits, in a striking point of view, the depths of
and the Eternal Mind which could never be over- his wisdom and intelligence, and it opens to impassed.  It is quite accordant with all that we mortal beings a prospect boundless as immensity,
know of the perfections and operations of the in the contemplation of which their faculties may
Deity to conclude that such a progression of in- be forever exercised, and their views of the wontellectual beings exists throughout thi, universe; ders of Creating Power and wisdom  continually
and, therefore, we have reason to believe that in extending, while myriads of ages roll away.




APPENDIX.                                        1 37
In the preceding pages I have endeavored to empire, and the harmonious operation of his infiillustrate the doctrine of a plurality of worlds, nite perfections.  Without taking this dctrineO
from the considerations that there are bodies in into account, we can form no consistent views of
the planetary system of such magnitudes as to af- the character of Omnipotence and of the arrangeford'ample scope for myriads of inhabitants; that ments which exist in the universe. Both his wisthere is a general similarity among all the bodies dom and his goodness might be called in question,
of the system, which affords a presumptive evi- and an idea of the Supreme Ruler presented aldence that they are intended to subserve the same together different from what is exhibited by the
ultimate designs; that, connected with the planets, inspired writers in the records of Revelation.there are special arrangements which indicate their When, therefore, we lift our eyes to the heavens,
adaptation to the enjoyment of sensitive and in- and contemplate the mighty globes which roll
tellectual beings; that the scenery of the heavens, around us; when we consider that their motions
as viewed from the surfaces of the larger planets are governed by the same common laws, and that
and their satellites, forms a presumptive proof of they are so constructed as to furnish accommodathe same position; and that the fact that every tion for myriads of perceptive existence, we ought
part of nature in our world is destined to the sup- always to view them as the abodes of intelligence
port of animated beings, affords a powerful argu- and the theaters of Divine Wisdom  on which
ment in Support of this doctrine. These argu- the Creator displays his boundless beneficence;
ments, when viewed in all their bearings, and in for " his tender mercies," or the emanations of his
connection with the wisdom and benevolence of goodness, "are diffused over all his works."  Such
the Divine Being, may be considered as amount- views alone can solve a thousand doubts which
ing to moral demonstrations that the planets and may arise in our minds, and free us from a thoutheir satellites, as well as other departments of the sand absurdities which we must otherwise enter.
universe, are the abodes of sensitive and intelli- tain respecting the Great Sovereign of the unigent natures. These, however, are not all the con- verse. Without adopting such views, the science
siderations or arguments which might be brought of the heavens becomes a comparatively barren
forward in proof of this position. Many others, and uninteresting study, and the splendor of the
founded on a consideration of the nature and re- nocturnal sky conveys no ideas of true sublimity
lations of things, and the attributes of the Divinity, and grandeur, nor is it calculated to inspire the
and particularly some powerful arguments derived  soul with sentiments of love and adoration. In
from the records of Revelation, might have been  short, there appears to be no medium between restated and particularly illustrated.  But I shall maining in ignorance of all the wonders of Power
leave the further consideration of this topic to an- and Wisdom which appear in the heavens, and
other volume, in which we shall take a survey of acquiescing in the general, views we -have attemptthe scenery of the starry firmament,and of-other ed to illustrate respecting the economy of the
objects connected with the science of the heavens. planets, and their destination as the abodes of reaOn the whole, the doctrine of a plurality of son and intelligence.  But, when such views are
worlds is a subject of considerable importance, recognized, the bodies in the heavens become the
and in which every rational being, who is con- noblest objects of human contemplation, the Deivinced of his immortal destination, is deeply in- ty appears invested with a character truly amiable
terested. It opens to our view a boundless pros- and sublime, and a prospect is opened to immortal.
pect of knowledge and felicity beyond the limits beings of a perpetual increase of knowledge and
of the present world, and displays the ineffable felicity, throughout all the revolutions of an ingrandeur of the Divinity, the magnificence of his terminable existence.
APPEN D I X.
PHENOMENA OF THE PLANETS FOR THE YEARS 1838, 1839.
Fon the sake of those readers who may feel a eastern elongation, when it is 1914 degrees east
desire occasionally to contemplate the heavens aid  from the sun, and will be seen in the evening about
to trace the motions of the planetary orbs, the fol- thirty or forty minutes after sunset, near the southlowing sketches are given of the positions and mo- west, at a little distance from the point where the
tions of the planets for two years posterior to 1837. sun went down. But as it is then in 20~ 41' of
south declination, its position is not the most favorable for observation. Its next greatest elongation'       is on February 12, when it is 260 10' to the west
POSITIONS, ETC., OF TIIE PLANETS FOM 1838.    of the sun, and will be seen in the morning, be.
fore sunrise, near the south-eastern quarter of the
1. The Planet Mercury.             horizon. April 25 it will again be seen in the
evening at the eastern elongation, 200 20' east of
This planet can be seen distinctly by the naked the sun, when it is in 210 43' of north declination.'
eye only about the time of its greatest elongation; It will be seen at this time about 15 degrees north
and to those who reside in northern latitudes it of the western point of the horizon, almost imme.
will scarcely be visible, even at such periods, if it diately above the place where the sun went down.
be near the utmost point of its southern declina- During five days before and after the time now
tion.                                          specified there will be favorable opportunities for
The following are the periods of its'greatest detecting Mercury with the naked eye or with a
elongation for 1838: January the 3d it is at its small opera-glass.  On June 12 is its greatest




138                                CELESTIAL SCENERY.
western elongation, at which time it is 230~ 5' west from the fixed stars and'from the other planets by
of the sun, and is' to be looked for in the 7norning, its ruddy appearance.
before sunrise, near the north-eastern part of the
horizon; but the strong twilight at this season'will  4. The Planets Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas.
probably prevent it from:being distinguished by
These planets are not perceptible by the naked
the naked eye. Its next greatesteastern elongation eye. The best time for observing them with teleis on August 23, when it is 2714 degrees from the
scopes is when they are at or near the period of
sun.  It will be seen, for nearly an hour after sun- their opposition to the sun, when they are nearest
set, a little to the -south of the western point of to the earth, and even then it will be difficult to dethe compass, and a few degrees above the horizon, tect them without the assistance of transit or
It may be seei during ten or twelve days before equatorial instruments.
the period here stated, and six or eight, days after   Vesta will be in opposition to the sun on the
it. This will form one of the most favorable pe- 29th December, its right ascension  being 6h. 31'
riods which: occur throughout -this year for ob- 47", and its declination 220 412' north. At midserving Mercury. October 4 it will' again-be at lnight it will be due south, at an elevation of 60
its greatest western elongation', when it will be degrees above the horizon, in the latitude of 52
seen in the morning in a direction nearly due east. degrees north, about 15 degrees to the south-west
December 17 it is at its greatest eastern elonga- of the star Pollux, and 7r) degrees north of Gamtion, but its southern declination being then more ma Gemini.
than 24 degrees, it will set in the S. W. by S.   Juno is in opposition on the 17th June, in
point of the compass a few minutes after the sun, right ascension 17h. 461', and south declination
and will consequently be invisible to the naked 410o.  It will be on the meridian at midnight, at
eye.                                             an elevation of 33/2 degrees above the southern
The periods most favorable for detecting this horizon.
planet in the eveninys are April 25 and August 23;   Neither Ceres nor Pallas will be in opposition
and in the mornings, February 12 and October 4. to the sun during this year.
During the interval of a week or ten days, both
before and after the time of greatest elongation, the          5. The PlanetJupiter.
planet may generally be seen in a clear sky, when
in such favorable positions as those now stated.    This planet will make a very conspicuous appearance in the heavens during the winter and
2. The Planet Venus.                spring months. About the beginning of January
it will rise, a little'to the north of the eastern
This planet will appear as an evening star du- point of the horizon, a few  minutes after ten
ring the months of January and February. About o'clock in the evening, and will pass the meridithe beginning of January it will be seen near the an, at an elevation of 431 degrees, about half past
south-West quarter of the heavens a few minutes four in the morning. About the middle of Febafter sunset.  About the'beginning of February it ruary it will rise about seven in the evening,
will set nearly due west. It will be visible in the nearly in the same direction, and will come to the
evening until about the 25th of February, after meridian about half past one in the morning. —
which its nearness to the sun will prevent it from  During the months of January and February it
being distinguished.  Throughout- the whole of will be seen either in the evenings or the mornits course during these two months it will appear ings. About the middle of January it will be
of the figure of a crescent when viewed with a seen, in  a  south-westerly direction, about six
telescope, and the crescent will appear most slen- o'clock in the morning.  From the beginning of
der about the end of February (see Fig. 12, p. 31). March until the end of August it will be seen in
On March 5 it passes its inferior conjunction with the evenings without interruption when the sky
the sun, after which it will be no longer seen in is clear. On the 22d September it is in conjuncthe evenings for the space of ten months. It then tion with the sun, but it will seldom  be noticed
becomes a morning star; and, about eight days for a month before this period.  During  the
after its conjunction, will be seen in the morning, months of November and December it will be
before sunrise, a little to the south of the eastern again seen in the east, only in the morning, some
point of the horizon.  From  this period until time before the rising of the sun.
near the middle of May it will appear of a cres-   This planet can scarcely be mistaken, as it is
cent form. Its greatest brilliancy will be on April next to Venus in apparent magnitude and splen10; its greatest elongation from the sun on May dor. It will appear most brilliant about the be14, when it will appear of nearly the form  of a ginning of March, when it is in opposition to the
half moon, and its superior conjunction on De- sun, and its satellites and belts will present an
cember 18, soon'after which it will again be seen interesting sight when viewed with a good teleas an evening star.                              scope. At present (November 22, 1837), four
The brilliancy of this planet is such that it can belts, nearly equidistant from each other, are disscarcely be mistaken by any observer, especially tinctly visible with a power of 200 times.  Their
when its position in the heavens is pointed out.   appearance is very nearly similar to what is represented in Fig. 56, p. 64, so that a considerable
3. The Planet Mars.               change has taken place in their appearance since
last June, when they appeared nearly as in Fig.
This planet will not be much noticed by com- 52, p. 61. At that time the middle belt was the
mnon obsei vers until near the end of the year.- only one easily perceptible, while the other two,
About the beginning of March it is in coljunc- at the north and south extremities, appeared extion with the sun, when it is -farthest from  the tremelyfaint and obscure.  At present all the four
earth, about a month or two before and after belts are distinctlynmarked.
which period it is scarcely distinguishable from a
small star. From  April to December it will be                6. The Planet Saturn.
visible only in the morning, in an easterly direction; but its apparent  size will gradually increase    This planet passed its conjunction with the sun
until the end of the year.  It is distinguished'on the 12th November, 1837. Froln the begin



APPENDIX.                                          139
ning of the year until about-the middle of April west of the sun. It will be seen near the southit will -be visible chiefly in the mornings. On the east a little before seven in the morning. On thie
first- of January it will rise near the south-east, seventh of April, and a few days before and after
about twenty minutes pasti four in the morning, it, it will be seen in the evening in a direction
and will pass the meridian about forty-eight mi- west by north. On the 24th of May it will be
nutes past eight, at an elevation of 21 degrees seen in the morning, in a direction a little to the
above the southern horizon. - On the first of north of the eastern point, before sunrise.  Its
April it will rise at half past ten in the evening, next elongation will happen on the fifth of Auand about midnight will be seen near the south- gust, when it is twenty-seven and one-third deeast about ten or twelve degrees above the hori- grees distant from the sun.  At this period, and a
zon. From this period Saturn will be visible in  fortnight before and a little after, it will be seen
the evenings until near the end of October, rising  near tile west point, or a little north of it, about
every evening at an earlier hour than onl the pre- nine o'clock in the evening or a few minutes beceding. On the 16th May it is in opposition to  fore it. This will be a favorable opportunity fox
the sun, when it will rise near the south-east at distinguishing this planet with the naked eye.  It
half past seven, and come to the meridian at -mid- will be again seen in the morning, about five o'night. During the months of August, Septem- clock, a little to the north of the east point, on
her, and October, it will be seen chiefly  in the September 18. Its next greatest elongation will
south-west quarter of the heavens after sunset, at a be on the 30th of November, when it will appear
small elevation above the horizon.  It will be very  in a direction south-west-by-south about the time
perceptible during September and October, on ac- of sunset. This will be a very unfavorable posicount of its low altitude at sunset. It will be in  tion for attempting to distinguish Mercury.  It
conjunction with the sun on the 24th November. passes its inferior conjunction with the sun on the
This planet is not distinguished for its brilliancy  18th December.
to the naked eye, though it exhibits a beautiful
appearance through the telescope. It is of a dull                   2. Venus.
leaden color, and is not easily distinguished from
a fixed star except by the steadiness of its light,   This planet will be an evening star from  the
never presenting a twinkling appearance as the  beginning of the year until 6th October, when it
stars do, and from which circumstance it may be passes its inferior conjunction with the sun. It
distinguished from neighboring stars. The best will not, however, be much noticed until about
times for telescopic observations on this planet the beginning of March, on account of its nearwill be in the months of April and May, when its ness to the sun and its southern declination.  It
ring will appear nearly as represented in Fig. 63, will appear most brilliant during the months of
p. 71.                                           May, June, July, August, and beginning of September, when it will be seen at a considerable elevation in the western and north-western quarter
This planet is, for the most part invisible to the  of the heavens a few minutes after sunset. About
naked eye. The best time for detecting it by means the middle of October, or a few days before, it
of a telescope, is when it is at or near the period will appear as a morning star near the south-eastern
of its opposition to the sun, which happens on the  quarter of the sky, and will continue as a morn3d September.  At that time it passes the merid- ing star until near the end of the year.
ian at midnight, at an elevation of about 3013 degrees above the horizon.  It is situated nearly in                   3. Mars.
a straight line between the star Fomalhaut on the
south and Markab on the north, being nearly in    During the months of February, March, and
the middle of the line, about 2212 degrees dis- April, this planet will appear in its greatest luster.
tant from  each.  It is in the neighborhood of It will be in opposition to the sun on the 12th
several telescopic stars. On account of its slow  March, at which period it is nearest to the earth,
motion, its position in respect to the above stars and will appear twenty-five times larger in sur
will not be much altered for a month or two. On  face than in the opposite part of its orbit. At this
the 1st of November it passes the meridian at period it will rise about half past five in the eveeight o'clock in the evening. Its right ascension, ning, a little to the north of the east point, ana
or distance from the first point of Aries, is then  will come to the meridian at midnight, at an alti22h. 42' and its declination 90 4' south.        tude of forty-five degrees. It will be easily distirguished from the neighboring stars by its size
N. B.-In the above statements the observer is and its ruddy appearance. At this time the planet
supposed to be in fifty-two degrees north latitude. Jupiter will appear in a direction about twentyIn places a few degrees to the north or south of two degrees south-east of Mars. From the month
this latitude, a certain allowance must be made of May until the end of the year Mars will be
for the times of rising, and the altitudes which are visible in the evenings, but its apparent size will
here specified. To those who reside in lower lati- be gradually diminishing, and, on account of its
tudes than fifty-two degrees, the altitudes of the  southern declination, will not be much noticed
different bodies will be higher, and to those in higher after the month of September.  On the 19th July,
latitudes the altitudes above the horizon will be at forty-six minutes past nine o'clock in the evelower than what is here stated.                  ning, Mars and Jupiter will be in conjunction, at
which time Mars will be one degree and a half to
the south of Jupiter. They will then be seen
near the western point, at a small elevation above
PHENOMENA OF THE PLANETS FOR  the horizon.
1839.
4. Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas.
1. Mercury. 
Juno arrives at its opposition to the sun on the
THE greatest western elongation of this planet hap- 12th October, at lh. 32', P. M. It passes the meripens oa the 26th of January, when it is 240 50' dian at midnight, or at 12h. 2k', at an altitude of




140                               CELESTIAL  SCENERY.
340 21', and is then about twelve degrees west of the 29th May, when it w ill rise in the south-east
the star llira. Declination 30 39' south, and right at forty-five minutes past seven, P. M., and will
ascension, lh. 26'.                             pass the meridian at midnight, at an altitude of
Pallas is in opposition to the sun April 1, at 7h. eighteen and a half degrees above the southern
10', A. M. Right ascension 13h. 12' 42". Declina- point of the horizon.  This will be a favorable
tion 14~ 21' north. IL passes the meridian at mid- opportunity for viewing its ring with good telenight. at an elevation of 520 22'. It will then be scopes, when it will appear nearly ill its full exabout fourteen degrees south-west from the bright tent, as represented Fig. 65, p. 71. From  this
star Arcturus.                                  period Saturn will generally be visible in the eveCeresis in opposition April-6, at 7h. 8', P. M. ning until about the end of October, when its low
Right ascension 13h. 23' 40". Declination 70 54' altitude and its proximity to the sun will prevent
north. It passes the meridian at midnight, at an its being distinguished by the naked eye. About
altitude of nearly forty-six degrees. It will then the middle of August, at nine o'clock in the evebe seen, by means of a telescope, at about twelve ning, it will be seen near the south-west at a
degrees south-west from Arcturus.               small elevation above the horizon. It will be in
The planet Vesta is not in opposition to the sun conjunction with the sun on the fifth December,
this year.                                     after which it will be invisible to the naked eye
until the beginning of 1840.
5. Jupiter.
7. Uranus.
During the months of January and February
this planet will be chiefly seen in the morning.   This planet will be in opposition to the sun on
On, the 12th January it rises about midnight, a the 7th of September, at 30 minutes past seven
little to the south of the eastern point of the hori- in the evening. Right ascension 23h. 4', or 346~
zon, and comes to the meridian at forty minutes east from the point Aries, reckoned on the equapast five in the morning, at an altitude of about tor. South declination 60 52X2'. It will come
thirty-two degrees. On the 12th March it rises to the meridian at midnight at an elevation of 31c
at eight in the evening, and will be seen near the 8' above the horizon. At this time it is in the
south-east part of the heavens about eleven and immediate vicinity of the star Phi, Aquarii. On
twelve o'clock, P. M. On the 3d April, it is in the 25th of August, at 20 minutes past one in the
opposition to the sun, when it rises about half past morning, it is in conjunction with this star, being
six, P. M., and comes to the meridian about mid- only 15 or one-quarter of a degree to the north
night. From this period it will form a conspicu- of it, at which time the planet and the star, if
ous object in the evening sky until near the end viewed with a telescope of moderate power, will
of September. It arrives at its conjunction with both appear in the field of view. The months of
the sun on the 22d October, after which it will be August, September, October, and November will
seen only in the morning throughout the month be the niost eligible periods for detecting this planet
of December and the latter part of November. with the telescope. On the 1st of November it
On the 20th March, at one o'clock in the morning, passes the meridian at 15 minutes past eight in tlr
all the satellites of Jupiter will appear on the east, evening, at an altitude of 30'/ degrees.
or right-hand side of the planet, in the orderof
their distances from Jupiter. The same phenom-   N. B.-The preceding descriptions of planetary
enon will happen on August 1, at forty-five min- phenomena are chiefly intended to inform cornutes past eight, and 20th September, at 7h., P. M.  mon observers as to the seasons of the year when
the different planets may be seen, and the quar6. Saturn.                   ters of the heavens to which they are to direct
their attention in order to distinguish them.
This planet will be visible only in the morning    It may not be improper to observe, that the
during the months of January, February and planets in general cannot be distinguished by the
March, and will then be seen toward the southern naked eye for about a month before and after their
and south-eastern parts of the sky. On the first conjunctions with the sun, except Venus, which
of February it will rise, about half past two inl may frequently be seen within a week before and
the morning, near the south-east, and will come after its inferior conjunction. But this planet will
to the meridian at forty-nine minutes past seven, sometimes be invisible to the naked eye for a
at an elevation of eighteen degrees above the ho- month or two after its superior conjunction with
rizon. On the first of April it will rise at forty- the sun.
two minutes past eleven in the evening, and will   Should the above descriptions of celestial phepass the meridian a few minutes before four inthe nomena prove acceptable to general readers, they
morning. It will be in opposition to the sun on may be continued in future years.




TIlE
SIDER EAL HEAVENS
AND
OTHER SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH
A S TRO NO Y,
AS ILLUSTRATIVE OF TtE CHARACTER OF THE DEITY, AND OF AN
INFINITY OF WORLD.
"The worlds were framed by the word of God." —PArn.








PREFAC E.
THE favorable reception which the volume entitled " CELESTIAL SCENERIY," has met
with from the public, both in Britain and America, has induced the Author to extend
his survey to other sublime scenes connected with the science of Astronomy.  The
chief object of the work alluded-to, was to illustrate, more fully than had previously
been attempted, the scenes connected with the planetary system. In the present
volume, the Author has directed the attention of his readers to scenery of a still
more elevated and sublime description, connected with the " Sidereal Heavens." All
the facts related to this subject, which can be considered as interesting to general
readers, have been particularly detailed, and in such a manner as to be generally
comprehensible by those who have little knowledge of mathematical science, or the
more abstruse parts of astronomy.
In describing such sublime scenes as are here unfolded, the Author, as on former
occasions, has freely indulged in such remarks and moral reflections as were naturally
suggested by the grandeur of his subject; and has endeavored to lead the minds of
his readers to the contemplation of the attributes and the agency of that Almighty
Being, by whom the vast system of universal nature was at first brought into
existence, and by whose superintending care it is incessantly conducted in all its
movements.
The subject of a plurality of worlds has been resumed, and additional arguments,
both from reason and revelation, have been brought forward so as to exhibit this
position, not merely as conjectural or highly probable, but as susceptible of moral
demonstration.  For the gratification of amateur observers possessed of telescopes,
particular descriptions have been given of the positions or some of the more remarkable phenomena in the sidereal heavens, that they may be induced to contemplate them
with their own eyes. For a similar reason, the Author has described the various
aspects of the heavens throughout the year, and the position of the planets for 1840
and-1841.  As the subject of comets was unavoidably omitted in the preceding
volume, the Author has condensed, in the concluding chapter, the greater part of the
facts which have been ascertained respecting the nature, phenomena, and influence of
those anomalous bodies.
It was originally intended, had the limits of the present volume permitted, to direct
the attention of the student to other subjects related to the scenery of the heavens,
and to the construction and application of some of those instruments which are
devoted to celestial observations.  Should the work now published meet with a
favorable reception, the Author intends-in a smaller volume than the present-to
elucidate some of the subjects to which he alludes, especially the following:-the
construction and use of optical instruments, particularly the reflecting and achromatic
telescope, and the equatorial. As the Author has performed a great variety of experiments in relation to such instruments, he hopes to have it in his power to suggest
some new and useful hints in reference to their construction and improvement. The
VOL. II —20                                                    ()i




PREFACE.
doctrine of eclipses and occultations, the precession of the equinoxes, &c. —the construction of observatories, and the manner of using astronomical instruments,-the
desiderata in astronomy, and the means by which the progress of the science may be
promoted,-the practical utility, physical and moral, of astronomical studies, their
connection with religion, and the views they unfold of the attributes and the empire
of the Creator, with several other correlative topics, will likewise be the subject of
consideration.  The whole to be illustrated with appropriate engravings, many of
which will be original.
BaorGHTY FERRY, NEAR DUNDEE,.




CON TENT S
INTROD U C T  0N.
PAGE
Imperfect knowledge of the Sidereal Heavens. Discoveries by the telescope. Herschel's
observations. Sidereal science in its infancy. Boundless nature of the subject............. 9
C:HA PTER I.
A GENERAL VIEW OF THE STARRY HEAVENS, WITH REPRESENTATIONS OF DETACHED PORTIONS OF THE
FIRMAMENT.
Splendid and august appearance of the heavens. Sentiments and emotions they produce.
Inquiries suggested by a contemplation of the wonders they unfold. Appearance of the stars
and constellations about the middle of January. Delineations of certain stars and constellations at that time visible. Representations of certain portions of the heavens in the beginning
of September.  View and description of the circumpolar stars.  General remarks in
reference to these stars............................................   11
CHAPTER II.
OW THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE STARS INTO CONSTELLATIONS, WITH SKETCHES OF THEIR MYTHOLOGICAL
HISTORY.
Invention of the Zodiac.  Mode in which it was divided by the ancients.  Origin of the names
by which its signs are distinguished.  List of the constellations, with the number of stars in\
each. Arrangement of the stars into different magnitudes.  Catalogues of the stars. -Origin
of the celestial hieroglyphics. Greek alphabet...................................... 18
CHAPTER III.
ON THE PROPRIETY OF ADOPTING A MORE NATURAL ARRANGEMENT AND DELINEATION OF THE STARRY
GROUPS.
Introductory remarks.  Reasons why the present nomenclature and arrangement of the
stars should be changed.  Principles on which a new arrangement should be formed.
Improvements which might be adopted in the meantime in celestial globes and planispheres.
Delineation of Orion. Sir J. Herschel's opinion.  British Association................... 23
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE DISTANCES OF THE STARS.
Measures of distance. Annual parallax.  Mode of investigating it. Galileo, Hook, and
Flamstead's methods.  Molyneux's and Bradley's observations.  Aberration.  Supposed
distance of the nearest star. Herschel's investigations.'Professor Bessel's determination of
the parallax of 61 Cygni.  Amazing distance of this star.  Reflections on: the immense
spaces of the universe.' Scriptural representations of the Deity.  Whether man may ever
traverse distant regions.............................2....7...................   27
CHAPTER V.
ON THE MAGNITUDE OF THE, STARS.
Difficulty- of ascertaining the real and apparent magnitude of the stars  Supposed magnitude
(v)




d1.                   CONTENTS.
of some stars.  Certainty that their real magnitudes are very great.  Popular illustration of
the distances and magnitudes of the stars......................................  33
CHAPTER - VI.
ON NEW STARS.
New star discovered by Hipparchus.  Particular description of the new star which appeared in
1572-delineation of its position. Description of the new star of 1604, and of several others.
Mysterious nature of these bodies. Opinions which have been formed respecting them.
Futility of some of these opinions. Such bodies not annihilated. Probable cause of such
phenomena. Concludingreflections............................................ 36
CHAPTER VII.
ON VARIABLE STARS.
Descriptions of the periods and phenomena' of some of these bodies, Stella Mira, Algol, Eta
Antinoi, &c. Conjectures respecting their nature. Probable causes of the phenomena of
variable stars, illustrated by figures. Stars which are lost. Stars which have changed their
magnitudes.   Stars which have recently become visible.  New creations.  Omnipotent
energies. Scenes of grandeur in the heavens..........................4........ 41
CHAPTER VIII.
ON DOUBLE STARS AND BINARY SYSTEMS.
Variety a characteristic of the works of the Deity.  Double stars observed by Herschel and
others-their number-their motions. Herschel's observations on the motion of the double
star Castor. Period of revolution illustrated by a diagram. Periods of revolution of several
double-stars. Occultation of one star by another. Orbits of double-stars-telescopic views
of. Scenes exhibited by the revolutions of double stars.  Distances of binary systems.
Planets connected with them. Velocity of motions. Number of such systems. Contrasted
colors of double stars. Effects produced on planets by colored suns. Representations of a
binary system. Proposed method of determining the distances of double stars. General
remarks on this method, &c.......................................................... 4A
CHAPTER IX.
ON TREBLE, QUADRUPLE, AND MULTIPLE STARS.
General remarks. Treble star in Cancer. Delineation of treble and quadruple systems.
Quadruple star in Lyra. Oscillating suns. Problem of three bodies. Reflection on multiple
systems. List and positions of treble and multiple stars................  54
CHAPTER X.
ON THE MILKY WAY.
Grandeur of the sidereal heavens. Position of the Milky Way, and the constellations through
which it passes. Multitude of stars it contains. Sir W. Herschel's observations on this zone..
Estimate of the number of stars it may contain. Number of visible stars in the heavens.
Distances of some of the stars in this zone.  Reflections on the scene exhibited by the Milky
Way.  Position of our sun in this zone.  Delineations of the form  of the Milky Way.
Schroeter's observations. Herschel's remarks on its structure. Its appearance in the southern
hemisphere.................................................................... 
CHAPTER XI.
ON GROUPS AND CLUSTERS OF STARS.
The Pleiades-telescopic vew -of-(see Appendix).  Hook and Mitchell's remarks on this cluster.
Coma Bereniees-Presepe —telescopic view of. Perseus. Delineation of a group. in Orion's




CONTENTS.                                        vii
sword. Such groups form interesting objects of contemplation-immensity of the universe.
Views and descriptions of stars. Variety of firmaments..................................  62
CHAPTE R XII.
ON THE DIFFERENT ORDERS OF THE NEBULZ.
SEC TIO N I.
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SUBJECT OF NEBULA.
Boundless extent of the "universe." Sir W. Herschel's remarks on this subject. Lambert's
views of the universe. Number of discovered nebulae. Size,,grandeur, and different forms
of the nebul.................................  66
SECTION' II.
ON THE VARIOUS KINDS OF NEBULA..
Clusters of stars. Resolvable nebula. Irresolvable nebulae. Views and descriptions of various
kinds of nebula - globular- elliptical-annular- spheroidal.  Nebulous stars. Diffused
nebulosities.  Nebulosities joined to nebule, &c.................................... 6,
SECTIEON  III.
ON PLANETARY NEBULAE.
General description. Enormous magnitude of such bodies. Positions of some of these nebulae. 73
-  SECTIO N  IV.
ON  NEBULAE IN  ORION.
Its position. Huygens':description of it. Delineations of this nebula. Herschel's descriptions
and remarks. The author's observations. Its immense magnitude. Reflections and remarks.. 75
SECTION  V.
ON THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS.
Inquiries and conjectures suggested by the nebulae. Premature conclusions which have been
deduced. Remarks and reflections in relation to the subject of nebulhe....................  77
S'ECTION  VI.
Catalogue of some of the larger nebulae..............................................  78
CHAPTER- X I'II.
ON THE ABERRATION OF THE STARS, AND ON THEIR PROPER MOTIONS.
Bradley and Molyneux's observations. Aberration of light explained and illustrated. Sir 3.
Herschel's explanation. Other illustrations. Conclusions deduced from the aberration of
the stars.  Proper motions of the stars when first observed.  Specimens of their annual
motions. Velocity with which they move......................                81
CHAPTER XIV.
ON THE,DESTINATION. OF THE STARS; OR, THE. DESIGNS THEY ARE INTENDED TO SUBSERVE IN THE SYSTEM
OF THE UNIVERSE.
Utility of the stars to- our globe. This not the chief design of their creation. Are suns to
other worlds. Arguments ~which prove this position. Constitute the chief part of the universe.
Direct indications of their being the centers of systems. Immense extent of the Divine empire..  84
C HA P T'E R X V.
ON UNKNOWN CELESTIAL BODIES —-ON METEORIC PHENOMENA-AND ON SHOOTING STARS.
Probable existence of large opaque globes throughout space. Central bodies. Lambert's views
on this subject. Meteoric phenomena, November meteors. Various descriptions of their
phenomena, illustrated by a figure.' Seen in different parts of the world.  Circumstances
attending their fall. Their appearance in France. Dr. Olmsted's deductions respecting their
origin, illustrated by a diagram1  Arago's opinion. General reflections....... -.   88




Uii~i                                   CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XVI.
ARGUMENTS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE DOCTRINE OF A PLURALITY OF WORLDS.
This doctrine accordant with the infinity, the eternity, the wisdom, and the benevolence of the
Divine Mind. Exhibits a magnificent idea of Deity. Power always accompanied with wisdom
and goodness.  Absurdities involved in the opposite opinion. Harmony of the Divine
Perfections.  Summary of arguments.................................. 94
CHAPTER XVII.
A PLURALITY OF WORLDS PROVED FROM DIVINE REVELATION
Introductory remarks. Psalm  viii,. 3, 4. Isaiah  xl, 15, 17. Nehemiah  ix, 6, &c. Such
passages explained and illustrated............................................. 100
CHAPTER XVIII.
ON THE PHYSICAL AND MORAL STATE OF THE BEINGS THAT MAY INHABIT OTHER WORLDS.
They are sentient beings-endowed with intellectual faculties-furnished with  bodies-witih
organs of vision —locomotive powers. Various other circumstances connected with their
existence.  Make progressive improvement in knowledge.  Intercourses among them.
Spiritual economy.  Moral state of the inhabitants of other worlds. Happiness dependent on
moral principle and action. Moral order. Moral laws which govern all pure intelligences.. 105
CHAPTER XIX.
A SUMMARY VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE.
Mental process by which we obtain an approximate idea of creation.  Magnitude of the earth.
Planetary system. Stars visible to the naked eye.  Milky Way. Nebulae —their extent and
grandeur. Immensity of creation. Astonishing motions in the universe. Mode by which
we may acquire the most comprehensive idea of it. Creation a proof of the Divine Existence.
Attributes of Deity. Dependence of all beings upon God.  Christian Revelation.........   113
CHAPTER XX.
ON COMETS.
Description of the parts of a comet. Opinions of Aristotle, Tycho, &c.  History of remarkable
comets.  Comets of 1680, 1682, 1744, 1770.  Encke's comet.  Biela's and Gambart's.
Alarms occasioned by comets. Comet of 1807-Schroeter's and Herschel's observations onviews of this comet.  Comet of 1811 —Schroeter's observations and deductions respecting
its phenomena-destruction of his Observatory. Reappearance of Halley's comet in 1835observations on, by the Author, Rev. Mr. Webb, and others. Mrs. Somerville's remarks.
Physical constitution of Comets —opinions respecting their nuclei and tails.  Miscellaneous
remarks respecting comets-their light, phases, and nebulosity-whether they may come in
contact with the earth-whether they have ever fallen into the sun. On the influence of comets
on the earth-opinions prevalent in former timnes-Forster's hypothesis. Comets may have an
influence on our globe-its nature not yet determined.  Whether the direction of the earth's
axis has been altered by a comet. Whether the new planets were disrupted by the shock of a
comet, &c. On the orbits of comets-their form-how determined. Motions and periods of.
Number of. Direct and retrograde motions, inclination of orbits, &c. Inhabitability of comets.
Size and splendor of some comets. Account of Mr. Webb's MS. Treatise on Comets...... 120
APPENDIX.
Aspect of the sidereal heavens for every alternate month of the year, with remarks.........  137
Phenomena and positions of the planets for 1840.............................. 142
Ditto                                   1841......................................... 145
Eclipses and occultations                  1840........................................ 147
Ditto                                   1841.................                         147
Occultations of Venus                       1841.................................. 148
Explanations of some of the engravings of the stars and planets.......................... 14'9




THE
SI D E R EAL H E AV E-NS.
INTRODUICTION.
IN a work lately published under the title of  lead the reflecting mind to the most elevated views
"'CELESTIAL SCENERY," I endeavored to exhibit a of the perfections of the Deity, and to the most
pretty full display of all the prominent facts con- expansive prospects of the grandeur and magnifinected with the motions, distances, magnitudes, cence of his empire.
and other.phenomena of the planets, both primary    For a considerable period after the true system
and secondary, and of the observations and rea- of the world was recognized, astronomers were
sonings by which they are supported. These bo- disposed to consider the stars as so many insulated
dies forming a part of the solar system to which luminaries, scattered almost at randoln throughout
we belong, and lying within the limits of measu-'the vast spaces of the universe. Having eurable distance, can be more distinctly surveyed, gaged in no very extensive surveys of the celestial
and their magnitudes and other phenomena more vault, and resting contented with the idea that the
accurately investigated, than those of the-remoter stars were so many suns, dispersed in a kind of
orbs of the firmament. Hence, in. consequence magnificent confusion through the immensity of
of the accurate observations of modern times, we space, they seemed to have formed no conception
can now speak with a degree of certainty and pre- of any specific difference ill the nature of these
cision respecting their order and arrangement, bodies, or of any systematic arrangement as extheirperiodical revolutions, their distances from the isting among them. Hence it happened that no
sphere we occupy and from the center-of the sys- discoveries of importance were made in the region
tem, their real bulk, the appearance of their sur- of the stars, from the time of Huygens and Cassini.
faces, and the objects which diversify their respec- until near the latter part of the eighteenth century;
tive firmaments. But when we pass the boundary  so that awhole century elapsed without materiallyof the planetary system, and attempt to explore enlarging our views of the sidereal heavens and of
the orbs which lie beyond it, we have to travel, as the variety,-order and arrangement ofthe numerous;
it were, through dark and pathless regions, we bodies which'every portion of those expansive re —
have to traverse an immense interval which has gions presents to view. During the last sixty ot
hitherto baffled all the efforts of human science seventy years, the attention of astronomers has been,
and ingenuity to determine its extent. The fixed more particularly directed to sidereal observations;:
stars lie completely beyond the dominions of the and among those who have labored with success
sun; they feel not his attractive influence, they re- in this department of astronomical investigation,,
volve not around him as a center, nor are they the late Sir William Herschel stands pre-erninent..
enlightened by his effulgence. It follows that our Fired with a noble zeal for the improvement of
knowledge of those remote luminaries must be ex- his favorite science, and for the enlargement of his;
tremely imperfect, and our views of the distant re- views of the distant regions of creation, he set to.
gions in which they are placed comparatively  work with enthusiastic ardor, and constructed
limited and obscure.                           with his own hands telescopes of a size and mag —
But notwithstanding the immeasurable distance nifying power far superior to what had ever before,
of the starry regions, and the limited nature of been attempted. Mounted on the top of his forty
human vision, we are not altogether ignorant of feet reflecting telescope, he not only discovered
those remote and-unexplored dominions of Omnip- new bodies within the limits of the planetary sysotence, or of the magnitude and splendor of the tem, but brought to light innumerable phenomenal
bodies they contain. The telescope has enabled in regions of the firmament where the eye of man.
us to penetrate the vast spaces of the universe, had never before dared to penetrate.  Fle explored
and has opened a vista through which thousands the Milky-way throughout all its profundities, and'
of suns and systems are distinctly beheld, which found that whitish zone of the heavens to consist,
would otherwise have been forever vailed from  of a multitude of stars "which no man could numthe view of mortals. It has extended the bound- ber," fifty thousand of them having sometimes
aries of our vision thousands of times beyond its passed through the field of his telescope in the spacenatural limits, and collected the scattered rays of  of an hour. During the coldness and profound&
light from numerous distant orbs, which, without silence of many sleepless nights, he surveyed al-.
its assistance, would never have entered our eyes. most every portion of the celestial concave, and,
It has served the purpose of a celestial vehicle to discovered more than two thousand nebultE, or
carry us toward the heavens, and has produced the starry systems, of various forms and descriptions,..
same effect on our visual powers as if we had been along with multitudes of double, triple, and quadactually transported thousands of millions of miles ruple stars which had formerly been unknnown,.
nearer the unexplored territories of creation. and ascertained, from the change of their relativeGuided by thils noble instrument, scenes and ob- positions, some of their real motions and periods,
jects have been disclosed to view of which former of revolution. After more than half a century.
generations could form no conception, and which  spent in unwearied observations of the- heavenl.,
(9)




10                                     INTRODUCTION.
this illustrious astronomer departed from this earth- them  from personal observation.  Most of the
ly scene, in 1822, without infirmities. and without facts to which I allude were ascertained by Sir
pain, in the eighty-fourth year of his age, leaving W. Herschel by means of telescopes of great size
a son to prosecute his labors indued with virtues and power, and a considerable number of the
and talents, worthy of his father, and whose ob- double and triple stars, stellar and planetary nebservations and researches have already. enriched ulhe, and other phenomena, cannot be perceived
the science of astronomy, and extended our views with instruments of an ordinary size  Certain
of the sidereal system.                         interesting facts, too, particularly with regard to
This department of astronomical science may be the motions of double stars, have lately beeu
considered as still in its infancy-  Years, and  brought to light by the observations of Sir John
even centuries, mustl roll on, and the number of Herschel, made in the southern hemisphere; but
astronomical observers must be increased a hun- the bodies to which I allude cannot be seen in the
dred-fold, before the sidereal investigations now  northern latitudes in which we reside. A congoing forward can be nearly completed. A more siderable portion therefore of our information
extensive knowledge of the history of the heavens, on this subject must necessarily depend on the obof the bodies which lie hid in the yetunexplored re- servatiions of the astronomers to whom I allude,
gions of space, and of the changes and diversified and the statements they have published to the
motions to which'they are subject, is doubtless re- world! but these observations have, for the most
served for generations to.come; -and from the at- part been abundantly verified by other obsertention which has.-lately been- paid to this subject, vers.
and the ardorwith which it'is now/'prosecuted in    It shall be our endeavor to state the prominent
different parts of the world, we have' reason to  facts connected with the sidereal heavens in as
expect that new scenes of divine wisdom and om- plaini and perspicuous a manner as possible; and
nipotence will be -gradually unfolding, and new  while it forms no part of our plan to frame hyand interesting results deduced from  the noctur- potheses, or launch out into theoretical disquisi-.
eal labors of those who have devoted themselves tions, we shall offer those remarks, and freely into celestial investigations. To what extent our dulge in those moral reflections, which the conknowledge of the objects of this science may yet templation of such august objects are calculated
reach, it is impossible for us to anticipate. The  to suggest. The scenes we intend to exhibit are
objects.in the heavens present a scene which is not only the workmanship of God,'but display
absolutely boundless, - which all the generations the glory of his attributes and the magnificence
of men.that may arise until the termination of our of his empire in a degree, and upon a scale, far
terrestrial system will never'be able fully to ex- surpassing what can be seen in any other departplore; a scene which will doubtless engage the ment of creation; and therefore, in all our surveys
study and contemplation of numerous orders of  of those grand and multifarious objects, we ought
intellectual beings throughout all the revolutions invariably to connect our views and investigations
of eternity.                                    with the supreme agency, of Him  who brought
In the following work, I propose to give only a them into existence, and to cherish those sentivery condensed view of the leading.objects which  ments and emotions which: may inspire us with
have beenlately discovered in the sidereal heavens, reverence and adoration of that glorious and inThe facts in relation to this subject will be select- comprehensible Being "by whom the worlds were
ed chiefly from the observations of Sir.'W. Her- framed," "who created all things, and for whose
achel, and several other astronomers, and some, of  pleasure they are and were created."




CHHA P'T'E R I.
A GENERAL VIEW OF THE STARRY HEAVENS, WITH REPRESENTATIONS
OF DETACHED PORTIONS-OF THE FIRMAMENT.
I we could suppose a community of rational'be- limited range of a microscopic animalcule bears.
ings to have lived for ages in some subterraneous to the wide expanse of the ocean. I What is seen
grottos far beneath the surface of the earth, and' by human eyes, even when assisted by the most
never to have visited'the exterior portions'of our powerful instruiments, may be as nothing when
globe, their ideas- must have.been extremely cir-' compared to what is unseen and placed forever
cumscribed, and their enjoyments extiremely im-  beyondthe view of mortals. Since the heavens
perfect, —even although. they had been furnished first began to be contemplated,' our views have
with everything requisite for their animal subsist- been carried thousands of times further'into tho
ence. Could- we imagine that such beings were all regions of' space than'the unassisted eyet could
at oncetransported to the surface of the-earth, with enable us to penetrate; and at every stage of imwhat astonishment and wonder would they-' be provement in optical itstruments our prospects
seized when they beheld the expansive landscape have been still further extended, new objects and
of the world, the lofty' mountains towering to the -new regions of creation have appeared rising to
clouds, —the hills crowned with magnificent forests, view, in'boundless perspective, in every direction,
-theplains stretching tothe'boundaries of the ho- without the least indication of a boundary to the
rizon, and adorned with colors of every shade,-  operations of Omnipotence; leaving us no roomn
the expansive lake, like a magnificent mirror, em- to doubt that. all we have -hitherto discovered is
bosomed-among the hills,-the rivers rolling their. but a small and inconsiderable part.of the length
watery treasures toward the ocean,-and the sun  and breadth, and the hight and- depth of immen-'in the firmament revolving around the circuit of sity. We may suppose, without the least degree
the sky,diffusing his light and heat'on every sur- of improbability or extravagance, that, were the
rounding object! Above all, with what emotions of whole of the visib6le system of creation annihilated,
admiration would they be filled when they beheld though it would leave a void immeasurable and
the'solar globe descending below the western hori- incomprehensible by mortals, it would appear to
zon, and soon after the moon displaying her silver the eye of Omniscience only as an inconsiderable
crescent in the sky, and the stars, one after another, blank scarcely discernible amidst the wonders of
emerging from the blue ethereal, until the whole wisdom  and omnipotence with which it is surcelestial concave appeared all over spangled with  rounded.
a thousand shining orbs, emitting their radiance    Such views and deductions have been derived
from -every part of the cope of heaven, and all from attentive surveys of the STARRY HEAVENS.
moving, with an apparently slow and silent mo- These heavens presertt, even to the untutored
tion, along the spaces of the firmament!  Such  observer, a sublime and elevating spectacle. He
expansive and novel scenes would undoubtedly  beholds an immense coneave hemisphere, suroverwhelm  the faculties of such beings with rounding the earth in every region, and resting,
astonishment, and transport, and wonder inex- as it were, upon  the circle of the horizon.
pressible.                                     Wherever he roams abroad, on the surface of the
We are placed, perhaps, in a situation nearly land or of the ocean, this celestiaf vault still apsimilar in regard to the remote regions of the uni- pears encompassing the world; and after travels
verse, as the beings we have supposed were situ- ing thousands of miles, it seems to make no
ated;',with -respect to the ample prospects we nearer an approach than when the journey comenjoy on the surface of our globe. Were such' menced. From every quarter of this mighty arch
beings, from their subterranean abodes, to look numerous lights are displayed, moving onward in
through a narrow funnel which presented them  solemn silence, and calculated to inspire admirawith a feeble glimpse'of our upper world, and of ration and awe. Even the rudest savages have
a portion of the sky, the view thus obtained been struck with admiration at the view of the
would somewhat resemble the partial glimpse we  nocturnal heavens, and have regarded the celestial
have yet acquired of the splendor and sublimities luminaries either as' the residences of their gods,
of the distant universe;, and were we transported or the arbiters of their future destinies.
to those far distant scenes, which appear through   But to minds enlightened with. the discoveries
our telescopes only like dim specks of light, we of science and revelation the firmamentpresents
should, doubtless, be as much overpowered with a scene incomparably more magnificent'and
astonishment and wonder at the magnificent august. Its concave rises toward immensity, and
scenes which would open to our view, as our stretches,onevery hand, to regions immeasurable
supposed subterraneous inhabitants could' be at by any finite intelligence; it opens to the view a
the amplitude and grandeur of our terrestrial glimpse of orbs of inconceivable magnitude and
abode.                                         grandeur, and arranged in multitudeswhich no
In our present habitation we are confined, to a man can number, which have diffused their'radimere point- in the infinity'of space.  Ample as anee on the earth during hundreds of generations;
our prospects are, it is, not improbable that the it-opens a vista which carries our views into the
views we have already attained bear a less propor- regions of infinity, and exhibits a sensible display
tion to the whole immensity of creation than the of the immensity of space, and of the boundless
(,X1 )




12:        SIDEREAL- HEAVENS.
operations of Omnipotence; it demonstrates the fabric of the universe yet completed, or is almighty
existence  of an eternal and  incomprehqnsible. power. still operating throughout the boundless
DivinIty,-who presides in all the grandeur of his dimensions of space, and new creations still startattributes over an unlimited, empire; it over- ing into existence?  At what period in duration
whelms -the contemplative. mind with a display did this mighty fabric commence, and when will
of the riches of his wisdom and. the glories of his it be completed?  Will a period ever arrive when
OMNIPOTENCEr; it directs our prospects to the re- the operations of creating powe'r shall cease, or
gions of other worlds, where ten thousand times will they be continued throughout all the' revoluten thousands of intelligences, of.various orders, tions of eternity?  What various orders of intelexperience tlie effects of divine love and benefi- lectual;:beings people the vast regions of the unicence. Amidst the silence arid the solitude of the verse?  With what mental energies and corporeal
midnight sqene, it inspires the soul with a solemn powers are they endowed?  Are they colnfined to
awe and witi reverential emotions; it. excites one region of space, or are they invested with
admiration, astonisliment, and wonder' in every  powers of locomotion, which enable them to wing
reflecting mind,.and has a tendency to enkindle their flight from world to word? Are they making
-tbie fire of'devotion, and' to.raise the affections to rapid advances, from. age to age, in intellectual
that ineffable' Beinkgwho presides in'high author- improvement?  Has moral evil ever'made inroads
~ty over all its moveme-ts.'While contemplating, into those remote regions of creation, or are all
with the. eye of  intelligence, this immeasurable.their inhabitants confirmed in a state of innocence
expanise, it teaches us'the littleness of man, and  and bliss?  Is their history diversified by new and
of all that eartthl- Ipompland. splendor of which' wonderful events, and, do changes and revolutions
he is so proud; it shows us that this world, with  happen among them?. Are all the tribes of intelall its furniture and decorations, is but an almost lectual natures throughout creation  connected
invisible speck on the great-map of, the universe; together by certain relations and bonds of union,
and, that our thoughts and affections ought to and will a period ever arrive in the future revolusoar above all its sinful pursuits and its transitory  tions of eternity when they shall have had an inenjoyments.  In short, in this universal temple, timate correspondence with one another? These,
huiig with innumerable lights, we behold, with and hundreds of similar inquiries, are naturally
the, eye of imagination, unnumbered legions of suggested by serious contenplations of the objects
bright intelligences, unseen by mortal eyes, cele- connected with the starry heavens, and they have
brating illn ecstatic strains, the perfections of Him  a tendency to lead tile mind to sublime and ilutewho is the creator and governor of all worlds,-  resting trains of thought and reflection, and to
we are carried forward to an eternity to come, afford scope for the noblest energies of the human
amidst whose scenes and revolutions alone the soul.
magnificent objects it contains can be contem-   But leaving such reflections, in the meantime,
plated, in all their extent and grandeur..       let us now  take a general view  of the starry
Itis an evidence of the depraved and groveling heavens as they appear to the eye of a common
dispositions of man that the'firmiament is so sel- spectator.
dom, contemplated with the eye of reason and    When an untutored observer attempts to take
devotion. No other studies can present an assem- a serious survey of the starry firmament for the
blage of objects: so wonderful and sublime; and first time, he is apt to be bewildered at the idea of
yet, of all the departments of knowledge which the immense multitude of stars which seem  to
are generally prosecuted, no one is so little under- present themselves in every part of the sky, and
stood or appreciated by the -bulk of mankind as the apparent confusion with which they seem  to
the:science of the heavenls.  Were it more gene- be arranged.  He is apt to think that they are
rally studied,-or its objects were, frequently con- absolutely innumerable, and that all attempts to
templated,. it: would have a tendency to purify and  enumerate or to classify them would be in vain.'elevate the soul, to expand and ennoble the intel- There is something so magnificent and overpowlectual faculty, and to supply interesting topics ering in a cursory view of a clear starry sky, that
for conversation and, reflection. The objects -in the mind shrinks from  the idea of ever being
the heavens are so grand, so numerous, so diversi- able to form a distinct conception of the number
fied, -and so magnificent, both in their size and in and order of those luminous orbs, or of their disthe rapidity of their motions, that there appears tances and magnitudes; but the genius and indusno end to speculation, to inquiry, to conjecture, try of man have, in numerous instances, accomto incessant admiration. There is ample room  plished what at first view  appeared beyond the
for all the faculties of the brightest genlins to be reach. of the human faculties.  All the stars
_employed, and to expatiate in all their energy on visible to' the naked eye have been numbered, and
this boundless thelne; and were they thus em- their relative positions determined, with as inuch
ployed more frequently than they are, our views precision as the longitudes, latitudes, and bearings
of the arrangement, and the nature of the magni- of places. on the surface of the globe; and tilere
ficent globes -of heaven, might he rendered still; is not a star visible to the unassisted eye, but, its
ma'e definite and expansive.                     precise position can be pointed out, not only duWhile contemplating the expanse of the starry  ring the shades of night, but even during the day,
beavensthe mind is naturally led into a boundless when the sun is shining in all its splendor.
train of speculations and inquiries. Where' do    In order to prevent confusion in our first surthese mighty heavens, begin, and where do they  veys of the starry heavens, let us fix upon a cerend?   Can imaginati'6n fathom  their. depth, or tain portion of the firmament, and the more
human calculations and figures express their ex- conspicious stars which lie in its immediate vitent?  Have angels' or, archangels ever winged  cinity.  Let us suppose ourselves contemplating
their flight across the boiundaries of the firma- the heavens about the middle of January, at eight
nment?, Can the highest. created beings measure o'clock in the evening, in the latitude 520 north.
the dimensions of those heavenys, or explore them  At that time, if we turn our faces toward the
tlhroughiout all their departments?  Is there a south, we shall behold the splendid constellation
boundary to creation beyond which the energies of Orion a little to the east of the meridian, or
of Omnipotence are unknown, ori does it extend nearly approaching the south.'This constellation
throughout the infinity of space? Is the immense forms o   of the'most striking anld beautiful




VIEWS OF- THE FIRMAMENT.                                       13'llusters of stars in the heavens, and is gene- of the solar rays.  This constellation is easily
rally recognized even by common observers.  It distinguished by two brilliant stars, denominated
is distinguished by four brilliant stars in the form  Castor and Pollux, which are within five degrees
of an oblong, or' parallelogram; and particularly  of each other. Castor, a star of the first magniby three bright stars in a straight line near the tude, is the northernmost'of the two;- and Pollux,
middle of the square, or paralleloaram, -whicli are a star of the second magnitude, is situated a little
known by the names of "the Three Kings," or to the south-east of it. Castor is found by tle
the "Ell," or "Yard."  They are also termed telescope to be a double star, the smaller one
Orion's belt; and in the book of' Jobs "the bands being invisible to the naked eye; and, from  a
of Orion;" and the space.. they occupy is exactly long series of observations, it is found that the
three degrees in length. The line passing through  smaller star is revolving around the larger with a
these stars points to the Pleiades, or seven stars, slow motion, and that a complete revolution will
on the one' side, and to Sirius, or the Dog Star, occupy more than 300 years.  About twenty deon the other. The equinoctial circle passes through grees south-west of Castor and Pollux are thiree
the uppermost of these stars, which is called small stars, nearly in a straight line, and about.3Mintika.  They are situated about eight degrees three or four degrees distant from  each other.
west from the solstitial colure or that great circle The southernmost of the three lies nearly in a
which -passes through the poles of the heavens, line with Pollux and the star Betelquese, ill the
and the.first' points of Cancer' and Capricorn, in constellation of Orion, but'somewhat nearer to
which the sun is in his greatest declination north -Betelguese than to Pollux.' These stars, in the
and south, which happens' on the 21st of June -hieroglyphic figure of Gemini, form- the feet of
and 21st of December. There is a row of small the twins.
stars which run down. obliquely below the'belt,   Directly south ofGemini is the constellation of
and belem to hang from it,' which is denominatedd GCanis Minor, or the Lesser Dog.'It is situated
the sword.of-Orion. About' the middle of this about' midway between Gemini- and Canis Major,
ro'w of stars there is perceived, by means'of -the or the Greater Dog, and has Hydra on the east,
telescope, one of the most rem-arkable nebula in and Orion on the west.  It consists of only about
the heavens., The whole number' of stars visible fourteen stars visible to the naked eye, the princiby the naked eye in this constellatiofi has:been pal of which is Procyon, a bright star between
reckoned' at'about 78;'of  hich two':are of -the the first and second.magnitude.    It is almost
first magnitude —namely, Rigel, in the.left foot directly south from  Pollux, and distant from  it
on thewest, and Betelquese, on'the:east shoulder.  about twenty-four degrees.'The next brightest
They are connected by a line -drawn through the star in this constellation, which is considerably
uppermost star of the belt.  There. are four stars smaller than Procyon, is Called', Gomelza, and is
of the second magnitude, three of'the third, and situated'about four degrees north-west of Profifteen of the fourth: but -severalI'thousands of' cyon.
stars have been  perceived'. by good telescopes   South by west of Canis Minor, at the distance
within the limits of this constellation.          of nearly thirty, degrees, is Cranis 1Major, or the
North by west of Orion is the constellation  Greater Dog.  It'is' south-east'from  the belt of
Taurus,. or the Bull, one of the signs of the  Orion, and due east from the constellation of Lezodiac. The Pleiades, or the seven stars, so fre- pus, or the Hare, at the distance' of ten degrees.
quently alluded to both in ancient and modern Canis Major is easily distinguished by the briltimes, form a portion of this constellation.  At'the liancy of its principal star, Sirius, which is appatime now supposed, they are a very little beyond rently the largest and brightest fixed star in the
the meridian to the west, and-aboutbthirty-seven  heavens, so that it is generally considered -as one
degrees north by/,west of tle belt of Orion, at an of the nearest of these distant orbs, though its
elevation above the horizon'of about sixty-four distance from the earth is computed. at not less
degrees. This cluster was described by, the an- than twenty billions of miles;'-and a cannon ball,
cients as consisting of seven stars, but at present moving over this immense space at the rate of
only six. can be distinguished by the naked eye. nineteen miles a minute, would require more than
With powerful telescopes, however, more than two millions of years before it could reach this
200 stars have been counted within the limits of distant orb. Sirius is south by east of' Betelgueso.this group. The Hyades is another cluster, situ- in the left shoulder of Orion, at the distance of
ated -about eleven degrees south-east from  the twenty-seven degrees, and south-east from  the
Pleiades, consisting chiefly of small stars, so ar- lower star in the belt, at the distance of twentyranged as to form  a figure somewhat like the three degrees.  A  line drawn through the three
letter V. On the left, at the top of the letter, is a stars which form  the belt, toward the south-east.
star of'the first magnitude, named Aldebaran, or leads the eye directly to Sirius, which, at the
the Bull's Eye, which is distinguished from  most period and hour'we have stated, is about twelve'of the other starsby its ruddy appearance.  This degrees above the south-easterly point of the
constellation is situated between Perseus and Au- horizon; a line drawn'from Betelguese south-east
riga on the north, and has Gemini on the east, toward Sirius, and thence to the insith-east, meets
Aries on thewest, and Orion and Eridanus on the Procyon in Canis Minor, and continued'nearly
-.south. It consists of about 140 stars visble to the due west, it again meets Betelguese, so that these
anked eye.                                       three stars seem to form a large triangle, which is
The constellation Gemini is situated north-east nearly equilateral  Another triangle is formed by
from Orion, and almost due east from the Pleia- drawing a line eastward from Betelguese to Prodes,and is one of the signs of'the zodiac. It has cyon, as a base, from  Procyon straight north to
eCancer on the east, Taurus on the west, and the Pollux, and..from  thence again south-west to
Lynx, on the' north.  The orbit of the earth, or Betelguese, which forms a right-angled' triangle,
the apparent circle described bythe sun in his having the right angle at the star Procyon, and
annual. course, passes through the middle of this the line extending from Pollux to Betelguese forms
constellation.  From  the 21st of June untilthe the hypotenuse.
23d of July, the sun passes through this sign,' but   In order to render these descriptions more defithe stars of which' it is composed are then invisi- nite, I have sketched in Plate I, a small map of
ble, being overpowered by the superior brightness this portion of the heavens, in which' the princi



14` SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
pal stars in the constellations above described are drawn from C to. D, passes through Pollux ia the
represented.  The left-hand side of  this map same sign, which is four or five degrees to thu
represents the east; the right-hand side the west; south-east of Castor;  it likewise passes near
the lower part, the south; -and the upper part the Auriga, a star of the second magnitude, in the
north, or higher portion of the heavens. When constellation of the Wagoner, which is represented
used so as to compare it.with the real firmament, near the middle of the line. Almost directly
the observer is supposed to have his face directed north from Auriga, at the distance of seventeen
chiefly to the south and the south-eastern parts degrees, is the star Capella, in the same constellaof the sky. He may then easily distinguish the tion, which is one of the brighest stars in the
principal stars laid down in -it by, the following heavens next to Sirius. It is about twenty-eight
directions:-A line drawn from A to B, at the top degrees north-east from the Pleiades, but is beof the map, passes through the star Castor in yond the northern limits of the map. A  line
Gemini,. which is near-the left-hand side.: A line drawn from E to F, passes through Aldebaran, or
P: LATE I.
REPRESENTING A PORTION OF THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE HEAVENS, -ABOUT THE aIDDLE OF JANUARY.
the. Bull's Eye, and the Hyades; north-west of stars here represented with respect to the mewhich is the -Pleiades, or seven stars, near the ridian, at the time these observations are supposed
north-west part of the map.  A line drawn from  to be made. The stars on the right of this line
G to' H, passes through the star Betelguese, in the are west of the meridian, and all those to the left
east shoulder of Orion; the line from  I to K, are to the east of it.
passes through Bellatrix, in the west shoulder, a   By attending to the above directions, and comstar of the second magnitude, somewhat less bril- paring  the delineations on the map with the
liant than Betelguese, and likewise passes through heavens, all the stars and constellations noted
Procyon, in Canis Minor, which appears near the above may be readily distingaished. The triangles
left side of the map; and the line from L to M  formed by Betelguese, Procyon, and Sirius, and
passes through the middle star of Orion's belt. by Pollux, Procyon, and Betelguese, will likewise
The line from N to O passes through-Rigel, in the "be seen on the map, as formerly described, and
left foot of Orion, a star of the first magnitude may be easily traced in the heavens. Although I
fifteen degrees south of Bellatrix. The line P Q  have fixed on the middle of January, at eight
passes through Saiph, a star of the third magni- o'clock in the evening, for these observations, yet
tude, in Orion's right knee, eight and a half de- the same'stars may be,traced, at different hours,
grees east of Rigel. The two form the lower end during the months of November, December,
of the parallelogram  of Orion. The line R S January, February, and'March. About the midpasses through the star Sirius,. in Canis Major, die of November, at midnight, and the middle of
which is east by south from Saiph, atthe distance December, at ten o'clock, r. M., this portion of the
of fifteen degrees. The small stars to the west, heavens will appear nearlyin the same position
or right hand of Sirius' form' a part of the con- as here represented.  About the middle of Februstellation of Lepus, or the Hare, A'line drawn ary, Orion will be on the meridian about eight in
from T to U, from  the northern to the southern the evening; and in the month of March, at the
part of the map, will point out the position of the same hour, considerably to the west. f' it; but ll, toX,,e w                       mri                        




EXPLANATION- OF THE PLANISPHERES.                                          15
the adjacent stars and constellations may be traced  slength, from  west to east, about sixty degrees
at this time in the manner-already described. The  The equator runs through'this portion of the beastars and constellations delineated. on this map  vens in the direction a b, or nearly corresponding
comprehend a space in the heavens extending in  to the line L M, so that it passes very near to the
breadth, from  north -to south, about fifty degrees. upper star in the belt of Orion.  The degrees of)
— namely, from  thirty-three degrees of north  north and south declination* from the equator are
declination to seventeen degrees south; and in  marked on the margin.
PLATE Il.
EXHIBITING A PORTION -OF THE CONSTELLATIONS,; AS SEEN. ABQUT THE FIRST OF SEPTEMBER.
Plate:II represents another portion of the hba- star of the first magnitude in the constellation of
vens as it appears about the beginning'of-Septem- the Harp.   The six small stars to the south-east
ber. It includes some of the larger stars belonging'of it likewise belong to this constellation.-The
so the constellations Cygnus, Lyra, Cerberus,Ser- stars on the right, or to the westward of Vega, bepentarius, Aquila,:Hercules and Corona Borealis. long chiefly to the constellation of Hercules.  A
At ten o'clock in the evening of the, 1st. of Sep- line drawn from Cto D passes through the princitember, the: star Altair, in the constellation  of  pal star Corona Borealis, or the Northern Crown,
Aquila, or the Eagle; will be nearly on the merid- named Alphacca, which is of the third mnagnitude,
ian, at anll:elevation above the horizon' of. about' and near the right-hand side of the map. -The stars
forty-six:degrees.  This- star, which is between  north and east from it belong to the same constelthe first and second magnitude, is situated near lation.  West from  Alphacca is Mirac, at the
the east or left-hand side of the: map, near the' distance of eleven degrees; and south-west of Mirac,
bottom, and has. a small star to the south, and an- at the distance of ten degrees, is Arcturus, a bright
other to the:north-west of it. A line drawn from  star of the'first magnitude, which is then about eighT to U passes through tie star Altair,.and a line teen degrees above the western horizon. Both these
from  fV to W passes through the meridian at the stars are in the constellation of Bootes, but they
hour supposed;                            - -      are not within the limits of the map.  A  line'The seven stars which — are nearest Altair, to- drawn from  F to G passes through Ras Algethii,
ward the south, and west, and north-west, belong. a star of the second magnitude, and the principal
to the constellation of- Aquila.  All the stars on  star in the constellation of Hercules, which is
the  map which  are to: the right-hand of Altair, twenty-five degrees sopth-east of Corona Borealis.
are west of the meridian.  A line drawn from.X   A line from H to I passes through Ras Alhaque,
to Y, near the. top of the- map,, passes through  a star of the second magnitude in the head of SerDenib, a bright" star of the second magnitude.in the. pentarius.  This star is five degrees east by south
constellation  of. Cygnus, or the. Swan, which is   * The declination of a heavenly body is its distance north
the star next-the left-hand side, nearly due north  or south' from' the equinoctial, or equator, and corresponds to
from Altair, at the distance'of thirty-six'degrees; latitude on the terraqueous globe, which is the distance of a
the-other four stars adjacent to it belong to the'place from the equator  The latitude of a heavenly body is
its distance-north or south of the ecliptic, or apparent path
same constellation.  A  ine drawn from: A  to B  of the sun, which forms an angle of 32" degrees with the
passes'through the star Vega, or a Lyre, a brilliant equinoctial.




r16'                                SIDEREAL  HEAVENS.
of Ras Algethi.  Most of the other stars to the    Let us now suppose that we are to contemplate
south and east in the map belo g to Serpentarias. the northern part of the heavens about the beginVarious other remarkable stars may be seen at niug of April, at ten o'clock  in the evening.
this time beside those.noted in the map, particu- Turning our faces toward the pole-star, or directlarly the square of Pegasus, or the Flying Horse. ly north, and holding that part of the map upperAbout fifty-three degrees nearly east'frpm  Altair most which is opposite to the beginning of April
is Markab, a star of the second magnitude.; six' those stars which are marked on the  upper  part of
teen and a half degrees east of'. Markab isAlgenib,  the map, will appear not far from  the zenith,
another star of the second magnitude; fourteen or nearly overhead; these toward the lower part
degrees north of Algenib is Alpheratz, and four- will appear at a low elevation, not far from  the
teen degrees west of Alpheratz'iS Scheat, both of horizon; those on the right will appear in the east,
them stars of the'second magnitude.  These four and those on the left in the west, at different elestars, of nearly -equal miagnitudes, form  the vations, as here represented.  The two pointers
Square of Pegasus, and appear nearly half-way  in the Great Bear, which are directly opposite to
between the eastern horizon and, the meridian.,   thie 1st of April, will be seen nearly in the zenith,
All the stars alluded to above may likewise be and to point downward to thepole-star; and at nearseenduring themonthsof July and August, when ly an equal distance below the pole-star, they dithey willappear in a more- easterly position   than rect the eye to the constellatidnCassiopeia, which
at the time:stated above; and in the month ofOc- is conceived to have a certain resemblance' to a
tober, at eighto'clock, aid' in November, at six chair, and which appears only a small distance
o'clock in the evening, they'will be seen nearly above  the northern horizon.  To the west or
in the positions which have been now represented. left-hand side of Cassiopeia is the constellation
PlateIII represents a'view of some of the prin- Perseus, of which Algenib is the principal star,
cipal stars around the pole,.extending. from' the and which is likewise at'a low elevation. To the
polar point,:hi- every: direction,: about- forty-fiVe right, or eastside of Cassiopeia is Cepheus —four
degrees.   n       husing'this map, thie.:bserver is sup- stars'of which, two of the thiid, and two of the
posed to be'-Iodoking toward.the north, ir which  fourth magnitude, forma kind of square, or rhomcase,' the left. hand side of the' -map is:toward the' bus. The stars fartherto the east, aid in-a more
west, and  the  right sid  toward the east., The elevated position, belong chiefly to the constellalarge star near the center of the map is the Pole- tion. of Draco, or the Dragon.' The star Etanin,
star, which form's the tip of the tail of Ursa Minor in this constellation, appears nearly due east of
the square of which,, and the two  otier stars  in.the  pole-star, at the distance'of forty degrees.
the tail,, will be seen ascending.from  it toward  The stars on the western side of the map, or on
the right hand, when the map is so placed that the the left-hand'nearly opposite to Etanim, b.hnmg
1st of April is at tho. top..- There is only one star. to the constellation of- Auriga; and those on the
of the firstmagnitu'de withii the'limnits of this map upper part are chiefly some of the prominent stars
— namely Capella, the principal. star:in'the:con-, connected with the Great Bear. The bright star
stellation- of'Aurriga, opposite that part of the map capella appears nearly, west. by. south from  the
where the month of December is marked.:   A line pole-star, at a prettyhigh elevation, with Menkadrawn- firom  C to D  passes- through: this star,'lina a little above it, and to the;eastward.
which is adjacent to. time extremity:ofithe map.   Beside the stars marked on this map, there may
There a're eleven stairs of. the' secbnd  magnitude;  be seen, at the same time, several brilliant stars of
five in the square and -tail of, UrsaMdZjor, orthe the; first magnitude.'Turning   the eye east by
Great' Bear-namel6y the' two' pointers,' Dubhe and  south, the bright star Arcturus, in the constellaIMerak, Phad, Aiiqth, and Benetnasch. The others tion Bootes, is seen about half-way'between the
are Menkaliva, Etanin, Rastaban, Algenib, Delta, horizon and the zenith. Looking to the northGygni, and the Pole-star.  A line drawn from  A  east, the brilliant star Vega, or Lyra, appears eleto B passes"through Dubhe and Merak, and the vated twenty degrees above the horizon, in a diPole-star at "the center of'the map; and on the rection nearly opposite to Capella, in the west.
other side'of tihe Pole-star it passes throlgh a part Farther to the north, but not quite so elevated as
of the constellation'of: Cassiopeia-the Pole-star Lyra, is Denib, in the constellation of the Swan.
being nearly equidistant between thatconstellation Turning our eye to the'west, Castor'and Pollux
and the pointers.  A  line drawn firom  E  to F  will be seen about midway betw.een the. western
passes through'Menkalina, in the' constellation of horizon'and zenith: and farther down, near the
Auriga, about eight degrees from Capella.  A line horizon, almost due west, are Betelguese and Beldrawn from G to H passes through Delta Cygni, latrix, the two stars in the shoulders of Orion, Betin the Swan, which is placed at the:extremity of elguese appearing tie- more elevated of the two,
the map. A line from  I to K  passes through  the other portions Orion having descended below
Algenib, the pilincipal star in  the constella- the horizon. To the south-west, midway between
tion of. Perseus.  A line from  L'to M  passes Pollux and the horizon, is Procyon, a star of the
through Etanim,' near the right-hand side of the' first magnitude in the Lesser-Dog.
map, a star of the second magnitude in the con-   Suppose, now, we were to observe the same
stellation of Draco, near to which, at the distance quarter of the heavens, at the-same hour, about the
of four or five degrees is Rastaban, likewise a star beginning of October. In this case we have only
of the second magnitude in the same constellation.  to reverse the map so thatthe first of October may be
With two other stars they form a kind of irregu- uppermost.  At this season, Cassiopeiawill appear
lar square or trapezium, and, with another small near the zenith and the two pointers of Ursa Major
star, they form  a.figure resembling an italic -V. will be seen at the opposite side of the pole,at no great
When the star Etanim comes to the meridian of elevation above thehorizon. Capella will appeartoLondon, it is exactly in the zenith of that place, ward the east,onthe right, ataconsiderable altitude,
which has renidered it of peculiar utility hi certain  and the five stars in the head of Draco consideranice'astronomical: observations. It is celebrated in bly to the west, while Algenib, and the other stars
modern times as being the' star Which Dr. Bradley  in Perseus, will be seen in a high elevation, to the
selectel to determine, ifpossible, the Annual Paral- east of Cassiopeia. At this time, likewise, by
lax; and from his observations of which he deduced turning our eyes toward the east and the south,
the important discovery of the Aberration ofitglt. L Aldebaran, or the Bull's-eye, in the constellation




NORTHERN REGION IN OCTOBER.                                     17
Taurus, will be seen elevated about twelve degrees on for any other hour. If we would make our
above the eastern horizon, about sixteen degrees observations in the beginning of January at ten,
above which are the Pleiades, or seven stars. The P. M., that point must be turned to the top, and
star Altair will appear near the south-west, half- then the two pointers will be seen on the right,
way between that point and the meridian, and straight east of the pole-star, and the other five
Fomalhaut, in the Southern Fish, will be seen stars hanging down fromthem, Cassiopeia nearly
nearly on the meridian, only five or six degrees straight west, and Capella not far from the zenith
above the south point of the horizon.          These circumpolar stars may therefore be seen at
In like manner, were we wishing to observe the every season of the year, and their relative positposition of the circumpolar stars at any other hour, tions determined beforehand, by simply turning
at this period, than ten o'clock, P. M., suppose at round the map to the month, or day of the month,
eight in the evening, we have only to turn the required, so that that point may be at the top; and
line which marks the beginning of September up- although the months are arranged so as to correspermost instead of October, and the position at pond with ten o'clock, p. m., yet the positions may
that hour will be seen; and if we choose to make  be represented for any other hour, according to
our observations at six in the evening,we turn the the directions given above.
first of August to the top, allowing two hours, at   The following remarks may be stated in reference
an average, for every month. If wa would inspect to the stars depicted on this map:-l. All these
their position at twelve midnight, the first of No- stars never set in our latitude, but appear to move
vember must be turned round to the top, and so round above the horizon in circles of which the
PLATE 1li
THE NORTH CIRCUMPOLAR STARS.
pole is the center. As the observer is supposed to  this map are only those which are most pronidbe in fifty-two degrees N. latitude, all the stars nent and obvious to the naked eye, in order 1o
within 520 of the pole never descend below the prevent confusion, and that the untutored obse;horizon.  In one part of their diurnal course they ver may not be distracted with too many objects
appear above the pole, and some of them near the at one view. They chiefly consist of stars of the
zenith, and in the opposite point they appear be- second, third, and fourth magnitudes. 4. In order
low  the polar point, and sometimes near the that the obselrver may be able readily to estimate
northern horizon.  2. In the higher part of the apparent distances of the stars from each other
their course they appear to move from  east to and from the horizon, it may be proper to keep in
wvest, and in the lower part from west to east. mind that the distance between the two pointers
Those nearest the pole describe small circles is exactly five degrees, and between Dubhe (the
around the polar point, and those at greater dis- nearest to the pole) and the pole-star, twenlty-nine
tances describe larger circles; but their periods degrees.  By applying these measures by the eye
of apparent revolution are exactly the same- to other stars, their apparent distances may be
namely, twenty-three hours, fifty-six minutes, very nearly estimated. 5. Although I have stated,
and four seconds. 3. The stars represented in  in general terms, that the pointers come to the




southern meridian, or are nearly inthe zenith, at of'the heavens, partly delineated; from actual obten, r. M., about the -beginning of "April, yet it is' servation, are intended to-convey to general obsernot before the seventh of this month that they are- iVers a natural'representation.of hose quarters
accurately in this position at ten'in hthe evening;: of the firmament to which they refer, so that by
but the difference is not much perceptible'by the a little further attention and observation, and aln
eye during the course- of,'a, week, or': two, and inspection of a celestial atlas' they may acquire a
therefore can lead to no great mistake.`-6. If the  general view 0of the principali stars and constellacircle containing'the stars.were cut out, and' sur- tions visible in our'hemisphere;' for on most cerounded with the circle of months: and days, and lestial planispheres and-'globes there is such a
made to revolve within th~e:'circle: of hours, it group of eyes, noses, legs, tails, claws, and wings
might be made to serve the purpose of:an astro, connected with the, mythological figures of the
nomical',clock for pointing' outr'the hours of the! constellations, no' traces of- which can be seen in
night, and likewise for showing the.positions of the'heavens, that'the learner is sometimes conthe circumpolar'stars for-'any hour- of the day or founded, and can scarcely trace any resemblance
-ight. 7.. The deliheations  of:the apparent dis- between what is depicted on such globes and
tances -of the stars on this map are on a scale of  planispheres and the real aspect of the firmament,
nly one-half -the size iof that- on which the two the stars appearing, in many. instances, as accipre/edi-ngmapsps: wereconstructed.:-':'   dental spots, buried, as it were, amid the gr8up:'he three preceding views of certain portioms  of hieroglyphics with which they are connected.
CHGA P TER II.
ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE STARS INTO CONSTELLATIONS, WITH
SKETCHES OF THEIR MYTHOLOGICAL HISTORY.
IN order to distinguish the stars'from  one  might be exactly equivalent to the year itself
another, the ancients divided the heavens into  For this purpose they took two brass open vessels,
different portions or spaces, called constellations;  theone pierced at the bottom, and the other with-dr groups of stars. They supposed each group  out any orifice below. Having stopped.th  hole
to- occupy a space which  a lion,. a. bear, a man, a of the first, they filled it with water, and placed it
harp, or other object would fill, if it-were there  so that the water might run: out into the other
delineated; and hence the different constellations vessel the moment the cock should be opened.
were depicted as-if they had borne a resemblance  This done,. they observed in that part of the
to dragons, dogs, rams, altars, ships, and similar heavens where the sun has its annual course, the
objects, whether imaginary or real.: The inven- rising of a star, remarkable either for its magtion of the constellations, particularly those'of nitude or its brightness, and at the critical inthe Zodiac, is generally attributed to the'Chaldeans stant it appeared on the horizon they began to
or the Egyptians; but most probably the merit, let the water flow out of the upper vessel into the
such as it is, is' due to the -former, although' the' other, during the rest of the night and the whole
Egyptians appear, at a- very early'period, to have -following day, until the very moment when the
derived the-knowledge- of astroiiomy from  the same star began to appear anew on the horizon.
inhabitants of Chaldea,- and imparted it to the The instant it was again seen they took away the
ancient Greeks and other nations. The first series under vessel,-and threw the water that remained
of constellations: which were. formed appear to  in the upper on the ground. The observers were
have been those of.the Zodiac. Finding' that the- thus sure of having one revolution of the whole
year consisted neither of twelve nor of thirteen  heaven,between the first rising of the star and
lunati6ns, in order to know the precise bounds its  return.  The  water which  had  flowed
of the annual course of the sun, they were under during that. time now  afforded them the means
the necessity'of carefully examining what stars of measuring the duration of one whole revowere successively obscured:in the evening bythe lution of the starry firmament, and of divimotion of that globe, and what: stars, after'emer- -ding that' duration into seveal equal portions.
ging from its rays, showed themselves again before  They then divided the water of, the under vessel
the dawn of day..                               into twelve parts; perfectly equal, and prepared two
Macrobius, —an ancient Roman author, and  other small vessels capable of containing exactly
Sextus Empiricus, a Greek writer, have handed  one of these portions, and no more. They again
downi to us the ingenious method which the first poured into the great copper vessel the twelve
astronomers used to determine exactly the course  parts of water all at once, keeping the vessels
which,the sun describes in the heavens, and to  shut. They then placed under the cock, still
divide-the year into equal portions, of which the shut, one of the two small vessels, and another
following is a condensed description:           near it to succeed the first as soon as it should be
They every day saw the sun and the whole full. All these preparations being ready, the next
heavens turning round from' east to west. In  night they observed that part of the heavens
the meantime they observed that the sun; by a toward which they had remarked the sun took his
motion peculiar to it, receded, from day to day, course, and waited for the rising of the constellafrom certain.tars,and took its place under others, tion' which has since been called Aries. The'always advancing toward the east. As they-found  instant Aries appeared, and they saw the first
that twelve revolutions of the moon approximated  star of it ascending, they let'the water run
to -one revolution-.of the- sun, but that a certain  into. the little measure. As soon as it was full
sensible difference existed, they. wished that they  they removed it, and threw the water out. In the
might have twelve' divisions -of the year, which meantime they put the other empty measure.~~~~~




DIVISIONS OF THE  ZODIAC.                                     19
slider the fall. They o'.served accurately all the Water-bearer, emblematical of the rains which
stars that rose during all the periods'wh'ich the generally fall at this season of the.year; and the
measure took in filling, and that part of the her- last sign is named Pisces, or the Fishes, which
vens was terminated in their observations by the name seems to have been given because at'the
star which appeared last on the horizon the mo- time when the sun enters it, fishes are then conment the measure was just full. In like manner sidered as fattest and most in season for use.
they proceeded with tihe other vessel'. alternately,   Such were the names and symbols which the
until the two small vessels were three times filled, ancients appropriated to that great circle or:zone
which marked out six divisions, or onel-half of the of the heavens through which the sun, moon, and
course of the sun in the.heavens. They were then:planets appeared to move. As the names of ten
forced to defer the observation and measurement of these signs or constellations are borrowed from
of the other half of tile firmament until the oppo- several animals, astronomers gave the annual
site season of the year, when they proceeded as zone which they compose, the name of the Zodiac,
before...               that is, the circle of animals, from  the Greek
Having in this maner determined the twelve word zoon, an animal. By this division of the
divisions of the heavens, an'd marked the clusters heavens, mankind acquired a new  method of
of stars peculiar to' each, they proceeded to give measuring time and of regulating all their labors.
them Iames, and in general termed. them'the sta- From the knowledge of the Zodiac- they' obtained
tions or houses of the sun, three of which were an exact knowledge of the year and of its several
assigned to each season.- The particular names subdivisions, and the'periods when sowing ought
given to each of the twelve constellations of the to commence, and when the fruits' of harvest
Zodiac are generally supposed to refer to certain might be expected to arrive at maturity. When,
circumstances peculiar to the different months. after the setting of the snn, they saw the stars of
As the Chaldealn observers seem to have been of the sign Aries ascend the opposite horizon, and
opinion thiat there were, during the spring, no distant from the -sun by one-half of the sphere of
productionr- more useful than lambs, calves, and.the heavens, they then knew that the sun was
rams, they gave the constellations through which under the sign Libra, which, being the seventh
the sun passes during that season the names of of the celestial signs, was distant from the first by
the three  animals. by which' they were most'en- one-half of the whole Zodiac. When, at the apriched. The first was named Aries, or the Ram; proach of day, they saw, in the middle of the
the second Taurus, or the. Bull; and the third' firmament, or on their meridian, at an equal disGemini, or the Twins,-that is, the "two goats, tance from east and west, the principal star of the
which commonly bring forth two young at a sign Leo, they understood that the sun, then
time. The Greeks afterward represented them  about to rise, was at the distance of three signs
by Castor and Pollux, two twin brothers, sons of from Leo, and removed toward the east one-fourth
Jupiter, by Leda, the wife of Tyndarus, and as part of its-circle. Thus, without seeing the stars,
such they are represented on our globes. Having which were obscured and overpowered by the
remarked that there was a point to which the sun sun's rays as he passed through them, they could
approached when passing these signs, but which say, with a perfect assurance, "the sun is now in
it never went beyond, and that it afterward re- Scorpie, and in two months hence the shortest day
ceded from  that'point for six months together, will arrive."  On the sight of a single constellathis retreat of the sun backward led them to dis- tion, placed either in the eastern, -western, or
tinguish it by the name of an animal which walks middle part of the heavens, they could immedibackward, and hence it was denominated Cancer, ately tell in what sign tile sun was, how far the
or the Crab. As the heats in the next month year was advanced, and what kinds of labor were
(July) are most intense, they compared them  to requisite to be performed. It is therefore to astrothe raging and fierceness of a lion, and hence they nomy we are originally indebted for our knowcalled the sign Leo, that is, the Lion. As in the ledge of the length of the year, and the comnext month harvest commences, and as young mencement of its different seasons.
girls were generally set to glean in the fields, they' The ancients next proceeded to arrange into
denominated the sign corresponding to this month constellations the other groups of stars which
Virgo, or the Virgin, which is represented by the were situated to the north and south of the Zofigure of a young woman holding an' ear of diac. In forming this arrangement they procorn.                                           ceeded on principles similar to those by which
The perfect equality of days and nights which they had delineated the signs of the Zodiac. They
happenS when the' sun quits the'sign of Virgo, conceived the different groups as if they-bore a
caused astronomers to give'the next sign the certain resemblance- to birds, beasts, serpents, or
name of Libra, that is,. the Balance, poised so as to certain imaginary beings, and gave them names
to represent equal day and night.  The frequent corresponding to' such conceptions. This they
diseases which are produced in consequence of seem to have done for the sake of assisting the
the sun retiring to the south procured the next memory and imagination in forming a general
sign the name of Scorpio, or the Scorpion, because idea of the forms and the relative positions of the
It is mischievous, and drags after it a sting and several clusters of stars, and to enable the observenom.'When harvest is over, and the fields ver more readily to distinguish and to point out
cleared of the crops, then is the season for hunt- any particular star; but it would be too tedious,
ing, and therefore the sign in which the sun and would convey little -profitable instruction, to
enters'at that time has obtained the name of Sa- inquire into the  reasons of the emblematical
gittarius; that is, the Archer, or Huntsman. The figures they adopted, or to attempt a detailed view
next constellation, Capricorn, had its origin from  of their mythological history.
the wild goat, whose nature being to seek its food     The following table contains a list of all the
from  the bottom  to the top of mountains, was constellations, ancient and'modern, with the numconsidered emblematical of the ascent of the sun beer of stars in each, as stated in the Historia Cefrom the lowest point of its course, in the begin- testis' of Flamstead, formerly Royal Professor of
ning of this sign, to its highest pitch or summit Astronomy at GreenwiCh.  The first column
in the summer solstice, when it enters the:sign contains the name of the constellation, the second
Cancer. The next sign is called Aquarius, o: the column, the number of stars it contains, and the
VOL. II.-21




20                                SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
third column, the principal stars and their magni- magnitude; 2, those of the second magnitude,
tudes. The number li expresses stars of the first &c.
NORTHERN CONSTELLATIONS.
Name.                             No. of Stars.                Principa. Stars.
Ursa Minor-the Little Bear......       24                      Pole star, 2.
Ursa Major-the Great Bear............... 87...........    Dubhe, 1; Alioth, 2
Draco —the Dragon.............     80.......              Rastaben, 2
Cepheus [East of Draco]............. -       35...................   Alderamin, 3.
Bootes-the Herdsman............;  54.................. Arcturus, 1; Mirac,'3
Corona Borealis-the Northerin Crown [East of }
Bootes].. Alphecca, 2.
Iercules, with Cerberus...............        113................. Ras Algethei, 2.
Lyra-the Harp.              21......               Vega, or Lyra, I.
Cygnuns -the Swan........... 81. Deneb, 2.
Cassiopeia-Lady in her chair..55                Schedir, 3.
Perseua, and Head of Medusa..59..................Algenib, 2  Algol, 2
Auriga-the Wagoner...... 66.                           Capella, Alajoth, 1.
Serpentarius-Serpent Bearer............. 74...........R......          as Alhague, 2.
Serpens-the Serpent..............64
Sagitta-the Arrow [N. of Aquila]...........    18
Aquila and'Antinous-the Eagle, &c.              71.................. Altair, 1 or 2.
Delphiinus-the Dolphin...............          18
Equul~eus —the Horse's Head................  10
Pegasus-the Flying Horse..................  89........               Markab, 2; Scheat, 2.
Andromeda.................................  66.................. Alamak, 2; Mirack, 2
Triangulum-the Triangle......                   16
Camelopardalis-Camelopard.................      58
Leo Minor-the Little Lion..........  53
Coma Berenices-,Berenices' Hair -[North of
Virgo]........'
Vulpecula et Anser- the Fox and Goose
(South of Cygnus]...-... 35
Lacerto-the Lizard [East of Cygnus].......   16
Scutun Sobieski [North of Sagittarius]            8
Canis Venatici-the Greyhounds.............   25
Lynx...............................  44
Cerberus.................. 4
Mons Menelaus [S. E. of Bootes].............    11
Taurus Poniatowski-the Bull of Poniatowski
[W.:of Aquila]................:..... 7
Musca-the Fly [N. of Aries]...............       6
Tarandus-Reindeer [at N. Pole].12
Total number of stars in the Northern    1
Constellations................... 
SOUTHERN CONSTELLATIONS.
Those Constellations marked thus t never rise in N. latitude 52 degrees.
Name.                             No. of Stars.                Principal Stars.
Cetus-the Whale.........        97..............    Menkar, 2; Mira,2.
Orion...........    78.....,.....' Betelguese, 1; Rigel, I
Eridanus-the River Po..84..................        Achernar 1.
Lepus-the Hare [S. of Orion]...........  19
C*nis Major-the Great Dog................  31...........          Sirius, 1.
Canis Minor [N. of Monoceros]...........  14.Procyon, 1.
Argo Navis —the Argo.......................  64............. Canopus, 1; Naos, 2
Hydra-the Serpent,................  60.......' Cor'Hydrm,1
Crater-the Cup [S. of Virgo]........  31                         Algorab, 3.
Corvus-the Crow [S. of Virgo]                    9................   Alkes, 3.
Centaurus-the Centaur.....................35
Lupus-the Welf...........................  24
Arat-the altar...................... 
Corona Australis-Southern Crown..       12
Piscis Australis-4-S. of Aquarius].................. 2Fomalhaut, t.
Columbo Noachi-?Noah's Dove......            10
Rober Carolit [E. of Arg6 Navis]............. 12
Grust-the Crane..               13
Phusneixl...........:..             13
Indust —the Indian............                 12
Pavot —the Peacock................ 14
Apust —the BiTrdof Paratdise..




ZODIACAL CONSTELLATIONS.                                    21
Name.                         No. of Stars.               PrincipalStars:Apis Miscat Australis..........4...    4
Triangulum Australist rSouth Trianglel           5
Piscis Volanst —the Flying Fish........         8
Chameleont [near the S. Pole].............     10
Doradof-the SwordFish.................    6
P'oucan —-the American Goose............        9
Hydrus —the Water Snake.................. 10
Sextans-the Sextant [S. of Leo]..............   41
Monoceros —the Unicorn................   31
CRUv-the Crossf.........6.........          6
The Sculptor's Apparatus.........'.. 12
Circinus t-The Compasses....            7
Brandenburgium Sceptrum [S. W. of Orion]...   6
Equuleus Pictorius.......................      8
Fornax Chemica............:            14
Horologi um-theClock.12
Monls Mensat-the Table Mountain....    30
Machina Pneumatica-the Air PUmp....  24
Noarma, or Euclid's Square................... 12
Octans Hadleianust —-Hadley's Octant.......  43
Pyxis Nautica-Mariner's Compass........... 8
Reticula Rhomboidalist...,.                   ~ 10
Telescopiumt-the Telescope.....9. 9
Sculptoriot-the Engraver'sTools.   16
MUicroscopium-the Microscope:......         10
Total number of' stars in- the Southern    10
Constellations....1027
ZODIACAL CONSTELLATIONS.
Name.                            No. of Stars.              Principal Stars.
Aries-the Ram...................  66.a Arietis, 2.
Taurus-the Bull...........................  141..........    Aldebaran, 1; Pleiade&
Gemini-the Twins......................... 85            Castor, 1; Pollux, 1.
Cancer-the Crab.....................  83.............. Acubens, 3.
Leo)-the Lion...................   95............. Regulus, 1; Denebola, 2.
Virgo —the Virgin.                            110................   Spica Virginis, 1.
Libra-the- Balance                              51                   Zubeneschamale, 2.
Scorpio-the Scorpion.....................44  Antares, 1
Sagittarius —the Archer...................    69
Capricornus-the Goat................             1
Aquarius-the Water Bearer................ Scheat, 3.
Pisces-the Fishes.................... 113
Total number of stars in the Zodiac....... 1016
Total number of stars in all the Constellations................ 3487
Thus all the visible stars in the firmament have ness or magnitude of the stars.  This classificabeen arranged into ninety-four constellations, of tion into magnitudes, however, as it is entirely
which forty-eight were formed by the. ancients, arbitrary, so it is extremely indefinite, and can
and the rest within the last two or three hundred convey no very accurate ideas even of their.years.'Of the stars above enumerated, there are apparent brightness or intensity of light. This
about 17 of the first magnitude, 76 of the'second, consideration has led some eminent astronomers
223 of the third, and the remainder of the fourth, to endeavor to estimate the apparent brightness
fifth, and sixth magnitudes. The different classes of each star by experiments made with the photoof magnitudes- are intended to express their appa- meter. From various experimental comparisons
rent brightness, The brightest stars are said to of this kind, the late Sir Wm. Herschel deduced
be;of: the first magnitude; those which appear the following conclusions:
next in brightness, or inferior to the first, are                         Magnitude.
classed in, &11 ~eeond magnituMagnitude.
classed in theseconndmag nitude; and so on down Light of a star of the average 1st  -   100
to the sixth magnitude, which comprises the                                -d d           25
smallest stars visible to the naked eye in the clear-d                               e    12
est night; 4though there are but few eyes that can                           4th  -         6
distinguish- those which belong to the sixth mag-th -                                      2
Mitude.  All/the stars beyond these limits cometh   
under the general denomination of Telescopic
tars; and with the most powerful telescopes, So that the light of a star of the second magnistars may be perceived of all classes, from. the tude is one-fourth of that of a star of the first
sixth'to the Sixteenth  order of magnitudes. magnitude; the light of one of the -third, oneEvery increas increase in the power of these instruments, eighth; of the fourth, one-sixteenth; of the fifth,
brings into view/innumerable multitudes of those one-fiftieth; and of the sixth, only one-hundredth
orbs which were before invisible, so that rino defi- part. Sir John Herschel informs us that, from his
nite limits can he assigned to the. apparent bright- own experiments, he has found that the light of




-22                               SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
Sirsus, the brightest of all the fixed stars, is about' and the names and figures by'which they are
324 times that of an average star of the sixth  distinguished, seem to have been of a very ancient
magnitude.                                     date. Job, who is. supposed to have lived in aE
It may be proper to observe that the stars period prior to that of Moses, refers to some of
specified in the statements-inserted above are not them  by the same names which they still bear.
all visible to the naked eye, nearly two-thirds of "Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades"'
them being perceptible only by the telescope; but -or the seven stars,-" or loose the bands oi
they are those stars whose latitudes and longitudes, Orion?" that is, the belt of Orion, which consisti
and whose right ascensions and declinations, have of three equidistant stars in a straight line.been accurately determined.  They form only a "Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in his season''
very small proportion of those which are found or canst thou, guide Arcturus with his sons?'
to exist in the most distant regions of the firma- Arcturus is a bright star of the first magnitude'
ment; for by powerful telescopes there have in the constellation of Bootes, and is here put for
been explored, in a sinlge speck of the heavens, the constellation itself.  The expression b"his
a number which far exceeds that of all the visible sons" is supposed to refer to Asterion and Chartq,
stars in the sky; and catalogues have been formed the two Greyhounds, with which he seems to b.l
in modern times which comprise from fifty to a pursuing the Great Bear around the North pole,
hundred thousand of these luminaries.          in the diurnal revolution of the heavens. AlazThe first astronomer, so far as we know, -who zaroth is generally supposed to refer to the twelve
attempted to take a catalogue of the stars,,was signs of the zodiac, which, by. their appointed
Hipparchus of Rhodes, who flourished about 120 revolutions, produce the succession of day and
years before. Christ. Having observed a new star, night, and the seasons of the year.  In another
which he had never seen before, he began to part of this book, Job, when filled with profound
doubt whether there might not be changes occa- reverence of the majesty of God, declares that
sionally taking place amolng these luminaries, and He alone "spreadeth out the heavens, and maketh
therefore commenced making a catalogue of them, Arcturus, Orion, and the Chambers of the South."
noting down the position and magnitude of each The prophet Amos, who lived 800 years before
star, with the view that, if any new stars should the Christian era, alludes to the same objects in
again appear, or any of those observed by him  the fifth chapter of his prophesy —" Ye who turn
should increase or diminish in magnitude, or judgment to wormwood, and leave off righteoustotally disappear, such changes might be known ness in the earth, seek him who maketh the seven
to those who should live in future ages. This stars and Orion, who turneth the shadow of death
catalogue, which was handed down to, us by into morning, and maketh the day dark with
Ptolemy, an- ancient Egyptian astronomer, has night; that calleth for the waters of the sea, and
been of special use to modern astronomers, both poureth them out upon the face of the earth; the
in determining the rate of'the precession of the'Lord of Hosts is his name."
equinoxes, and in proving that certain' stars which    The names of the constellations, and the hierothen existed are no longer to be seen in the hea- glyphic figures by which they are represented, apvens; thus indicating that changes and revolu- pear, however, to have had their origin in supertions are taking place among the distant bodies'stitions and idolatrous notions.  The Egyptians,.
of the universe. The catalogue of'Hipparchus it is well'known, worshiped the host of heaven
contained a description of the places of 1026 stars.'under the figures of most of the animals which
The Arabians are the next whom history repre- represent the celestial constellations, particularly
sents as having attempted to form a descriptive the signs of the Zodiac. They imagined the sun,
catalogue of the stars. This was effected by which they called Osiris, to be a proper representaUlug Beigh, the grandson of Tamerlane, from his tive of the Spirit of Nature, or the Supreme
own observations made at Samarcand, whose Being, who,; like the sun, appears everywhere
catalogue contains 1022 stars. Tycho Brahe, the present, exercising his influence over the universe.
celebrated Danish astronomer, who lived in the The moon, as she receives her light from the sun,
sixteenth century, by means of the large and was looked upon as a female divinity, and called
accurate instruments he invented, formed a cata- Isis, —which goddess was made to signify univerlogue of 777 stars, which are considered as su- sal nature considered as passive, and susceptible of
perior in correctness to those of Hipparchus and various impressions, forms, and qualities.-They
Ulug Beigh. He was prompted to this laborious found, or imagined they found, in various animals,
undertaking by the sudden appearance of a new  some properties or qualities corresponding to the
star in Cassiopeia in the year 1572, which shone motions, appearances, or influences of the sun,
with the brilliancy of Venus, and was visible even moon; and stars. This induced them not only to
at noonday. Bayer soon after published a cata- use those animals in their hieroglyphic representalogue of 1160 stars, in which he introduced the tions of their deities, but also to pay them honors.
-practice of distinguishing the stars by the letters Thus, by the Ram, a prolific animal, they representof the Greek alphabet. All the catalogues now  ed the genial, fertilizing influence of the sun in
mentioned were formed before the telescope was spring; and by the hot and furious Lion, his violent
invented, and contained nearly all the stars which scorching' heat in the summer; and the Bull was
could be perceived by the unassisted eye. Soon an emblem  of the various powers of the sun in
after the invention of the telescope, -in the begin- forwarding the business of agriculture, in which
ning of the seventeenth century, the celebrated this animal was of particular service. As the
Hevelius composed a catalogue of 1888 stars, of overflowing of the Nile is particularly beneficial
which 1553 were observed by himself, and their to the land of Egypt, and as that river was obplaces computed for the year 1660. But some of served to begin to swell at the rising of Sirius, or
our modern  observers of the heavens have pub- the Dog Star, so they had a special veneration for
lished catalogues'which contain the positions of that orb, as if its divine influence had contributed
many thousands of stars'beside multitudes of to that fertility which was produced by the inunnebulae, of various descriptions, double, triple, and dation of the Nile. That the Egyptians worshiped
quadruple stars, and' various other celestial phe- all the animals depicted on the Zodiac, and those
nomena.                                        which represent several of the other constellaThe division of the heavens' into'constellations, tions, is proved by the testimony of several az,




PROPRIETY OF A NEW: ARRANGEMENT OF STARS                                   23
eient tauthors,, particularly Herodotus, who says out all the letters of the Greek alphabet. When
that:' *"in Egypt all sorts of. beasts, whether wild the number of stars to be distinguished in any
or tame, were accounted as sacred, and received constellation is greater than the number of letters
difvine honors."  And it is not improbable that in lthe Greek alphabet, astronomers have recourse
-this worship of the host of heaven,/through the to the letters of the English alphabet, and, dis.
hieroglyphics of various animals,'was a- general tinguish the remaining stars, according to their
practice during the abode of the Children of apparent brilliancy, by the letters a, b, c, d, &c,;
Israel in that country, and that the following and if more stars still remain to b, distinguished,
admonition of Moses has a reference to this cir- they resort to numerals, —thus, a2, d4, &c. From
cumstance:-" Take heed lest ye corrupt your- this mode of distinguishing the apparent magniselves and -make you a graven image, the simili- tude of the stars, the reader will easily perceive that
tude of any- figure, the likeness of any male or those stars which are distinguished by the first
female, the likeness of any beast that is on the letters of the Greek alphabet are the largest in
earth, the likeness of any fowl that flieth in the any particular constellation, while those which
air, the likeness of anything.that creepeth upon are marked with letters toward the close of the
the ground, the likeness of any fish that is in the alphabet are among the smaller stars.
waters' beneath the earth; and lest thou lift up
thine eyes to heaven, and when thou seest the              GREEK ALPHABET.
sun, and the' moon, and the stars, even all the    Greek                 Greek
host of heaven, shouldst be driven to'worship   Characters.    Names.   Capitals.  Characters.
them  and serve them, which the Lord thy Goa          a         Alpha        A       a
hath divided'unto all nations under the whole                  Beta        B        b
heaven.'But the Lord thy God hath taken you,                    amma        r       g
and brought you forth out of the iron- furnace,                 Delta       a  
even out of -Egypt."  The reference here made                   Epsilon      E 
to their being brought out of Egypt seems-evi-                   psilon              e, shrt
Zeta         Z       z
dently intended to put the'Israelites in mind of               Eta
their deliverance from the idolatrous practices of              Theta                th long
the inhabitants of that country, as well as from                 heta       e        th
the slavery to which they had been subjected, and     d         Iota  
consequently implies that the- Egyptians indulged               Kappa        K       k
in the superstitious worship to which we have         A         Lambda
alluded.                           /Z                           Mu          M        m
As it is the practice of astronomers to denote               Nu            N.
the relative apparent magnitudes of stars in each,   Xi 
constellation by the letters of the Greek alphabet,             Omicron      o 
the whole of this alphabet is' here inserted, that              Pi          n         p
Rho      i           r
the unlearned reader may be enabled to distin-                  R
guish the different characters, and the order-in                Sigma.               s
which they follow each other.                       ~ Tr        Tan          T       t
The, first letter of the Greek Alphabet a, de-      u         Upsilon     T        u
notes the largest or brighest star in each constel-'         Phi'D       ph
ation. Thus, a Lyrae is the brightest star in the    X         Chi          X       ch
constellation of Lyra, or the Lyre; -3 Lyrre, the,4        Psi.'       ps
star next in brightness to alpha; and so on through-  ~         Omega           -    o, long
CHAPTER III.
ON THE PROPRIETY OF ADOPTING A MORE NATURAL ARRANGEMENT AND
DELINEATION OF THE STARRY GROUPS.
THE figures of the celestial constellations to blance to the objects they are intended to reprewhich we have now adverted are still depicted in sent.  When the young student of astronomy
our celestial globes and planispheres, and present, wishes to distinguish particular assemblages of
in my opinion, a very awkward and unnatural suns and systems of worlds, he is required to
representation of the-t starry heavens. It is rather connect them  in his imagination with wolves,
a strange circumstance, that for a period of more lions, snakes, and numerous fantastical figures,
than two thousand years the firmament has been which are bent and twisted into unnatural shapes,
conitemplated, and the arrangements of the bodies which have as little resemblance to the objects in
it contains studied, through the medium of bears, the heavens as the gloom of midnight to the
serpents, lizards, rams, whales, centaurs,'dolphins, splendors of the meridian sun.  Such representaflying-horses,,three-headed dogs, hydras, dragons, tions have a tendency to convey to juvenile
and  many  other grotesque and  incongruous minds a mean idea of the most august bodies in
figures.  The sublime wonders of the evening, nature, and of the ample spaces which surround
siky have thus been associated with a group of them, and in which they perform  their.revo.
miean, ridiculous,,and imaginary objects, of which lutions.
wve have scarcely any prototype in nature,, and in   The terms used in any science, the mode of
which there is not the least shadow of a resem- communicating its instructions, and the delinea



2'4                                 SIDEREAL HEAVENS
tions which  such  instructions require,. ought unqualified for forming a more scientific and defiundoubtedly to be accommodated to the discove- nite outline of the sublime spaces of the firmaries which have been made:in the course of ages, ment?
and  to the present state and objects of- that    2. The figures now in use tend to convey a
science; and unless we can show that'the terms mean idea: of the objects they are intended to
and figures to which I allude are the best calcu- represent.  When the stars were considered as
lated to the present state' and objects of astrono- merely a number of tapers or studs fixed in the
mical science, and fitted to assist the student in vault of heaven, solely for the purpose of shedding
forming natural and correctideas of the arrange- a few glimmering rays on: the earth and adorning
ment of the celestial orbs,' it is expedient that the canopy of our habitation, it might not appear
some change and improvement in this respect quite so incongruous to represent their different
should be adopted, in accordance with' the new  groups by "corruptible men, and birds, and fourmodifications and arrangements which have been footed beasts, and creeping things."  But now
introduced into'other departments of science. that the astronomer views the stars as so many
The propriety of introducing some changes in suns and systems of worlds, dispersed through
delineating the constellations, and in their nomen- the immensity of space, the association of such
clature may perhaps appear from the following august objects with representations so silly and
considerations: ~                                whimsical as the mythological figures delineated
1. The': natural and hieroglyphic figures now  on our globes, produces not only a ludicrous
in use have no resemblance to the groups of stars effect by the greatness of the contrast, but for the
they are intended to'represent.  What resem- same reason, tends to lessen the idea of sublimity
blance, for example, exists'' between an eagle, a which naturally strikes the mind on the contemwolf, a centaur, a flying-fish, or Hercules with plation of. such a stupendous scene. Every one
his club-and the constellations which bear their knows how much things great and noble are
names and are attempted to be delineated by their debased by being placed ill intimate connectionl
figures?  Even when imagination has stretched  with little and ignoble objects, and must feel the
itself to the utmost in order to fancy a resem- force of this association in the following lines of
blance, it is obliged to represent such creatures in Hudibras:
the rpost unnatural positions;:and after all, it is
found impossible' to bend and, twist their wings,     "And now had Phosbus in the lap
Of Thetis taken out his nap;
and legs, and tails, and claws,: in such a manner      AnOfd like alobster boild, the morn,
as to take in all the stars in the group, some pretty   From black to red began to turn."
conspicuous ones being still left unformed in the
intermediate spaces. Beside, the discovery of new  Again —
stars by the telescope has now completely de-          "Cardan believed great states depend
ranged the figures of the ancient constellations;       Upon the tip of the Bear's tail's end;
so that however much the legs, arms, and feet of        That:.as. she whisk'd it toward the sun,
the figures may be twisted, they cannot be made        Strew'd mighty empires up and down."
to coincide with hundreds of stars which are Againknown to exist. The only constellatioins'which
may be said to bear a very rude resemblance to         "Who made the Balance, and whence came
may                                                 The Bull, the Lion, and the Ram?
the natural figures are Orion and Ursa Major; but'Did not we bear the aJrgo rig?
even in these the, resemblanee is very distant.;Wake Berenice's Periig?
Hence what is commonly called a bear is also           Whose livery does the Coachnman wear?
conceived to resemble a.plow and a wagon, and is,      Or who made Cassiopeia's chair?.   And therefore as they came from hence,
by:the vulgar, distinguished by these names.          With us may hold intelligence."
Hence, also, different nations represent the same
constellation by different figures:-thus, instead    Such an effect the celestial hieroglyphics have
of our hieroglyphic delineations, the Hindoos a.tendency to produce, when placed in association
have bespattered the firmament with bedsteads, with the august objects of the sky.
dogs' tails, ear-rings, couches, elephants' teeth,   3. They tend to lead us back to the dark and
cats' claws, red saffron; children's pencils, lions' rude ages of the world, and to familiarize our
tails, festoons, wheels, razors, pieces of coral, minds to those crude, chimerical, and absurd conpearls, and other whimsical objects equally appro- ceptions which ought now to descend' into oblipriate.*                                         vion. The signs of the zodiac and most of the
In a judicious comparison of the figures of the other constellations were invented by the Egypdifferent clusters of stars with any other object, tians or Chaldeans to perpetuate the memory of
for the purpose of'a name or reference, the figure some of their rude and barbarous heroes, to assist
of the particular cluster ought first to be accu- them  in their -absurd and idolatrous worship, or
rately considered, and then an object, having as to serve the foolish and impious pretensions of
near a relation to it as possible, should be fixed astrology.' In neither of these respects can the
upon as its representation. But anll order exactly  celestial hieroglyphics be interesting or instructive
the reverse of this seems to have been adopted by  to the modern student of astronomical science,
the- ancients in their arrangement and nomencla- but they are,, in almost every point of view, assoture of the constellations. They first fixed upon  ciated with opinions, practices, and representathe heroes, animals, and  mythological figures tions, which deserve the most marked reprobation;
which they intended to place in the celestial they also distract the attention by turning it aside
vault; and then attempted, if possible, to bend the from the direct objects of the science to the in.
clusters of stars to~correspond withithem-a most vestigation of their fabulous history. How ridicuabsurd, unscientific  and. unnatural procedure. lous the story of Calisto and her son Arces, whom
And shall all succeeding astronomers in every  the rage of Juno turned into bears, which now cirnation tacitly give their approbation of such rude culate about the north pole! —the story of Medusa,
and injudicious arrangements, as. if they were whose golden hair Minerva turned into snakes, ald
of the winged horse which sprang from the blood
~ See "Asiatic Researches," Vol. ii, Art. 16-Antiquity  which gushed out in' striking off Medusa s head!of the Indian Zodiac.                            the story of Orion,, who was produced from the hide




NEW ARRANGEMENT OF THE STARS EXPEDIENT.                                    25
of an ox moistened with wine!-the story:of the gated scenery of a starry sky; and hence it is that
l)ragon which guarded the golden apples In the a young person who wishes to acquire a general
garden of the Hesperides, and was taken up to knowledge of the positions of the principal stars
heaven and made a constellation on account of his finds it extremely difficult to recognize them by
faithful services!-the story of Andromeda- of the our present maps and planispheres, on account of
Swan, of Perseus,and a hundred others of a simi- their being so much interwoven with extraneous
lar description'!                              objects, and on this account, presenting appearances
Such is the: heaven of the pagans-a common so very different-from what they do in the heavens.
receptacle of all iranks of creatures, real and ima-   For these and many other reasons, it appears
ginary, without distinction or order; a wild mis- expedient that some change  or modification
cellany of everything that is false, grotesque, should be adopted in the arrangement and delineand chimerical. Such fantastical groups, which ation of the celestial orbs. Were any scheme of
occupy the "houses of the Zodiac," and other this kind attempted, it would be proper to proceed
compartments of the sky, may comport with the on the following principle, among others-namedegrading arts of the astrologer, but they are- not ly, to give names to the starry groups from objects
only incompetent to the purposes, but completely which bear the nearest resemblance to the actual
repugnant to the noble elevation of modern astro- figures which appear in the heavens. I shall not
nomical science. How incongruous, then, is it presume at present to determine what are the
that such representations,the wildest hallucinations particular objects which might be selected for
of the human mind, should be blazoned in such representing the constellations; as it would rebrilliant colors upon our globes, and that a consid- quire a combination of astronomers to enter parerable portion of our astronomical treatises should ticularly into the discussion. It is evident, howbe occupied in detailing their mythological history? ever, that a number of clusters might be reduced
Because a few shepherds i;n the plains of Babylon, -to mathematical figures and diagrams; and in so far
or on the banks of the Nile, arranged and delineat- as these were found to resemble the starry groups
ed the heavens according to the first crude con- they would form a natural representation. For
ceptions which arose in their minds, are these there actually appear in the heaven —triangles,
chimerical representations to guide the astrono- squares, parallelograms, pentagons, crosses, trapemers of every nation,' and throughout all succeed- ziums, perpendicular and parallel lines, and vaing generations?  It becomes the astronomers of rious combinations of geometrical schemes, some
the present day to consider, whether they intend of which might be selected for the purpose propoto transmit to the enlightened generations of thei sed. It would be expedient that as many as postwentieth or thirtieth centuries the sublime dis- sible of the old constellations should be preserved
coveries of modern times, which have transformed entire; such as Orion, Ursa Major, and others;
the heavens into an immense assemblage of suns and that those which behooved to be somewhat
and worlds,-incorporated and disfigured with deranged should be so divided as that two or more
hydras, gorgons, flying-horses, three-headed dogs, of the new-formed constellations should exactand other "dire chimeras;" or whether they ly correspond to one of the old, and vice versa.
might not be as well qualified as the shepherds of   To ally proposal of this kind, however, I am
Chaldea to reduce the starry groups, in the concave aware that many objections would be raised, parof the firmament, to a more natural, simple, and ticularly that it would introduce'confusion into
scientific arrangement.                       the science of astronomy, especially when refer4. The constellations, as presently depicted on ences are made to ancient catalogues and observaour globes and planispheres, convey an unnatural tions. It is well known however that a similar
and complex representation of the heavens, which difficulty has been overcome in reference to the
tends to confuse the imagination of the juvenile science of chemistry.  The new nomenclature,
student. On some celestial globes which I have which was intended to express' the nature of the
inspected, the natural and hieroglyphic figures are substance by the name which is attached to it,
so prominently engraved, and the colors with though atfirst scouted bymany emin-ent chemists
which they are bespattered so. deep and vivid, that and philosophers, is now universally adopted, and
the stars, appeared not only as a secondary ob- has introduced both simplicity and precision into
~ ject, but were almost invisible, except on a very the science. The same may be said of the departminute inspection. The animals were so nicely ments of geology, botany, zoology, mineralogy,
drawn, and exhibited such a glare of variegated and meteorology. The principle now proposed in
colors, that the sphere appeared more like a young  reference to the constellations is materially the
miss's plaything than a delineation of the starry same as that which led to the adoption'of a newr
heavens. It seems as if the engraver had been chemical nomenclature; and, with regard to the
afraid lest his pretty little dogs, and serpents, and inconveniences attending a new set of terms, it
scorpions, and flying-horses, and crabs, and liz- may be observed, in the words of M. Bergman,
ards, should have been disfigured by the radiated that "those who are already possessed of knowgroups of stars which spotted the pretty creatures; ledge cannot be deprived of it by new terms; and
and therefore he threw them into the shade, in those who have their knowledge to acquire will be
order that'the artificialglobe, which a late philoso- enabled, by an improvement in the lanlguage of
pher calls "a philosophic toy,'? might prove no- the science, to acquire it sooner."
thing more to the fair one, who occasionally twirl-   The opposition, however, which is generally
ed it round its axis, than a beautifully-colored made to every innovation, whether in science or
ball to' fill up a niche in her parlor or bed-room. religion, the high respect in which everything is
The same thing appears in many of our planis- held which has the sanction of antiquity, the difpheres of the heavens, on the first opening of ficulty of forming such an arrangement as would
which one would imagine he was about to inspect combine simplicity with accuracy, and meet the
the figures connected with the natural history of approbation of astronomers, will probably postanimals, or the fantastical representations illustra- pone the attempt to some distant period. I would
tlve of the system  of pagan mythology. What- therefore propose, in the meantime, as matters
ever may be said of the utility of such delineations niow stand, one or other of the following plans
it is evident they present a very awkward and un- for adoption:-1. That the stars be depicted oIn
naural representation of the beautiful and varie- celestial globes and planispheres in their true po



; 26                                   SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
sitions, and apparent magnitudes, without being  those which are bespattered with the mythological
connected  with anys hieroglvphic delinoations; figures.  Should it, however, be deemed necessary,
the different constellations still retaining their in cases of particular and minute reference, to
former names. By this plan, lhe differcnt clusters, have globes and  planispheres on the common
not: being encumbered and buried, as it were, in a plan; a number of delineations of both kinds might
medley. of grotesque and, extrancus representa-  be engraved to suit the taste of different individuals'
tions, would  appear in their:natural- simplicity, and those to whom  money is no great object
witlhout distortion  and confusion, so that the would furnish themselves with one of each de-;globe, being rectified to any. particular position of scripti6n, so that the one globe would prove a mutle heavens,: would:appear a.natural as' well as tual assistance to the other.*
-accurate representation of the correspondisg oi'bs    That the opinions I have now  expressed on
of the firmament.  To distinguish' the bound- this subject are' not altogether singular will apries of the constellations, a dotted line might be pear from the following extract from  Sir J. Herdrawn around them, and each -of them, receive a schel's "Astronomy." "Of course we do not here
very slight tint of coloring, so! that their shape  speak of those uncouth figures and outlines of.
and limits may be'disti-nguishedita;glt  ance.  Or, men and monsters which are usually scribbled
2. Instead  of engraviig  the stars on_ a white  over celestial globes and maps,  in a rude and
ground, as is always done on, the globes, let them.barbarous way, to enable, us-to talk of groups of
be engraved. on a black or adark-blue' ground, -so  stars, or districts in the heavens, by names which,
that the several stars may l.appear as so many  though absurd or puerile in their origin, it would
white specks,, varying in size according, to their be difficult to dislodge them... In so far as they
apparent magnitudes, with a white border (which  have really any slight resemblance to the figures
might be colored- if deemed expedient) around  called up in imagination by a view of the more
eadh constellation, to mark- its boundaries.  On  splendid'constellations,' they  have  a  certain
this plan - the principal stars in the constellation  convenience; but as they are otherwise entirely
Orion, with its boundaly, would appear nearly as arbitrary, and correspond to no natural subdivirepresented in the following cut.                    sions or groupings of the stars, astronomers treat
them lightly, or altogether disregard them, except
Fig.4.                         for briefly nam ng particularstars, as aLeonis, /
Scorpio, &c., by letters of the Greek alphabet
attached to them."  And again,-" This disregard
is neither supercilious nor causeless.  The constellations seem  to have been almost purposely
named and delineated to cause as much confusion and incollvenience as possible.  Innumerable snakes twine  through long and  contorted
areas of the  heavens, where no  memory can
follow  them; bears, lions and fishes, large and
small, northern and southern, confuse all nomenclature, &c.  A  better system  of constellations
might have been a material help as an artificial
memory."t
_ The above remarks are abridged from two papers on this
subject, which the author communicated twenty years ago
to the London" Monthly Magazine" for October, 1818, and
January, 1819, Vol. 46, pp. o01, and 510.
t Since the above was written in April, 1838, I am happy.
to learn that the "British.Association fobr the advancement ol
Science" has had its attention directed to this subject. At
the meeting at New-Castle in Augrust, 1838, it was resolved,,"That it is desirable that a revision of the nomenclature
of the stars should be made, with a- view to ascertain,
ewhether or not a more correct distribution of thein among
the present constellations, or such other constellations as it
may be considered desirable to adopt, may be formed." At
the meeting at Birmingham, August, 1829, the committee
Thi-bls mode of -delineation  would'*hi   appointed to report on this subject stated, "That some pro.
"This mode of -delineation would exhibit the gress has been made in reforming the nomenclature of the
most natural representation which can be made, northern constellations; and that the stars in the soutlherr
on a! convex surface, of the appearance of the liave been commenced laying down on a planisphere, accore
ding to their observed actual magnitudes,for the purpose ot
starry sky. — I-am fully persuaded that globes, with  grouping them in a more convenient and advantageous mat-.
either of these modes of delineation, particularly  ner." It is hoped, therefore, that we shall soon be presented
the: last, would be prized by a numerous class of with an arrangement and nomenclature of the starry groups,
Individuals; as I have seldom conversed with any  accordant withi the sublime conceptions and discoveries of
modern astronomy, and which shall presenet, on oui glooes
personon this subject who would not have  pre- and planispheres, a more perspicuous and natural iepresep
trred such a simple and natural delineation to  tation of the heavens.




C IH APTER  IV.
ON THE DISTANCES OF THE- STARS.
To measure the length and breadth- of an ex- at first view might have appeared beyond the
tensive kingdom, and to compute its dimensions, power of human genius to accomplish; but by
or to determine the distances between two large the unwearied observations of modern astronoislands or continents, was formerly reckoned an mers, and the application of mathematical princiachievement' of considerable magnitude; but to ples to such observations, they have been enabled
measure the whole earth, to compute its area, and  to trace the exact movements of the machinery
to'determine its exact figure and magnitude, were which is in operation around us,.and to determino
considered as the most astonishing -enterprises with'precision the relative distance and position.
ever attempted by man, and almost beyond the' of every planet within the system  of the sun.
reach' of the powers with which he is endowed. There are limits, however, beyond which it is, iffiConfined to a small spot in the world in which cult for the human faculties to penetrate.  The
he dwells, having no scale of measurement, in planetary system comprises an area so vast that
the' first instance, but his own dimensions, or the imagination is almost lost in the conception. A
length of a rod or chain formed from these dimen- circle drawn  around its circumference would
siolis, how can: he measure spaces hundreds of measure more than eleven thousand millions of
times greater thitan the extent of his whole visible miles; and a body moving at the rate of thirty
horizons? how can he'compute the distance and miles an hour would require above forty-two
dimensions of places which he has' never visited, thousand years to complete the circuit; still these
and some of which he never can visit, and em- vast dimensions are within the limits of measurabrace the whole amplitude of' a world which has ble distance. But when we attempt to pass benever b'heen thoroughly explored?  The hight of yond the boiindaries of this system  into the
his body is but a fathom, and the length of his illimitable spaces which lie beyond, all four usual
chain but a score of fathoms, and such measures modes of computation begin to fail, and the mind
dlwindle into mere points when compared with is overpowered and bewildered -amidst boundless
the dimensions of the earth. Hence -it happened space, and the multiplicity of orbs which fill the
that many ages elapsed before the figure and regions of immensity. We can:tell that. somne of
dimensions of the world ill which we dwelj were the nearest of these orbs are not within a certain
nlearly ascertained. The powers of the human distance, but how far they may lie beyond it the
mind, however, when called into action  and most expert astronomer has never yet been able
properly exercised, are not only capable of such to compute.
enterprises, but adequate to the performance of   The principal mode by which the distance of
still more elevated  achievements.  When the the fixed stars has been attempted to be determind of man is determined on the pursuit of mined is by endeavoring to ascertain whether any
knowledge, and bent upon improvement, difficul- of them  have an annual parallax.  I have alties, however great, only  serve as incitants to ready explained the mode by which the distances
action and perseverance, and to stimulate his of the suI, moon, and planets is determined by
energies to their highest pitch of exertion. He means of the horizontal pa'allax, or the angle
multiplies small measures until he arrives at under which the earth's serni-diameter is seen at
greater; he combines units into tens, tens into any of these bodies.*  But such a mode is altohundreds, hundreds into thousands, and thousands gether inapplicable to the fixed stars, whose disinto millions.  He combines lines into angles, tances from the earth is so great -that the horizonangles into triangles; compares triangles, squares, tal parallax is quite imperceptible. Astronomers
and circles together; ascertains their peculiar have therefore attempted to'find a parallax by
properties and relations; and, from the conclu- using the whole diameter of the earth's annual
sions he deduces, constructs instruments and as- orbit as a base line, —namely, one hundred and
certains principles which enable him not only to'ninety millions of miles,-and endeavoring to
measure the dimensions of this lower world, but ascertain whether any of the fixed stars appear.
the- magnitudesand distances of the globes which'to shift their position when viewed from  the oproll around him in the heavens.                posite extremities of this line. The nature and
There is no saying at what point the human mode of'this investigation will appear from the
faculties Wiil stop when once they are aroused to ifollowing explanations:
active operation, and stimulated to exert all their    The axis of the earth extended, being carried
energies.  We have not: only ascertained the parallel to itself during its annual revolution
bulk of the terraqueous globe, its spheroidal round the sun, describes a circle in the sphere of
figure, its diurnal and annual motions, and the the fixed stars equal to the-orbit of the earth.
relation in which it stands to other'bodies in the Thus (fig. 5), let A B C D be the orbit of the
universe, but we have determined tile dimensions -earth, S the sun, the dotted lines the axis of the
of the spolar system, and the distances and magui- earth extended; this axis, when the earth is at A,
tudes of Inost of the: bodies it contains, so that points at a in the sphere of the heavens; when
we can now speak with as much certainty of the the earth is at B, it points at b; when at C, it
distance of the sun, ol of Jupiter and Saturn, as points at c; and when at D, it points at d; so that
we can do of the distance of London from Paris, in tile course of a year it describes the circle a b
or of tile distances of any two places on the sur: 
face of the earth. This is all achievemnent which       * " Celestial Scenery," pp. 110, 11].
(27)




28                                   SIDEREAL HEAVENS
c d in the sphere of the heavens, equal to the would appear to move one-half of the year accorcircle A B C D.  But although the orbit of the ding to the order of the signs, and contrary to the
earth, -and consequently-the' circle a b c d. be im-.: Lrder of the signs during the other half, —somemensely large, no less than many millions,of miles what similar to the appearance which the moons
in diameter, yet it is but a point ihll comparison  of Jupiter present when moving between the
of the boundless sphere of the heavens.  The opposite points of their  orbits.  If therefore the
angle under which it appears to an inhabitant of stars were at a moderate distance from  the earth,.
the earth is insensible by any instruments or so that the diameter of the earth's orbit, a F,'observations that'have'hitherto, been made, and  bore a sensible proportion to that distance, the
therefore the celestial poles appear in the same star -would be found.at one time. of the year, suppoints of the heavensX during the, whole of the pose the month of December; at the point i, and
earth's,annual course.  The star H  is nearer the at the opposite season, in the month of June, at
point a than it is to the point-c by the whole the point h; and if the angle i K h, which is equal
length of the line a c, yet. if -this line a-c, great to the angle G K F could be found, it would conas it is when  viewed from the earth, should occu- stitute what is termed the annual parallax; and.py no sensible space in the sphere of- the heavens, having obtained this parallax, and knowing  the
the star will:appear at the.samedistance from the extent of the base line G F, or the diameter of
pole- throughout every portion of the annual revo- the earth's orbit, the distance of the stars whose
lution, and consequently will have no parallax, — parallax was ascertained could then be determined
which is found to be the fact....         byan easy process in trigonometry; for as radius:
If the annual parallax of a fixed star were sen- is to the sine of the angle i K h = G K   F:; so
sible, the star would appear to change its place so is the diameter of the orbit of the earth, 190,000,-.
as to describe a small:ellipsis in the sphere of the 000 of miles: to a fourth number, which would
heavens in, the: course of a year, or an annual express the distance of the particular stars from
revolution of the earth. Thus, let G E  F I our globe.
(fig. 6) be the orbit of the earth, and K the star   But this angle, in respect to any of the stars,
to be observed,-if we imagine a straight line to has never yet been ascertained; although astronobe drawn from the earth at G through the star to mers for more than a century past have used the
a point in the heavens, as at i, that visual line A, most accurate instruments which ingenuity could
contrive, and the most unwearied observations in
Fig. 5.                   Fig. 6.        order to determine it.
Galileo appears to have been the first who
thought of trying whether the annual parallax of
the stars were discoverable.  Taking for granted
that the stars are placed at different distances
from  the earth, and that those stars which are
61     9,l"!_\ S~c~  /,            ~.Inearest will appear the largest, he suggested that,
by observing with a telescope two stars very near
each other, one of the greatest and the other of
the least magnitude, their apparent distance from
i..., I;   y'' i'   each other might perhaps be found to vary as they
I|T    Or    i    0  f    /  \:were viewed from  different parts of the earth's
i:    i'i  0I          \ 0orbit at different times of the year; but no change
i~ ~ t 5~ t     -I   \ ~~of position whatever was at that period perceived
*                        -                 If any change of this kind were perceptible, it
~.:  l:-j.,  I.  \   latitude of the stars fixed upon as the subject for.
observation.  These are found, not directly, but: I ]: |   2:   5  /  -: \            by first determining their declination and right
i,.... {.- } \ ascension.  The declination of a star is found by
l.t -:. -Ad. -1    R  \   taking its meridian altitude, and subtracting the
hight of the equator; the right ascension is found
C  F                     by the time of its coming to the meridian.*  We
have thus two methods pointed' out of attempting
to determine the annual parallax of the stars: one,
by observing if any change can be discovered in..  D                                    the meridian altitudes of the same star at different
i being-carried along with the earth in its annual times of the  year; the other, by examining
motion, will: describe the ellipse h n i; in other whether the intervals of tilne between any two
words, the motion of'the earth round its orbit stars coming to the meridian are equal throughG E F I will make-the star appear to go round  out the year.  If there be any sensible change
the. ellipse h n i. If the star K were in the pole  of declination in any of the stars, it must be
of the ecliptic, the ellipse it described would have  greatest in those which'are near the poles of the
the same eccentricity as the orbit''of the earth, ecliptic; but the change of right ascension must
and consequently would differ very little from a  be greatest in stars in the solstitial colure, and
circle; if it were at any distance from'the pole  nearest the pole of- the equinoctial.
of the ecliptic,*  the greater that- distance, the
Po tecli   te gre ae itsta nce  the sa *i The latitude of a star is its distanee from the ecliptic,
more oblong would be the ellipse.  If the star either north or south, counted toward the pole of the eclipwere in the plane of the ecliptic, the ellipse would  tic. Its longitude is its distance from the first point of Aries,
become a straight line, as i h, in which the star. reckoned eastward on the ecliptic. The declination of a
star is its distance from the equinaoctial north or south, and
the greatest. declination it can have is 900. Its right ascen.-.'rhe, pole of the ellipse is that point in the heavens sion is its distance from the first point of Aries, reckoned on
which is. farthest distant from the plane of the earth's orbit, the equinoctial eastward round the sphere of the heavens,
or 900 from every part of it, as the north pole of the earth is or that degree of the equinoctial which comes to the meri
the point distant 90~ from the equator. The pole of aLy  dian with the star  By the right ascension and declination
circle is a point on the'surface of the sphere 900 distant the situation of stars in the heavens. is determined, as that
from every part of' that circle of which it is the pole  of places on the earth by longitude ai;d latitude.




ANNUAL PARALLAXES.                                           29
Tie following is the.plan by which the disco- modern astronomers would long since have detervery of.the annual parallax, -by the change of the mined the annual parallax had it been nearly so
declinationof the stars, may be attempted. Let a great as Hook and Flamstead supposed; nay, had
telescope be placed perpendicular to the. horizon, it amounted to 2" instead of 47" this grand proand through this instrument, when accurately blem, as it respects the nearest stars, would have
adjusted, observe some star in or  near the solsti- been resolved.
tial colure,* which passes through rthe zenith, or   The human mind, when ardently engaged in
very near it. If the parallax of the star be, sen- the pursuit of any object, is seldom  deterred by
sible, there will appear.a difference in its altitudes difficulties; and astronomers in particular, notat different periods of the year, and its sltitudes withstanding the intricacies and difficulties conat the two -solsticest, will differ most from each  nected with many of the objects of their investiother.  In the- month  of June a star that passes gation, have. persevered in their observations and
through the zenith0of any place, in north latitude, researches, and have not unfrequently arrived at
will in December pass south of the.enith, and'a the most important and unexpected results.  In
star that in December passes through the zenith  the year 1725, Mr. Molyneux, doubtful of the
will'in June pass to tho north of it, if there -be accuracy of the observations of Hook and Flamany sensible parallax.;                          stead, began a series of observations, to ascertain,
The celebrated Di.' Robert Hook was among  if possible, the true annual parallax.  Assisted by
the first who: suggested this method of attempting. Dr. Bradley, he placed.a telescope of twenty-four
to find the: parallax of the stars.  In-the year feet long perpendicularly at his house at Kew,
1669 he endeavored to put-it in practice at Gre- and began to observe the same bright star in
sham  College, with a telescope thirty-sixfeet in Draco as Hook had done. Fr'om  the 3d of' Delength.  Hlis observation was made on the 6th of cember that year it was found that the star did
July, on the bright star in the head of Draco  not''sensibly change its distance from  the zenith
marked Gamma. On that day it passed 2' 12" for several days. On Decemnber 17th it passed a
north of the zenith. On July 9th it-passed at the little more southerly, and continued gradually to
same distance as before. On the 6th of August pass more and more southerly at every transit
the star passed north of the zenith 2', 6"; and  over the meridian until the beginning of March,
on. the  21st of October -it passed 1' 48' north of when it was found to pass twenty seconds more
the zenith.'iBut at that period astronomical in- southerly than at the time of the first observation.'
struments were not constructed with such accu- About the middle of April it appeared to be reracy as to; enable the observer to determine with  turning toward- the north, and at the beginning
precision, tlei'quantity of so small angles; and  of June it passed the meridian at the same diseven Dr. Hook himself could place no great reli- tance from  the-zenith as in December, when it
ance- on such observations.  In the year 1689, was first observed.  From  that time it appeared
Flamstead, the  astronomer royal, commenced  more and more northerly'at every transit until
similar observations with an instrument adapted September following, being then twenty seconds
to a refracting telescope seven feet long, and, more northtrly than in June, and no less than
after numerous observations, he supposed that he thirty-nine seconds more northerly than'iii March.
found the pole-star nearer the pole in December From September the star returned toward the south
than in the months of April, May, July, August, until it arrived, in December, at the same situaor September; and that its apparent distance from  tion in which it was found a twelvemonth before.
the pole was greater in April than in September,
and greater in July and May than in April; and                         Fig. 7.
from  the whole of his observations he deduced          K                     F
that its apparent distance from  the pole in June
must be forty-six seconds different from  that in
December. But even Flamstead himself speaks
of these observations with a great deal of diffidence, owing to his doubts about the regular divi-                           E
sions of his instruments.
From these observations of Hook and Flamstead, supposing them  to be nearly correct, Mr.
Whiston computed that the greatest annual parallax of a star in the pole of the ecliptic is fortyseven- seconds; and- hence he calculated  the
distance of such stars to be about 9000 semidiameters of the earth's orbit, then'estimated  at
eighty millions of miles, or about 700,000,000,000,
that.is' seven hundredtho~usand millions of miles,
-a distance so great that it would require a cannon ball, moving 500 miles an hour, more than.160,000 years to move across this immense interval. But we have reason to believe that the
distance of'the nearest stars from our globe'is at
least forty tithes the distance "now stated; for
*'The colures are two great circles passing through the
poles of the world; one of them -passes through the equino.tial points Aries and Libra, which is called'the equinoctial
coZisre the other through'the solstitial points Cancer and               D
Capricorn called the solstitial colure.'They are drawn on
all celestial globes and planispheres.,..,    -    lThe result of these observations, so different
t The solstitial points, or solstices, are where the ecliptic from what was expected, was a matter of great
touches the first points of Cancer andi Capricorn. The sum.
ersolstice is onthe 2stf June; the winter solstie is on surprise to the obs ervers; fo the observ    f  it appeared that the
the, 21stof Decemaber.-.'  -.''    star was thirty-nine seconds more northerly ir




80                                 SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
September than in March, just the contrary to what at which any of the fixed stars canr be situated
it ought to appear bythe annualparallax of the stars. from  our globe; but as the parallax  does not
This may be iltustratod by. the foregoing figure:   amount to this quantity, their distance must be
Let A B C D represent the orbit of'the earth, much farther than what is here stated, perhaps
and A and C the place of the earth at:two op- not less than double or treble that distance.  We
posite periods of the year; then a fixed object may acquire some faint idea of the immenea disat E, will be seen from the earth at,A, in the line tance stated above by considering that a';rr.njn
A, E, which will point out its appar'ent-place at G  ball, flying with uniform velocity 500 mi)a' every
iii the concave expanse of the'sky.'But-at the op- hour, would requirefour millions,andfre  undred
posite period of the year it will be seen:from  the and ninetyfive thousand years before it rr i'i reach
earth at C in the line C E,:which.,wil project its an object at the distance We have stated   Such
place in the heavens at F1, so that while the earth  are the ample and inconceivable dicnlszn i',ns of the
has passed firom Ato C the object will appear to spaces of the universe.
have moved from 6 to F,' through the space G F,   Several other methods have beer. vv,s'orted to by
Provided there be'any sensible parallax. Now, astronomers in order, if possible,,e 4et'rmine the
in the case of the observations stated above, the distance of the stars, but' most of'I er, are founded
observers who in September saw the star at F, did upon assumptions which have n0.'-*t. been proved.
iniMarch following observe it- at K, in the right The celebrated Huygens, as rec': eda in his "Cosline A I,  parallel to C F, and not at G, where it motheoros,".despairing of besi li,.ble to find an
ought' to have appeared by the parallactic motion; annual parallax, resorted to tt rlowing method:
~so: S:that, instead of finding a  parallax, they found -— supposing thatthe star Si' i'., one of the brightis result'directly opposite to what they expected, est fixed stars in the heaves.',.% be equal iii luster
which exceedingly perplexed the observers, and and magnitude to the suu, #.: endeavored to dione of them, Mr. Molyneux, died before the'. true minish the apparent diar~,?Y:' of the sun to the
cause of it was discovered.                      eye, so that it should app in' r9, larger or brighter
Some time afterward, Dr. Bradley repeated the than Sirius appears to a fr':;,noi observer.  For
same observationswith  an instrument of great ac- this purpose he closed e:nr  end of a twelve feet
curacy, to which was appended a telescope twelve tube with a very thin plate, in the middle of which
and a half feet long.  With this instrument, he made so small a hole that a very minute glass
which was so nicely adjusted thathe could depend globule being put into it, so very small did the
upon it even to half a second, he continued his oh- sun appear to the eye placed at the other end of
servations for more than two years, not only oh the tube, that the light transmitted to the eye
t.he bright starin Draco, above alluded to, but on seemed not more splendid than that which we
many other stars, and always observed the same behold transmitted from  Sirius with the naked
appearances and arrived at the same results.  At eye.  Having calculated, on the principles of oplast, after many reflections and conjectures.on the tics, the quantity of diminution of the sun's apparsubject, he arrived at the following conclusion —  ent diameter, he found it to be only the 1-27664th
namely, that the phenomenon he had observed was part; or, the light and diameter of the sun apowing to "the progressive motion of light, and peared 27,664 times smaller than what we daily
tihe sensible proportion which its velocity bears to see. Hence he concluded that were the sun at
the velocity of the annual motion of the earth." 27,664 times his present distance from  us, he
In other words,,that the motion of light, combined would appear as small as Sirius; and consequentwith the progressive mnotion of the earth in its orbit, ly, if Sirius be of the same magnitude as the sun,
causes the stars to be seen in a different'positionfrom  the distance of that star must be 27,664 times
what they would be if the eye were at rest.  This greater than the distance of the sun from  the
position, after it was explained and demonstrated, earth, or 2,628,080,000,000,-that is, two billions,
was considered as one of the most brilliant discov- six hundred and twenty eight thousand, and eighty
eries which had been brought to light during the millions of miles.  This method of determining
last century.< It agrees with th        i velocity of the distance of the stars depends upon two assumpli,,ht which had been deduced from  the eclipses tions: —lst, that the sun and Sirius are equal in
of Jupiter's satellites, and it amounts to  a magnitude; and 2d, that the eye judged correctly
sensible demonstration of the annual motion of  of the equality of the small intercepted portion of
the earth. The observations which led to this dis- the sun to Sirius; both of which must be considercovery likewise prove  the immense distance of  ed as uncertain.  But it corroborates the general
the stars from the earth; for Dr. Bradley assures position of the very great distance of the stars.
us, friom the accuracy with which they were con-   On a principle somewhat similar, but by exducted, that if the annual parallax had amounted  periments conducted with far greater accuracy, Dr
to so much asone second,he should have discover- Wollaston - endeavored  to determine the same
ed it.'                           problem  in'relation'to the stars.  "This gentleIf, then, the greatest annual parallax of the man," Sir J. Herschel remarks, "by  direct photnearest stars does not amount to one second, their ometrical experiment, open, as it would seem, to
distance must be immense. Supposing the paral- no objections, has ascertained the light of Sirius,
lax to be exactly one second, the distance of a star, as received by us, to be to that of the sun as 1 to
having this parallax will be found bythe following  20,000,000,000.  The sun, therefore, in order that
trigonometrical proportion: —As the sine of 1":is it should appear to us no brighter than Sirius,
to radius:: so is the semidiameter of the earth's would require to be removed 141,400 times its acorbit: to a fourth number, which expresses the tualdistance. Wehave seen,'however, that the disdistance of the star.  Now, a parallax of one sec- tance  of Sirius cannot be so small as 200,000
ond determines the object to be 212,000 times times that of'the sun. Hence it follows that,
farther from the earth than is the sun. The dis- upon the lowest possible computation, the light
tance of the sun is 95,000,000 of miles, which, really thrown out by Sirius cannot be so little as
mUultiplied by 212,000, produces 20,140,000,000,-  double that emitted by the sun; or that Sirius
000, or more than twenty. billiohis of miles. This must, in point of intrinsic splendor, be equal to
distance is absolutelyicertain: it'follows, as a mat- two suns, and is in all probability, vastly greater."
tor of course, if the annual parullax were determin-    The late Sir Willi/-m Herschel proposed another
ea to bo one second, it is the very least distance method of determining the annual'a-,dlax'b)




PARALLAX OF SIXTY-ONE CYGNI.                                      31
means of double stars, which he supposed would of the double star, he calculated, for the beginning
be free from the errors of other methods, and of of 1838, to besuch a nature that the parallax, even if it should    Distance.        Angle of Position.
not exceed the tenth part of a second, may still
become visible.  The following figure and de-           a 461".617      201 29' 24"
scription  will convey a general idea of this           b 706".279      1090 22' 10"
method:                                           In these observations, he concentrated  his
Fig. 8.         Let A and B (fig. 8) attention as far as he could on the distance of the
D    represent the earth at small stars from the double star, as beinlg the most
twd opposite points in important point to be ascertained. His communiits orbit, and C and D  cation contains tables of all his measures of distwo stars of different tance, freed from  the effects of refraction and
E     magnitudes. Then, if aberration, and reduced to the beginning of 1838.
when the earth is at B,   It would be uninteresting to the general reader
the two stars appear to to enter into all the details of observations, corus near each other, as rections, and calculations which Professor Bessel's
at C  and E, it was coinmunication contains, as they can only be
thought that when the understood by practical astronomers.  I shall
earth arrived at A the therefore only state his general conclusion, which
two stars might appear seems to be legitimately deduced from  his obserfarther apart, as at C vations and reasonings, and may be considered at
and D; in other words, least as a very near approximation to the point,
that the angles at which if not perfectly correct. The result then is, that
IA                  D   they would appear to the annual parallax of the star 61 Cy.qni is 0".3136;
us in  the two cases that is, somewhat less than one-third of a second.
would be different, the It follows that the distance of this star from  the
angle D A C being larger than the angle D B C sun is 657,700 times the mean distance of the
in which case the angle of parallax might be com- earth from the sun; and as the distance of the sun
puted. But it does not appear that any difference from the earth is 95,000,000 of miles, this number
in the angles referred to has yet been found, or multiplied by the former produces 62,481,500,that any definite conclusions respecting parallax 000,000, or sixty-two BILLIONS, four hundred and
have hitherto been deduced from this method, ex- eighty-one thousandfive hundred MILLIONS of miles,
cepting the general position that the stars are at which is the distance of the star 61 Cygni froml
too great a distance to be subjected to our calcula- the sun, and which of course is nearly about the
tions, or that our angular instruments are still in same distance from the earth; the earth being in
too imperfect a state to detect so small an angle as one part of its course ninety-five millions of miles
that of the annual parallax.                   nearer the star than this distance, and in the oppoWhile writing the above (December, 1838), I site part of it ninety-five millions of miles beyond
perceived an announcement in certain literary it. This, I have no doubt, will be considered as
journals, that Professor Bessel, of Konigsberg, one of the most interesting and splendid discovehad addressed a letter to Sir John Herschel, which ries which have been made in astronomy for a
was immediately communicated to the Royal century past. It lays a foundation for precise
Astronomical Society, containing an account of and definite conceptions of the distances of some
the discovery of the annual parallax and the ob- of the starry orbs, of the amplitude of the celesservations on which it was founded. In the intro- tial regions, and of the magnitude and grandeur
duction to this communication Professor Bessel of those countless orbs which diversify the spaces
says-"After so many unsuccessful attempts to of immensity. It likewise proves to a deronstradetermine the parallax of a fixed star, I thought tion the annual motion of the earth round the
it worth while to try what might be accomplished sun, and all the principles and phenomena with
by means of the accuracy which my great Fraun- which it is connected, as well as corroborates the
hofer heliometer gives to the observations. I general views of former astronomers respecting
undertook to make this investigation upon the the immense distance of the fixed stars.
star 61'Cyqni, which, by reason of its great proper   Professor Bessel concludes his communication
motion, is perhaps the best of all, which affords in these words:-"As the annual proper motion
the advantage of being a double star, and on that of ac C7ygni amounts to 5".123 of a great circle,
account may be observed with greater accuracy, the relative motion of this star and the sun must
and which is so near the pole that, with the excep- le considerably more than sixteen sernidiameters
tion of a small part of the year, it can always be of the earth's orbit [that is, one thousand, five
observed at night at a sufficient distance from the hundred and twenty millions of miles], and the
horizon."  The professor began his observations star must have a constant aberration of more than
in September, 1834, but various circumstances 52". When we shall have succeeded in deterninprevented them from being regularly continued ing the elements of the motion of both the stars
at that period. They were resumed in 1837 with  forming the double star, round their common
certain hopes of success. He selected among the center of gravity, we shall be able to determine
small stars which surrounded the double star 61 the sum of their masses. I have attentively conCGygni two stars between the ninth and tenth sidered the preceding observations of their relative
magnitudes, of which one (a) is nearly perpendi- positions, but I consider them as yet very inadecular to the line of direction of the double star, quate to afford the elements of the orbit. I conthe oth'er (b) nearly in this direction. He mea- sider them  as sufficient only to show that the
sured with the heliometer the distances of these annual angular motion is somewhere about twostars from  the point which bisects the distance thirds of a degree, and that the distance at the
between the two stars 61 Cygni, and generally begin'lin   of this century had a millium  of
repeated the observations sixteen  times every about 15'. We are enabled hence to conclude
night, and when the atmosphere was unusually that the time of a revolution is more than 540
steady he made more numerous repetitions. The years, and that the semi-major axis of the orbit is
plates of both stars, referred to the middle point seen under an angle of mure than 15". If, how



32                                  SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
ever, we proceed from  these numbers, which' are our nocturnal sky. The stars appear of different
merely limits, we find the sum  of the masses magnitudes;'but we have the stronge'st reason to
of both stars less than half- the sun's mass.'  But conclude that in the majority of instances this is
this point, which is deserving' of attention, cannot owing, not to the difference of their real magnibe established until the observations shall be suf- tudes, but to the different distances at which they
ficient to determine the elements' accurately.  are placed from our globe. If, then, the distance
When long-continued observation of the places of a star of the first or second magnitude, or those
which the double star occupies among the small which are nearest us, be so immensely great,
stars which surround it shall: have led to the what must be the distance of stars of the sixteenth
knowledge of its center of gravity, we shall be or twentieth magnitudes, which can be distinenabled to determine the two masses separately; guished only by the most powerful telescopes?
but we-cannot anticipate the time of these further Some of these must be several thousands of times
researches.  I have- here troubled you with many more distant than the star 61 Cygni, whose disparticulars; but I trust it is not necessary to offer tance now appears to be determined.  And what
any excuse for this, since a correct opinion as to shall we think of the distance of' those which lie
whether the investigation of the. parallax of 61 beyond the reach of the most powerful telescopes
Cygni has already led to an approximate result, or that have yet been constructed, stretching beyond
must still be carried further before this call be the utnost limits of mortal vision, within the
affirmed of them, can only be formed from  a unexplored regions of immensity?  Here even
knowledge of these particulars.- Had I merely the most vigorous imagination drops its wing, and
communicated to you  the result,- I could not. feels itself utterly unable to penetrate this mystehave expected that you would attribute to it that rious and boundless unknown.
Certainty which, according to my own judgment,   The vastness of the spaces and greatness of the
it possessed."'' "''              distances to which we have adverted ought not,
The distance inferred from  the parallax ascer- however, to prevent any one from acquiescing in'tained by Bessel is more than three: -times greater the statements we have now made; for space is
than what was formerly considered the least dis- boundless,-absolutely infinite. A seraph might
tance of any of the fixed stars.  In - order to wing its flight with the swiftness of light for milacquire some rude conceptions of this distance, it lions of years through the regions of immensity,
may not be inexpedient to illustrate it by the times and never arrive at a boundary where it might beo
which certain moving bodies would require to move said, " Hitherto mayest thou approach, but no
along such a space. Light is the swiftest moving farther;" and we have reason to believe, from
body with which we are acquainted; it flies from  what we already know of the Creator and his
the sun to the earth, a distance of ninety-five works, that during the whole course of such an
millions of miles, in about eight minutes, or at excursion, new objects and new scenes of glory
the rate of 192,000 miles every moment of time; and magnificence would be continually rising
yet light, incomprehensively swift as its motion to his view. To suppose otherwise would be
is, would require ten years and 114 days to fly to set boundaries to"' space, and to prescribe
across this mighty interval'; so that if the star- 61 limits to the infinite perfections of the Divinity.
Oygni were supposed to be only just now launch- That incomprehensible Being who formed the
ed into existence, it would be more than ten years universe fills immensity with his presence; his
before its light could reach the distant globe on power and wisdom, and all his other perfections,
which we dwell, so as to appear like a small' star are infinite; and therefore we should expect that
twinkling in our sky. Suppose a cannon ball to the plans on which he has constructed the systems
move 500 miles every hour without intermission, of the universe should be like himself, vast, boundit would require fourteen millions, two hundred less, and inconceivable by mortals. Were we to
and fifty-five thousand, four hundred and eighteen find the plans of the universe circumscribed like
years before it could move across the same inter- those which were  represented by the ancient
val. But to come to motions with which we are astronomers, -who imagined the firmament a
more familiar:' suppose a steam-carriage to set solid sphere with a number of tapers whirled
out from the earth with a velocity of twenty miles round the earth,-we should be apt to think that
an hour, or 480 miles-a day; at this rate of mo- the Creator of the world was a limited being; but
tion, continued without intermission, it would when we contemplate the vast amplitude of piarequire- 356,385,466, or three hundred and fifty- netary systelps, and the immense spaces by which
six millions, three hundred and eighty-five thou- they are separated from  each other, we behold
sand, four hundred and sixty-six years before it plans and operations which are in perfect unison
could pass from  our globe to the star alluded to with the immensity of his nature, with his boundabove — a number of years sixty-one thousand  less power, his uncontrollable agency, and his
times greater than the'whole period which has universal presence. Wherever we turn our eyes
elapsed since the Mosaic creation.               throughout the scene of nature, and fix our attenSuch' distances are amazing, and almost terri- tion on its plans and movements, we. uniformly
fying to the human imagination.  The mind is find the Creator acting like Himself; and in no
bewildered, confounded, and almost overwhelmed, case is this more strikingly displayed than in the
when'attempting to form  a conception of such grandeur and magnificence of the orbs of heaven,
portions of immensity, and feels its own littleness, and the- immense spaces with which they are surthe limited nature of its powers, and its utter, rounded.
incapacity for grasping the amplitudes of creation;   This is likewise the representation which the
but although -it were possible for us to wing our Scriptures give us of the immensity and incomflight to such a distant orb as that to which we prehensible  nature  of the Deity.  "Great is
have referred, we should still find ourselves stand- Jehovah and of-great power; his understanding
ing only on the ex-treme verge of the starry firma- is infinite; his greatness is unsearchable."  He
ment, where ten thousands of other orbs, a thou- is not only "high above all nations," but "his
sand times more distant, would meet our view. glory  is above the heavens."' "He  dwelleth
We have reason to believe that a space nearly  on, high, and humbleth himself to behold the
equal to that which we are now considering i:ter- things" not only that are 1" on the earth," but
venes between most of the stars which diversify  even "the things that are in the heavens."  Vast




MAGNITUDE OF THE STARS.                                        83
as the celestial spaces are, "he meted out heaven opportunity of witnessing in this terrestrial sphere
with!the span,'and~ "stretched for tthe-heavens — a locomotive power which might enable an inalone." "- 4Among o the gods there is''none- like telligent agent to keep pace with the rapid motions
unto thee, neither are. there any works like unto of tile celestial orbs.  We have only to suppose
thy'works."'  "Cailst thou by searching find out organical vehicles constructed with matter  far
God? Canst thou find out the Almighty to per- more subtile and refined than hydrogen gas, or
fection?  Who can utter the mighty operations the ethereal fluid, and approximating to the tenaof Jehovah,?  Who can show-forth all his praise? city of light itself. As we find animdalcultemany
Lo, these are but parts -of.his ways, but the thousands of times less than the least visible point,
thunder of his power, or the full extent of his their bodies must be constructed of materials exomnipotence, who can comprehend?" In relation  tremely subtile and refined;.and hence we may
to a Being who is thus described, we can expect infer that the same Allwise Intelligence who
nothing buttwhat is wonderful and incomprehen- formed such minute and- refined structures, can
sible by finite minds. The declarations of inspired with equal ease construct a material organization
men bear testimonyto the discoveries of astronomy  for the residence of a rational soul out of the
as in perfect unison with the attributes of the finest materials which creation can supply, and
Divinity, so that science and revelation completely endow it with a capacity of rapid motion superior
harmonize in the views they unfold of the plans to that of some of the celestial-globes. which roll
and arrangements of the Deity, and of the im- around  us.  It is not improbable that angelic
mense spaceswhich intervene among the systems beings are connected with such a system of maof the universe.                                 terial organization, which enables them  to move'Whether man will ever be permitted to traverse with rapidity from- one part of creation to another;
any of the vast spaces of the universe, to which and it is possible that man, in a.future world, may
we have now adverted, is a question which is at be invested with such vehicles and such powers
present beyond our province to resolve. - In our, of rapid motion.  At. the same time, even with
present state: of corporeal organization it is; impos~'i such locomotive powers, only a small portion of
sible to wing our flight even to the nearest celestial the universe could be supposed to be visited or
orb in that system of which -we form a part, much explored, even after a lapse of ages.  It is highly
less to the- distant starry. regions. How: pure; probable that, at this.moment, there is not a single
spirits, disconnected with material vehicles, may subordinate intelligence, even of the highest order
transport themselves from one region of creation of created beings, who is acquainted with every
to another, it is impossible for us, in the present region of universal nature and the objects it constate, to form a conception. But it is possible to tains, and that the greater part of the vast uni.
conceive of a system  of organization far more verse, with its scenery, movements, and inhabirefined than the present, and'susceptible of a tants, is known only by Him who formed.it by.power, of motion far surpassing what we have an his power and fills it with his presence..HA  TER  V.
ON THE MAGNITUDE OF THE STARS.
our attempts to ascertain the magnitudes of telescopes of the greatest power, they present no
any of the heavenly bodies, we must first endea- visible discs, or well-defined surfaces to the eye,
vor to determine the distances at which they are as the planets do, when viewed through such
placed fromour abode; and in the next place we instruments, but appear only as so many shining
must measure, as accurately as possible, the ap- and undefined   points.  When they are viewed
parent diameters of the bodies whose  magnitudes through a telescope of moderate size, their diameWe wish to determine. The extreme difficulty ter appears less than when examined by the naked
of determining these two points, in certain,in- eye, but considerably more brilliant. When we
stances, on account of the smallness of the angles. view them with a telescope of greater power, the
which require to be measured, has hitherto pre- apparent diameters will be somewhat increased,
vented us from ascertaining with,,.precision the but not according to any regular proportion, as
real-magnitudes of the bodies connected with the happens in the case of the planets; and even
sidereal heavens. We formerly were led to con- when seen with the same power, through different
elude on good grounds, that their distances were telescopes, their apparent magnitudes are not
almost immeasurably great, and  consequently precisely the same. Sir William  Herschel, who
that, as they emit a certain degree of splendor to viewed these bodies under almost every aspect,
our eye, even -from such remote distances, their uniformly found that their diameter was less in
bulk must be immensely great. But no precise proportion as the higher powers were applied;
conceptions could be formed as to this point sa and the smallest proportional diameter he ever
long as the annual parallax of some of the stars obtained was when he employed the extraordiremained undetermined.                           nary power of 6450 times. From such observaThe annual parallaix of the star 61 Cygni being tions it appears that the apparent diameters of the
now in all probability ascertained (as stated- i  fixed stars do not arise from any sensible disc, but
the preceding chapter), we are in possession offrom  other causes with which we are not accertain data which may lead to: the determination quainted.  Dr. Halley remarks that " the diameof the 7eat magnitude of" that body. But a diffi- ters of Spica Virginis and Aldebaran (two stars
culty still remains.'The stars are found to have of the first magnitude) are so small, that when
no sensible diameters.  When viewed through they happen to immerge behind the dark edge o




.34.SIDEREAL  HEAVENS.
the moon, they -are so far from  losing their light as this important element in the calculation is still
gradually:, as they must do if they' we-re of any a desideratum, we must resort to other methods
sensible magnitude, that they vanish at once with  by which we may arrive at the,nearest approxiall their luster, and emerge likewise ini' Anioment, mation to the truth.
not small -at first, but at once appear with'their   I have already alluded to the photolnetrical
full' light, even although the -emersion happen   experiments of Dr. Wollaston, in relation to the
when.very near -the cusp, where,' if they were comparative quantity of liglit emitted to our, eye
four seconds in diameter, they would be many  from the star Sirius and fromn the sun~  In referseconds of time in. getting eltirely separated from  oence to these experiments, Sir John Herschel, in
the limb. But the contrary appears to' all those a marginal nlote, remarks:-"Dr. Wollaston aswho have  observed the  occultatibos of those suming, as we think he is perfectly justified in
bright, stars."'  Every one who has been in the doing, a much lower limit of possibie parallax in
habit of viewing the starry firmament with good Sirius than we have adopted in the text, has contelescopes will at onceadmit that,; although that eluded the intrinsic li/ght of Sirius to be n-rearly that:instrument brings to -view numerous stars which ofFOURTEEN SUNS." -Sir W.illiaml  Herschel informs
the unassisted  sight cannot -perceive, yet they  us tlihat,with a magnifying power of 6450, and by
-appear only as luminous points with no well- means of his new microneter, he found the apdefined sensible diameters, although their light is parent diameter of Vega or a'Lyre to be 0'. 355:
much -more brilliant than to the.naked eye.       this will give the ireal diameter of the star about':Hence'the difficulty of determining, with pre- thirty-eight times that of the sun, or 33,440,000
cision, the real magnitudes of any of the fixed niiles, supposing its parallax to. be one second.
stars. From  their immense distance we are per- Were this its true estimate its solid contents would
fectly certain that they- are bodies of immense be 19,579,357,857,382,400,000,000, *  or, above
size, otherwise they would be altogether invisible'nineteen thousand five hundred and seventy-nine
from'our terrestrial sphere, or from any part of trillions of miles; which- is, fifty-four thousand
the.solar system.  But we have hitherto obtained  eight hundred and seventy-two times larger than
no sufficient data. for estimating their exact size, the solid contents of the sun.  The magnitude
as we have done in relation to the globes which  of such a globe is altogether overpowerinllg to the
compose the planetary system.  Since, then, the human imagination, and completely baffles every
aOpparent diameters of the stars, even those of the effort to approximate to a distinct conception of
first magnitude,- are so small as not to amount to an object of such amazing amplitude and splena single second, we cannot hope, in the meantime, dor. We have formerly showat that the sun is a
to determine their -measure with any degree of body of so vast dimensions that the human mnind,
certainty. We may assign them a measure which: in its present state, can form no adequate coneepwe ceitainly know they do not: exceed, but we tions of it;that it is more than 500 times greater than
cannot be sure that that measure is not too-great. all the planets, satellites, and comets of our sysAll luminous objects appear larger than those of tom; that it is equal to thirteen hundred thousand
the same dimensions which are opaque.  The globes as large as the earth; that its surface conplanet Mercury, when in its greatest brightness, tains an amplitude fifty-three millions seven huuappears larger than when it is seen to pass, like a dred and seventy-thousand times larger than the
dark spot, across the disc of the sun,;although it view from Moulit'Etna, which comprises an extent
is nearest the earth in this last-position.  The of 45,000 miles; anid that, were a landscape on
apparent diameters of the fixed stars are much  the sun of this extent to be contemplated every
smaller than they have generally been supposed two hours, it would require twenty-four thousand
by those who have attenipted to measure them. five hundred years before the whole surface of
Yet, small as they are, their real magnitude must this luminary could be in this manner surveyed.
be very, great, since they are visible to our sight at What, then, shall we think of the probable existthe immense distance at which they are placed. ence of a luminous globe fifty-four thousand
In proportion to the greatness of their distance, times greaiter than  the expansive, globe of the
and the smallness of their apparent diameters, will sun!
be -their real magnitudes.  If we suppose the    However amazing the magnitude of such a
apparent diameters of any of the stars observed body may appear, we ought not on this account
by Dr. Bradley to be equal: to the 400,000th part to consider the existence of such an- orb as either
f. the sun's apparent diameter or.Batlh of a improbable or incredible.  Prior to the first dissecond —which is a probable supposition for a star coveries of modern astronomy two or three conof the second niagnitude,-it will follow that such  turies ago, no one could have believed that the
a star is-equal to the sun in magnitude..For, if sun is a body of such an immense size as he is
the sun  were  removed to the distance at which  now  found to be, or that the plantay system
such a star is situated, he would appear no larger occupies  soextensive a range as astronomers
than those twinkling points, nay, would perhaps          now  determined it. And we are not  to
disappear altogether from our view. From all the conceive that even the immense amplitude of the
observations and reasoninugs that have been enter- sun is the highest scale of magnitude which the
ead sihto on this subject, we.have no proofs that Creator has prescribed to himself in his arrangemeats of the universe. From  the knowledge we
aily of the stars. are less than the sun, but it is    ts of the universe.  Fro    n
more protbable that many of them equal and even  have already acquired of the vastness of the scale:far surpass that luminary in their real dimensions on which creation is constructed, we have reason
and splendor. Having obtained the parallax of 61'Cymni,* if we could find the exact apparreent diminutes of the zenith. It is a star of about the fifth
meter of that star, its real bulk could be calcu- magnitude. It is 8 degrees nearly due east fiomrn the bright
meter of that starits real bulk could be calcu-star Vega or a Lyrm, in the constellation of the Harp, and
lated with as much ease and certainty as the bulk  nearly nine degrees south by east of Deneb, or a- Cygnmi, the
of the.  sun, or moon, or any: of the planets. But principal star in the Swan.
X    ---,  -: In some editions of the "Improvements of Society,"
this number is inaccurately stated, the cube of the diameter
"* This star belongs to the! constellation Cygnus, or the hiving been' by mistake substituted fobr the solid contents
swan. Its right ascension for January I, i839, was 20h. 59' of the body, but the general result of the comparative mag
41t, and its declination 37" 57t-42" north. In places of. 52~ nitudes of the two bodies s is te same.
of N. latitude, this star passes the meridian within two or   t,"Celestial Scenery," chap. iii5 sect. 10




MAGNITUDE OF THE STARS.                                       85
to believe that bodies exist in it far surpassing, in the stars are situated at an almost incalcuable
miagnitude and grandeur, any of the globes to distance from the earth.
which we have alluded.  There are ~certain lucid   Suppose a telescope to magnify 400 times, that
specks in the heavens which can only be per- is, makes a distinct object, appear four hundred
ceived by the most powerful telescopes, which we, times nearer, and four hundred times larger in
are quite certain, from their immlense distance,' diameter, than to the naked e- ye  With an inmast comprise a mass of matter tliousands of: strument of this description I have been enabled. times larger than our sun, —either a distinct mass to read a person's name, the letters of which were
of materials or a congeries of shining globes so not above half an inch in length or breadth, at
near each other that the separate bodies cannot be the distance of more than two-miles. When this
distinguished.  As the distance between the great:telescope is directed to the moon, it enables us to
globes of the universe is incomprehensible by, perceive the shadows of its mountains, and other
limited intellects, so the magnitude of some of ]minute portions of its scenery, and even to disthese bodies may be so great as to surpass every es- tinguish rocks and cavities less than a mile in
timate and every conception we may have hitherto  diameter. When directed to the planet Venus, it
formed on this subject. Such views of the magni- exhibits it as a large splendid body, with either a
tudes of creation are quite in accordance with the  gibbous, a half moon, or a crescent phase. When
ideas we ought to entertain of a Being who is eternal, directed to Jupiter and Saturn, it makes these
omnipresent, omnipotent, and incomprehensible. orbs appear several times larger than the moon
But, without going beyond the strict deductions  does to the naked eye, and enables us to perceive
of science, we may fairly conclude that there are the *dark belts which run across the one, and the
few stars in the concave of our sky that do not rings which surround the other. Now, if this
equal, and even surpass, our sun in size and in  same instrument be directed to the fixed, stars, it
splendor; andd if so, what a glorious and over- shows them  only as so may luminous points,
whelming scene does creation present to an' intel- without any well-defined diameters. It brings to
ligent and  contemplative mind!  Here we are view hundreds and thousands of stars which the
presented with a scene on which the highestorder naked eye cannot discern; but although they apof created beings may expatiate for myriads of pear somewhat more brilliant, they appear, on
ages, and objects, ever wonderful and ever new, the whole, no larger in diameter than the stars in
mnay still present themselves to the astonished general do to the unassisted sight. This circummind throughout the whole length of its immor- stance I consider as a palpable and sensible evidence
tality; so that the most expansive intellects shall of the immense distance of the fixed stars; for
neverwant subjects of sublime investigation during bodies at the distance of nine hundred, and even
all the revolutions-ofan interminable existence.   of eighteen hundred millions of miles, appear'We are not to imagine that all the stars, even magnified in proportion to the power of the inthose which appear with the same brilliancy, are strmnent; and why should not the fixed -stars apof the same size. We have reason to believe that pear magnified in the same proportion, and prea variety, in this respect, exists among those dis- sent to the eye large discs like the planets, were
tant orbs, as well as among the bodies which it not on account of their incalculable distance?
compose the planetary system, and in other de- Were they only at a moderate distance from  thei.
partmnents of nature.  Various considerations planetary system-suppose ten times the distance-'tend to show that "one star differeth from an- of Saturn, or nine thousand millions of miles,other star in glory," not only as they appear to this would undoubtedly be the case; but observa —
the naked eye, but in reality, as to their intrinsic  tion proves the contrary. When we view a planet
magnitude and splendor. Some of the telescopic -for example Saturn, which is distant nine hun —
stars appear of very different colors, one exhibit- dred millions of miles-through a telescope magi.
ing rays of an orange or ruddy hue, another blue, nifying 400 times, we contemplate it as if we.
another vellow, and another green, indicating a had been carried to a point only the four-hundretKh
difference in their constitution and in the nature part of its distance; that is, we view it as if waof the light theyemit.  Among the double stars, were brought within little more than two mllion..s
the one which is found revolving round the other of miles of its surface. In other words, we seec
is evidently the smaller body, as its light is not it of the same magnitude, and nearly with the.
distinguishable without a high magnifying power, same distinctness, as if he had surmounted the law)
and yet.its distance fiom  the earth  must be of gravitation, and been transported more than 897
nearly the same as that of the larger star around  millions of miles from  our present abode in the.
which it revolves. Recent observations tend to direction of that orb.
prove that some of the smaller stars have not only    When'such an instrument is directed to thea greater annual parallax than those which are fixed stars, it does not lose its power as a telescope;:
most brilliant, but an absolute motion in space this is proved by its presenting the nebula, which,
much greater than those of the brightest class, are invisible to the naked eye, as large, well-definWhich indicates that there is a difference in the  ed spaces in the firmament.  It carries us within
real size of those bodies, and that some of the the. four-hundreth part of their actual distance,,
stars which appear smallest to our eye' may be and enables us to contemplate them just as wethe largest in real dimensions; but the smallest would do if we were 400 times nearer them than weof them are, undoubtedly, bodies of such magni-  are. Letus suppose, as formerly, the distance of the
tudes as surpass our distinct comprehension.     nearest stars to be 20,000,000,000,000, or twenty
Some readers, from  their ignorance of the billions of miles, we contemplate such stars by
mathematical principles of astronomy, and from  this instrument, as if we were carried to a station
being incapable of appreciating the observations nineteen billions nine hundred and fifty millions
to which we have referred, are apt to view with a of miles from the place we now occupy, where w.
certain  degree of skepticism  the  conclusions should still be fifty thousand millions of miles*
which astronomers have deduced respecting. the
distancesand magniitudes of the stars.  Perhaps         - The following is the calculation expressed in figures:400) 20,000,000,000.000, dist. of the star.
the following consideration,; level,to the capacity    50,(oom,00,000, dist. as viewed by the telescope.
of every man of common sense, may have a.           19,950,000,000,000 dist. M-om the earth at which we.
teindency to conveince even the most skeptical that-                     view it
VOL. II.-22




86                                SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
distant from  these bodies.  Supposing the sun 000,000,000 miles, we behooved to be carried for'
were removed to a point fifty thousandmillions ward' several thousand millions of miles farther
of miles from the place he now occupies-which  before those distant orbs would appear to expand
is 526 times his present distance, -he would into large discs like the moon, or like Jupiter and
appear 526 times less,in  diameter. than  at Saturn, when viewed through telescopes.
present, or under, an angle of little more than   The above considerations prove to a demonstra-.3  seconds, which, is less than te apparent tion that the nearest stars are removed from us at
diameter of Uranus, a body whichlis generally in- immense and inconceivable distances; and if their
visible to the naked eye;,so- that if a star be distance be so great, their magnitudes must likedistant twenty. billions of miles, and equal to wise be astonishing, otherwise they would be althe sun in magnitude, it should ap'pear no more together invisible either to the naked eye or by
than a point whenviewed witha telescopemagni- the telescope; for a distant visible object must alfying4b00 times. -  Supposing,then, that. we- were ways be considered as having a magnitude pro.
transported through the immense space of 19,950,- portional to its distance and its apparent diameter
CHA PT E R V.I.,' ON NEW  STARS.,
To almost every eye but that of the astrono- to periodical changes, or have altogether disappmer, the starry firmament presents the same gen- peared.
eral aspect. To a common observer, the noctur-   In the year 130 after the Christian era, another
nal heavens exhibit the appearance of a vast con- new star is said to have made its appearance. In
cave bespangled with countless numbers of shining  the year 389, a new star appeared near a Aquilme,
points, of various degrees of brilliancy, and dis-  or Altair, in the constellation of the Eagle. Its
tributed over the sky apparently without any or- appearance was sudden; it continued three weeks,
der or arrangement.-Whether the clusters of emitting a splendor equal to that of Venus, and
Stars which are seen in summer and in winter afterward  entirely disappeared.  In  the ninth
are the same,-whether the stars which are seen  century, a new  star appeared in the fifteenth
in one region of the heavens at six o'clock in the degree of Scorpio, which is said to have emitted
evening are identically the same which are seen as much light as is reflected from one quarter of
in the same quarter at midnight, or at three in the the moon. In 945, a new star appeared between
morning, —whether there be any stars which were the constellations of Cepheus and Cassiopeia; and
seen by our forefathers which are no longer visi- another, in 1264, near the constellation Cassio.
ble,-whether any stars unknown to former gene- peia; but of these stars the accounts are so vague
rations can now be traced in the firmament,-or and imperfect that we can form no distinct conwhether any of those orbs which are visible at one ceptions of the phenomena they exhibited.
time are invisible at another,-to such inquiries   The most striking and wonderful phenomenon
there is not one out of a thousand of those who of this kind of which we have an authentic and
have occasionally gazed at the starry heavens that distinct description occurred in the beginning of
could give a satisfactory reply. It is the industri- November, 1572, when a new star appeared in
ous astronomer alone, who, with unwearied obser- Cassiopeia, forming nearly a xhombus with the
vations spends sleepless nights in surveying the three largest stars, ca, Q, 3, of that constellation.
various regions of the celestial vault, that can tell Its appearance was sudden and brilliant. Its phewith certainty whether or not any changes occa- nomena were so striking that the sight of it
sionally take place in reference to any, of the determined the celebrated Tycho Brahe to become
starry orbs.                                   an astronomer. HIe did not see it at half an hour
The first account we have of any changeshaving past five, when he M as returning from  his house'been perceived among the stars is that recorded by to his laboratory; but returning about ten, lhe;Hipparchus, of Rhodes, a celebrated astronomer came to a crowd of country people who were
who flourished about 120 years before the Chris- staring at something behind him. Looking round,
tianera. About this period, this accurate obser- he saw this wonderful object. It was so bright
ver of the heavens perceived, in a certain part of that his staff had a shadow; it was of a dazzling
the firmament, a star which he- had never.observ- white, with a little of a bluish tinge. It had no
ed before, and of which he could find no record  tail or hair around it similar to comets, but shone
in the observations of his predecessors. Struck  with the same kind of luster as the other fixed
with this new and unexpected phenomenon, he stars. Its brilliancy was so great as to surpass
began to doubt whether changes might not happen  that of Lyra and Sirius. It appeared even larger
among the celestial orbs, as well as in the scene of  than Jupiter, which was then at its nearest apnature here below. In order that such changes proach to the earth, and by some was estimated
when they happen might be known to future gen- to be superior to the planet Venus in its greatest
erations, he began to form a catalogue of all the luster. It was even seen by those who had good
stars visible in that part of the world where he re- eyes at noonday; a circumstance which never
sided, noting down the place and apparent magni- happens in the case of any of the other stars, or
tude of each star, until he at length completed a even of the planets, except Venus, which has
list of all the visible stars in the heavens; which  sometimes been seen in daylight in certain pecuwas the first catalogue of those luminaries of which liar positions. During night, it was frequently
we have any account in history. It is muchto be seen through thin clouds which entirely interregretted that we have no specific account of the cepted the light of the other stars. In this state
particular part of the heavens where this new star it continued to shine with undiminished brilliancy
appeared, as it might have, led us'to determine during the remaining part of November, or more
whether it be still visible, or whetherit be subject than three weeks. It did not, however, continue




POSITION OF THE NEW STAR IN CASSIOPEIA.                                 87
much longer with this- degree of brightness, but The one to the right of Caph and a little higher
gradually diminished in its luster. In the. month is c, distinguished likewise by the name Schedir.
_of December, it appeared to be only equal to Ju-' Below Schedir, and a little, to the right, is the star
piter; in January, 1573, it appeared a little less?, or Gamma. About six degrees north-west of
than that planet, but still somewhat larger than
stars of the first magnitude, to which'it appeared                  Fig. 9.
about equal during the months of February and
March; thus gradually diminishing in brightness,
In April and May, it vas like a star of the second
magnitude; in- the months of June, J'uly, and
August, it was equal only to the largest stars in
Cassiopeia, which are mostly of the third maginitude; in September, October, and November, it
was no larger than a star of the' fourth magnitude; in December, it was about equal to the star
called Gamma, which was nearest to it; toward'the end of 1573, and during the month of January, 1574, it was but little superior to stars of the
fifth magnitude; in February, it was no larger than
a star of- the sixth magnitude; and in the month.
of March it entirely disappeared, having- continued visible from the beginning of November,
1572, to March, 1574,. a period of about sixteen
months. It was remarked that as it diminished
in size it was likewise subject'to certain changes
in color and brightness.  When it appeared
largest, its light was white: and brilliant- after Caph,. the telescope reveals to us a pretty large
which it appeared a little yellowish; and in the nebula of small stars, apparently compressed into
beginning of spring, 1573, it approached some- one mass, with a number of loose stars surroundthing to the color of Mars, being reddish like the ing it.
star Aldebaran, or the Bull's Eye, and a little less   In the year 1604, about the end of September,
bright than the star in the right shoulderof Orion. another new star appeared near the heel of the
In the month of May that year, it was of a pale right foot of Serpentarius.' At that time, near
livid white, like Saturn; which color, as likewise the same part of the heavens, the planets Mars,
its sparkling appearance, continued to the last, Jupiter, and Saturn, were very near to each other,
only growing more dim and faint as it approached a phenomenon which so engaged the attention of
the period of its disappearance.               astronomers that no uncommon appearance in
Such were the appearances and changes of this that quarter of the heavens could long have
wonderful star. These phenomena were particu- escaped detection.  On the 17th of September,
larly- observed by several astronomers of that Kepler, who wrote a treatise on this star, careperiod, especially by Tycho Brahe, who wrote a fully observed the three planets; on the 23d, he
treatise on the subject, in which he determined again viewed Mars and Jupiter, then approaching
its longitude and latitude, and demonstrated t'iat to their conjunction; and one of his scholars
it was situated in the region of the fixed'stars, at made the same observation on the 27th. On the
a much greater distance from the earth than the 28th, and on the 29th, which was the day when
sun, moon, or any of the planets, as it had no Mars and Jupiter were in conjunction, they wese
sensible parallax, and remained in the same point of observed by M&estlinus and others; but none of
the heavens during the whole period of its appear- them as yet saw anything of the new star. On
ance. This star was likewise diligently observed the 30th, the sudden breaking of the clouds affordby Cornelius Gamma, who says that on the night ed one of Kepler's friends an opportunity of
of the 8th November, 1572, he viewed with some having a very short view of it; for in looking for
attention that part of the heavens, in a very Mars and Jupiter, he saw a bright star near them,
serene sky, but saw nothing uncommon; but that which he had not seen before, but it was soon
the next night, November 9th, it appeared with obscured by clouds. On the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 6th
a splendor surpassing all the fixed stars, and of October, it was seen by several persons in difscarcely less bright than Venus. The longitude ferent places. On account of cloudy weather at
of this star, as determined by Tycho, was 90 17', Prague, where Kepler resided, he did not see it
and 530 45' of north latitude.                 until the 8th of that month. All the observers
The, point in the heavens where this star ap- agreed in this,-that it was exactly round, without
peared may be ascertained from  the following any beard or tail; that it was exactly like one of
figure, which exhibits a representation of the the fixed stars; and that in the vividness of its
principal stars in Cassiopeia.  The general po- luster, and the quickness of its sparkling, it ex
sition of this constellation may be found from  ceeded anything they had ever seen before. As
the smap of the circumpolar stars, Plate III., It is to its color, it was remarked that it was every moalmost directly opposite Ursa Major, or the Great ment changing into the colors of the rainbow, as
Bear. A line drawn from the Bear. through the yellow, orange, purple, and red; but was generally
pole-star meets Cassiopeia at nearly an equal dis- white when at a little hight above the vapors
tance on the other side of that star. When the near the horizon.  At its first appearance, it
Bear is at its lowest position below the pole, Cas- seemed larger than any of the fixed stars, and
siopeia is near the zenith, and vice versa. In the even surpassed Jupiter, which planet was near it
annexed representation (fig. 9) the large star during the whole of October, and by its steady
toward the left points out the place which was light was easily distinguishable from this veheoccupied by the new star, which, with the, three mently sparkling star. It continued of the same
stars, a,,, ~, forms a kind of'rhombus,' or irregu- size and brilliancy during the whole of Oetober.'lar.square. The'one on the left above the new  About the end of this month the sun was apstar is 4B, and is also known by the  name of'Caph. proaching that part of the heavens in which the




38                                 SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
star appeared, yet on the 30th it was so much "to imagine'anything more tremendous than a
brighter than Jupiter that Kepler could see it conflagration that would be Visible at such a disdistinctly when Jupiter. was imperceptible, on tance." Whether there was anything in the existaccount of the light of the sun, though he was ing state of the body alluded to similar to what
farther from the sun's beams than the star. On we call a conflagration may be justly doubted, but
the 6th and 8th of November it was seen by there was a splendor and luminosity concentrated
Kepler and others; and at Turin, on'the 13th, in that point of the heavens where the star apwhich appears to- have been the last time it was peared which would more than equal the blaze of
perceived before beii-g aoverpowered by the solar twelve hundred thousand worlds such as ours, were
rays. After emerging from the sun's rays, on the they all collected into one mass, and all at ones
west, it was-seen in the morning on the:24th De- wrapt in flames. Nay, it is not improbable tha
cember, and though-it sparkled exceedingly, yet were a globe as large as would fill the whole cir
it was considerably diminished. in?magnitude, cumference of the earth's annual orbit to be
appearing however, larger than;ithe bright star lighted up with a splendor similar to that of the
Antares. From the middle of January 1605, until sun,it would scarcely surpass in brilliancy and
the middle of March, it gradually diminished in splendor the star to which we refer; for during
brightness. In the beginning of April, it appeared the whole period of its continuing visible, it never
like.a star of the third magnitude,  and continued appeared in the least to shift its position, though
nearly of the same size during tlie months of May, it was carefully watched by the astronomers of
June; and July, and contiinued to sparkle more that age; and, consequently, the whole diameter
strongly than any other fixed star. On Septem-' of tie earth's orbit, while the earth passed from
ber 2dth, a year after its first-appearance, it was one extremity of it to another, appeared only as
more brilliant than the star ill the leg of Serpen- a point at the vast distance at which the star was
tarius, which is reckoned of the third magnitude. situated.  These may appear bold positions, but
As'it was at this time again approaching to the they are in some measure warranted by the facts
vicinity of the sun, it does not appear to have of the case, and they are perfectly consistent with
been seen after this period. In December, 1605, what we know of many of the other astonishing.and January, 1606, cloudy weather prevented operations of that Almighty Being who is "wonobservations after it had emerged from  the solar derful in counsel and excellent in working," and
rays. Kepler concludes that it must have disap- "whose ways," in providence and creation "are
peared some time between October, 1605, and the past finding out."
following February, but on what day is uncertainl.  It is natural to inquire what may have been
Like the former star whichll appeared in Cassio- the cause of phenomena so extraordinary and
peia, it had no parallax, and remained in the same sublime; but our limited views of creation and of
point of the heavens.                            the plans and purposes of its Omnipotent ConNone of the new stars whose phenomena we have triver and Governor prevent us from arriving at
described above have ever reappeared, the places ally satisfactory conclusions. La Place says in
which they. occupied still remaining a blank. It reference to this subject-" As to  those stars
is much to be regretted that the telescope was not which suddenly shine forth with a very vivid
invented at the periods when these stars appeared, light, and then vanish, it may be supposed, with
as it might have been ascertained by their instru- probability, that great conflagrations, occasioned
ment whether they had any sensible diameters. by extraordinary causes, take place on their surAt any rate, their gradual decrease of magnitude faces; and this supposition is confirmed by their
and luster might have been traced by a good tele- change of color, analogous to that which is prescope for a long period, perhaps for years, after sented to us on the earth by bodies which are
they disappeared to the naked eye, which must consumed by fire."*  But such an opinion, howhave led us to draw some conclusions respecting ever great the astronomer who proposed it, apthe cause which produced so extraordinary phe- pears quite unsatisfactory.  We err egregiously
nomena. Were such a remarkable phenomenon  when we attempt to compare the puny operations
to happen in our times, when telescopes, micro- and conflagrations which happen on our globe
meters, and other astronomical instruments have with a scene so far transcending everything we
received so many exquisite improvements, so as behold in this terrestrial sphere. The greatest
to enable us to penetrate deep into the profundity conflagration that was ever witnessed on earth
of space, and to measure the smallest angles, a cannot bear the smallest proportion or similitude
variety of additional facts and circumstances would  to an object which must have occupied a space
doubtless be discovered in relation to phenomena more than ten hundred thousand times the solid
and events so striking and sublime.*             contents of our globe; nor is it likely that the
The subject of new stars, such as those now  agents or elementary principles which produced
described, which blazed forth with so extraordi- the respective phenomena were at all similar.
nary a brilliancy and so soon disappeared, natu-   The late Professor Vince, one of the most
rally gives rise to solemn and interesting refloe- learned astronomers of his age, has the following
tions. There is a mystery that hangs over such  remark: —" The disappearance of some stars may
sublime phenomena which produces in the mind be the destruction of that system at the time apan anxious desire to behold the vail removed, and  pointed by the Deity for the probation of its
to investigate the reasons and causes of such stu- inhabitants, and the appearance of new stars may
pendous events.  "It is impossible," says Mrs. be the formation of new systems for new races
Sommerville, when alluding to, the star of 1572, of beings then called into existence to adore the
works of their Creator."t  The late Dr. Mason
*Beside the above, the following instances of new stars Good seemed to indulge in a similar opinion
may be noted: —in the'year 1670, a new star was discovered, Worlds, and systems of worlds," says, he, "are
by Hevelius and Anthelm, near the head of the Swan,        p rual c            ba      e tua
which, after becoming invisible. reappeared, and after under. not only perpetually creating, but also perpetually
going several singular fluctuations of light during two disappearing.  It is an extraordinary fact that,
years, gradually vanished from the sight, and has never since within the period of the last century, not less than
been seen. Another new star is said to have been seen the
same year at Paris, about the back of the Swan, which,
after the space of fourteen days, vanished away.-Whis-  System of the World, vol. 1, p. 101.
ton's lstronomical Lectures, p. 45.               t Vince's "Complete System of Astronomy."




SUCH STARS NOT ANNIHILATED.                                    89
thirteen stars, in different constellations, seem to destruction of the matter of which they are comhave totally perished, and ten new ones to have posed, but simply a new arrangement or mode of
been created. In many instances it is unques- operation.  We have no reason to believe that
tionable that the stars themselves, the supposed any portions of matter which now exist throughhabitation of other kinds or orders of intelligent out the universe will ever be reduced to annihilabeings, together with the different planets by tion. On the other hand, we have palpable cvi,
which it is probable they were surrounded, have dence, from  several phenomena in the heavens,
utterly vanished, and the spots which they occu- that the work of creation is still going forward,
pied in the heavens have become blanks. What and that the Creator is gradually ushering into
has befallen other systems will assuredly befall existence new suns, and systems, and worlds; and
our own. Of the time and the manner we know  in all probability his creating energy will be connothing; but the factis incontrovertible-it is fore- tinually exerting itself throughout all the suctold by revelation-it is inscribed in the heavens ceeding ages of eternity.
-it is felt through the earth. Such is the awful   Again, if that grand and terrific event which is
and daily text; what, then, ought to be the com- to put a final period to the present terrestrial sysment?"  Similar to these were the sentiments of tem  is to be viewed as a consequence of the
the late Professor Robinson, of Edinburgh:-  introduction of moral evil and the depravity of
" What has become of that dazzling star, surpas- man, then we are led to conclude that those intelsing Venus in brightness, which shone out all at ligences which were connected with the systems
once in November, 1572?" —" Such appearances which are supposed to have been destroyed must
in the heavens make it evident that, notwith- have been involved in the guilt of moral degenstanding the wise provision made for maintaining eracy, or, in other words, in rebellion against
that order and utility which we behold in our their Creator; otherwise, why were they subjected
system, the day may come'when the heavens to such an awful catastrophe, and doomed to be
shall pass away like a scroll that is folded up, blotted out of existence?  We have no ground
when the stars in heaven shall fall, and the sun for entertaining any such supposition. Reasoning
shall cease to give his light.' The sustaining hand from the benevolence of the Deity, it is more proof God is still necessary, and the present order and bable to conclude that the inhabitants of our
harmony which he has enabled us to understand world are almost the only intelligences throughand admire is wholly dependent on his will, and out the universe who have swerved from the path
its duration is one of the unsearchable measures of original rectitude, and violated the moral laws
of his providence."                            of their Maker. Nor is it likely that the whole
Such are the pious sentiments of the above- inhabitants of any system, consisting, perhaps, of
named respectable philosophers in reference to the thirty or even of a hundred worlds-would be
subject under consideration; but it may be ques- found uniting in rebellion against the moral govtioned whether they are altogether judicious, or ernment of their Benefactor, so as to warrant the
correspondent to the perfections of the Creator entire destruction of the system with which they
and the arrangements he has made in the uni- were connected.  Beside, were the views of the
verse. They seem to take for granted that those philosophers to which I allude to be adopted, then
stars which have blazed for awhile, and then dis- we must admit that the systems which in their
appeared, have been destroyed or annihilated. opinion were destroyed or annihilated must have
We are indeed informed that, in regard to our been continued in existence only for a year or
globe, a period is approaching when "the elements two; for no luminous bodies occupied the places
shall melt with fervent heat, and the earth and of the new stars before they burst on a sudden to
the works that are therein shall be burnt up." the view, and no twinkling orbs have been seen
But such a conflagration cannot be justly com- in these points of the heavens since they disappared to the splendor of those wonderful stars de- peared; but it is surely not at all probable that the
scribed above. At whatever period in the lapse of Almighty would launch into existence systems of
duration such an event may take place, it will be such amazing magnitude and splendor, and suffer
so far from being visible at the nearest star, that them to rush into destruction within a period of
it would not be seen by such eyes as ours at the so very limited duration.
boundaries of our system. Beside, we are assured,   For the reasons now stated, and others which
in that revelation which announces it, that that might have been brought forward, I cannot acquiawful event shall take place as one of the conse- esce in the views of the respectable philosophers
quences of the sin and depravity of man; and to which I have adverted; but it is easier to set
therefore we have no reason to believe that it aside an untenable hypothesis than to attempt an
will extend to the sun or any of the surrounding explanation of the real causes of so sublime and
planets of our system; nor have we any reason to wonderful phenomena. In investigating the disconclude that the conflagration of our globe will taut wonders of the universe and the arrangeissue in its entire destruction, or that the elemen- ments of the Divine government, it becomes us
tary principles of which it is composed will be to express our sentiments with modesty and cauannihilated.  It is more probable, nay, almost tion. Whatever may have been the causes which
certain, that this tremendous event will only tend produced the sudden splendor and the rapid disapto purify our globe from the physical evils which pearance of the new stars, I entertain not the
now exist, and to transform it into a new and least doubt that those bodies are still in existence,
happier world for the residence of renovated and and subserving important purposes in the economy
ure intelligences. In regard to annihilation, we of God's universal government. Almost anynyhave no proof that any particle of matter yvhich pothesis is to be preferred to that which supposes
was ever created has yet been annihilated.*  In- their destruction or annihilation. What should
cessant changes and transformations are going hinder us from concluding that the extraordinary
forward both in the scene of sublunary nature phenomena of the star of 1572 was owing to a
and throughout the celestial regions; but changes luminous orb of immense magnitude, accompa.
in material objects do not necessarily imply the nied with a retinue of worlds, moving with inconceivable velocity in an imnmense elliptical orbit, the
* See " Philosophy of a Future State," chap. i, sect. 10; longer side of which was nearly in a direction to
sad "Christian Philosopher,'`                  our eye; that its most brilliant appearance was




40                                SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
when it was nearest our system, as at A, (fig. 10), of the fifth; in February, to one of the sixth
supposing E the relative position of the earth, or magnitude; and in March it disappeared.
of our system; and that, as it gradually declined    Now, according to Sir W. Herschel's experiin its brightness, it was passing along the curve ments, the light of a star of the first magnitude
from A toward B and C, until its rapid flight at being supposed 100, the light of one of the second
magnitude is 25, one of the third magnitude, 12, &c.
Fig. 10.                    (see p. 22). If, then, we suppose these classes of stars
to be nearly of equal magnitudes, and that thelir
1B                    distance is in an inverse proportion to the diminu.
tion of their light, it will follow that a star of the
second magnitude is four times the distance of a
A~'d                   1 0        Ystar of the first; a star of the third magnitude,
four times the distance of the second, or eight times
the distance of the first magnitude, &c. Supposing,
-0                   I then, the star of 1572 to have been twenty billions
of miles from the earth at its nearest approach to
length carried it beyond the limits of human  our system; from December, 1572, to April, 1573,
vision?  Had telescopes been in use at that period, when it was diminished to the apparent size of a
there is little doubt it would have been seen, star of the second magnitude, it must have moved
though still diminishing, for a much longer period four times that -distance, or eighty billions of
than that in which it was visible to the unassisted  miles during these four months, which is at the
eye; in which case it would have fully corrobo- rate of six hundred thousand millions of miles a
rated the opinion now stated. In confirmation  day, and four hundred and sixty-two millions a
of this explanation of the phenomena it has been minute, a velocity of which we can have no adesupposed, with a high degree of probability, that quate conception.
it is the same star which appeared in the year 945   If the above explanation be unsatisfactory, I
and in 1264, which, of course, would have a know not to what hypothesis to resort for a soluperiod of revolution of about' 319 years, which  tion of this mysterious and wonderful phenomeperiod might vary two or three years in the non. Whatever view we may be disposed to take
course of its revolutions, from causes with which  of such striking events, we are lost in admiration
we are unacquainted, as we find sometimes hap- and wonder. We behold a display of magnitude,
pens in the case of comets. This opinion is ren- of motion, and of magnificence, which overdered the more probable from the consideration  powers the human faculties, which shows us the
that the stars of 945 and 1264 appeared in the littleness of man and the limited nature of his
constellation of Cassiopeia, where likewise the star powers, and which ought to inspire us with reveof 1572 was observed; and if these be identical, rence of that Almighty Being who sits on the
then it is probable that it will again make its throne of the universe, directing all its movements
appearance about the year 1891 or 1892; and if for the accomplishment of his wise and righteous
so, astronomers will then have a better opportu- designs, and for the diffusion of universal happinity of marking its aspects and motions, and ness throughout all the ranks of intelligent exisdetermining its size and its period of revolution. tence. However astonishing the conclusions we
If this explanation appear the most probable, it are led to deduce from the phenomena under conpresents to the mind a most magnificent and over- sideration, the facts to which we have adverted
whelming idea, without supposing anything so are not beyond the energies of Him whose pertremendous and terrific as a sudden conflagration. fections are strictly infinite. Nay, from such a
It presents before us a luminous globe of aston- Being, who is self-existent and omnliscient, who
ishing magnitude-perhaps not less than a hun- fills the immensity of space with his presence,
dred times the size of our sun-winging its course and whose power is boundless in its operation, we
over a circuit perhaps a thousand times more should naturally expect that displays of creating
expansive than the orbit of Uranus, and carrying  and sustaining energy would be exhibited, altoalong with it a hundred worlds in its swift career. gether overwhelming and incomprehensible by
The motion of such a body must have been rapid mortals. "Canst thou by searching find out God?
in the extreme, when we consider the rapid dimi- Canst thou find out the almighty to perfection?
nution of its apparent magnitude. In the month  In the hights of heaven he doth great things past
of November it first appeared; in December its finding out, yea, and wonders without number.
brightness was sensibly diminished; in the month  By his spirit he hath garnished the heavens.  rhe
of April following it had diminished to the size pillars of heaven tremble and are astonished at
of a star of the second magnitude; in July, to his reproof. Lo, these are but parts of his ways;
one of the third magnitude; in October, to one but the thunder of his power who can underof the fourth; in the following January, to one stand?"




CHAPTER VII.
ON VARIABLE SIGNS.
WHEN the starry firmament is attentively sur- in April, 1702. Maraldi saw it for the first time
veyed, and the aspects of the numerous orbs it in the beginning of March, 1704, in the same
contains particularly marked, it is found that place where it had been seen thirty-four years
several of these bodies are subject to periodical before.  It appeared of the fourth magnitude, and
changes in the brilliancy of their light and their continued nearly in the same state until the beapparent diameters, indicating in some instances ginning of April.  It then gradually diminished
motions and revolutions of considerable extent. until the end of May, when it could no longer be
The following sketches contain  descriptions of seen by the naked eye, but was visible through
the more remarkable phenomena connected with'the telescope for a month longer.  It could not
this class of the heavenly bodies, generally known be seen again until the end of November, 1705,
by the name of variable, or periodical stars:    when that part of the heavens began to emerge
The first star of this kind' which seems to have from the sun's rays. It was then very faint, and
been particularly noticed is om —it the neck of grew  less and less until the end of February,
the Whale, whose right ascension is 2h. 8' 33", 1706, and could then be scarcely perceived even
and south declination, 30 57' 25".  It was first with a telescope. It did not reappear until the'observed on August 13th, 1596, by David Fabri- 18th of April, 1708, when it was larger than. a
cius, when it appeared like a star of the third star of the sixth magnitude, and increasing in
magnitude, but disappeared after the month of luster.  It was seen by the same observer afterOctober in the same year.  It was again observed ward, in the years 1-709 and' 1712.  From  the
by Holworda in the year 1637; and after having observations of Maraldi, Mr. Pigot concludes that
-disappeared during a period of nine months, it its period was then 494 days; but from observaagain became- visible; since which time it has tions made by himself he thinks that now it is
been found every year pretty regular in its period, only 487 days; so that from the time of Maraldi
except from  October, 1672, to December, 1676, it has shortened seven days.  The following are
-during which time Hevelius could not perceive it, the more prominent particulars relating to this
though it was a particular object of his attention. star:-1. When at its full brightness it is of the
Bullialdus, a Frenchman, having compared to- fourth magnitude, and does not perceptibly change
gether'the observations that had been made on it for the space of fourteen days. 2. It is about six
from 1638 to 1666, determined the periodical time months in increasing from the tenth magnitude
between'its appearing in its greatest brightness and returning to the same; so that it may be conand returning to it again to be 333 days.  He sidered as invisible during that time.  3. It is
found also that about 120 days elapse between the considerablv more quick, perhaps one-half more
time that it is first seen of the sixth magnitude so, in its increase than in its decrease. 4. Though,
and its disappearing; that it continues in its great- when at its full, it may always be styled a star of
est luster for about fifteen days; that after its first the fourth  magnitude, it does not constantly
reappearance of the Sixth magnitude it increases attain the same degree of brightness, but the
in size much faster until it comes to be of the differences are very small.  5. Its right ascension
fourth magnitude, tilan it does from that period for 1786 is 31h. 18' 4"; and its south declination,
to its being of the third; and that from its being 220 9' 38". It is marked  No. 30 in Hevelius'
of the third it increases to the second magnitude Catalogue of the Stars; from  which data, its
by still slower degrees.  Modern astronomers give place may easily be found on a planisphere, or on
the following description:-"-It remains in its the celestial globe.
greatest brightness about a fortnight, being then   -In the year 1600, G. Jansonius discovered a
nearly equal to a star of the second magnitude; variable star in the breast of the Swan, which was
it decreases during three months, until it becomes afterward observed by different astronomers, and
completely invisible, in which'state it remains supposed to have a period of about ten years.'about five months, when it again becomes visible, The results of Mr. Pigot's calculations from the:and continues increasing during the remaining observations of former astronomers are-1. That
three months of its period; but it does not always it continues in full luster for five years. 2. It
return to the same degree of brightness, nor in- decreases rapidly for two years. 3. It is invisible
crease and diminish by the same gradations."  It to the naked eye for four years. 4. It increases
appears about twelve times in eleven years.  Cas- slowly during seven years. 5. All these changes
sini determined its period to be 334 days; but Sir are completed in eighteen years. 6. It was at its
W. Herschel makes it 331 days, 10 hours, 19 minimum at the end of the year 1663. 7. It does
minutes.  It appears, then, that this star passes not always increase to the same degree of bright.
through all the gradations of light and magnitude ness, being sometimes of the third, and at others
from  a star of the second to a star of, the sixth only of the sixth magnitude.  "I am  entirely
magnitude and under; but after it has disappeared ignorant," says Mr. Pigot, "whether it is subject
to the naked eye it may be traced to its lowest to the same changes in this century, having not
magnitude by a telescope of moderate power.  It met with any series of observations upon it; but
is sometimes distinguished by the name of Stella if the above conjectures are right, it will be at its
Mira, or the wonderful star, and Omicron Ceti.   minimum in a very few years. Since November,
In 1704, Maraldi observed a variable star'in the 1781, to the year i786, I have constantly seen it
constellation Hydra.  This star had been de- of the sixth magnitude, though I suspect that in
scribed by Montanari in 1670, but'was not visible 1785-6, it had rather decreased."  This star is
(41)




42                                  SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
near Gamma in the Swan's breast; it varies from  eight degreees south from  Altair, the principal
the third to the sixth, seventh, &c. magnitudes. star in the constellation Aquila.
Its right -ascension is 20h. 9' 54"; north declina-   The above descriptions may suffice as specition, 370 22' 37".                               mens of the phenomena of variable stars.'I'llhere
One of the most remarkable of these changea- are about seven or eight other stars which have
ble stars is that called Algol, in the head of Me- been observed to be certainly variable, among
dusa, in the constellation Perseus. It had long which are the following:-A star in the Northern
since been known to appear of different magni- Crown, wh6se right ascension is 15h. 40' 11";
tudes at different times; but its period was first north declination, 280 49' 30"; and period, 102
ascertained by John Goodricke, Esq., of York, months. A star in Hercules, whose right ascenwho began to observe it in the beginning of the, sion is 17h. 4' 54"; north declination, 140 38'; and
year 17;83. It changes continually from the first period of variation 604 days. A star in Sobieski's
or second to the fourth magnitude; and the time Shield, whose right ascension is 18h. 36' 38";
which elapses from  one-greatest diminution to south declination, 50 56'; and period 62 days.
the other was found in'1783 to be, at a mean, 2 The star Beta Lyre —right ascension, 18h. 42' 11"days, 20 hours,.49 mninutes. The change is thus-  north declination, 330 7' 46"; greatest and least
during four hours it gradually diminishes inlus-  ariation,  3, 4, 5; supposed period, 6 days, 9
ter; during the succeeding four hours it recovers hours.  The star Delta Cephei, whose period is 5
its first magnitude by a like gradual increase; and days, 812 hours; right ascension, 22h. 21'; and
during the remaining part of the period, namely, north declination, 570 50'. With several others.
2 days, 12 hours, 42 minutes, it invariably pre-   Beside these, whose variations and periods have
serves its greatest luster; after the expiration of been determined, there are about thirty-seven
which its diminution again commences. Accord- other stars, which are,with good reason, suspected
ing to Mr. Pigot, who has made many observations to be variable, but whose periods: of change have
onsuch stars, and paid particular attention to the not yet been ascertained, on account of the want
subject, the degree of brightness of this star when of a sufficient number of observers, who might
at its minimum is variable at different periods; and devote their attention more particularly to this
he is of the same opinion in regard to its bright- department of astronomical observation.  For exness when at its full; but whether these differences ample, the star Pollux, or Beta Gemini, is susreturn regularly or not has not been determined. pected to change from the first to the third mugThe right ascension of Algol, or 6 Persez, for nitude.
1786, is 2h. 54' 19"; and its north declination 400    When contemplating  such changes among
6' 58". It is situated 120 east of Almaach, in the bodies so immensely distant, and of so i ast magfoot of Andromeda, and may be known by means nitude, we are naturally led to inquire into the
of three stars of the fourth magnitude lying a causes which produce these phenomena.  Our
few degrees south-west of it, and forming a small ignorance, however, of the precise nature and
triangle.  It comes to the meridian on the 21st constitution of those remote bodies, and ot tho
of December, about nine o'clock inl the evening; sdenes and circumstances in which they may be
but *as it continfues above the horizon at least placed, prevent us from forming ally definite or
twenty hours out of the twenty-four, it may be satisfactory conclusions. The following are some
seen every evening from  August to May.          of the opinions which have been thrown out on
Another variable star is to be found in the neck of this subject.  It has been supposed that portions
the Swan.' Te period of this star has been settled  of the surfaces of these stars are covered with
by Maraldi and Cassini at 405 days; but from  a large black spots, which, during the diurnal rota.
mean of the observations of Mr. Pigot, it appears tion of the star, present themselves under various
to be only 392, or at most 396 7-8 days. The par- angles, and thus produce a gradual variation iu
ticulars relating to it are,-1. When at its full its brilliancy. Sir W. Herschel says "Such a
brightness, it undergoes no perceptible change for motion may be as evidently proved as the diurnal
a fortnight. 2. It is about three and a half months motion of the earth. Dark spots, or large portions
in increasing from, the eleventh magnitude to its of the surface less luminous than the rest, turned
full brightness, and the same in decreasing; for alternately in certain directions, either toward or
which reason it may be considered as invisible from us, will account for all the phenomena of
during six months.  3. It does not always attain periodical changes in the luster of the stars so
the same degree of luster, being sometimes of the satisfactorily, that we certainly need not look for
5th, and sometimes of the seventh magnitude. any other cause."  Sir Isaac Newton thought
The right ascension of this star is 19h. 42' 21"; that the sudden blaze of some stars may have
and its north declination, 32o 22' 58". It' is situ- been occasioned by the " falling of a comet into
ated in the neck, and nearly equidistant from  them, by which means they would be enabled to
Beta and Gamma, and south by west from Deneb, cast a prodigious light for a little time, after which
at the distance of about twelve degrees, and is they would gradually return  to their former
marked Chi.                                      state."  But we know too little about the nature
The star Eta Antinoi is another star of this of comets to be able to determine what effect they
description, whose variation and period were dis- would produce in such a case, nor are we certain
covered by Mr. Pigot in 1785. From  his cor- that such bodies are connected with other sys.
rected observations, he concludes that it continues tems. If the fixed stars be nearly of the same
at its greatest brightness forty hours without nature as the sun, it is highly improbable that any
decreasing; it is sixty-six,.hours after it begins to such effect would be produced even although a
decrease before it comes to its full diminution; comet were to fall into its luminous atmosphere,
after which it, continues stationary for thirty  as that atmosphere appears to have nothing in it
hours more; and then increases for thirty-six  that would take fire by the approach of any extrahours. In every period it seems to acquire its full neous body, or that would "blaze" like combusbrightness, and to be equally decreased. Its period tible substances on the earth. The blaze, if such
therefore is seven days, four hours; and its greatest an effect were to take place, would scarcely be
and least variation is from  the third to the fifth distinguishable from  our globe, and much less
magnitude.  Its right ascension is 19h. 41' 34"; from a distant system. Maupertius, in a "I)isserand its north declination 00 28' 14". It is about tation on the Figures of the Celestial Bodies," is




VARIABLE STARS.                                         48
of opinion that some stars, by their prodigious parts of their revolutions interpose between our
quick rotation on their axes, may not only assume eye and the stars, so as to hide for a time.a porthe figures of oblate spheroids, but that, by the tion of their surfaces from our view, while in that
great centrifugal force arising from such rota- part of their orbits which is next the earth. Such
tions, they may become of the figures of mill- a supposition is by no means inconsistent with
stones, or be reduced to flat circular planes, so the operation of the law of universal gravitation;
thin as to be quite invisible when their edges are for although such planets bore a considerable
turned toward us, as Saturn's ring is inl such portion of the size of their central luminaries, yet
positions. And when any eccentric planets or we have only to suppose that their density is very
comets go. round any fixed star, in orbits much small. They may be globes whose central parts
inclined to its equator, the attraction of the planets are devoid of solid matter, consisting only of a.
or comets in their perihelions must alter the incli- solid external shell for the support of inhabitants,
nation of the axis of that star; on which account as is probably the case with the planet Saturn,
It will appeal more or liess large and luminous, as whose density is only equal to that of cork.
its broadside is turned more or less toward us.   A planet about the size we have now supposed
This opinion, at best, I consider as having a very revolving around a star would, in a great measure,
small degree of probability, and almost quite un- account for the phenomena presented by 4Algol.
tenable.  Mr. Dunn, in a paper in vol. 52 of the This star accomplishes the period of its variations
"-Philosophical Transactions," supposes that the in 2 days and nearly 21 hours. During 312 or 4
Interposition of some gross atmosphere may solve hours it gradually diminishes in luster, and during
the phenomena under consideration.  "The ap- the succeeding four hours it gradually recovers
pearance of new stars," says he, "and the disap- its first magnitude.  Throughout the remaining
pearance of others, possibly may'be occasioned part of the period-namely, 2 days, 12 hours, 42
by the interposition of such an ethereal medium  minutes,-it invariably preserves its greatest luswithin their respective orbs as either admits light ter; so that the time of its being diminished in
to pass freely or wholly absorbs it at certain times, luster is only about the ninth part of its whole
while light is constantly pursuing its journey  period of variation.  Now  supposing a planet
through the vast regions of space."              about half the diameter of'the star revolving
Whatever opinions we may adopt on this sub- around Algol, it would intercept a large portion
ject, it is evident that the regular succession of the of its surface when it passed between our eye and
variations of periodical stars preclude the idea of the star, as at a, b (fig. 11), where the white cirtheir being.destroyed.  It is likewise evident that cular ring represents the surface of the star partly
motion of some kind or' other, either in the stars covered by the planet.  Its luster would begin to
themselves or in, some bodies either directly or
remotely connected with them, must be one of the                     Fig. 11.
causes of the phenomena in question; and it is
not improbable that different causes in different
inrstances may operate'in producing the effects.
It does not appear to me probable that the cause
which produces the variation in the case of Delta
Cephei, whose period is only 5 days, 8/2 hours, is
the same which produces all the variety of change
which happens in the star Gamma in the Swan's
breast, whose periodical changes are completed
only in eighteen years.  It is not unlikelythat a
rotation round an axis, which has the effect of
presenting different sides of the star of more or
less degrees of obscurity or brightness to the eye
of a spectator, will account for the phenomena of
such stars as Eta Antinoi and Delta Cephei; but diminish when the planet entered on its edge at
it does not appear probable that a'motion of rota- d, and it would again resume its full brightness
tion is so slow in any of these bodies as to occupy when going off at c, the dark side of the planet
a period of eighteen years, as in the case of the being of course turned to our eye; and during
star in the breast of the Swan.                  the remaining part of its revolution it would
I am  disposed to consider' it as highly pro- appear in its brightest luster.  The regularity'of
bable that the interposition of the opaque bodies the changes of this star admits of the supposition
of large planets revolving around such stars, may, now made, and evidently requires a regular moin some cases, account for the phenomena.  It tion of some kind or other, either in the star itself
is true that the planets connected with the solar or in some body connected with it, in order to
System are so small in comparison of the sun that produce the phenomena.  Perhaps: in the case
their interposition between that orb and a specta- of some of the variable stars, we might suppose
tor at,an immense distalce-would produce no several large planets in succession to pass between
sensible effect. But we have no reason to con- our eye and the star to account for the appearclude that in all other systems the planets are ance they present-a supposition which perfectly
formed'in the'same proportion to their central agrees with the idea of a system  of revolving
orbs as ours; but, from the variety we perceive bodies.
in every part of nature both in heaven and earth,   As it -is not probable that the changes of all
we have reason to conclude that every system of such stars arise from the same cause, what shoula
the universe is in some. respect different from  an- hinder us from supposing that there are stars of,
other. There is no improbability in admitting suns that revolve around planets of a size immensely
that the planets which revolve round some of the greater,-the planets, for example, bearing a simistars, may be so large: as to bear.a considerable lar proportion to the stars as the sun bears to
proportion (perhaps onehalf or one-third) to the Jupiter?  Considering the immense variety of
diameters of the orbs around which they revolve; celestial mechanism throughout the universe, there
in which case, if the plane of their orbit lie nearly can be no great improbability in such a supposiin' the line of our vision,  they  would in certain tion. The case of double stars demonstrates tlat
1w th  lin  of ou  -vsoite                                                 eintaest




44                                SIDEREAL. HEAVENS.
one sun actually revolves round another; and why ics at Bononia, in a letter to the Royal Society, of.
may not a sun revolve around a central planet, date April 1670, gives the following statement:whose surface may contain forty times the area " There are now wanting in the heavens two stars
of all the- planets of our system, in order to dis- of the second magnitude, in the stern and yard
tribute light and heat, and other beneficial influ- of the ship Argo. I and others observed them in
ences, to its -nunmerous population? A No violation  the year 1664, upon occasion of the comet that
of the law of universal gravitation is implied in appeared that year. When they disappeared first
such a-supposition; and the Almighty is not con- I know not: only I am sure that, in the year 1668,
fined to one mode of arranging systems and  upon the 10th of April, there was not the least
worlds. Supposing, then, such an arrangement glimpse of them to be seen, and yet the other stars
to exist, it might account for the phenomena of about them, of the third and fourth magnitudes,
some of the variable stars, particularly those remained the same. I have observed many more
which remain invisible for a certain period. Such changes among the fixed stars, even to the numare some of those formerly noticed, as the star in ber of a. hundred, though none of them  are so
Hydra, and that in the breast of the Swan, and great as those I have showed."'In 1670, Anthelm'
particularly a star in the Northern Crown, whose discovered a star of the third magnitude in the
right.ascen. is 150 40','north  declin. 280 492', head of theSwan, which after becoming completely
and period 10  months, and which decreases from  invisible, reappeared, and after undergoing one or
the sixth to the ninth and tenth magnitude. It two singular fluctuations of light during two' years,
attained its full brightness about the 11th of, Au- at last died away entirely, and has not since been
gust, 1795, and continued so for three weeks; in seen. Sir William Herschel gives a list of thirteen
3  weeks it decreased to the tenth magnitude, stars, most of which are supposed to be lost. Of
and. a few days afterward disappeared.  After these are the following:-Nos. 80 and 81 of Herbeing a considerable time invisible, in April, 1796, cules, both of the fourth magnitude; the 19th of
it again appeared; on the 7th of May, it reached Perseus, of the sixth magnitude; and the 108 Pisthe ninth magnitude, and then gradually attained  ces, are judged to be wholly lost. The stars'13,
its full brightness. If, then, such a star was re- 74 Cancer, in the southern claw of the Crab, of
volving round a very large central planet, it is the sixth magnitude, are either lost or have suffereasy to conceive that in the more distant part of ed such great changes that they can no longer
its course it might be hid from our view, either in be found. On this subject Sir John Herschel
whole or in part, by the interposition of the states-"The star 42 Virginis is inserted in the
opaque central body, as is obvious from an inspec-  catalogue of the Astronomical Society from Zach's
tion of figure 12. And as the star now alluded Zodiacal Catalogue. I missed it on the 9th of
to never exceeds in luster a star of the sixth  May, 1828, and have since repeatedly had its
magnitude, it is, not improbable that it is one of place in the field of view of my twenty feet rethe inferior order of those luminous orbs which flector without perceiving it, unless it be one of
may revolve round an opaque body of superior two equal stars of the 9th magnitude very nearly
magnitude..                                   in the place it must have occupied."
Fig. 12..                   2. Some stars have changed their magnitudes
since the beginning of last century. A considerable number of stars marked by Flamstead, in his
Historia Celestis, are now found to be of different
magnitudes since the period in which ho observed
the heavens and formed his catalogue. For example; the 1st and 23 of Hydra are now only of
the eighth or ninth magnitude instead of the
fourth, as they are marked by Flainstead. The
31st and 34th of Draco have changed greatly; the
31st has increased from the seventh to the fourth,
and the 34th has diminished from the fourth to
the sixth or seventh magnitude. The 3Sth Perseus, instead of tlhe sixth, has now increased to
the fourth magnitude. About thirty stars of this
description are reclkoned by Sir W. Herschel to
have changed their magnitudes.
3. There are stars unknown to the observers of
Such, then, are some of the conceivable causes former times which have recently become visible.
which may produce the phenomena of variable  The following, among others of this description,
stars, although other causes may in some cases have been marked by Sir W. Herschel:-1. A star
exist.-of which we have no conception. These  in the end of the Lizard's tail, of the fourth or
phenomena evidently indicate that motions and  fifth magnitude, which is not recorded by Flamrevolutions of various kinds are going forward  stead, although he notices one in that constellation
throughout the stellar regions; that the Almighty  less conspicuous. 2. A star near the head of Ce.
is superintending the movements of those pro- pheus. 3. A considerable star in a direction from
vinces of his empire, and that all his agencies the 68th to the 61st of Gemini. 4. A star of conhave a respect to the order and the happiness of siderable brightness preceding the 1st of the Little
intelligent existence.                         Horse.  5. A remarkable star between /S and J
Beside the periodical variations to which we Hydrawe. 6. A star nears  Hercules, of thaf fourth
have now adverted, there are several other striking  or fifth magnitude, with several others. Similar
changes which have been Observed in the starry  observations appear to have been made about the
regions which deserve our attention, and which I end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the
shall briefly notice.                           eighteenth centuries, by Cassini and.others. Cas1. Several stars which'were formerly distinctly sini discovered a new star of the fourth, and two
visible, and are marked in. different catalogues, of the fifth magnitude in Cassiopeia; two in the
are now wholly lost. The following are a few. constellation Eridanus, one of the fourth  the
instances. M. Montanere, professor of mathemat- other of the fifth magnitude; and four of the fifth




OMNIPOTENT ENERGIES                                          45,ind sixth magnitude near the north pole, which  and they, naturally excite in the mind a desire of
sad not been perceived at a former period.       futlure existence, and an ardent wish to behold
Such changes in bodies so far removed from our the vail which now intercepts our views of these
*ystem, and of magnitudes so enormous as the  glorious orbs withdrawn, and to contemplate the
beast of them must be, naturally lead to the con- scene of divine operation in all its splendor and
elusion that revolutions of vast extent, and op'sra- magnificence.
lions conducted on a most magnificent. sca'e, are    At first view, it may appear a circumstance
Incessantly going forward in those remote and un- of comparative insignificance to behold a small
*xplorable regions. In the case of stars which have  star, scarcely distinguishable to the eye, waxing
totally disappeared, we are led to eonclude, either brighter, or growing dimmer, or vanishing altothat some vast and important chauge has taken  gether from  the view; or a star appearing in a
place in the constitution of certain worlds or sys- point of the heavens which was unoccupied betems, o0 that the central luminaries of such sys- fore. The distant blaze of a field of furlze, the
tems, with all their surrounalng planets, have falling of a tower, or the conflagration of a cotbeen transported by some unknown and almighty  tage, may to some appear events of far greater
agency into more distant regions of space, where  interest and importance; but such events in the
they -may remain forever hid from our view. As heavens as those to which we refer may be conto those stars which have changed their magni-  nected with scenes as astonishing-though pertudes within the last century, they may either be haps not so tremendous-as if the sun were shorn
approaching to or receding from  the system  to  of his rays and turned into darkness, and this
which we belong, or their native brightness may  earth and all the planetary globes shattered to
be either increasing or diminishing from  causes their centers and wrapped in flame; or, as if a
with which we are unacquainted;  or some ethe- new sun of superior magnitude were to, appear in
real mediums of a peculiar nature may be inter- our system, and to illuminate our globes with a
posed between our'sight and those distant orbs. new  species of light and colors. Objects at a
With respect to stars unknown to former observ- great distance from the observer make little imers which have recently become visible, it is not pression on the organs of vision, and seldom
unreasonable to suppose that these are new systems affect the mind. A fleet of the largest ships of war
recently launched from the creating hand of the  viewed from the top of a tower at fifty miles disOmnipotent, to diversifyhis creation and augment tance appears only like a few almost undistinguishthe glories of his empire, as well as to distribute  able specks on the verge of the horizon, while the
happiness among new orders of sensitive and in- fate of individuals, families, communities, and
telligent existence.  We ought not to imagine even empires, may depend upon the encounter in
that the work of creation, considered as a whole, which- they may be engaged. The conflagration
Is yet finished, or ever will be finished during an  of a city of ten hundred thousands of inhabitants
indefinite lapse of ages.  When it is stated by the  may appear at a distance as only a faint glimpse
inspired writer of the book of Genesis that " God  of-light in one point of- the horizon, while palaces,
rested from  all his work," we are to understand  and temples, anid thousands of splendid fabrics are
the expression only in reference to the formation  turned into smoking ruins, and multitudes are
or arrangement of the world in which we reside  thrown into the utmost consternation, and perishinto the form and order in which we now behold  ing in the flames. The burning of the cily of
it; for to this arrangement chiefly, if not solely, Moscow, as beheld from the moon when the dark
the descriptions of the sacred historian in the first side of the earth was presented to that orb, would
chapter of Genesis refer. It is in perfect accor- appear only like a dim lucid speck, scarcely disdance with the idea of a Being possessed of om- tirguishable from  the other parts of the earth's
nipotent power, boundless goodness, and endless surface.  And if this be the case in respect to
duration, that his creating energies should never objects within such limited distances, what astoncease in their operation throughout all the periods ishing scenes may be the result of what we perof an interminable existence; and the phenomena  ceive in bodies many thousands of millions of
to which we refer are a strong presumption, if miles distalit, when we behold them  disappearing
not a demonstrative evidence, of a continued se- to our view, or even when we perceive their light
ries-of creations.  These new creations may be only increasing or diminishing? Here imagibursting forth in the remote spaces of the'universe, nation is left to fill up the picture which the
in various degrees of splendor and magnificence, organs of vision so dimly perceive. We are to
to an extent of which we have no conception; consider that the orbs to which we allude are luand from the character and perfections of the Di- minous globes of immense size,-that they are
vinity, we have reason to believe that such pro- doubtless encircled with  a  retinue of worlds
cesses will be incessantly going forward throughout replenished with inhabitants,-that what to us
all the ages of eternity.                        appears a slight change of aspect may to them be
Whatever opinions we may be disposed to form  the commencement of an era of new glory and
as to the phenomena to which we have adverted, splendor, —that the Almighty rules over those disthey tend to convey to the reflecting mind mag- tant regions as well as "among the inhabitants of
nificent views of the physical energies of the  the earth,"-and that all the changes which hapAlmighty, in arranging the different departments pen among them  are in unison with his eternal
of his boundless dominions, and accomplishing  designs, and subsreve the ends of his universal
the purposes and:plans of his moral government, government.




CHAPTER VIII.
ON DOUBLE STARS AND BINARY SYSTEMS.
IN whatever part of creation we survey the he was diverted from  the original object of his
operations of.the Almighty, we uniformly find inquiry by phenomena of a very unexpected chathe characteristic of variety impressed upon all racter,-which at once engrossed his whole attenhis works. This is evident in all the kingdoms tion.  The circumstances alluded to shall be
of nature connected with our globe, where the particularly described in the sequel, after I have
mtdltitude and diversity of animals, vegetables, and given a brief sketch of the phenomena of double
minerals, cannot but strike the eye even of the stars.
most superficial observer.  Though  the same   When a telescope of considerable power is di.
general laws appear to pervade the material uni- rected to certain stars which appear single to the
verse, so far as our observation extends, yet these naked eye, another star, generally much smaller
laws are so comprehensive and so endlessly modi- than that which appears to the unassisted eye, is
field as to'produce an immense variety of minute seen quite adjacent to it, and in some cases the
and wonderful effects. It is more difficult to trace interval between the two stars is so small that it
the operation of these laws in the -remote spaces requires a very high degree of light and magnifyof the universe than in our terrestrial sphere. But ing power to be able to perceive that they are two
evenh in regions of creation immeasurably distant distinct bodies. Only a few, perhaps not exceedwef can perceive the agency of the same powers ing six or eight, of these stars were known to the
which are at work in conducting the movements astronomers of the age preceding that of Herof our planetary system; and notonly so, but we schel; but this illustrious astronomer, with uncan trace these powers, while operating with their wearied perseverance, detected no less than 500
native energy, wonderfully modified, and produ- double stars, and presented to the Royal Society a
cing effects altogether different from those which list in which their situation and relative positions
we experience in the system of which we form a are distinctly marked. These observations of the
part, evidently indicating that a variety, analogous elder Herschel were followed up by other obserto that which we behold in the scene around us, vers, particularly by Sir J. Herschel and Sir
marks the operations of the Creator throughout James South, who, in the year 1824, soon after
the immensity of his works.  This will more Sir W. Herschel had ceased from his labors, pro.
clearly appear in the descriptions we shall now  duced a catalogue of 380 double stars, whose
give of the phenomena of double and multiple distances and angles of position they had deter.
stars.'                                       mined with the utmost accuracy and precision.-.
The phenomena of double stars do not seem to Sir J. South, afterward produced a distinct catahave been much attended to until Sir W. Herschel logue of 480, and Sir J. Herschel a list of upward
commenced his extensive observations on the of 3300 of double and triple stars, from his own
sidereal' heavens. Aboutj a century ago, the astro- solitary observations, accompanied with all the minomers- of that period seem to have been aware crometrical measurements. Strave, the celebrated
that "several stars which appear single to the astronomer of Dorpat, has arranged a catalogue
bare eye are by the telescope discovered to be of no'less than 3000 double stars; and before he
double."  The principal stars of this description determined the characteristics of each of these, he
which they mention are,-the head of Castor, the examined about 120,000 stars-a laborious profirst in the head of the Ram, the star Gamma in cess, which none but an astronomical observer
the breast of Virgo. and the middle one in the can duly appreciate. Mr. Dunlop has formed a
sword of: Orion. Conceiving the fixed stars as catalogue of 250 double stars in the southern
bodies:precisely of the same nature, and: that no hemisphere; and Sir J. Herschel, during his late
specific;or diversified  arrangements prevailed residence at the Cape of Good Hope, has added
among them, they do not appear to have entered considerably to their number; so that we may
upon any minute: surveys, by the telescope, of now reckon about 6000 of these interesting objects
particular stars; and their idea respecting the as having already been discovered, even making
double stars'they had detected was merely this,-  allowance that many of these objects are comthat a small star, at a very remote distance from  mon to the lists of the observers now specified.
another, might happen accidentally to lie nearly   It is not at all improbable that the phenomena
in the same line, of vision as the larger one; and, of some of the double stars now alluded to may
on this ground,. Dr. Long, in his "Astronomy,"
show s how the annual parallax would be discov-              -    Fig. 13.
ered'by a star appearing single at one time of the
year, and double at another. It appears to have    d
been chiefly with an object of this kind in view
that Sir William:Herschel commenced his numerous observations in this department of sidereal
investigation.  BUt, as we are informed'by his
son, who has distinguished himself- in an eminent
manner by similar observations, he had hardly
entered,on the measurements of the angles of arise'from  accidental proximity, the one star,
position, and the distances of double stars, before though far remote and unconnected with the other,
(46 )




HERSCHEL'S OBSERVATIONS ON DOUBLE STAR CASTOR.                                47
-lying nearly in the same visual line. Thus, the double stars, some of his observations of Castor,
star a, fig. 13, might appear nearly in contact with or a Geminorum.  It appears tliat Dr. Bradley in
the star b, placed at an immense distance beyond the year 1759 had observed the positioni of the two
it, when viewed nearly in the- same straight line stars which form  this double star, and communiby the eye at c, so- as to produce the phehomena cated it to Dr. Maskelyne, who made a memoranof a double star at d 6b. But, reasonhig a priori, dum of it, of which the following is a copy:it appears in the highest degree improbable that "Double star Castor. No change of position of
such coincidences should happen in the case of the two stars; the line joining them  at all times
all, or even of the greater part of the double stars of the year, parallel to the line joiningsCastor and
which have now been discovered; and there- Pollux in the heavens, seen by the naked eye."fore Mr. Mitchell, so early as the year 1783, in a The object of Dr. Bradley in observing the exact
paper inserted in the "Philosophical Transactions" position of these stars was, to determine if any
for that year, states it as his opinion that they are change happened in their position at opposite pebinary systems intimately connected. "The very riods of the year, so as to indicate an annual pngreat'number of stars," says he, "that have been rallax. The angles of position observed by Sir
discovered to be double, treble, &c., particularly W. Herschel are as follow:
by Mr. Herschel, if we apply the doctrine of         Times of                      Angles of
chances, as I have;done in smy'Inquiry into the   the observations.              Position.
probable Parallax of the Fixed Sitars,' published    November 1, 1759...... 560 32'
in the Philosophical Transactions'for1767, cannot  ovember 5, I779.35  29
leave a doubt with any one properly acquainted    February 23, 1791................23  36
with the force of those arguments, that by far the   December 15, 1795.18  32
greatest part, if not all of them, are systems of   March 26, 1800.14   3
stars so near each other as probably to be liable to   December 31, 1801..............12  12
be affected:sensibly by their mutual gravitation;   February 28, 1802.12   1
and it is therefore not unlikely that the periods of    March 27, 1803...................10  53
the revolutions of some of these about their-principals may some time or other be discovered."     From  these observations it appears that from.T he prediction here announced by this inge- the year 1759, when Dr. Bradley observed the po-'nious gentleman' has nowr been fully realized by sitions of the two stars, to the year 1803, there
Sir William Herschel and, other astronomers, and has been a portion of an orbit described by the
is no longer a subject of conjecture, but an as- smaller star around the greater equal to forty-five
eelrtained jact. This is the discovery;to which I degrees and thirty-nine minutes; and from  the
have alluded above, one of the most important and time that Herschel commenced his observations
interesting discoveries which astronomy has un- in 1779 until 1803,an arch of twenty-four degrees
foldred during the present age, and which opens to and thirty-six minutes had been passed over.our view a new prospect of the plans and arrange- Hence Sir W. Herschel concludes-"The time of
-_ments of-Infinite Wisdom.                     a periodical revolution may now  be calculated
Having made these preliminary remarks, I shall from the arch 450 39', which has been described
now proceed to a more particular detail of the in 43 years and 142 days. The regularity of the
-facts which have been ascertained respecting bina- motion gives us great reason to conclude that the
ry systems.                                    orbit in which the small stars moves about Castor,
When Sir W. Herschel first directed his atten- or rather the orbits in which they both move
lion to this subject, in order if possible to deter- round their common center of gravity, are nearly
mine the annual parallax, he was not a little sur- circular and at right angles- to the line in which
prised that, instead of finding, as he expected, a we see them. If this should be nearly true, it
regular annual change of the two stars, by one follows that the time of a whole apparent revolution
alternately shifting its position with respect to the ofthe small star round Castor will be about 342
other, which a parallax would have produced, he years and two months."  This subject may be
observed in many instances "a regular progressive illustrated to the general reader by the following::hange, in some cases bearing chiefly on their dis- diagramn:
tance, in others on their position, and advancing                  Fig. 14.
steadily in one direction, so as clearly to indicate
either a' real motion of the stars themselves, or a
general rectilinear motion of the sun and whole
solar system, producing a parallax of a higher
order than would arise from the earth's orbital
mnotion."  In an elaborate paper on this subject,
read before the Royal society, June 9, 1803, he'-considers specifically all the motions and combina-'tions of motion that can possibly be supposed,
in order to account for' the phenomena, particularly of the double star Castor, and satisfactorily
demonstrates that nothing but the idea of the
smaller star revolving around the larger in a circular or.elliptical orbit will solve the phenomena
in question; and this conclusion'has been amply
confirmed by all succeeding observations. Such
stars, therefore, rust be' considered as physically connected by the law of' mutual gravitation,
so that they describe orbit~ around each other and
around their comimon center of' gravity, and bear   Let the small central circle C represent the
a relation to each other similar to that which the larger star Castor, and D the smaHllr star, and let
planets bear to our sunl:.'               the line E F represent the dirfection of the two
Frtom tile paperof Sir W. Herschel nowreferred stars in a line with the star Pollux, at E, as obto, I shall select, as a specimen of the motions of served by Dr. Bradley in 1759.  ln November.




48;,iDEREAL HEAVENS.
1779, they were found in th., position C H, twen- of a wedge-formed star. On the 11th of April,
ty-one degrees from the position they occupied 1803, he examined the apparent disc with a power
twenty years before;- in February,' 1791, they of 2140, and found it, as before, a little distorted,
were thirty-three degrees from the same position, but there could not be more than about three&c.; and- in March, 1803, forty-six and a half de- fourths of the apparent diameter of the small star
grees; giving evident indication of a regular pro- wanting to a complete occultation. "Most proglressivemotion in a circle. Since 1803 its mo- bably," he observes, "the path of the motion is
tion has been regularly traced by Struve, Sir J. not quite central; if so, the disc will remain a
Herschel, and Sir J. South; and in 1816 it was little distorted during the whole time of the' confould about:570 from its first position, and in junction."  This phenomenon evidently demon1830:about 68,, still regularly progressing. In strates the fact of circular orbital motion, per1819, the distance of the small star:from Castor formed in a plane nearly parallel to our line of
was five seconds and a half, and in 1830 it was vision.
littlemore than four seconds and a half. Although    The star mGamma Virginis has presented phenoSir W. Herschel, as above stated, conjectured the mena nearly similar to that of Zeta Herculis
period of revolution to be about 342 years, yet This star is remarkable both for the length of its
later astronomers, from a comparison of all the period, the rapid increase of the angular motion
observations recently made, are disposed to con- of the two stars of which it is composed, and
elude that its. period is little more than 250 years. particularly the great diminution of their apparent
More than- fifty instances of changes inll the distance. It has been known as a double star for
angles of position of double stars were observed at least 120 years. The two stars of which it is
by Sir'W. Herschbel, beside those which have been composed, and which are nearly equal, were so
more recently observed by his.son and other far apart about the middle of the last century
astronomers, most of which indicate motions that they were marked in Mayer's catalogue as
which are regularly progressive; but a considera- two distinct stars, so that any moderately good
ble number of years must elapse before their pe- telescope would have shown their separation, beriods can be determined with any degree of accu- ing at that period, about seven seconds distant
racy. The following double stars are considered from each other. Since that time they have been
as demonstrative instances of'circular progressive constantly approaching, and in 1833 were scarcely
motion:-, Virginis, ~ Urse Majoris, 70 Ophiu- more than a single second asunder; so that a
chi, - and h Corona, ~ Bootis, i Cassiopeim, 7 common telescope was insufficient to show their
Leonis, ) Herculis,. Cygni, /A Bootis, t 4 and a 5 separation, andl even telescopes of very superior
Lyre, it Ophiuchi, /u Draconis, e Bootis, and ~ power could show them no otherwise than as a
Aquarii.  The periodic times of some of these single star somewhat elongated.  According to
have been determined to a near approximation. Sir J. Herschel's computations, the small star must
One of the stars of -Gamnma Virginis is reckoned have arrived at its perihelion on the 18th of Aoto revolve about the other in the space of 629 gust, 1834.' He also determined the inclination of
years; the small star of Gamma Leonis, in 1200 -the orbit to the visual ray to be 220 58', a'nd the
years; the star connected with Epsilon Bootis, in angle of position of the perihelion projected on the
1600 years; that of 61 Cygni, in 452 years; that heavens, 360 24'. The small star of Eta Coronm
of Sigma Coronce, in 287 years; that of 70 Ophi- reached its perihelion in 1835; and it is calculated
Uchi, as ascertained by Professor Encke, in. 80 that the revolving star of Castor will reach the
years; that of- Xi Ursm, in 58 years; that of Zeta same point during the year 1855.
Canciri, in 55 years;. and that of Eta Coronae, in   From the observations that have been made on
43 years.                                      binary stars, it now appears demonstrable that the
A whole revolution of some of these stars has law  of gravitation extends its influence to the
been —nearly completed since observations began to starry regions; that the same laws of motion
be made, on! such objects. The motion of the which direct the planets in their courses, and consmall star of Xi Urse began to be traced about nect them with the sun as their center, likewise
the year 1781; in 1819, it had moved 219~ from  operate in these binary systems in carrying one
its position in 1781; in 1830, it was 303 from that star around the center of gravity of another. It
position, progressing in a circle; and about this has often been surmised that gravitation is a power
time, or the- beginning of 1840, it has probably which is universal in its influence; and here we
finished its orbital revolution. The star Eta Co- have a proof that it extends not only beyond the
ronre, whose period is forty-three years, has not range of the planetary system  and the orbits of
only accomplished a complete revolution, but is the most eccentric comets, not only to stars
actually considerably advanced in its second pe- reckoned the nearest to our globe, but to those of
riod.' Sir J. Herschel, during his late sojourn at the third, fourth, and even tenth magnitudes,
the Cape of Good Hope, is said to have discovered which may be supposed many hundreds of bilin the southern skies, binary stars, whose periods lions of miles farther distant; thus rendering it
of revolution- are even shorter than those now  highly probable that it is a fundamental law of
stated, their-chan.ge-of position having been quite matter, and extends its energies throughout the
perceptible during the three or four years of his amplitudes of creation, combining in one vast
residence in'that quarter.  Sir W-. Herschel, in system all the operations of the Eternal.
the paper to which I have already referred, states   The orbits in which the one star moves around
observations which furnish us with apphenomenon  the other are found to be elliptical, which is the
which is new in astronomy-namely, the occulta- same kind of curve in which the earth' and the
tion of one-star by anoth7er. With a power of 460, other planets move round the sun, in which the
in~ Jul3y, 1782, the stars of'Zeta Herculis were satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus perform
then half the diameter of the small star asunder; their revolutions round their respective primaries
in:- 1s95, he found it difficult to perceive the small -another proof that the same general law opestar with the same power; in 1802, the small star rates in. both cases. Some of these orbital mocould no longer,:be! perceived, but the apparent tions are retrograde and others are direct, or in thb
disc of the large star seemed to be a little length- same direction as the motions of the planets of
ened one way. With his ten feet telescope, and a our system. In some cases it happens that the
power of 600, he found it to have the appearance edge of the orbit of the revolving star is presented




ORBITS OF DOUBLE STARS.                                        49
to the earth, or in a line nearly parallel to that of two degrees of north declination, and passes the
our vision, as is found in the star gr Serpentarii; meridian, in the beginning cf December, about
in which case the star appears to move in a straight half past ten in the evenline, and to- oscillate on each side of the larger ilug, about ten degreessouth  Fig.
star around which'-it revolves, in a manner similar from the zenith. It is about  15.
to that of the satellites of Jupiter, which appear twelve degrees nearly due
to pass from the one side to the other of the planet west from the variable star
in iee rly straight lines, because the plane of their Algol.
orbits is nearly in a line with our eye. At the   Fig. 18 is Zeta Cygni:  16
time when Sir W. Herschel first observed this the smaller star is blue,
binary system, the two stars were distinctly sepa- and theyare separated about
rate, but at present the small star is so completely  ten diameters.  This star
projected on the other that even Strave, with his is situated in the eastern
powerful telescope, cannot now perceive the least wing of the Swan —right  17
separation between the two bodies-a fact which ascension,- 21h. 4', north. deevidently demonstrates that to our eve the one is clination, twenty-eight depassing across the disc of the other, and that a grees, and is about twenty degrees south-east of
number of years hence it will appear on the other Denib, the principal star of this constellation.
side of the larger star. On the other hand, the    Fig. 19 represents Zeta Fig.
two stars of Zeta Orionis are now separated by a Aquarii. The two stars are  18
small interval, although they appeared as one star nearly equal in  apparent
in the time of Sir W. Herschel; all which phe- magnitude, and one diamenomena demonstrate a motion in a circular or ter and a half separate from
elliptical orbit, the plane of which lies oblique to each other; both stars are
*our eye; and it has been calculated, from the ap- of a whitish color. It.is in
parent motions of these bodies, that the ellipses the middle of three other  19
in which they move are inmgeneral more elongated stars, which together form
than the orbits of the solar planets. On the whole, a figure resembling the letter Y.  Its right ascento use the words of Sir John Herschel, "we have sion is 22h. 20', and its south declination about
the same evidence of their rotations about each two degrees.  It is a star of about the third magother thatwe have of those of Uranus and Saturn  nitude, and comes to the meridian at nine o'clock
about the sun; and the correspondence between in the evening about the middle of October.
their calculated and observed places in such very    Fig 20 represents the Pole-star.  The accomelongated ellipses must be admitted to carry with panying star is a very faint point, and requires an
It proof of the prevalence of the Newtonian law  accurate telescope with considerable power to disof gravity in their systems, of the very same na- tinguish it. The large star is white, and the small
lure and cogency as that of the calculated and star somewhat of a ruddy appearance, and is dispbserved places of comets round the central body taut from the larger seventeen seconds, or about
f our own."                                      three or four of its diameters.
Having stated the above general facts respecting    Fig. 21 is the double star Fig.
binary stars, I shall now present to the reader a Castor.  The smaller star  20
kew telescopic views of these objects.           is nearly half the size of
Fig 15 represents a telescopic view of Epsilon  the larger, and they are.Bootis, with a magnifying power of about 200 distant about five seconds,
times. This is reckoned a very beautiful double or two diameters of the   21          -
star on account of the different colors of the stars principal star. They are
of which it is composed, and has an appearance both of a whitish color.
somewhat similar to a planet and its satellite, both Their situation  may be
shining with innate but differently colored light. found on Plate I. Castor  22
The small star is of a bluish color, and is separa- and Pollux lie to the northted from the other by a space equal to the diame- west of Orion, at a considerable distance from it.
ter of the larger star, and its apparent size is one- They are very conspicuous, are within five dethird of the other.  It is sometimes called Mirac, grees of each other, and rise to a very high eleand it is situated. about ten degrees north-east of vation when passing the meridian, and may be
Arcturus. The large star has a reddish tinge.    seen throughout the whole winter and spring
Fig 16 is M Herculis: the small star is of a blu- months. Castor is the more elevated of the two.
Ish color, separate from the other two diameters   Fig. 22 represents Rigel, a splendid star in the
of the large dtar; the blue star is one-third the left foot of Orion.  The small star is a mere point,
size of the other. It is situated in the head of and very difficuit to be distinguished, and is three
Hercules, about thirty degrees south-west from  or four diameters of the large star from  it. The
the bright star a Lyre, and six degrees north- large star is white, the small one of Et reddish
west from Ras Alhague, a star of nearly the same hue.
magnitude.  It comes to the meridian about the    Fig. 23 shows the
middle of July, at nine o'clock in the evening, at double star Castor, Fig.-       _
an elevation of about fifty-two degrees.  This with a magnifying  23
star is also distinguished by the name Ras Algethi, power of 300. It
and may be seen marked in Plate II, which con- likewise shows the
tains a map of stars which are seen near the me- angular position of
ridian about the beginning of September.         the small star at
Fig. 17 is a view of 3 Andromedme: the small the present time in
star is of a fine greenish-blue color, separatefrom  respect to Pollux,
the large star about nine seconds, or four diame- (fig. 24), by which
ters of that star; the larger star is of a reddish it appears that it is
white. It is situated in the left foot of Andro- nearly at a right  _4
meda, and is distinguished by the name Almaack. angle to a line join- 24
It is a star of the second magnitude, about.forty- ing Castor and Pol



50-' ~:SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
lux, whereas in the time of Dr. Bradley it was adjacent to a larger star, and to be informed that
parallel with a line joining these two stars.     this-lucid point rtvolves around its larger atten~Fig.  9:. " Fig. 25, 26,- 27, dant; but this phe lomenon, minute aid. trivial as
and  28,  exhibit it may at first sight appear, proclaims the astonviews of the double  ishing fact, that SUNS REVOLVE AROUND SUNS, AND
starEpsilon  Bootis, SYSTEMS AROUND SYSTEMS.. This is a comparaE26             I;l/,With fourmagnify.- tively new, idea, derived from  our late sidereal: ing powers.- Fig. investigations, and forms one of the most sublime
i.27:* ~ ~!/!~            ~ 25iqs its appearance  conceptions which the modern discoveries of aswith a power of  tronomy have  imparted.  It undoubtedly con227;'fig. 26, with a veys a very sublime idea, to contemplate such a
i24          ~' power of 460; fig. globe as the planet Jupiter-a body thirteen
27, with a power of  hundred times larger than the'earth-revolving
900; and  fig. 28, around the sun, at the rate of twenty-nine thouwith apowe of 1100.           r                  sand miles every hour; and the planet Saturn,
Fi:  Fig. 29, 30, and  with its' rings  and moons revolving in a similar
Fig,           E              g | 31, represent tele- manner round -this central orb in an orbit of five
- 29.,                       scopic views of the  thousand, six hundred and ninety millions of miles
triple star in the  in circumference. But how much more august
left'fore-foot of the  and overpowering the conception of a sun revolvo constellation  Mo- ing around another sun-of a sun encircled with-a
30:  noceros,ortheUni- retinue of huge planetary bodies, all in rapid
-  corn, which forms  motion, revolving round a distant sun, over a
a very  beautiful circumference a hundred times larger than what
object in this class has been now stated, and with a velocity perhaps
3; 71i                       of stars. This star a hundred times greater than that of either Jupiappeared  at first lter or Saturn, and carrying all its planets, sateldouble, but with  lites, comets, or other globes along with it in its
some attention, one of the two is discovered to be swift career!  Such a sun, too, may as far exceed
also double; the first of them is the largest. The  these planets in size as our sun transcends in
color of these stars is white. With a small power magnitude either this earth or the planet Venus,
they appear as in fig. 29; with a power of 220, as the bulk of any one of which scarcely amounts
in fig.30; and with a power of 450, as in fig. 31. to the thirteen-hundred-thousandth part of the
There is a beautiful object of this description, but solar orb which enlightens our day.  The farther
somewhat different in_ the configurationi of the  we advance in our explorations of the distant
three stars of which it is composed, to be seen in  regions of space, and the more minute and spethe tail of the great Bear; it is the star Zeta cific our investigations are, the more august and
Urswe, called also Mizar, and is the middle star in  astonishing are the scenes which open to oui
the tail.                                        view, and the, more elevated do our conceptions
Such are:a few specimens of the telescopic  become of the grandeur of that Almighty Being. appearances of this class of celestial objects. who "marshaled all the starry hosts," and of the
Some of these objects, in order to be' distinctly  multiplicity and variety of arrangements he has
seen,:require'telescopes of considerable magnify- introduced into his vast creation. And this con.
iang power. All the objects, however, referred to  sideration ought to serve as an argument to every
above'smay be - seen with a good three feet and a rational being, -both in a scientific and a religious
half'achromatic telescope, whose object-glass is point of view, to stimulate him to a study of the
two.:inches' and three'quarters'aperture.   The  operations of the Most High, who is "wonderful
double  star Castor may be seen with powers of in counsel and excellent in working," and whose
80,:140, and 180. I have frequently distinguished  works in every part of his dominions adumbrate
the separation' of the two stars with a terrestrial the glory of his perfections, and proclaim  the
power' of only 45; but the higher powers of depths of his wisdom  and the greatness of his
course are much preferable. In order to perceive power.
the very small star or point of light adjacent to   In order to form  a comprehensive conception
the pol6-star, a power of 140 at least is requisite  and a proper estimate of such binary systems, we
with such a telescope; but it is more distinctly  have to consider, in the first place, the distances
seen with a power of 190 or 200. It is consid- of the stars or suns from  each other. These disered as a fair test of the goodness of a telescope  tances, in the meantime, cannot be accurately
of this description' when this minute object is ascertained until something more definite be deperceptible with such powers.  The small star termined respecting the parallaxes of these bodies.
connected with Epsilon Bootis is likewise an  Some have supposed that the distance' between
object which requires a considerable degree of some of these binary stars may be as'great as the
magnifying power and distinetness to-perceive the  distance between the earth and any of these stars.
separation of the two stars; and it is more diffi- But such a supposition is highly improbable, if
cult to. perceive the small star adjacent to Rigel we admit, what- is now  completely ascertained,
than any of.these objects.                      that these bodies are intimately connected by the
law  of gravitation.  Their distance, however,
must be very great, notwithstanding their appa" -'X:. -.-;-.:. -  - -           rent nearness to each other, as a few seconds of
In. the:-phenomena I have now described, we interval, at the distance of the nearest star, must
have a newand initeresting scene presented before  comprise an immense space. I shall suppose this
us, which leads the mind into a train of thought distance in the case of some of these bodies to be
very different.-firom  what could have been con- only the one-hundredth part of what is reckoned
ceived by astronomers of a, former age.'To some the distance (namely, twenty billions) of the
-minds, not accustomed to deep reflection, it may  nearest star. On this supposition, the distance of
appear a vecy trivial.fact to' behhold a small: and  the revolving star from  its primary would be
scarcely diStinguishablIe point of light:immediately  200,000,000,000, or.two hundred'thousand rmil



PLANETS CONNECTED WITH BINARY SYSTEMS.                                       51
lions of miles.  The circumference of its orbit not to be traced throughout any part of the sys..
woul4 therefore be 1,256,640,000,000 of miles. temrn to which we belong.  For while the planets
The small star of, Urse completes its revolution which perform their revolutions around tlhe revolin fifty-eight years, and consequently, -if at the ving sun, are affected by the power of attraction
distance now  supposed from  its primary, must from that body with which tliey are more immedimove at the rate of two millions four hundred ately connected, they must likewise be-attracted by
and seventy-one thousand miles every hour, which) the larger central sun, and their motions sometirnes
is eighty-five times the velocity of the planet Ju- retarded, sometimes'accelerated, sand  variously
piter, and more than twenty-three times the veto- modified, by its powerful influence, whichl corncity of Mercury in its orbit, which is the swiftest bilued influences must produce a diversity of phemoving planet in our system. This motion would nomena and effects unknown in the system of oulr
be still more swift in the case-'of some of the, sun. For the sake of some readers, not'accusother stars to which we have alluded. The small tomed to such views and contemplations, I have
star of 6 Eridani, as determined by Mr. Dunlop, given a rude sketch of a binary system in fig. 32,
revolves around the larger at.the rate of somewliat in which the central circles represent tile larger
more than ten and a half degrees per annurm, and sun with its attendant planets, and the other circonsequently accomplishes a revoluion in little cles the revolving sun and its planets, in four
more than thirty years. Its motion, then,.at the. different positions.
distance supposed, would be. equal to four millions    Again, in contemplating these binary systems,
seven. hundred' thousand miles an hour, which is we perceive a great diversity in the periods of their
162 times the velocity of Jupiter, and about forty- revolutions. The period of revolution-of the small
four times that of Mercury.  Even, the small star star of X Bootis is' calculated to be not tees than
of 9 Leonis, which takes 1200 years to accomplish 1600 years. An inhabitant of that'system would
its, revolution, would, on the same supposition, be':considered by us an old residenter were he to
move at the rate of 119,000 miles an hour, which survive the period of a year, or a single revoluIs a greater velocity than that of the swiftest tion. But in such systems it is not likely that the
planets' of our'system. These are immense ve- lapse of duration is marked by so short periods as
locities, especially when we consider the enormous in our own sublunary abode, nor is it probable that
size of the bodies thus impelled;. for the least of disease and death cut short the existence of its
these suns may be considered as ten millions of inhabitants, as in the world in which we dwell.
times larger than the planet -Mercury, yet moving Another of these suns takes 1200 years to coinwith a *'elocity so much superior.               plete a revolution; another, 629  years; and
Wht,'then, would be the velocities of such another, 452; while several others finish their
bodies were we to suppose them-as: far' distant circuits in the comparatively short periods of 55,
from each other as we are front the nearest star! 43, and even 30 years. Whether these diversities
in' the case-of Xi UrsYe, the velocity would be in the periods of revolution be owing to the diftwo hundred and forty-seven millions, one hun- ferent magnitudes of the respective bodies, their
tired and sixty thousand miles every hour, and four distances from each other, the amplitudes of the*
millions, one hundred and fifty thousand every  orbits in, which they move, or the comparativetninute; and in the case of 6 Eridani, the velocity  velocities with which they are carried forward im
would be 477,800,000 miles an hour, and 132,735 their career, we have as yet been unable to (leter —
in a second, which is more than sixteen thousand mine; and a long-continued series of the mnost,
times the velocity of Jupiter. That bodies may delicate and minute investigation is still requisite.
wmove with such velocity is perhaps not impossible, before such points can be ascertained with anyout it is highly improbable that such rapid mo- degree of precision. But such striking diffr'erncesi
lions actually exist among bodies of such aston- in their periodic revolutions evidently indicateishing magnitudes; and therefore we'must- sup- that.the characteristic-of variety is impressed upon,
pose that the binary stars are within a moderate all the arrangements connected with those distant!
distance of each other.  Still, that distance must systems; which lead us to conclude that there is;
be very considerable,-and it is not unlikely may  no system  of suns or worlds in the universe ex —
be as great as I have supposed, and if so, it pre- actly resembling another, although they may besents to our view motions more rapid and sublime all subject to the operation of the same general,
than any which are known to exist within' the and fundamental laws. From such circumstancesJ
limits of our planetary system.                  we are likewise led to infer that among bodies, inl
In the next place, we must consider the system  the more distant regions of creation there may be.
of planets connected with the binary stars. These motions and arrangements altogether' diffrent
stars are-evidently suns or self-luminous bodies,' from  anything we  yet know, which produceotherwise their light would never reach our dis- scenes of beauty, sublimity, and grandeurl farr
taut sphere' But we can never admit that suns surpassing what the mind of man can: yet: con —
were Created merely to diffuse a useless splendor' ceive.
over the waste spaces of infinity, where there are   In regard to the number of such binary systemsi.
no selitient beings with visual organs to be cheer- no precise estimate has yet been made. Wde havei.
ed with their radiance.  In. this case they might however, every reason to believe that their nuin —
-be said to be created in vain. Hence we must ber is very great. I have alreadystated that about;
necessarily conclude that these suns are attended  6000 double stars have been detected by M. Strtive..
with a retinue of planetary bodies, which revolve the two Herschels, Mr. Dunlop, and Sir JAmes
around' them as the centers of light and attractive' South. On the doctrine of chances, it is in. the
influence, and we'can scarcely conceive a more highest degree improbable that the greater part,
sublime and astonishing object than that: of mag- or even any considerable number of these bodies.
nificent suns revronvingaround still more magnifi- appear double by their accidental proximity,,. or:
cent and luminous centers, and conveying along being so placed one behind another as to be nearly
with themn in their swift career -a numerous train  in the same line of vision. We may thlerefbroof mightv  worlds, all in regular and rapid motion conclude that at least 4000 of these'stars-, arearound their respective orbs. In such sublime binary systems connected by the law of mutuali
sidereal arrangements we behold' a.combination  gravitation.  Between forty and fifty of these
of: motions and effects, of gravitation which are bodies have boon ascertained beyond doubt to,-formr
VOL. II.-23




52                                 SIDEREAL HEAVENS
revolving systems, and time must be allowed for of a red color, almostas deep as that of blood,
further investigations.  It is but lately that the occur in many parts of theheavens, but no green
attention -of astronomers has been directed to such or blue-star (of any decided hue) has,we believe,
observations; and on account of the very minute ever beea noticed unassociatedwith a companion
distances of-the revolving~ stars from each other, brighter thanitself,"
and the slight variation of the- ange iof position    Thefact of colored suns, of suns belonging to
which caln be'traced for a series of years, an age the same system, diffusing light of opposite or
or twe is requisite in order. tol determine with contrastedcolors presents a novel and interesting
recision the degree or progress of their revolt-  idea,and a splendid scene, in which a lively imationary movements. Some of their orbits, too, gination mayluxuriate while depicting the divermay be so extensive, or their motions so Compa- sity of aspects under which ojects will appear in
ratively slow, that several thousands of years may thoseworldswhich are alternatelyilluminated by
elapse before the periods of some of these bodies such a variety of irradiation. It is somewhat difbe completed; and if so, we have -no reason.to ficult, however, to form a distinct conception of
conclude: that they are not binary systems, al- theparticularbeauties,sublimities and contrasts,
thoughl half a century should elapse without any which will be produced by such admirable archange being.perceived in their angular positions.- rangements.  We are unacquainted with the
In the course of fifty or sixty years hence, we nature and qualities of the substances which are
have reason to believe many important discoveries thus illuminated, and therefore cannot determine
wilit be made in reference:to the bodies in ques- the peculiar hues or splendor which will result
tion, and what is at -present doubtful or obscure from the reflection of such irradiations; but we
w~il!:be r~ i~endered~r defitnite:and preoise,-h In.'the
will be rendered- definite -and precise.- In the may easily conceive- there will be a considerable
meantime, we may safely talre for granted that difference in the variety and splendorof such illuseveral athousands:of those revolving suns and minations, and in the contrast of colors which
systems lie within the range of our telescopes, will be exhibited when the revolving planets are
whose revolutions will.; ere long be determined. in different parts of their orbits.  When in such
But as out most powerful instruments can carry positions as A, B, 0, D (fig. 22), they will be
us only a very small way, comparatively, beyond more directly under the influence of both suns
the outward boundaries of those mighty heavens than when at E and F, and of course the effect
which -surround us, ten thousands of such systems may exist in those remoter regions, which                      Fig. 32.
will forever remain inexplorable by mortals.
There is another interesting view which may
be taken of these binary systems, and that is —the
contrast of colors which some of the stars composing
these systems exhibit. I have already alluded to some
of these stars being of different colors,- and any
observer who is possessed of a good telescope may
easily satisfy himself on this point. " Many of
the double stars," says Sir J. Herschel, "exhibit
the beautiful and curious- phenomena of contrasted or complementary, colors. In such in-                   C
stances, the larger star -is usually of a ruddy or  
orange hue, while the smaller one appears blue, or
green; probably in virtue of that general law of
optics which provides that when the retina is
under the influence of excitement by any brightcolored light, feebler lights, when seen alone
would; pioduce no sensation but of whiteness,
shall for the time appear colored with the tint
complementary to that of the brighter. Thus a
yellow color predominating in the light of the
brighter star, that of the' less bright one in the of the contrasted colored rays will' be most resame field of view will appear blue; while, if the markable.  One hemisphere of a planet may be
tint of-the brighter star verge to crimson, that of illuminated with a yellow sun, while the other is
the other will exibit a tendency to green, or even at the same time enlightened by a green, and both
appear as a vivid green under favorable circurn- suns may occasionally shine in the same hemistances. The former contrast is beauntifuilly exhi- sphere, producing such a blending of hues, and a
bited by Iota -Cancri, the latter by Gammaa Andro- contrast of coloring over the whole landscape, as
media, both fine double stars.  If, however, the to render the aspect of the seene completely difcolored star be much the less bright of the two, it ferent at one time from what it is at another.  In
will not materially: affect the other. Thus, for different parts of the planets' courses around their
instance,- Eta Cassiopeive exhibits the beautiful primary suns these effects will be variously modicombination of a large white star and a small one fled, so as to produce an- almost perpetual variety
of a rich ruddy purple. - It. is by no means, how- in the scenery of such worlds.  A sun of a brilever, intended to say that in all such cases one of liant white color may perhaps be seen rising, while
the colors -is a mere effect of contrast; and it may a sun of a ruby hue is descending below the horibe easier suggested -in words than conceived in zon, and when  both,suns are absent, the starry
imagination, what variety of- illumination two firmament will appear in all its splendor, and
suns, a red and a'green, or a yellow and.a blue every object around present a contrast to its preone, must afford a planet circulating about either; vious appearance.
and what charming contrasts and'grateful vics-   The science of optics, and particularly the exsitudes' -a  red and.a.green- day, for instance, periments which have been: made on polarized
alternating with- a white one and with darkness- light, show us what a variety of combinations of
might arise from the presence or absence of onef or, vivid and -beaut:iful colors may be produced by
other, or both,othove the horizon.: Insulated: stars certain modifications of light, which may easily




DISTANCES OF DOUBLE STARS.                                       53'lead us to'conceive of the sublime' and diversified  tance equal, or nearly equal, to the whole diam*brilliancy of coloring which must be the result eter of its orbit farther than when at the point
of the irradiation of suns of different hues.  The which is nearest the earth. As the light which
light of the stars in general is greatlvdiversified, proceeds from  the star takes a certain time in
although on a cursory view of the firmament'they  moving across the interval which separates us
appear nearly' of the same.aspect.  The rays of  from that body before it reach our eye, we must.'ir'ius, for example, are not only strikingly differ- necessarily see the star in a point of its orbit'difent from those of Aldebaran, but from  those of ferent from  that in which it is actually placed.
many other stars which seem  to bear a nearer Let S (fig. 33) represent the central star, E  the
resemblance. In tropical climates, where the sky  earth, and H  F K  G the orbit of the revolving
is clearer than with us, and almost of a dark ebony  star. When the star is at H  it is nearest the
color, the'different' hues of:the stars are more  earth; and'when at K it is farther distant by the
striking and perceptible to the naked eye than  whole diameter of its orbit. Now, when the star
when seen through our - comparatively hazy at- proceeds from H, the nearest point of its orbit, its
mosphere. In this respect then, as well as in  light will take a longer period to reach the earth
several others, the declaration:of. the inspired  in proportion as' it moves on in its course from
writer is literally true, that " one star differeth  H to G and from G to K, and consequently will
fromanother starin glory."  Milton, in the eighth  appear to take a longer time than in reality it does
book of his " Paradise Lost," utters a sentiment in moving along' that portion of its'orbit; but in
on. this subject which seems to be almost pro-. returning through the other half of'its orbit,K'phetic, when he represents Raphael in his address F H, it will appear to pass through -it in a less
to Adam'as saying —                             space of.time than it actually does, since the light
w hich proceeds from it takes less and less: time to
With their attendant moons thou wilt descry,  reach our eye as it approaches in its course
Communiccating male' and female light,       toward F and H. -If, therefore, we could accuWhich two great sexes aniatethsoe that l ive  rately determine the difference of time between
these two half revolutions of the star, we should
In these phenomena we have another proof of have data sufficient for determining, to a near
the infinite variety which the Creator' has intro- approximation, the dimensions of the orbit in
duced into the systems of the universe-a variety  miles, or other'known measures;  and having
in regard to color as well as to magnitude, motion  found these dimensions, the distance of the star
asnd other!arrangements,-which leads us to con- from  the earth could likewise be found by an
elude that'although: we were permitted' to make  easy trigonometrical calculation.
the tour of universal nature, we should meet with    This method of findno wqrlds,; or' systems of worlds, in which'- the  ing the dimensions of        Fig. 33.
scenery and- arrangements are exactly the same, binary systems is en-               K
b[ut that each would display its own peculiar har- titled to the praise of
monies, beauties, and sublimities, and the enrap- ingenuity; but it will
tured spectator, at every stage of his excursion, be difficult, in many
would behold a new manifestation of " the mani- instances, to put it in
fold wisdom of God."                              practice. Its accuraIt'would be an important and interesting acqui-  cy will depend upon F                -       G
sition:in astronomy could we determine exactly, our knowing the poi- 
or even -to a near approximation, the distances of tion of the orbit with
any' of these binary systems, and the actual di- regard to our eye, and
mensions of the orbits of the revolving stars.  It our ascertaining exactappears from' what has been formerly stated (pp. ly when the star is in             H
31, 32,) that the parallax, and consequently the  H or at K, or the two
distance, of 61 Cygni has been determined by  opposite points of its
Professor Bessel.  Now this is a double star, or orbit. Beside, a very
binary system, ana one of the stars is found to  long time must interhave an annular angular motion of about two- vene before observathirds of a degree; from which it is inferred that tions of this kind canl
the period of its revolution may be about 540  be  completed, sinoe
years, and that the semi-major axis of its orbit is most of the  periods
seen under an angle of more than 15". Were  that have been determined in regard to double
these and other correlative points accurately set- stars extend to several hundreds of years, and the
tied, we might soon determine to a near approxi- shortest period yet known of any of these revolvmation the extent of its orbit, the space through  ing bodies is above thirty years. It is generally
which it moves in thecourse of a revolution, and  taken for granted, by those who have adverted to
consequently its rate of velocity; but as the mo- this subject, that the distance between the revolvtion of revolution of this star is so extremely  ing and the central star is as great, or nearly as
slow,, a considerable period of years may elapse great, as that which intervenes between us and
until all, the elements of its orbit be accurately  the nearest star; and hence, in their illustration of
ascertained.                                     tliis point, they have supposed light to take at
4A few years ago, a method was pointed out by. least one year in crossing the orbit of a revolving
M. Savory, a French, Astronomer, by Which the  star, which of course would make the diameter of
dimensions of the-orbit of a revolving star might such an orbit above six billions of miles. But
be determine&d   This method depends upon the there appears no reason for forming such extravafact that light'moves with a certain known rate gant suppositions, as in such a case the binary
of velocity.  Suppose, that one of the double stars stars could scarcely be supposed to have an inmoves round another. in an orbit which is nearly  timate connection. We might almost as soon
parallel to out.line of.vision, it is evident that the suppose that the star Sirius might revolve around
one half'of its orbit'will be'nearer to us than the, our sun, or the sun around Sirius.  It is not'other, and'that at. the  most distanti'point of.its likely that the double stars in general are much
course the star will be removed from  us to a dis- farther from  each other than  the -distance I




54                                SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
formerly supposed; namely, 200,000,000,000, and if the stars be not farther'distant.than I have supconsequently the diameter of their orbits about posed, and it is perhaps as probable that they are
400,000,000,000, of miles.  Through this space considerably within that distance. It is not irnlight would pass in the course of 24 days and: 2%  probable, however, that the dimensions of the
hours; and therefore it would require very accu- orbits of some of those stars whose periods are
rate determinations indeed of the points HMand K, shortest may in this- way be: determined; but a
or. the' nearest. and. remotest points of the orbits, considerable period must elapse before the requisite
before any precise conclusions could be deduced, operations can be made.
CHAPTER IX.
ON TREBLE, QUADRUPLE, AND MULTIPLE STARS.
B.Es!DE the combinations of double stars des- their attention more particularly to such objects,
cribed in the preceding chapter, treble, quadruple, to watch with care the slightest movements in the
and multiple stars have been discovered, many of sidereal heavens, and take. their measurements of
which appear to be ultimately connected, and to distances and angular- positions with the utmost
be formed into regular systems, whose- motions precision; and then we may expect that succeedand phenomena must of course be more diversi- ing generations will have unfolded to their view
fled and complicated than those of binary systems. a more sublime and comprehensive prospect of
Without entering into particular discussions on the-arrangements of the universe.
this subject, I shall present to the reader only two   In certain cases it has already been ascertained
or three general remarks, with a short list of that treble stars form one connected system. The
some of the treble and multiple stars to which I star marked e Cancri is a treble star of this deallude..                                    scription. Two of the stars are considerably unThe more profound and minute our investiga- equal; the largest of these is larger than the single
lions are into the scenery of the heavens, the star, and the least of the two is less than the single
more do we discover of the endlessly diversified star. The first and second largest, as described by
modes by which the system of Upiversal nature Sir W. Herschel, are pretty unequal, and the seis arranged and conducted, and the more clearly cond and third pretty unequal. The nearest are
do we perceive a display of the infinite wisdom  pale red. They require very favorable circumand intelligence of its Almighty Author. Who stances to be distinctly seen; they are just separacould have previously conceived of one sun and ted by a power of 227, and with 460 their distance
system revolving round another, had not recent is 14 the diameter of the smaller one. This is
observations demonstrated the astonishing fact? considered a case in which three suns revolve
As one discovery naturally leads to another, so around a common center. Observation has not
-the facts which have already been ascertained yet afforded a sufficient data for determining the
may lead to discoveries in future generationsstill particular motions or arrangements of such conmmore wonderful and sublime than those which plex systems; but we may conceive them as arhave hitherto been brought to light. The discov  ranged in a manner somewhat similar to what we
ery of binary systems leads to the conclusion have delineated in fig. 34, where the point C may
that almost all the close groups, or clustering represent the common center of gravity around
stars, visible to the naked eye or descried by tel- which the three bodies revolve. The circles A B,
escopes, are multiple systems,orsuns and planet- D E, F G, represent the orbits of the revolving
lry worlds linked together by a universal law or bodies, which may be conceived as lying in different planes oblique to each other, to prevent any
Fig. 34.                    occasional collision or too near an approach.
Fig. 35,
A                            b
C'           C
principle, acting in different-modes, and producing
an immense variety of physical phenomena and   A quadruple system may be represented by 6g.
effects. Guided by principles and facts recently 35, where C is the center of gravity round  Whinl
brought to light, astronomers have only to direct the four bodies revolve, and the circles a a a a,




ORBITS OF TREBLE STARS.                                   55
b b b 4, &c., the respective orbits in which they and placing a wire perpendicular to it in its center.
move. The star f Lyrie is probably a system of The ring will represent the plane of the orbit ill
this kind. It is a star of the fifth magnitude, which the two equal stars move, and the perpensituated about two degrees north-east from  the dicular wire the line or course of the third star
bright star Vega, or o Lyrae. The stars of which moving backward and forward with different deit is composed are easily distinguishable by a tele- grees of accelerated and retarded motion.  The
scope of moderate power, and it is easily found motions connected with quintuple and multiple
from its vicinity to the very bright star adjacent stars must be still more complex than those to
to it. The small stars of which it is composed which we have adverted; but it is difficult in the
are situated nearly as represented in fig. 36. We meantime to form any distinct ideas on the submight conceive of such a system of bodies re- ject, until actual observation in the course of
volving in a still more complex manner,-the star succeeding ages shall pave the way for deducing
V revolving round S, the star U revolving round definite conclusions.  The discoveries already
T, the system of V and S revolving round a point made open to view new scenes of celestial mecha, and the system  of U and T round the same anism, and new views of the diversified and adpoint or center in a separate but more expansive mirable contrivances of Divine Wisdom, so that,
orbit. But it is difficult to form  diagrams of in reference to such objects, we may apply to the
such complex sys-                              almighty architect the language of the sacred
tems.                                          writer-"How unsearchable are thine operations
There are many            Fig. 36.           and thy ways past finding out!"  When we condifferent combin       a                       sider that around each of these moving suns a
tions by which we              a               retinue of planets must be supposed to wheelstheir
may conceive tre-                              courses, at different distances and in different peble, quadruple, and                            riods of time, we cannot but feel astonished at the
multiple stars to                              complexity of motions, perturbations, and other
revolve round their                         T  effects which must necessarily follow; yet we are
common center of                               bound to believe that everything moves onward,
gravity, which it                              not only without confusion, but in the most per —
would be too te-                               feet order and harmony, for He who at first ardious to describe,             V               ranged the plan of the material world, and imparticularly as                                pressed upon matter the laws which now operate,
such motions have                              is possessed of boundless intelligence, and foresees
not yet been accurately ascertained.  Sir W. at one glance all the effects which those laws can
Herschel describes one of these possible combina- possibly produce; and, so far as our observation
tions which is not a little singular. Suppose two extends, every object and movement in nature
equal stars, a and b (fig. 37), moving in a circular appears *to be adjusted with the most perfect
orbit round  their                             regularity.
common center of            Fig. 37.             The solution of the "problem of three bodies"
gravity, which will                            was considered as a work of so great nicety and
be the center of the                           difficulty that none but such profound mathemacircle.  From  the             {               ticians as Clairaut, D'Alembert, and Euler, could
center of the circle,                          undertake such a delicate and laborious investigadraw  a line per-                             tion. This problem was, "to determine the curves
pendicular to the                              described by three bodies projected from  three
plane of their or-                             points given in position, and with velocities given
bit, extending to                             in quantity and direction-the force with which
equal distances a-                            they gravitate being directly as their quantities of
bove  and  below   /  matter, and inversely as the squares of their disthis center.  Let _  tance."  If the resolution of such a problem reus now suppose aa' —-            b quired so great acuteness of intellect, and so
third star, c, to fall                        eminent skill in the science of analysis, what
from one extremi-                             perspicacity of intellect, and what profound knowty of this perpen-                            ledge of everything  connected with physical
dicular, from   a                             and mathematical investigations must be requistate of rest; it              -site to determine the courses described and tho
will obviously descend with a gradually accelera- perturbations produced by the complex motions
ted motion until it reaches the center of gravity; of five, six, or seven suns all connected toand passing onward with a motion gradually re- gether, yet moving in different curves and in diftarded, it will move to the other end of the perpendi- ferent directions, along with hundreds of planets,
cular, where it will arrive at a state of rest, and each connected with its own sun and pursuing its
again return and continue to oscillate between these own distinct course, yet acted upon in succession
two points The two stars which move in acircu- with different degrees of force by the attractive
lar orbit may describe equal ellipses of any degree influence of other suns!  All our boasted powers
of eccentricity. In this case, however, the per- of analysis are completely incompetent for such
turbations will affect not only the planes of their determinations.  The faculties of an archangel,
orbits, but also their figures; and the length of the or of intelligences of a higher order than that of
oscillations of the third will be sometimes increa- man, are alone adequate to such investigations;
sed and diminished.                            and this circumstance affords a presumptive eviA sun oscillating in a line perpendicular to the denuce that such superior intelligences actually
orbit of other two suns, and continuing its motion exist in the universe, and that man, in the present
for ages in that line, is certainly a very strange improvement of his powers, may be in the act of
idea; and yet, from the variety we perceive in training for the employments and the society of
The arrangements of the universe, it is not at all such intellectual beings in a future scene of
improbable that such combinations may exist existence.
among treble stars. The idea here intended to be   The following brief list of treble and multiple
conveyed may be illustrated by suspending a ring, stars, selected chiefly from  Sir W. Herschel's




55~6, _ SIDEREALHEAVENS.
catalogue, is given for the sake of those who may  two nearest of this curious treble star are -pretty
be disposed to inspect them with their telescopes.* unequal. The larger is white, and the smaller,r, or 42 Aries, in the ham, sixth magnitude.- white inclining to a rose color6. With a power of
The three stars, which -areall:in a lihe, are excesI  227 their distance is / the diameter of the smaller
sively unequal the largest iswhite,- and the two one. The first and third are considerably unesmallest are mere points.   With a power  of 460,  qual; the second and third pretty.unequal;. the
the two nearest are 1 diameterof the larges tstar.  color of the third being pale red, and its distance
The third is about 25" frod  the largest,         from the first 9".
a, or 4 or 5 Libra.  This is aremarkable double-   ~, or 51 Libra; of the fourth or.fifth magnitude
double star —or a double star, each star itself be- This star appears at first double, but the larger of
ing a double star. The first set consists of stars the two will be found to consist of two stars.
that are:  considerably unequal. The largest is They are nearly unequal, and both white. With
very white,) and the smallest reddish.:_Their dis- a power of 460 their distance is 14 the diameter
tance withi,227 is one'diameter of the, larger one; of the larger.
the second set are white and equal, the preceding    34o south of 58 Aurige, in a line parallel to 3
being rither the largest; their distance, 1/ di- and 8, south-east of the bright star Capella.  This
ameter of either,  The star appears of the fourth  is a cluster of stars containing a double star of
magnitude.                                       the second class and one of the third.  The two,or 48'Orion, a star of the fourth magnitude, of the second are very unequal, and both red.
a little, below the lowest'of the three stars in the belt. Their distance with 460 is 22 diameters of the
This is a double treble,' star, or two sets of treble larger. Those of the third class are equal, and
stars4 almost similarly situated.  The two nearest' both red. Distance, 17". Above 20 stars are in
of the preceding set are equal; the third larger, view with a power of 227.
and.pretty unequal when compared with  the    A  large star 1~  preceding' toward 41 of the
latter two. With a power of'222, the' distance Swan.  The two nearest are extremely unequal.
of the tw`o nearest is two diameters of either. The largest is white, and the smallest pale red.
The lwo nearest of the following set are very  Their distance with 460 is 21 diameters of the
unequal.  The largest of the two and the farthest largest.  The third and the largest are extremely
are considerably unequal, the largest being white  unequal, and belong to the fifth or sixth class.
and the smallest bluish.  With a power of 222,   South  preceding 27 Swan, the middle of three, the
their distance is about 2'21  diameters of the most southern of which is the 27. This star is
largest.  The distance of the two farthest is 43". quadruple and sextuple.  In the quadruple of
Right ascension, 5h. 30'; south declination, 20 43'. north preceding set, the two nearest are very une8, or 41 Orion, the small telescopic trapezium in  qual.  Their' distance with 678 is 11".  Tile two
the nebula.  Right ascension, 5h. 26'; south dec., largest are almost equal, and both red. Distance,,
50 312'. The stars composing this quadruple star 291/~". In the sextuple or south following set,
are considerably unequal.  The most southern  the two largest are pretty unequal, and both red.
star of the following side of the trapezium is the Their distance is 19".-The other stars are as
largest; and the star in the opposite corner is the small as the smallest of the quadruple set.
smallest, the other two being nearly equal.  The      0  north precng  H  Gemn (of thefifth
ji r               0~~/~  north preceding H  Gemini (of the  fifth
largest is pale red; the star preceding the largest magnitude), in a line parallel to the 65 Orion (in
inclined to garnet; and the star opposite the the club, and of the fifth magnitude), and? Taulargest, dusky. Distance of the two stars in the rus, the middle of the three. The stars in this,
preceding side, 8% seconds; in the southern side, quintuple star are in the form  of a cross.  The
123 seconds; in the following side, 15 seconds; two nearest, or the preceding of the five, are
ald in the northern side, 20 seconds. The first star extremely unequal. Distance 20?2". There is a
(in right ascension) is of the seventh magnitude, very obscure star of the third class near the last
the second of the eighth magnitude, the third of of the three, in the obscure star of the cross
the fifth magnitude, and the fourth of the sixth  Other five stars are dispersed about the quinorseventh magnitude. M.,Struve found the angles tuple one.
of position, in 1819, to be as follows —            Between A and? Dolphin, but nearer to 6.  All
the three stars are whitish red, and nearly equal
3dand 4th:                    1 st and 3d:    Distance of the two nearest with a power of 278,
2Q9 45' north following.      450 9' north preceding.   211:
Near 27 Cepheus, near J'. The distance of the
Ist and 2d:     O2d and 4th:        2d and 3d:   to nearest of this treblestar is about 20".
58" 8' north fol.    31" 0' north pre  740 0 north pre. two nearest of this treblestar is about0".
3, or 10 Lyra (of the third magnitude, and,
44 Orion preceding the two i's, or below  1, 2, about 70 south-east of the bright starVega).  The
0 —of the third or fourth magnitude.  The pre- stars of' this quadruple star are all white, tileceding set of this double-triple star consists of second; third, and fourth, inclining to red.  The
three equal stars, forming a triangle, and are all first and second are considerably unequal; the
dusky.   The distance of the two nearest with  first and third very unequal; andthe first and fourth
a power of 227 is about 3 diam.  The following  unequal.  Distance of the first and second, 44".'
set consists of three stars of different sizes, form-, or 78 Gemini (Pollux). The stars of this
ing a circle.  The middle star is the largest; the multiple star are extremely unequal.' The nearest
one to the south is pretty large; and the third is distance is 1' 57"; the next distance is 3 17."
very small.  The two'largest are white, and the    In the Unicorn's head. This multiple star con-,
smallest pale red.'Distance 364".'These stars sists of one star with about twelve around it.
are east by north fiom the bright star Rigel, at 160 west of Procyon.
the distance of about 50., or16 Cancer. This very minute treble star.
12 Lynx, below the eye; about 18~ or 19o north-  requires very favorable circumstances to be diseast of:Capella ad16'north of C Auritg.  The tinctly seen. The two stars of-which the preAr. the folowng                  ".   ceding one consists are considerably unequal.
*As the following and s~mil'ar lists are' inserted foi~ the
of re ference a~nd iimilar lists arehrerted for the The largest of these is larger than the single star,
purpose  of refereneto, amateur pbserve.s, thile general' and the least of the two i ler   than the single
eander, if he think proper, may pr/ss over such' lists and and the    e two is less than the sige
desidptirns.                                      star.  The first and second largest and pretty




FORM OF'THE MILKY WrAY.                                         57
unequal, and thoe second and third pretty unequal.    Most of the above stars may:be found by conThe two nearest are pale red. They are just suiting large planispheres of the heavens, or a
separated with a power of 278, and with 460 their common celestial globe.  To facilitate the finding
distance is 14 the diameter of the smaller -oe. out of their positions, I have inserted in the above
Zeta Cancri is situated about 12 or 13 degrees list some special directions, which may perhaps
south-east of Pollux,:nearly in a line parallel to  be of use to the astronomical tyro who is furthat which joins Castor and Pollux, and nearly  nished with a moderately good telescope.  It is
the same distance. north.by east from  Procyou. to be regretted that, even on some of our latest
It appears as a star of the fifth or sixth magni- 18-inch celestial globes, several of the stars above
tuJe, and is sometimes distingdished by the name  referred to are not distinctly marked, either with
of Tegmine.  As a double star it is easily distin- their number or with the Greek letters by whllicl
guished by a power of 140, with a 32~ feet achro- they are generally distinguislhed, and sonme of
rrmatic telescope, whose aperture is 234 inches, them are altogether omitted; such, for instance,
and might perhaps be seen with a power of 100. as the celebrated star 61 C7ygni, which is a double
Blut it requires a much higher power to distinguish  star, and whose proper motion is greater than that
It its a treble star.                             of any other star yet discovered in the heavens.
-CHAPTER X.
ON THE MILKY WAY.
As we advance in our survey of the distant Way, which contains- objects calculated to excite
regions of the universe, the astonishing grandeur our highest admiration.
and extent of the sidereal heavens gradually opens    When we talke a general view of the heavens
to our view. We have hitherto considered only  about the months of August, September, and Oca few objects on the outskirts of the heavens, in  tober, and during the winter months, we cannot
respect to their distance, magnitude, and the  fail observing a large, irregular, whitish zone
wonderful complication of systematic  motions  stretching across the sky, with a few interrupwhich prevails among them.  Had we no other tions, from one end of the firmament to another.
objects to'engage our attention, ages might be This mighty zone, thus stretching itself around
spent in contemplating and admniring the economy  us, is sometimes termed the galaxy, sometimes
and magnificence of those starry groups which  the Via Lractee, but more frequently, in plain
appear to the unaided eye on the nearer boundary  English, the Milky Way, from its resemblance to
of our firmament.  But all that isvisible to man's the whiteness of milk.  This luminous band is
unassisted vision is as nothing when compared  visible to every observer, and is the only real and
with the immensity of august and splendid objects sensible circle in the heavens.  When traced
which stretch themselves in boundless perspective  throughout its different directions, it is found to
toward  infinity.   The  discoveries of modern  encircle the whole sphere of the heavens, though
astronomly have enlarged the sphere of our con- in some parts of its course it is broader and more
ceptions far beyond what could formerly have  brilliant than in others.  It forms nearly a great
been surmised, and opened to view a universe  circle of the sphere, but it coincides neither with
boundless as its Creator, where humnani imagina- our equator, ecliptic, nor conlres, nor with any
tion is lost and confounded, and in which man  other artificial circles which we conceive  as
appears like a mere microscopic animalculum, drawn around the firmament.  Inall ages, so far
and his whole habitation as a particle of vapor as we know, this wonderful zone has retained the
when compared to the ocean.  In contemplating  same position among the constellations as at the
the visible firmament with the unassisted. eye, we  present day; and is frequently alluded to both by
behold only the mere portals, as it were, which  the astronomers and the poets of antiquity. Thus
lead to the interior recesses of the vastTemple of Ovid, on account of its luster, represents it as
Creation. When we direct our views beyond  the high road to heaven, or the court of Jupiter:
these outer portals, by means of the most powerful telescopes, we obtain a view of some of its      Which when the skies are clear as seen below,
more miagnificent porches, and a faint glimpse of     And mortals by the name of.Milky know;
those splendid apartments which we shall never        The groundwork is of stars, through which the road
Lies open to the Thunderer's abode."
be able to explore, but which lead us to form the
most august conceptions of the extent and gran- And, Milton, in his "Paradise Lost" alludes to it
deur of what is concealed from  our view.  In  in these lines:
entering this Temple, " not made with hands,"          "A broad and ample road, whose dust is goll,
the splendor of its decorations, the amplitude of      And pavement stars, as stars to us appear;
its scale, and the awfulness of infinitude, forcibly   Seen in the galaxy, that Milky Way,:
strike the imagination.  There is sufficient to         Like to a circling zone.powdered wit stars. -l
awaken into exercise all the powers and feelings    This zone may be traced in the heavens as
of devotion, -and to excite us to fall down in  follows:-Beginning near the northern quarter
humility and adoration before Him  whose'word  of the heavens, at the head of Cepheus, or about
spoke into existence this astonishing fabric, and  300 from the north pole, we may trace it through
"whose kingdom ruleth over all."  These reflec- Cassiopeia, Perseus,' Auriga, part of Orion, anda
tions may not appear altogether\ inappropriate  the feet of Gemini. At this last point it crosses
when entering: upon a description of the Milky  the Zodiac, and proceeding southward across the




~68                               -SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
equinoctial into the southern hemisphere, it passes to this region of the heavens that its profu ndities
through the Unicorn and'-the middle of the ship were explored, and all its minute nebutous parts
Argo, where it is most luminous. It then passes shown to consist of countless myriads of stars, of
through Charles's Oak; the feet of the Centaur, every apparent magnitude, stretching onward to
the Cross, the Altar, the tail of:Scorpio, the bow  the regions of infinlity, until they appeared to be
of Sagittarius, and a part of: Ophiuchus.'   Here it lost to the view, even when assisted by the largest
separates into two branches'as.it passes again telescopes. On first presenting telescopes of conover the Zodia'c into the'northern hemisphere. siderable power to this splendid zone, we are lost
One branch runs through the'tai of Scorpio, the in amazement at the number, the variety, and the
bow  of Sagittarius, the shield of Sobieski, the beautiful configurations of the stars of which it
feet of Antinous, Aquila, Delphinus, theArrow, is composed. In certain parts of it every slight
and the Swan.: The other branch passes through motion of the telescope presents new groups and
the upper part of the tail of Scorpio, the side of snew configurations, and the new and wondrous
Serpentarius, Tauru-s, Poniat-wski, -the'Goose, scene is continued over a space of many degrees
and the neck of the Swan,'where it again unites in succession.  In several fields of view, occupywith the ~other branch, and tpasses on to the head ing a space not much more than twice the breadth
of Cepheus, the place of its'-beginning. After of the moon, you perceive more-of these, twinksending off the two. branches above-mentioned, ling luminaries thasn all the stars visible to the
they unite again after remaining separate for the naked  eye throughout the whole  canopy of
space of more than 100 degrees. There is another heaven. You seem to penetrate, as it were, to
small separation of the Milky Stream  between'the remoter boundaries of creation, and feel beCassiopeia and Perseus. "The two streams appear wildered and lost amidst the immensity of the
to leave a blank abdut the head of Perseus; and a universe.  I have never been inspired with highler
considerable space on each side- of it, to the extent' ideas of grandeur and sublimity, nor felt deeper
iof about thirty degrees in length, and three' in emotions of humility and reverence, than when
breadth, and are again joined into one stream in occasionally contemplating this stupendous scene
the sword of Perseus, adjacent to Cassiopeia.*    through telescopes of considerable brilliancy and
From the above description it will appear that power. There is not another scene in creation,
the form, breadth, and general appearance of this open to the view of mortals, calculated to fill the
zone are various in different parts'of its circuit soul with more august conceptions, or to inspire
round the heavens. In some places it appears it with more profound admiration and awe. In
dense and luminous, in others faint and scattered; such surveys we -behold "new  heavens" and
in certain points it appears broad, and in others other firmaments rising to view, whose distances
narrow.  Its breadth in some places, as between baffle the utmost stretch of imagination.
Auriga and Perseus, is only about four or five
degrees; in other places, as in the southern parts    Fr O  nhat a confluence of ethereal fire
From suns unnumbered down the steep of heaven
of Scorpio, Ara,:and the Cross, its breadth is from  Streams to a point and centers on my sight."
ten to fifteen or eighteen -degrees.  It assumes
the appearance of a double paths from  the tail of    The following contains a brief summary of
the Scorpion, through the bow' of Sagittarius, Sir W. Herschel's observations on this region of
Antinous,'Aquila, Taurus, Poniatowski, the Goose, the heavens, made' with a Newtonian reflecting
and palt of the Swan.'It is' more or less visible telescope of twenty feet focal length and an api)
at every season of the year; but in Britain and in erture of eighteen inches. He found that this
other northern latitudes it is most- conspicuous instrument completely resolved all the whitish
during'the months of August, September, and appearances into stars, which the telescopes. he
October, the latter part of July, and the beginning formerly used had not light enough to do. The
of November. About the middle of August, at portion he first observed was that about the hand
nline o'clock in the evening, it mnay be seen and club of Orion, and he found'in this space an
stretching sn an oblique direction over the hea- astonishing number of stars, whose number lie
vens, from  north-east to south-west, and its ap- endeavored to estimate by counting many.fields,
parent motion along the heavens may be traced that is, the apparent space in the heavens he could
along with that of the other constellations. At see at once through his telescope, and computing
other seasons of the year, and at other hours of from a mean of these how many may be contained
the hight, its position and form-will appear some- in a given portion of the -milky way. In the
what different. It appears most brilliant in the most vacant place to be met with in that neighsouthern hemisphere, particularly in the neigh- borhood he found 63 stars; other six fields conborhood of Argo, Ara, and the splendid constella- tained 110, 60, 70, 90, 70, and 74 stars, a mean of
tion of the Cross. Between the tropics, where all which gave 79 for the number of stars to)
the atmosphere is clear and serene, it appears each field; and then he found that, by allowing
most vivid and brilliant. Mr. Brydon informs us fifteen minutes for the diameter of his field of
that, from  the top of Etna, it appeared "like a view, a belt of-fifteen degrees long and two broad,
pure flame that shoot across the heavens."       which he had often seen pass through his telesThe ancients seem to haye conjectured that the cope in an hour's time, could not contain less
whiteness of this zone was owing to a confluence than- 50,000 stars, large enough to be distinctly
of stars; for Ovid, in the lines above quoted, says  numbered; beside which he suspected twice as
"Its groundwork is of stars."  Soon after the in-  many more, which could be seen only now and
vention of the telescope this conjecture was con- then, by faint glimpses, for want of sufficient
ir&al, and astronomers were astonished at the light. The reader may acquire some conceptions
number of stars which appeared in this bright of this immense number of' stars occupying so
zone of the heavens; and their number appeared small a space, if he consider that it is fifty times
to be increased: in proportion to the magnifying more than all the stars'whic.hli  the naked eye can
powers'of their telescopes. But it was not before discern at one time throughout'the whole heavens,
Sir W. Herschel applied his powerful instruments and  that the space they occupy- is only the
X_____________________ -                         1-1375th part of the visible canopy of the heavens;
~ See the direction of this zone in the map of the stars so that if every part of' the firmament were equally
on Mercator's projection.-                       rich in stars, there would be within the reach- o




NUMBERS OF STARS IN THE MILKY WAY.                                          59
such a telescope as Herschel's no less than 68,- were all the spaces of our firmament th' -ughly
750,000, or sixty-eight millions, seven hundred. explored; and future generations, with mnle powand fifty thousand stars.  And we are further to erful telescopes, may add indefinitely to the numconsider that it was only in' the comparatively  her.  Had we taken the most crowded field of
"'vacant:places " of this zone that the number of stars which Herschel perceived through his telestars above stated were perceived.                scope (namely, 588) as our standard for estimating
-In some of his observations of other- parts of their number, the alnount  of stars in the Milky
this zone, Sir W. EIerschel informs us that he Way would have been forty millions, and in the
descried a much greater number of these lumin- whole heavens, 388 millions.  In short, to use the
aries in a similar extent of space. "In the most words of Sir John Herschel-" This remarkable
crowded parts of the Milky Way," he says, " I belt, when examined through powerful telescopes,
havy had fields of view that contained no fewer is found (wonderful to relate!) to consist entirely
than 588 stars, and these were continued for many of stars scattered by millions, like glittering dust,
minutes, so that in one quarter of an hour's time on the black ground of the general heavens."
there passed no less than 116,000 stars through    In regard to the distances of some of these stars,
the, field of view of my telescope."  In order to we may easily conceive that they are immense,
appreciate this description, we are to suppose the and consequently far removed from  our distinct
telescope to have been fixed in one position at the comprehension.  Sir W. Herschel, in endeavoring
time of observation, and that by the diurnal mno- to determine a "sounding line," as he calls it, to
tion of the earth, or the apparent motion of the fathom  the depth of the stratum  of stars in the
heavens, the first field of stars was gradually car- Milky Way, endeavors to prove, by pretty concluried out of view, and other fields appeared  in sive. reasoning, that his twenty feet telescope
succession, until, in the space of fifteen. minutes penetrated to a distance in the profundity of space
of time one hundred and sixteen thousand stars not less than 497 times the distance of Sirius; so
passed over the field of vision.  Now, the field of - that a stratum of stars amounting to 497 in thickview taken in by the telescope' was only 15' of a ness, each of them  as far distant beyond another
degree, a space which is less than the one-fourth as the star Siiius is distant from  our sun, was
part of the apparent size of the moon'. In this within' the reach of his vision  when  looking
narrow field were seen about as many stars as are through that telescope   Now, the least distance
generally beheld throughout the whole sky by the at which we can -conceive Sirius to be from  the
naked eye in a clear winter's night; for although  earth or the sun is 20,000,000,000,000, or twenty
nearly a thousand stars might be seen by a very  billions of miles; and consequently the most disacute eye in aclear atmosphere, yet there are few  taut stars visible in his telescope must be four
persons that in our climate could distinctly recog- hundred and ninety-seven times this distance, that
nize above 600 or 700 stars even in a clear night. is, 9,940,000,000,000,000, or nearly tell thousand
At another time, this indefatigable astronomer billions of miles!  Of such immense distance, it
perceived no less than two hundred and fifty-eight is evident we can form. nothing approaching to a
thousand stars pass before his view ill the course distinct conception.  We call only approximate to
of forty-one minutes.  In the space between C a rude and imperfect idea by estimating the time
and? of the Swajn, the stars are found clustering  in which the swiftest bodies in nature would move
with a kind of division between them, so that they  over such vast spaces.  Light, which is endowed
may be considered as clustering toward two dif- with the swiftest degree of motion yet known',
ferent regions.  In this space, taking an average and which flies at the rate of nearly twelve millions
breadth of about five degrees of it, he found from  of miles every minute, would require one thousand
observation that; it contains more than 331,000  six hundred and forty years before it could trastars, which gives above one hundred and sixty- verse the mighty interval stated above; and a canfive thousand for each clustering collection.     -non ball, flying at the rate of 500 miles an hour,
Supposing the Milky Way to be, on an average, would occupy more than 2,267,855,068, or two
twelve degrees broad, the whole of it will contain  thousand, two hundred and sixty-seven millions,
an area of 4320 degrees    12 X 360.  Now, if eight hundred thousand years, in passing through
the space examined by Herschel between Beta the salne space!-a period of years before which
and Gamnma of the Swan be about fourteen de- all the duration that has passed since man was
grees in length and five degrees in breadth, it will placed on this globe appears only like a few fleetcontain an area of seventy degrees, which is ing hours, or "as an handbreadth or a span."*
somewhat less than the 1-61st part of the space
occupied by the Milky Way. Were we to sup-   *The celebrated Schroeter, of Lilienthal, was a frequent
pose every part of this zone equally rich in stars observer of the stars which crowd the Milky Way. Iie
as the space now referred to, it will contain no was in the habit of observing with one of the largest reflect.
less than  20,191,000  stars, or more than twenty  ing telescopes to be found in Europe. This telescope was
one of the finest ever constructed, and was the workmanship
thousand times tile number of those which are of Professor Schrader, of Kiel. The diameter of the specnvisible to the naked eye.  The whole visible hea- lum was about nineteen inches; it was about two inches in
vesms, considered as a spherical plarse, contains an thickness, and toward th-e edge cast conical, so that the diameter of the polished surface is almost a quarter of an
area of -41,53 degrees. Now, could we suppose inch less than at the back, which circumstance was considerevery portion of the firmament to be equally well ed ofthe greatest utility in the finishing andpolishing. It had
replenished with stars as the milky zone, there a focus of twenty-six feet, and, without the frame, weighed
would be more than 195,000,000* of stars in the eighty pounds. The large octangular tube was constructed
with boards, made impenetrable to rain; and thie instrument
heavens discernilble by such a telescope as Her- when ready for use was twenty-seven feet long. Asn im.
schel's; but as there arecomparatively few other re- mense quantity of apparatus and machinery was requisite
giolss' of the heavenss so densely crowded with for steadying and moving it. The figure of the speculurm
stars as the Milky Way, we must make a certain  was so perfect, that it could bear a power of 800 or l00H
times without diminishing the aperture. Its capability of
abatement fromn this estimate, though it is proba- resolving the inebulosity of the Milky Way seems to have
tle there are more than one hundred millions of equaled that of the telescopes of Herschel. He allowed
iwersa within tihe reach of our best, instruments twenty degrees of its length from a Cygni to pass through
the field, and the sight drew from him the natural exclamation, "What Omnipotence 1" The power on the telescope
* 4 31?5 3 X 5.8 923   X -331,000 5 195,0~7,757 ~ in such observations was 179, and the diameter of the field,
I 0 o      7 0                              fifteen minutes; and the number of stars it contained at




630                                 SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
Ilere, then, let us pause for a moment, and    Yet, amidst all the magnificence -of thlis vast
consider the august spectacle presented to view. system of universal nature, man is not forgotten
We behold a few whitish spaces in the firmament, by his Maker; his hand supports him, his;Nisdon
almost overlooked by a common observer when he guides, him, and his overflowing goodness procasts a rude glance upon- the evening sky; yet in vides, in a thousand different modes, for his h,!pthis apparently irregular belt, which appears only piness and enjoyment.  He shares of the Divixio.ike an accidental tinge on the face of the firma- beneficence and care in common with all tEie
ment, we discover, by optical instruments, what bright intelligences that people the amplitudes of
appears to be an amazing and boundless universe. creation, and is as amply provided for as if the AlWe behold not only ten thousands, but millions mighty had no other world under his superintendof splendid sans, where not a single- orb can be ence.  Within  the moral government of the
perceived by the unassisted eye.  The distance at Creator of the universe he may rest secure ai:d
which these luminous globes are placed from  our confident that he is not overlooked amidst the
abode is altogether overwhelming; even the most immensity of being, for his preseince pervades the
lively imagination drops its'wing when attempting  infinity of space, and his knowledge extends to
its flight into such unfathomable regions.  The the minutest movements of all his creatures.scenes of grandeur and magnificence connected Under his paternal care, not only man, but the
with such auigust objects are utterly overwhelm- crawling worm, the fluttering insect, the little ant,
ing to such frail and limited beings as main, and and even the microscopic animalculum, find a
perhaps even more exalted orders of intelligences home and provisions, as well as the highest order
may find it difficult to form even an approximate  of his creatures; for "he openeth his hand and
idea of objects so distant, so numerous, and so supplieth the wants of every living being."
sublime.                                            Notwithstanding the size of the Milky Way,
On our first excursions into the' celestial regions and the immense number of stars of which it is
we are almost frightened at the idea of the distance composed, it is now considered as nothing more
of such a body as Saturn, which a cannon ball than one of the nebulae, or starry systems, which
projected from  the earth, and flying with its ut- appear to be dispersed throughout the unliverse.
most velocity, would not reach ill 180 years.- It is supposed, and with some reason, that it is the
We are astonished at the size of such a planet as nebula or assemblage of stars, in which our snui
Jupiter, which could contain within its circumfer- is placed.  Its situation in this nebula is reckoned
ence more than a thousand globes as large as the to be, not in the center of its thickness, but rather
earth, We. are justly amazed at the stupendous toward one of the sides, near the point where it
magnitude of the sun, which is a thousand times diverges into two branches.  According to this
the size of Jupiter, and which illuminates with its hypothesis, the Milky Way is to be considered as
splendor a sphere of more than five thousand mil- the projection of the nebula upon the concave
lions of miles in circumference. But'what are surface of the sky, as seen from a point within it.
all such distances and dimensions, vast and ama- "We gather this," says Sir W. Herschel, "from
zing as they are, compared with the astonishing  the appearance of the galaxy, which seems to
grandeur of the scene before us?  They sink into encompass the whole heavens, as it certainly must
comparative insignificance, and are almost lost do if the sun is within the same; for suppose a
sight of amidst the myriads of splendid suns number of stars arranged between two parallel
which.occupy the profundities of the, Milky Way. planes indefinitely extended every way, but at a
What is one sun and one planetary system in the given considerable distance from  one another,
presence of ten millions- of suns perhaps far more and calling this a sidereal stratum, an eye placed
resplendent, and of a hundred times this number somewhere within it will see all the stars in the
of spacious worlds which doubtless revolve around  direction of the planes of the stratum  projected
them?  Yet this scene, stupendous as it is, is not into a great circle, which will appear lucid on acthe universe.  It is perhaps, as we shall see, only count of the accumulation of the stars, while the
a comparatively small corner of creation, which rest of the heavens at the sides will only seem  to
beings at an immensely greater distance will be- be scattered over with constellations, more or less
hold as an obscure and scarcely discernible speck crowded, according to the distance of the planes
on the outskirts of their firmament; so that or number of stars contained in the thickness or
amidst this vast assemblage of material existence sides of the stratum."
we may say, in the language of the inspired    Thus if the solar system  be supposed at S, in
prophet, when speaking of the Almighty, that the middle of the nebula a b c d e f, with two
even here is but " the hiding of his power."-  branches, a c, b c (fig. 38), the nebula will be
What then must the whole of creation be? and projected into a circle A B C D, the arches A B
what must be the ineffable splendor and majesty  C, A E  C, being the projection of the branches
of Him who laid the plan of the mighty fabric, a c, b c, while tIhe stars near the sides of the strawhose breath'kindled so many millions of suns, tumrn will be seen scattered over the remaining part
whose hands set in motion so many myriads of of the heavens among the spaces F, I, H, K, G.
rolling worlds, who supports them ill their ample If the eye were placed somewhere without the
and diversified courses, and whose moral govern- stratum, at no very great distance, the appearance
ment extends over all?  And what is man, and  of the stars within it would assume the form  of
the globe on which he dwells, amidst this scene of one of the lesser circles of the sphere, which
immensity and magnificence?-an atom  in the would be more or less contracted according to the
infinity of space-a particle of vapor compared to distance of the eye; and if this distance were
the ocean-a being who in respect to the magnifi- exceedingly increased, the whole stratum  might
cence of creation and the grandeur of his Creator, at last be drawn together into a lucid spot of any
is " as nothing, and ii counted to him as less than shape, according to the position, length and hight
nothing, and vanity."                             of the stratum.
In order to determine those points, Sir W. HIerschel put in practice a method which he calls
once could never be counted. They were never'estimated gauging the heavens which consists in repeatedly
at less than fifty or sixty, and often reached or exceededgauging theavens, which c sts in repeatedly
150. He calculated that the number of stars visible through colnting'the number of stars in the fields of view
this telescope could not be less than 12,000,000..   I  very near each other, lay which he obtained a




THE MILKY WAY.                                           61
mean of the number of stars in that part of the I that the stars are equally scattered, and from the
heavens. - He then proceeds on -the supposition  number of stars in any part of the heavens he
deduces the length of his visual ray, 
or the distance through which his tel-  g. 3.escope had  penetrated, or, in other
words, the distance of the remotest
stars ill that particular region of the
heavens.  To illustrate this, let-us suppose the Milky Way a nebula, andl
that-the sun is not placed in its center.
Then, on the Supposition that the stars
are nearly equally scattered, it is evi-,.
dent that the part of the Milky Way:
where the stars are the most numerous
extend farthest from, the sun,'and th~I
parts where they are less numerous
must extend to a less distance  Proceeding on these grounds, Sir W. Herschel found the length of his visual
ray for different parts of the heavens..
In some cases he found itequal to
497 times thei distance of Sirius, supposed to be the nearest star, as formerly
stated. The following is a representa-.
tion of a section of the nebula of the
Milky Way, according to his, delineation., This section is one which makes
an angle of thirty-five'degrees with
our equator, crossing it in 1'241   m and
30412. degrees.  A celestial globe adjusted to the latitude of fifty-five degrees north, and' having o- Cetinear the
meridian, will have the plane of this
section pointed out by the horizon. If
the solar system (fig. 39), be tat S, the
brightness of the Milky Way will be
greatest in the directions S a, S b, S, p,
where the stars that intervene are most.
numerous, or where the visual ray is
longest.' In the lateral directions S n,
S m, the nebulosity will not appear
from the small number of interposing
stars, and the stars, though numerous,
will appear moro scattered.  In  the
direction S c, on account of the opening between wonder if I ascribe a certain air, of youth and
a and b, there will be an empty space contained vigor to very many regularly scattered regions of
between these two branches where the nebulosity  our sidereal stratum.  There are, moreover, many
is not observed, as is the case in the Milky Zone places in itin which, if we may judge from some
betweenu Scorpio in the south and', Cygni in appearances, there is the greatest reason to believe
the north, a length of about 102 degrees. The that the stars are drawing toward secondary censtars in the border, which are marked larger than ters, and will in time separate into clusters so as
the rest, are those pointed out by the gauges; the to occasion many subdivisions.  Our system, after
intermediate parts are filled up by smaller stars numbers of ages, may very possibly become diarranged in straight lines between the gauged vided so as to give rise to a stratum  of two or
ones.  The circle around S  represents an ex- three hundred nebulie; for it would not be diffitent about forty times the distance of- the near- cult to point out so many beginning or gathering
est fixed stars, which may  be considered as clusters in it.  This throws considerable light
comprehending all those which are visible to the upon that remarkable collection of many hunnaked eye.                                      dreds of nebula~ which are to be seen in what 1
" From this figure," says Sir W. Herschel, "we have called the nebulous stratum  in Coma Beremay see that our nebula is a very extensive branch- nices. It appears from the branching and extening, compound congeries of many millions of stars, ded figure of our nebulae, that there is room for
which most probably owes its origin to many re- the decomposed small nebulae of a large reduced
markably large, as well as pretty closely scattered former great one to approach nearer to us in the
small stars;that may have drawn together the rest." sides than in any other parts.".... "Soe
Again —" If it were possible to distinguish between. parts of our system  seem indeed already to haver
the parts -of an -indefinitely extended'whole, the sustained greater ravages of time than others; for
nebula we inhabit might be said to be one that instance, in the body of the Scorpion is an openhas fewer.marks of antiquity:than any of the. rest. ing or hole, which is probably owing to this cause.
To explain this idea more clearly,.we should re- It is at least four degrees broad, but its hight I
collect that the;.condensation of clusters of stars have not yet ascertained.  It is remarkable that
has been- ascribed to' a gradual approach; and the 80th nebula of the Connoissance des Temps,
whoever- reflects on:the number'of ages that must which is one of the richest and most compressed
have passed before some of- the clusters that are to clusters of small stars I remember to have seen,
be found in my intended catalogne Could be so far is situated just on the west border of it, and would.onwuensed as we'find them  at present, will not almost authorize a suspicion that the stars of which




C62I                              SIDEREAL  HEAVENS.
It is composed werecollected from that place, and trious astronomer and an indefatigable observer
had left the vacancy.                            of celestial phenomena, without vouclling for the
accuracy or probability of such speculations and
-Fig. 3!9:                   hypotheses.  To determine the reality. of such
changes in bodies so numerous and so distant,
would require an indefinite lapse of ages; yea,:~'                              perhaps the revolutions of eternity are alone sufficient for determining tihe sublime movements and
changes which happen among the immense assemblages of material existence which constitute
the uniiverse, There is a high degree of probability t. at everything within the material system
is liable to change of one kind or other, and that
- tere is no sun nor world, among all the myriads
of globes which replenish the sidereal heavens,
but whiat is actually in inotion,-and moving, too,
with a velocity which the inhabitants of such a
world as ours can. scarcely appreciate; and such
motions, in the course of ages, may be productive
of a vast diversity of scenery in different regions
of the universe.  And if so, it presents to view
another instance of that variety which the Creator has introduced into his universal kingdom
to gratify the unbounded desires of intelligent
beings.
I shall conclude this chapter with the following
description of the Milky Way, which Sir John
Herschel has published since his residence in the
southern hemisphere:-" The general aspect of
the southern circumpolar region —including in
that expression sixty or seventy degrees of southpolar distance-is in a high degree rich and magnificent, owing to the superior brilliancy and larger
development of the Milky Way, which from
the constellation of Orion to that of Antinous is
a blaze, of light, strangely interrupted, however,
with almost starless patches, especially in Scorpio,
near ac Centauri, and the Cross; while to the north
it fades away pale and dim, and is in comparison
hardly traceable.  I think it is impossible to view
this splendid zone, with the astonishingly rich and
evenly distributed fringe of stars of the third and
fourth magnitudes-which form  a broad skirt to
its southern border, like a vast curtain-without
an impression, amounting almost to a conviction,
that the Milky Way is not a mere stratum, but an
annulus; or at least that our system  is placed
within one of the poorer or almost vacant parts
of its general mass, and that eccentrically, so as
The remarks in the above paragraph 1 present to be nearer to the parts about the Cross than to
to the reader merely as the opinions of an illus- that diametrically opposed to it"
CHAP T E R XI.
ON GROUPS AND CLUSTERS OF STARS.
ON a cursory view of the heavens, the stars ap- Plate I), and may be seen every clear evening
pear to be very irregularly scattered over the con- from the end of August until the middle of April.*
cave of the firmament. In some places a consid- It is generally reckoned that only six stars call be
erable interval appears between neighboring stars, distinctly counted in this group by common eyes,
while in others they appear so crowded that the but that originally they consisted of seven, which
eye can with difficulty perceive the spaces be- every one could easily perceive, and it has theretween them. Even to the unassisted eye, there fore been conjectured that one of them has long
are certain groups of this description which strike since disappeared. To this.circumstance Ovid.
the attention of every observer, and lead to the who lived in the time of our Saviour, alludes in
conclusion that the stars of which they are com- these lines:
posed have been brought together by some gene-  ",Now rise the Pleiades, those nymphs so fair,
ral law, and not by mere casual distribution.  Of    Once seven numbered, now but six there are."t
these, the group called the Pleiades, or Seven    In fabulous history it is said that the Pleiades
Stars, is the most obvious to common observers.   
This group is situated in the constellation Taurus,   * A telescopic view of the Pleiades is exhibited in, the
This group is situated in the constellatin Taur'(see App sendi    i sex tame  ss solnt."
about 140 to the west' of the star Aldebaran (see   t "Qua septem dici, sex tamen esse solent." -




ON GROUPS AND CLUSTERS OF STARS.                                     63
the star Merope, one of the Atlantides, appears'the girdle of Andromeda and the Northerln l'ish,
niore dim and obscure than the rest, or is alto- proceeding toward Cetus; while toward the southi
gether extinguished, because, as the poets fancy, it passes through the Virgin, probably onll to tha
silo married a mortal, while her sisters married tail of Hydra and Centaurus. 
some of the gods or their descendants.  Dr. Long,   Another group, somewhat similar, but less de.
however, declares that he himself had more than finite, is found in the constellation of Cancer; it
once seen seven stars in this group; and a:iearned  is called Prcsepe, or the Bee Hive, and is a nel)astronomical friend assured him that-he had seen ulous cluster of very minute-stars, not separately
e.ight stars among the Pleiades, where common distinguishable by the naked eye. A tele-scopo
eyes can discover but six; and Kepler says of his of very moderate power, however, easily resolves
-tutor Meestlinus, that "he could reckon fourteen it into small stars.  It is: sufficientlyt luminous to
stars in the Pleiades without any glasses."  This be seen as a nebulous speck by the unassisted eye,
difference in the number seen by different persons and is somewhat like the nucleus of a comet, for
in this group is - obviously owing to the different which it has frequently been mistaken by ordinary
degrees of acuteness of vision possessed by the observers.  It is situated in a triangular position
respective individuals. However small the num- with regard to Castor and Procyon, or the Little
ber perceived -by -the naked eye, the telescope Dog. A line drawn from  Procyoni in a northlshows them to -be a-pretty numerous assemblage. easterly direction meets with -Presepe sat the disDr. Hook, formerly professor of geometry in Gre- tance of twenty degrees.  This line drawn in a
sham College, informs us that, directing his twelve- north-westerly direction from Presepe, meets Casfeet telescope (which could magnify only about tor at the same distance.  Theselines form nearly
seventy times) to the Pleiades, he did in that small a right angle, the angular point being in Pruesepe.
compass count seventy-eight stars; and making It may otherwise be discovered by means of two
use of longer and'more perfect telescopes, he dis- stars of the fourth'magnitude lying one on either
covered a great many more of different magni- side of it attthe distance of about two degrees. It
tudes.                                           may likewise be found by conceivinga line drawn
The ingenious Mr. Mitchell, more than fifty through Castor and Pollux to the south-east, and
years ago, started the idea of the stars being form- continued about fifteen degrees, or three'-times the
ed into groups or systems which are entirely de- distance between Castor and Pollux. This clustached from one another, and have no immediate ter, Sir W. Herschel thinks, belongs to a certain
connection. - In reference to the Pleiades, he con- nebulous stratum so placed as to lie  nearest us.
ducted his reasoning as follows: —" The Pleiades This stratum runs from s Cancri toward the south,
are composed of six remarkable stars, which are over the 67th nebula of- the  Connoissance des
placed in the midst of a number of others that Temnps, which is a very beautiful and much comare all between the third and sixth magnitudes; pressed cluster of stars, easily to be seen by ally
and comparing this number six with the whole good telescope, and in which: lie:has observed
number visible in the heavens to the naked eye, above 200 stars at once in the field of view of his
he calculated, by the doctrine of chances, that great reflector, with'a power of 157. This clusamong all this number, if they had been dispersed  ter appearing so plainly with  any good comn
albitrarilythrough the celestial vault, itwas'about mon  telescope, and  being  so near to the one
five hundred millions to one that six of them  which may be seen with the naked eye, denotes
should be placed together in so small a space. It it to be probably the next in distance to that
is therefore so many chances to one that this dis- within the quartile formed hy   S JG X. FFrom the
tribution was the result of design, or that there is 67th nebula, the stratum  of Cancer proceeds toa reason or cause for such an assemblage."       ward the -head of: Hydra. -
The constellation called Coma Berenices is ano-   I have seldom  contemplated a more brilliant
ther group, more diffused than the Pleiades, which and beautifulview in the heavens than one of the
consists chiefly of small stars which can scarcely  fields of view of this cluster of stars. With a
be'distinguished in the presence of the moon. 3Y  feet achromatic, and a power of 95, I have
This beautiful cluster lies about five degrees east counted from  fifty to seventy stars. Fifteen or
of the equinoctial colure, and midway between twenty of the most brilliant of these presented
the star Cor Caroli on the north-east, and Dene- beautiful configurations: one of them was an equibola, in the Lion's tail, on the south-west. If a lateral triangle; another, an isosceles; - a third,
straight line be drawn from Benetnasch-the star nearly of the figure of a cone; a fourth, parallel
at the extremity of the tail of the Great Bear-  lines, &c.  In more- than two instances, three
through Cor Caroli, and produced to Denebola, it brilliant equidistant stars appeared in a straight
will pass through this cluster. It may also be line, similar to the belt of Orion, while a considdistinguished as situated about twenty-six de- erable number of the remaining stars appeared
grees west by north from the bright star Arcturus. extremely small. With a 62 feet achromatic,
The confused luster of this assemblage of small whose object-glass is four inches diameter, and a
stars bears a certain resemblance to that of the power of 110, this view was rendered still more
Milky Way, and, beside thle stars of which it is brilliant. Several fields of view, nearly of this
chiefly composed, it contains a number of nebu- description may be perceived in this cluster. Fig.
le.  Sir W. Herschel supposes that the stratum  40 represents one of these views, in which some
of nebulae in this quarter runs out a very consi- of the smaller stars are omitted.  This view was
derable way, and that it may even make the cir- taken with the 3// feet telescope, having an erect
cuit of the heavens,' though not in one of the eye-piece. The configurations appear somewhat
great circles of the sphere. He also supposes that different in their relations to each other when
the situation of the stratum is nearly at right an- viewed with an inverting eye-piece.
gles with the great sidereal stratum in Which the    Another cluster is found in the sword-handle of
sun is placed, that the Coma itself is one of the Perseus, which is crowded with stars of a smaller
clusters in it, and that it is on account of its near- size than in the clusters already noticed, and
ness that it appears to be so scattered. - He appre- which requires a telescope of greater power to rehends that the direction of it toward the north solve them and show them  separated from  each
lies probably, with some windings, through the other. Perseus is one of the northern circumpoGreat Bear onward to Cassiopeia, thence through  lar constellations, nearly opposite to the three stars




6 G4:.: SIDEREAL HEAVENS
in the tail of the-Great Bear.  A line drawnfrom  people and to amateurs iniastronomy; and:it canthese stars through the pole-star meets the sword not but strike the mind with wonder and admira-,
and head of Perseus at nearly an equal distance tion to behold, in one point of view, within a
on the kpposite side. It is directly north of the -space little more than that.of the one-fifth of tile
Pleiades, between Andromeda  and Auriga.  The apparent size of the moon, nearly a hundred ie-.  splendent suns emitting their effulgence from  re-: Fig. 40.  gions immeasurably distant, and arranged in beautiful symmetry and order — a scene of creating
power surpassing in grandeur ten thousand worlds
such as ours, and in which our whole plahetary
system would appear only v as the smallest twinkling
star.  Such telescopic. views of the nocturnal
heavens have a tendency to expand the capacity
of the soul, to inspire it with magnificent concep.
tions, and- to raise its affections above the low
~   ambition and paltry concerns of this transitory
scene to the distant and more magnificent scenes
of. the Divine empire.  To. the devout and contemplative philosopher the. following lines of the
poet may be applied:.
", Not to this evanescent speck of earth
-A A         -l                e.'    Poorly confined —the radiant tracks on high
- Are his exalted range; intent to gaze
Creation through, and froln that full complex
Of never-ending wonders to conceive
Of the sole Being right, who spoke the word,
And Nature moved complete."
sword is in the neighborhood of Cassiopeia.  A                                THoAasoN's NSro tmer.
line drawn from Alyenib, the brightest star in this
constellation, to the middle of Cassiopeia, passes.Sir W. Herschel makes a distinction between
through the sword-handle where the. cluster is groups and clusters of stars. A group is a collecsituated, whichi is about midway between these tion of stars closely and almost equally comprestwo objects.                                     sed, and of any figure or outline. There is no
If the lowermost-of the three small stars which particular condensation of the stars to indicate
form the sword of Orion be viewed with a good the existence of a central force, and the groups
telescope, a beautiful configuration of stars will are sufficiently separated from  neighboring stars
be perceived.' Fig. 41 represents the principal to show that they form  peculiar systems of their
own. According to this definition, the congeries
Fig. 41.                      of stars I have pointed out above are to be considered as belonging to the class of groups.  Clusters of stars differ from  groups, in their beautiful
and artificial arrangement.  Their form  is genera!ly round, and their condensation is such as to
produce a mottled luster somewhat resembling a
nucleus.  The whole appearance of a cluster indicates the existence of a central force, residing
either in a body or in the center of gravity of the
whole system. The stars of which it is composed
appear more and more accumulated toward the
center.
Many such clusters are found in the heavens
invisible to. the naked eye, and whose existence as
dim specks of light can only be recognized by the
--._ assistance of optical instruments.  Telescopes of
moderate power exhibit them only as small round
or oval specks, somewhat resembling comets without tails; but when these objects are examined
with telescopes of great power, "they are then,"
stars comprehended in one field of view at this as Sir John Herschel remarks, "for the most part,
point:, as taken with a six feet and ahalf telescope, perceived to consist entirely of stars crowded towith  an  inverting.eye-piece, magnifying 110 gether so as to occupy almost a definite outline,
times; it'exhibits. a distant resemblance of the and to run up to a blaze of light in the center,'whole constellation* of Orion as seen by the' na- where their condensation is usually the greatest."
ked eye.' But:in thei neighborhood, of certain  "Many of them, indeed, are of an exactly round
parts of the Milky. W.ay, particularly about the figure, and convey the complete idea of a globuregionis in the vicinity of the- star Altair and in lar space filled full of stars, insulated in the heathe constellation Cassiopeia, the stars, though vens, and constituting in itself a family or society
smaller, are much more numerous., With a very apart from the rest, and subject to its own intermoderate power on the above-mentioned telescope, nal laws.  It would.be a vain task to attempt to
I have had fields of view of from fifty to a hun- count the stars in one of these globular clusters.
drled stars, some of- them beautifully arranged, They are' not to be reckoned by hundreds; and on
and such fields continued over a space of several a rough calculation, grounded on the apparent inde grees.                                        tervals between them at the borders (where they
The above may be considered as specimens of are seen not projected on each other) and the angroupls  of stars, which every one possessedeof tel- gular diameter of the whole group, it would appear
escopes may easily examine for himself. They'that many clusters of this description must conform very beautiful objects for exhibiting to young tain at least ten or twenty thousand stars, com



GROUPS OF STARS.                                        65
pacted and wedged together'in a- round space, reflector at Slough. Sir J. Herschel, who has given
whose angular diameter does not exceed eight or a delineation, of it in, his " Treatise on Astrotell minutes-that is, to say, inuan area not more nomy," says, "it represents, somewhat rudely,
than a tenth part of that covered;by the moon.", the thirteenth nebula of Messier's list, described
The starscomposing-such clusters appear to form  by him as nebuleuse sans etoiles." Its right ascena system  of a peculiar and definite character, sion is 16h. 36'; and its north declination; 36o 46';
"Their round figure clearly indicates the exis- by which its place may easily be founc on a
tence of some general bond of union inthe nature celestial globe. It is situated on the constellaof an attractive force, and in many of them there  tion Hercules, between the stars i, and ~. These
is an evident acceleration in the rate of condensa- stars are of the third magnitude, and lie north
tion as we approach the center, which is not re- and south of each other, at the distance of seven'ferable to a merely uniformn distribution of equi- degrees and a third; they come to the meriaiiu
distant stars through a globular space, but marks about the middle of July, at nine o'clock in the
ali intrinsic density in their state of'aggregation, evening; but of course may be seen at many other
greater at the center than at the surface of the, periods of the year, particularly in the spring and
mass."                                           autumn. The star s lies about twenty-two degrees
Let the, reader pause for a moment on'the ob-' nearly due west from  the bright star'Veqa or c
ject now described, and consider the glimpse it Lyrme. In - the map of the stars on Plate II, it is
affords us of the immensity of the universe, and  marked with the letter a, and the star ~ below it
of the inpumerable globes of light- with which it with the letter b. The cluster is somewhat nearer
is replenished. A pointin the firmament, scarcely  to,, or- the upper star, than to;the other.  It is
perceptible'to the unassisted eye, which acommon  just perceptible to the naked eye, and with a teletelescope shows only as a small dim round speck, scope of small power, such as a common " night
yet is found by powerful instruments to consist and day telescope," it appears like a small round
entirely of stars to the number of ten or twenty  comet.
thousand!  And at what a distance must such a    The following is a list of the places of six of
cluster be when its stars appear to be blended and  the principal Clusters of this description, which
projected one upon another, hundreds of them  may be considered as specimens of these remarkappearing only like a lucid point! and yet the able objects:,distance between any two of them is perhaps ten    1. Right ascension, 15h. 10';, north declination,
thousand times greater than that of Saturn from  2o- 44'.  This cluster lies about eight degrees
our globe.- From,such a region even light'itself south-west from  Unuk, the principal star in the
must take many thousands of years ere it can  Serpent, and comes to the meridian, about the
reach our world. In this almost invisible point, middle of June, at nine o'clock in the evening.
which not one out of fifty thousand, or even one' 2. Right ascension, 13h. 34'; north declination,
out of a million of earth's inhabitants has yet 390 15'; between the tail of Chara and the thigh
perceived, what a scene of grandeur and benefi- of Bootes, about twelve degrees north-west of
cence may be displayed; and what a confluence of  Arcturus, nearly on a line between that star and
suns, and systems, and worlds and intelligences. Cor Caroli, but nearer, Arcturus.
of various orders, may exist, displaying the power   3. Right ascension, 13h. 5'; north declination,
and wisdom and goodness of the great Father of  190 5'; in Coma- Berenices, fourteen degrees west
all!'Every circumstance connected with such an  by south of Arcturus. A line drawn from Arcobject shows that its distance must be immeasu- turus through a Bootes meets this cluster at somerably great, and consequently the luminaries of what more than double the distance of these two
which it is composed immense in magnitude. But stars.
suns of such size and splendor cannot be sup-   4. Right ascension, 17h. 29'; south-declination,
posed to be thrown together at random  through  3~ 8'; between the stars ~ and /z of Sepentarius,
the regions of infinity, without any ultimate de- but nearer to the latter.
sign worthy of the Creator, or without relation    5. Right ascension, 21h. 25';, south declination,
to the enjoyments of intelligent existence- and  1~ 34'; in Aquarius, about 2 degrees north of a in
therefore we may reasonably conclude that ten  the west shoulder, nearly in, a line with  PeYasi
thousand times ten thousands, and myriads of or Enif.
myriads of exalted intelligences exist in that far   6. Right ascension, 21h. 22'; north declination,
distant region, compared with  the number of 110o 26'. This cluster lies north from  No. 5, at
which all the inhabitants of our globe,-are but the distance of thirteen degrees,and about three or
" as the drop of a bucket, or as the small dust of four degrees north-west of the starEnif, or g Pegasi.
the balance."                                      Such are a few'specimens of compressed clustersIn short, in this dim and'almost imperceptible  of stars. Sir W. Herschel has given a catalogue
speck we have concentrated a confluence of suns of more than a hundred of such clusters dispersed
and worlds, at least ten times surpassing in size over different parts of the heavens, many of which
and splendor the sun, moon, and planets, and all require powerful telescopes to resolve them into
the stars visible -to the naked eye throughout all stars.  These clusters may be considered as so
the spaces of our firmament!  What then must many distinct firmaments, distributed throughout
be the number and magnitude of'all the other the spaces of immensity, each of them comprising
clusters which the telescope has brought to view?  within  itself an assemblage of stars far more
what the number of those which lie beyond the numerous than what appears to the vulgar eye
limits of human vision in the unexplorable regions throughout the whole face of our nocturnal sky.
of immensity? and what must the UNIVERSE itself To those intelligences that reside near the center
be, of which all those numerous starry systems of'such clusters, the stars connected with their
are but an inconsiderable part?  Here the human  own cluster or system  will be those which they
faculties are completely lost amidst the immensity  will chiefly behold in their sky; and' in those
of matter, magnitude, motion, and  intelligent clusters which are of a globular form,, the stars
existence, and'we can  only exclaim,'" Great and  will appear nearly equally dispersed over the'face
marvelous' are thy works, Lord God Almighty!"  of their firmament. In those starry assemblages
Figure 41 represents a-vlew of one of the clus- which show a great compression about the center,
ters alluded to above, as seen in the twenty-feet an immense number of stars of the first magni



',66  - SIDEREAL  HEkAVENS.
tude will decorate their sky, and render it far connected be at all visible, it will only appear like
more resplendent than that with -which we are a dim  and inconsiderable speck  in the remnotesurrounded-another instance:of that variety regions of immensity, or as a small cluster or
which distinguishes all- the scenes of creation. nebula, such as those we perceive with, difficulty
Scarcely any other star will- be visible except those through out telescopes.  Such are the grand, the
which belong to their own,system. If. the mag- diversified, and wonderful plans of the Creator
hificent system  of stars with which our sun is I throughout his vast and boundless universe.
HA- P T E R  X II.
ON. THE DIFFERENT ORDERS OF THE NEBULE.'SE C T IO N   i.::               stars, or only the appearance of a shining or glit.
tering cloud:. which last are the nebula properly
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SUBJECT OF NEBULE.   so called.  The following are solne general obser
vations on the Nebule by Sir William Herschel.
THE farther-we proceed in::our researches into  The success which accompanied the observations
the sidereal heavens, the scene of Creatinlg Power of this eminent astronomer in reference to the
and Wisdom  becomes more expasnsive and mag- Milky Way, induced him to turn his telescope to
nificent. At every step of our progress the pros-  the nebulous parts of the heavens, of which an
pect enlarges far beyond what we had previously  accurate list had been published in the Connoisconceived;:the multitude and variety of its objects sance des Temps* for 1783 and 1784. Most of
are indefinitely increased; new suns and new fir- these yielded to a Newtonian reflector of 20 feet
mamentes open to view on every hand,:overwhelm   focal distance, and 12 inches aperture, wlich
ing the mind with astonishment and wonder at plainly discovered them to- be composed of stars,
tile immensity of Creation, and leaving it no room  or at least to contain stars, and to show every
to doubt that, after all its excursions, it has arrived  other indication of their consisting of them  en
only at " the frontiers of the Great Jehovah's  tirely.
kingdom."  Wherever we turn our eyes amid    "The nebula," says he, "are arranged  into
those. higher regions, infinity appears to stretch  strata, and- run on to a great length; and somne of
before, us -on either hand,, and countless assem- them  I have been able to pursue, a!d to guess
blages of the most resplendent objects are every- pretty well at their form  and direction. It is
where found diversifying the tracts of immensity. probable enough that they may surround  the
To investigate sulch objects in- relation to their whole starry sphere of the heavens, not unlike the
number, magnitude, motion,  and the laws by  Milky Way, which undoubtedly is nothing but a
vw hich theyare united and directed in their move- stratum  of fixed stars.  And as this latter imments,: completely baffles  the i mathematician's    mense starry. bed is not of equal breadth or luster
skill,.and sets all his hitherto acquired powers of  in every part, nor runs on in one straight direcanalysis at defiance, and demonstrates that we are  tion, but is curved and even divided into two
still in the- infancy of knowledge and of being. streams along a very considerable portion of it,
Here, all finite measures fail us ilrattempting to  we may likewise expect the greatest variety in
scan such arnazi!ng objects, and to penetrate into  the strata of the clusters of stars and nebula.,
such  unfathomabl6e  recesses; length, breadth,  One of these nebulous beds is so rich, that in
depth, and hightj and time and space, are lost. passing through a section of it, in the time of
We are justly-filled with admiration at the amaz- only thirty-six minutes, I have detected no less
ring grandeur of the Milky Way, where suns and  than thirty-one nebule all distinctly visible upon
worlds are counted by MrLLmONS. When exploring  a fine blue sky.  Their situation and shape, as
its dimensions and sounding it;sprofundities, we  well as condition, seem  to denote the greatest
seem to have got a view of a universe far mole  variety imaginable.  In another stratum, or perexpansive than what we had previously conceived  haps a different branch of the former, I have seen
to be the extent of the whole creation.  But what double and treble  nebulae  variously arranged;
shall we say if this vast assemblage of starry sys- large ones with small, seeming attendants; nartems be found to be no more than.sinrgle nebula, row but much extended lucid nebulae or bright
of which;several thousands, perhaps even richer dashes; some of the shape. of a fan, resembling
in stars, have already been discovered! and that it an electric brush issuing from  a lucid point;
bears no more proportion to the whole of the sideo-  others of the cometic  shape; with a seeming
real heavens around us, than a small dusky speck  nucleus in the center, or like cloudy stars surwhich our telescopes enable us to descry!  Yet rounded with a nebulous atmosphere.  A different
such is the conclusion which we are led to deduce  sort again contain a nebulosity of the milky kind,
from the discoveries which have been lately made  like  that wonderful inexplicable  phenomenon
respecting:-the different orders of the nebula, of  about 0 Orionis; while others shine with a fainter
which I shall now proceed to give a brief description.'I'he word nebula literally signifies a cloud, or   Conisoissance des Tesnps, or as'it is sometimes written,
ms Tisa in    used  Connaissance des Tems, literally signifies the knoawledr-e of
nifst.  This Iname is j now used  in astronomy to  time. It is the title of an Almanac, or astronomical ephe
ldenote certain small spots, resembling whitish  meris, published at Paris, on nearlythe same plan as the
clouds, which are seen in the starry heavens by  "Nautical Almanac," published at London. The following
the telescope, and which present different kinds ithetitle' of one published in the year 1825: —"Connais.,of appearances either tha  of sisgestarsenvesaince des Tems, ou des Movemens Celestes, a n'IJsage des
of appenarances; either that,:o ofgogle   smtars -enve-Astronomes et des Navigateurs, polar lan 1t28. Pualee
loped in a nebulous vail,~ or of groups of small par le Bureau des Longitudej." It contains 216, pages.




LAMBERT'S VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE.                                      67
mottled kind: of light, which denotes their being is beautiful, great, magnificent, and from which
resolvable into stars."                          order and harmony flow ill eternal streams through
"In my late observations on nebulte," says Sir the whole bounds of the universe."
William oni another occasion, "I have- found that   The discoveries made by Sir VW. Herschel in
I generally detected them  in certain directions reference to the nebule have iin part realized some
rather than in others; that the -spaces preceding of the views suggested by Lambert in regard to
them were genePalhy quite deprived of their stars, the general arrangements of the systems of the
so as. often to afford'many fields without'a single' universe.  They afford convincing evidence that
star in. it; that the nebule -generally appeared the stars are not dispersed as it were at random,
sometime after among stars of a certainr consid- in a kind of magnificent confusion, but are
erable -size, and but seldom  among very small distributed systematically, in immense clusters,
stars; and when I came to one nebula, I generally  throughout the regions of boundless space.
found several'more in the neighborhood; that   There are various forms and classes of nebula
afterward a. considerable. time passed before I. which we shall notice in the sequel, but they may
came to another parcel.  These events being all be reduced to two great classes, —the resolvable
often repeated in-different altitudes of my instru- and irresolvable; that' is, those which may be
ment, and' some of them at considerable distances resolved into clusteis  of stars by powerful telefrom each other, it occurred to me that the inter- scopes, and those which. no telescope hitherto
mediate spaces. between the sweeps might also constructed has yet been'able to' resolve into
contain nebulme; and finding this to hold good starry groups.
more than once, I-ventured- to give'notice to my    Prior to Sir-W. Herschel's observations on the
assistant at the clock that'I found mnyself on nebulm,'about a hundred of these objects had
nebulous ground.' ""- From these observations of been descried in different parts of. the heavens, of
Herschel, it appears that the nebule are not dis- which an account had,been given by Messier, as
persed indiscriminately through the -heavens,, but formerly stated.  About 2000 more. were afterare found in certain regions and directions rather ward discovered by the unwearied exertions of
than in.others,- and that, as formerly stated,, they our British astronomer, a description of which
probably -make the.circuit of the heavens, inter- was inserted at different periods in the Philosophisocting at a' certain angle the Milky Way..      cal Transactions. The places of'these were afterMore than. eighty years ago, it was suggested ward computed from his observations, and arranged
by the celebrated'mathematiciarn and astroliomner, into a catalogue, in the order of right ascension,
M. Lambert, in his "Letters on Cosmogony," by his sister,;-Miss Caroline Herschel; a lady. sinthat all the'stars in the universe are collected into gulaily eminent for her astronomical knowledge,
systems; that all the systems are in motion; that who assisted him  in all his sidereal labors and
the individual stars or suns of each system  move discoveries, and was herself a discoverer of sev*round a common center of gravity, which may eral interesting celestial phenomena, particularly
possibly be a large opaque globe; and that all the comets. Her illustrious nephew, Sir John Hersystems of the universe, as one related system, schel, read a paper before the Royal Society il
revolve around some GRAND CENTER, common to November, 1833, in whichhe gives the places of
the whole. " All those systems of worlds," says 2500 nebula, or clusters of stars, of which 500
this. astronomer, "resemble, though on a small were detected by his own observations, the rest
scale, the solar system, inasmuch as in each the having been accurately determined by his father.
stars of which it is composed revolve round a Beside these, more than 500 nebulae have been
common center, in the same manner as the planets discovered in the southern hemisphere of the
and comets- revolve round the sun. It is even heavens, of which the Magellanic clouds are the
probable that several individual systems concur in most conspicuous and the most remarkable. They
forming more general systems, and so  on. Such, are three in number, two of them being near each
*for example, as are comprehended in the Milky other; the largest' is at a considerable distance
Way, will' make component parts of a more en- from  the south pole, but the other two are only
larged system; and this way will belong to other eleven degrees distant.  To the naked eye, they
milky ways, with which it will constitute a whole. appear like portions'of the Milky Way.
If these last are invisible to us, it is by reason'of   These. nebulae have great variety of forms:
their Immense distance. It would not be at all some are comparatively bright, and others so
astonishing, if milky ways, situated still farther obscure as to render it difficult' to detect them in
from'us in the depth -of the heavens, should make the field of the telescope, or to ascertain their
no impression on the eye whatever."   Again- -shape.  Some of them  appear round, some oval
" The sum of the milky ways, taken together, have and others of a long elliptic shape; some exhibit
their cormmon center of revolution; but how far an annular form, like luminous rings, and others
soever We'may thus extend the scale we must like an ellipsis with a dark space in the center;
necessarily stop at last; and where?   At - the but the greater number approximate to a roundish
center of ~centers, at the center of creation, which form. Of the 103 nebula inserted in Messier's'I should be inclined.to terni the capital of the list, eighteen were known at the time to consist
univeise, inasmuch as thence originates motion of small stars; but Sir W. Herschel afterward
0of every' kind, and' there stands the great wheel found twenty-six more of them to consist purely
in which all-the rest have their indentation. From  of clusters of stars, eighteen of small stars accomthence the'.laws are issued..which govern and panied with nebulosity, and the remainder not
uphold the universe, or, rather, there they resolve resolvable into stars by the highest powers of his
themselves' into.one law of all others the most telescopes.  It is evident that these objects, how.'
simple. But who would be competent to measure ever apparently small and obscure,-must be bodies
the space and time which all the ggiobe, all the of immense magnitude, when we take into consiaworlds,.all the worlds of worlds, employ in. re- eration the vast distance at which'they must be
~volving round -that immense body —the -Throne placed from our globe.  The following are Sir
of' Nature aid' the Footstool  of the Divinity! W. Herschel's views on this point:
What painter, what —poet, what-imagination is   "My opinion, of their size is grounded on the'sufficiently exalted to describe the beauty, the mag- following observations:-There are many. round
nificen'e,;'the grandeur of this source of all that nebul!  of about five or six minutes in'diameters
VYo  11 -24




68                                  iSIDEREAL HEAVENS
tie stars of which I can see- very distinctly;. and  are found by actual observation to be composedi o
on comparing them with the vi'sual r'ay calculated' countless numbers of stars, leaving us no room to
from some of my long gauges, I suppose, by the doubt that the most distant are also immense sysappearances of' thel small stars in: those: ga{uges, tems of stars, how  great must be the magnitude,
that the centers of these r.iounld nlebulm may   be and how inexpressible the grandeur, of the nu600: times: the distanceof'Siriusfrom  us.' He:merous luminaries of which they are composed!
thenl goes on t-o.show. that the stars in seilh nebulem    I have,<stated above that mnore than three thou
are probably twice as: much codensed: -as those sand' nebula have already been discovered, and
of' our system, otherwise the,: cen:ter- of it would whose places in the heavens have been a:curately
not be less thanl6000 times the distance of Sirius, determined, so that those who have access toE
and:that it is possibly mch:i underrated: by sup- powerful- telescopes may have an opportunity of
posing it: only 60~0 times.the distance iqt- that star. i observing the greater part of thern   From llail the
"Some of these  round -nebul'm have oth0ers near observations made by SirW-. Hiersc hel, he is of opinthem, perfectly simila  ii -form- color, and the, ion that our nebula, or tlle-Milky Way, is not the
distrilbtion-of stars, biut ofontily.-hfalf the diameter; most considerable in the unliverse; and he poinlts
andl -the stars:ii them seern to be  1ubly crowded, out some very remarkable nebulr  w hich in his
and o:nly at abo.ut t-haif the distaiice firomn'each opinion cannot be less,'but are.probably much
otlier'.. They- are  indeed -so. small as-not to be-, arjer,' than that of which our own sun and sysvisible withoLit'the'utmost atteintion..  I suppose tem form a part..Nrow, on these grounds let us
these miiniature nebul'm to -be at double thfe digs- consider what must be the extent and magnitude
tanxee' from  the,' —first..'2-An inistance -equally- re- of only the visible universe.  Supposing the numlnarkable- andl instructive. is a case where, -in'the ber of stars composing the Milky way, to be ten
neigliboirhood -o:f tw o such nebulte as have been millions, which is only half the number formerly
merltioned. I met wth a th ird similar, resolvable, assigned, (p. 59), and that each of the nebule at
but-mucli snmalle'r and fainter nebisla.'The stars an average contains the same number; supposing
of it:are no. longer to be pereeived;'buta resem- further, that only two t!housand of the three
blaiuce of'color with the eformer two, arnd its -thousand nebulem are resolvable into clusters of'dimiished size and ligilt, niay well; permit us to  stars, and that the other thousands are masses of
place'it at full twice the distance of.tlh' second, a shining -fluid not yet condensed into distinct
or about'four or five. times tlie distance of the luminous globes; the number of stars, or suns,
first; and yet thle' nebulosifty is liot of'the milky  comprehended in that portion of the firmament
kinid', nor is'itsso much -as difficultly resolvable or which is within the reach of our telescopes woult
colorless.:Now in a-few of the extended:ne'bulae, be 20,000,000,000, or twenty thlousad millions,
thpe' light. chalng-s -gradually, so as fr om   tle' re- which is twenty millions of times the number of
solvable to mapproach to the milky tkind; -Wvhichi' all the stars visible to. the naked eye.
appears to me an indicatio0n that the milky light   Great as the number is, and magnificent and
of nebulhe is owing to their much greater distance. overpowering as the ideas are which it suggests
A "-nebula, therefore, whose light is perfectly  of the extent of creation, yet these vast assemmilky cannot well -be supposed to be at less than blages of systems may be no more thaln as a
six or:eight-thousand times the distance of Sirius; single nebula to the whole visible firmament, or
alid tlough the iiumbers ahere assumed are not to even as a.grain of sand to the whole earth, conibe {takeln- othePrwise tilan  as very coarse estimates, -pared with what lies beyond the range of human
yet- an extended niebula whici h     in an oblique situa- vision, and is hid fom mortal eye in thle boundless
tion, where it!is possibly, foreshortened by one- and unexplored region of immensity  Beyond
half, two-thirds, or three-fourths of its length, the boundaries of all that will ever be visible to
subtends-a degre~e or more in'diameter, cailnot be the inhiabitants of our globe, an infinite region.otberwise than of a 1wonderful magnitude, and may exists, in which we have every reason to believe
well FtrrviE OUR MILKY. WAY IN GRANDEUR.'        the'Deity sits enthroned in all the grandeur of his
It appealrs to.be a very natural conclusion, that overflowlug goodness and omnipotence, presidthe.inebu[lume whic  are perfectly: similar in, form, ing over innumleable systems far surpassing
eblor, and the distribution:of stars, but only'lialf in magnificence what "eye hath yet seen" or
the diameter, ald the stars doubly crowded, are the most brilliant intellect can conceive. Fox
about double the distancefrom thefirst.  And if the we ougllt never for a moment to surmise that the
distance of thie larger nebule,' vhose stars are dis- operations of Almighty-Power are exhausted at
tinctly seen, be at least 600 times the distance of the point where the efforts of genius and art can
Sirius, as tnere is every reason to-believe, then, the no longer afford us assistance In trarC;!,ff.the fsotdistance of those which are only ha!f the diameter steps of. the divinity through the mysterious remust be about 1200 times the distance of -that star; gions of infinitude; nor should we ever suppose that
that is at the very least, 24,000,000,000,000,000, man, placed on such a diminutive ball as the earth,
or twenty-four -thousand billions of miles. But and funlished with powers of so limited a nature
the nebulm whose-:light is " perfectly milky," or as those with which he is now invested, will ever
so far removed from us that the stars of which they  be able to grasp the dominions of I-im who fills
are composed cannot be separately distinguished, immensity with his presence, and "whose ways
may be justly considered as seven thousand times are- past finding out."
the distancee of Sirius, or, in: numbers, 168,000,-'
000,000,000,000, or one hundred and sixty-eight
thousand billions' of miles!-a distance of which               S E C T I   N  I I.
we can have no distinct conception. Light, notwithstanding  its - amazhig velocity, would be           ON TRZ YAPR.OUS KINDS OF NtEUL,.
nearly; thirty -thousand years ere it could fly from
such nebulae to the earth, and a canlnon' ball,   I HAvE already alluded to the different shapes
with its utmost'velocity,,vould require more than  or forms of nebulae. These objects, on account ot
thirty-eight thousand -miilions of years before it their appearing with different degrees of luster,
could move. over an equal. space.. Since the dis- and assuming a great variety.of shapes and mroditance of these nebulae is.so immense, and since fications,> have heen arranged into different classes
those which are amonigst the largest and nearest   1. The first class is that. of clusters of stars, iu




VIEWS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF NEBULF.                                        69
whiich the separate star' are clearly distinguished ] scopes have hitherto been able to resolve iitO stars,
by good-telescopes.  This class is:again divided  and which is supposed to be a species of matter
into globular clusters,or those which appear of a diffused throughout infinite space, in various porroutdish form, and somewhat:compressed toward i tions aind idegrees of condensation and which nay
the center; and irregular clusters,or those which are neither cire ular nor elliptical, but of a somewhat' indefinite'or anughlar form.  -
These list are generally less rich
in stars, and less condensed to:
wa Wdthe:efter: nd are likewisle les  definite inl heir oult-"
line, so tlhat their termination in',
ma.cases cannot be distinctly 41'i
perceiVed   In s    of them 
stisare- rnearly all of the same
size, inJ- oth fers extreely different; and: "i  is ino uncommon I
thing,"' says Sir J, Herschel,' to'
find a velry'ired star,:mclh bright-:
er than theirest, ocuipyinga co n-:  i
spicuous situa tion in them.   Sir
W. Hersdhep l regaards these as glo-.
bular clusters'in a less advanced -
State  of tcoidensatiorn, con eiving  
alt such geroups'as appr oachin g,
by their miitu al.attraction, to the 
globulr:figure, and ssembling.heamselves tether from all the:
surrounding regidn,  under l:aws: 7
of  hichwe  have not other sproof
than the observanice. pfa a gradation -by'whiCh their' characters
shade intoone another, so that 43                                                                  4
it is impossible to say where one
species' ends and the other begins. T.Fig.                  e 41, formerly referred to, represents one of the globular -ctiusters in the constellation Hercules.  Fig. 42 isa view
of a curious but somewhat irregular group, seen in the southern'emisphere, as sketclied by Mr.'Dunlop, at Paramatta,New South
aWales. It is the 30 Doradus, or
aipheas, and is rather a singular
object, but evidently alarge clues- 45
ter of stars, presenting two or.
Athree very condensed strata, as
if they were crowded to excess'by an immense confluence of
stars.  
2. Another class- that is termed resolvablenebula, in the course of ages, be condensed into stars or
or those which lead us to suppose that they consist starry systems.  The following is a description
-of stars which would be separately'distinguishable of some of the more remarkable varieties of this
by an increase of light and- magnifying  power in  class of nebula.
the telescope.  These maybe considered as clue-    Fig. 43 represents a nebula of an elliptical or
ters too remote to-be distinctlyseen, the stars corn- spindle-like form.  It is visible to the naked eye
posing which are either too faint in their light or in a clear night, when the moon is absent, and has
too small in size to make a definite impression  sometimes been mistaken for a small comet  It
upon the organs of vision. They are almost uni- appears like a  dull. cloudy, Undefined spot upon
versally round or oval, which is supposed to be the concave of the firmament, and has soinetimes
owing to their loose appendages and irregularities been compared to the light of a small candle
of form being extinguished by their distance, the shining through horn. Its central parts appear
general figure of the central or more condensed  brightest,but its light gradually fades toward each
parts being, only discernible.: "IIt is under the extremity.   A few small'stars appear adjacent to
appearance of.objects of this character," says Sir it, and een within its boundaries, but it appear
J. Herschel,' "that all the greater, globular clus- pretty evident that they have no immeliate conters exhibit themselves in telescopes of insufficient nection with the nebula.  Its form, as here delinoptical power to show them Well; and the con- eated, may be seen with a telescope of moderate
clusion:is obvious that those which the most pow- power, but no telescope hitherto constructed, even
erful can barely renderresolvable, would be com- with the highest powers that could be applied, has
pletely resolved by ea further inctease of instru- yet been sufficient to resolve it into stars.  In size,
mental force.                                      it is nearly half a degree long, and 12 or 15 min3. Beside the above; therie is an,: imense va- utes broad. Though the figure of this object apriepty of nebulwa, properly so e~alled, which no tle-, pears oval or elliptical, it is not unlikely that it is




70                                  SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
in reality nearly of a globular figure, and that its the star: p of that constellation.  It is about: 15~
~oval appearance is owing to its position with re I nearly west from Almach and 80 north-by-weat
gard to our eye. This nebula is situated- in the of Merach, with which stars it forms nearly a
girdle of Andromeda, within': a degree or two:of right-angled triangle  It may be seen in a north-,PLA T E. Y.
0 MINIAUE  M4P OF TPEjiHE4YN N5,O4E'ERCATOR'S  PROJECTION, 0HOV 1t3 TAE COURSE' OF THE
~ v -''EG'i sc'MILkY WAY. 
WTesterl directionnh      ii e ri i', ig s o- the months.he opening occupies about half its diameter,
beelvation.  t lcom0es -tot the rneidia nabot the faint hazy light, uniformly spread over it. Its
middle of Novemberl_, at.nine o'clock in the even- light is not of a pure milky white, but is someing.  Its:right scension is Oh. 33';, and north de- what mottled in its appearance near the exterior
claition, 400 20' Thisa nebulama  be considered  edge.'.This curious phenomenon, like the prebas a representative,   n a largelscale, of a, numer- cedi-ig, is doubtless an immense stellar system, sitous-slasns of ntebui, whichd increases more or less uated at an immeasurable distalnce in the profunidenlsity t owa wdithe central poiit.   The repre- dity of space. It is situated inAthe constellation
entationof it in  e.plate is somewhat longer and  of.Lyra, exactly half way between the stars A
narwer than it appears through a telescope mag- and, so that its position may be found by comnifying l40times. -      -: —               --   mon observers without any difficulty.  Its right. Fig.44 represents a kind of elliptical nebula, ascension is 18h. 47', and north declination 320
with a vacancy - of a lenticular form in the center. 49'. The followiig cut (fig. 46) represents some
It is pretty evident that such nebuli are in reality  of the principal. stars in the constellation of the
large rings, which appearkof an oval orlenticular Lyre.  The largest star near the upper part is
form-in- consequence of their lying obliquely to  Vega, a bright star of the first magnitude; the
our line of vision. This isi undofbtedly a large next larger star, south-by-east:of which is C; and
starry system, comprising perhaps millions of the other star of the same magnitude to the soutthstatrs, at such a: distance that their combined light east is,; between which is the annular nebula,
appears only like a: faint. nebula. - It probably is aboui 7Y10 from Vega.
sot much unlike the form  of our Milky Way in    Fig. 46 represents an object somewhat similar
which the sun is-situated.  Its right ascension is to the above. It is situated between the constel2h. 12', and north decl. 410 3L'. It lies near   l lations Anser and Cygnus, about 910 south from
Andromeda, or Almaach, about 40 to the eastward  the star > Cygni, and 170 east from the phenom.
of that star, nearly in a line between it and Algol, enon described above  Its right ascension is 20h.
in the head of Medusa, and about 190 east from  9'; alid north declination, 300 3'. It comes to the
the nebula represented in Fig. 43.                meridian, about the 10th of September, at nine
Fig'. 45 is a representation-of an annular nebula, o'clock in the evening.
which may be seen with a telescope of moderate    The opposite' page contains representations of
power. It does not occupy sc much space in the several other kinds of'nebula, some of which are
heavens as the preceding nebulue, but it is well extremely curious and singular. Fig. 47 is a veiy
defined, and has the appearance of a flat, solid singular and wonderful object  It has the shape
ring. It is not perfectly circuiar,;but somewhat of a dumb-bell or hour-glass of bright matter,
elliptical, the conjugate axis of the'ellipse being surrounded by a thin hazy atmo&sphere; the two
to tie transverse nearlyto the proportion of 4 to connected hemispheres, and the space wilch conthe pro' of in of'4 to*h




VIEWS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF NEBULE.                                       71,ects them; are beautiful and pretty bright.  The                      Fig. 46.*
oval is completed by a-space on each side,. which
is much more dim  and hazy tha, the iwo hemi-                           North.
spheres. T:The whole has an,,oval form, like that
of an-oblate spheroid. - The southern hemisphere 
is somewhat denser than the northern, and there.                                         Vega, or.
are one or two stars in it.  It appears evidently:                                    a Lyr.
to be a-dense collection of stars, at an, immeasurable distance from the region in which we reside.
and leads us to form an idea of the'endless diver-.. ro'                                c"
sities of shape: and.: form: among  thos  e countless.
assemblages of stars with- which the u;niverse- is 
replenish-ed.: This nebula is situated in right as-                                      Nebula
cension,- 19h.' 52'; north- declination 22  16';i in
the breast of:Ansmer etf Vulpecula, about:.-midway-.        _         
between.Al'ireo in the Swan,; and the principal
stars-of the Dolphin, about three or -four degrees
north of Sagitta, a star'of the fourth magnitude.   F Pigures 49, 50, 52, 53,;54, 556, 57, and. 58,
Fig. 48 is likewise a very remarkable- object. represent some specimens' of nebulous stars, or of
It consists of a bright round nucleus, or'central'l nebule connected with very small stars.;part, surrounded at a great dis -:..
tance- by. a nebulous ring.. This
ring appears split through nearly -
the greater part of its circumferenci the' two portions of which                                                                  58
being separated at about an angle
of 450..-This   nebula lies nearthei
remotest'boundaries to whicfha' our
telescopes can carry'us-. It" has'
never been'resolved into stars by
-the highest powers that have yet
been -a:pplied;:but. thebre: i: little'. 7
do'ubt that it is a grand scheme.of 47
sidereal systems, perhaps- exceed-,"
ing our ililky Way in number and
magnificence.- It is indeed' supposed to bear a more striking re-,
semblance to the system  of stars                                                                  6
in which the'. sun is placed than
any other object which has yet
been discovered in the heavens, as
may be perceived by turning to
figure 39, (p. 62), which represents Sir W. Herschel's scheme                                                                     5
of the Milky Way; and hence Sir48
John Herschel describes it as " a
brother system, bearing  a  real
physical resemblance and strong..
analogy of structure to our own."'
This object, dim  and distant as it
may. appear  through  our tele-                                                                   54, scopes, and utterly invisible as it is
to. the unassisted eye, may be considered as a kind of universe in it-'
self, tenll thousand times more grand  |and extensive than the whole creation was supposed to be in tile infancy of astronomy.   Like the
preceding nebula, it shows us what
siLngular varieties of structure are
to be found in the systems which                                                                   3
compose the universe, and at the49
samne time it exhibits a certain resemblance to another system  of
which we form:a part; and per-|liaps something  similar, though
not piecisely of'the  same formand arrangement, may be found                               50
in other parts df the.sidereal heavens.  This: phe-   Figure 49 shows a nebulosity, or something like
nomenon is situated near' the back of,Asterion,  a nebulous stream, extending fiom, one small star
about five degrees south-by-west; of Benetnasch,
the last star in, the tail of the. Great Bear; between   * It may not be improper here to remark, once foi all, that
which star and the nebula there is a small'star of  the bearings or directions of the stars from one another,
the fifth magnitude, nearer to the nebula than to  given here and in other parts of this volume, are strictly apeetnasc    Its right ascension is 13h'..-22'; aInd  plicable only when the princlpai star, tiom whnich the bear-3enettascho,. Its rlgaht~ ascension! is 3h,.:22;arid |ings are statel,,s on or near the meridian. When in other
north -decliaation, 4'6  L4'                      posiLions, they vill appear to a common observer to have




72.                                    SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
to another, as if there was a communication:be- I which appear in its vicinlty, it is difficult to con,
tween them.  The iiext three figures are repre- jecture.  It is a species of nebule which does not
sentations of similar phenomena.  In figure 52  appear to be resolvable illto  stars, and  there.
the nebulous substance -appears'much  broader fore may be regarded  as a distinct luminous
o~.  ~                                  _ -''..... ~ ~.-: substance diffused throughout different regions of the universe,
subserving some important designs in the physical economy of'60creation  of which we are igno.
rant. Specimens of some of these
phenomena will be found in'the
following situations: —1. Right'
ascension, 201i. 56'; north decli —
faI n-~s9apEd6E~t~w~a~(                        nnation, 11i 24'; 5a little to the east
of the cluster of stars called the
Dolphin. 2. Right ascension, 8h.
46'; north  declination, 540 25';
about seven degrees north-west
of the star Tleta of the Great
Bear. 3,. Right ascension, 1Oh.
61 51'; north declination, 350 47';
about four degrees south of the
star Cor' Caroli, the principal star
in the Greyhounds.  4.'Right ascension, 6h. 30'; north declination, 80 53'; which is in the head
of Monoceros, or the Unicorn,
about eleven degrees east of Betelguese, in theright shoulder of
Orion, and about seven'degrees
due south of Gemini, which is in
the left foot of one of the twins.
2   Figures 59 to 65 represent a
few specimens of objects which
come  under the denomination
of extensive ditfsive nebulosities
These phenomena were very little
noticed until lately, and can only
be perceived  by  telescopes of
large aperture, which collect a
great quantity of light. In adverting to one of these objects,
Sir W. Herschel describes it as follows:-"Extrerne faint branching nebulosity; its whitishness is
entirely of the milky kind, and it
is brighter in three or four places
than the rest; the stars of the
Milky Way are scattered over it
in  the same  manner as  over
the rest of the heavens.  Its extent in  the  parallel is nearly
65'''-6.               64'~ one degree and a half, and in'
than in the others, though thismay possibly be  the menridional  direction about fifty-two  min.
owin  to he nebula in its' greatest extent  being  utes."  It, appears that this diffused  nebulosity
presented to our line of vision.                     is very extensive; for of fifty-two  nebuae  of
Figures 54,55,56, are very small stars, with faint this description  which  had never been  before
and small nebule  attached to them in theshape of  observed, Herschel found them to occupy no less
a puff.  Fig. 57 isa small star, with a small, faint,  than 152 square degrees.  A specimen of an exfan-shaped' nebulosity joined to it. Fig. 58 repre- tensive diffusive nebula of this description is re,
sents two considerable stars involved in a very  presented in fig; 59.
faint nebulosity of three or four minutes in ex-    Sir W. Herschel has presented us with fourteen
tenti.  What this nebulous substance in reality is, specimeiis related to this class, of what iho te;'ms
or what connection it may have with the stars nebulosities joined to nebula, one of which is re_____________________           _'presented  in  fig. 60,' where a bright nebulous
speck is connected with a faint nebulosity, which
different bearings; for example, the star Vega or Lyra, in seems' to proceed from it as from a central point,
the above figure, when about 50 or 60i above the western horizon, will appear at an equal altitude as the star Beta, south. increasing in breadth in proportion to the dis.
west-by-south of it; and when about 20 or 40' above the tance, until it terminates in a kind of irregular
eastern horizon, the two stars will appear, the one directly  margin.  Fig. 61 represents what is called a milky
above or below the other. This difference in the apparent nebula withcondensation. Itappearstobe a rounddirections of the stars from each other is'iost observable in'
those which are near the pole; for examl le, the stars of the ish nebula, condensed toward the central parts.
Great Bear appear in one part of their revo!ltion west from  It is natural to suppose, when we see a gradual
the pole, and in another part of their course east ofit. These increase of light, that there is a condensation of
and other circumstances require to be attended'to, in oreret
to find particular stars by their bearins from one or more ie  substance  which  produces it in  the space
principal s'irs,                                   I which  appears brightest, ort at least that the




DIFFUSIVE  NEBULOSITIES.                                       73
lumrlinouis substance is deeper in the brighter space. state.  This proportion of density is more tlian
Some of the nebulosities of this class are not al- double that of water to air."
ways extensively diffused, but are sometimes met   The small nebule represented ill No. 70 are
with in detached collections, near to each other, but stellar nebuloe, which approach to the appearance
completely separate, as represented ata, b, c. fig. 62. of stars, and one or two of doubtful character.
A diffused nebulosity of this kind may be seen  The: four figures marked No. 71, represent sepaabout six or seven degrees due east from the star rate views of the gradual condensation of the
Zeta Cygni, near the back or tail of Anser. Its nebulous substance. In these we may evidently
right ascension is 20h. 38', and north declination I perceive a striking gradation in the light and bril309 6'. Another, whose right ascension is 20h. 49', and north de- 
clination 310 3', is found about
three or four degrees north-west 66
of Zeta Cygni, and within two or
three degrees of tohe preceding.
pF'igures 63, 64, and 65, are representations of nebulat which are
brighter in more than one place,
which appearance is supposed to
be owing to so many predominant 67 
seats of attraction, owing to a superior preponderance of the nebulous matter in those places, causing a division of it, from  which
will arise three or four distinct
nebula.Figures 66 to 71 are representations of nebule of various descriptions. The three upper figures, numbered 66, are nebulm
that are suddenly much brighter in
the middle. A  nucleus to Which
these nebubhe seem to approach is
considered as indicating consolidation; and that, should we have68
reason to conclude that a solid
body can be formed of condensed
nebulous matter, the nature of
which has been chiefly deduced
from its shining quality, we may
possibly be able to view it with 69
respect to some other of its pro-6
perties. The three figures, No.
67, represent extended nebulvd and
round nebulv, that show the progress 70
of condensation. These nebulu appear further condensed than the
preceding, and appear surrounded
witlh the rarest nebulous matter,
which, not having as yet been consolidated with  the rest, remains7
expanded about the nucleus in the 71
slhape of a very extended atmosphere. The three figures in the
third row from the top of the plate,
marked No. 68, and the first figure
to the left hand of No. 69, represent nebuln which are almost of a uniform  light, liancy of the central parts. The figure on the leftand nebulte that draw  progressively toward a hand side represents an object nearly in its oriperiod of final condensation.  "In the course of ginal state of nebulosity; the next toward the
the gradual condensation of the nebulous matter," right appears considerably condensed toward the
says Sir W. Herschel, "it may be expected that a central parts; the third figure represents a condentime must come when it can no longer be com- sation still greater; and the one on the right-hand
pressed,'and the only cause which we may sup- exhibits a condensation nearly'complete, or a
pose to put ani end to the compression is, when huge luminous body surrounded with a lucid atthe consolidated mass assumnes hardness.  From  mosphere.  Each of these is the representative of
the size of the nebule, as we see them at present, an extensive class of objects of this description.
we cannot form an idea of the original bulk of
the nebulous matter theycontain; but let us admit,
for the sake of computation, that the nebulosity                 S E C T I ON  I I I.
of a certain nebula, when it was in a state of dif-         ON PLANETY    NEBUL
fusion, took up a space of ten minutes in every
cubical direction of its expansion, then, as we   THIS designation is given to a class of nebulaw
now see it collected into a globular compass of which bear a very near resemblance to planetary
less than one minute, it must of course be more discs when seen through telescopes.  But, notthan 1900 times denser than it was in its original withstanding their planetary aspect, some small.




74'                                SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
remaining   haziness,:by:which  they are more or   In this description there is nothing which strikes
less surrounded, evinces/ their nebulous origin. the mind with such astonishment as the enormous
They are somewhat extraordinary objects, with magnitude of these planetary nebulae. A globular
round or slightly oval discs,"in some instances body which would fill the orbit of Uranus would
quite sharply terminated, in others, la little hazy contain  24,429,081,600,00000,000,000,000,000,0,
at the borders, and of a light exactly equable, or or more than twenty-four thousand quartillions
only a very little mottled i.which in spme of them  of solid miles.  The solid contents of the, sun is
approaches' in vividness to the light' of actual about 357,000,000,000,000,000, or three hundred.'
planets.  Thie following, ar soe omf Sir W. Her- and fifty-seven thousand billions of cubical miles,
schel's remarks on'these:bodies: -If we, should If tile former number be divided by the latter,
suppose them  to besingle starswithi large diamr  the quotient will be 68,428,800,000, showing'that
eters, we shall find' it difficult to'account for their the'nebula in question would contain within its
not' being brighter, unlesswe:should admit that circamference  sixty-eight thousand, four hundred
the: intrinsic light'of some stars may be.very' and twenty eight millions,  and eight hundred
much:inferior to that' of the.gendrality, which. thousand globes as large as the SUN.  A body of
however, can hardly- be imagined:to: extend- to such bulk' is more than thlirty-four billions, two
such:  a degree;  We:might suppose them  to be:hundred thousand millions of times larger than
comets about: their aphelion, if, the brightness: as all the primary planets and their satellites which
Well as the Miagnitude of their diameters'did not belong to our system. What is the special destioppose this idea; so that,' after a il, we can hardly  nation of such huge  masses of matter, or what
find'-anyhypothesis so probable as:that of their important designs they subserve in the physical
being nebula-; but'then they must consist of stars and moral arrangements of the Governor of the
that are ompressed and accumulated in the high- universe, it is beyond.our power, in the meanest'degrie. At a subsequent period Sir William  time, to form even a probable conjecture. Future
remarks, " When. we reflecet on the circumstances  generations.may perhaps be enabled to throw
connected with these bodies, we may conceive some light on this subject, though it is probable
that, perhaps,"in progress of time these nebulae that the nature, properties, and ultimate designs
which' are already in a state of compression may  of many such objects will only be fully disclosed
be still farther compressed so as actually to be- throughout  the revolutions of that interminable
come stars.  It may be supposed that solid bodies duration which succeeds the short spanll of human
such'as we suppose the stars to be, from the anal- existence; but of this we may rest assured, that
ogy of their light with that of our sun when  they are not useless masses of materials in the'
seen at the distance of the stars, can hardly be universe, but are subservient to purposes worthy
formed'of a condensation  of nebulous matter; of Him  whose wisdom  is infinite, and whose
but: if the imrnmensity of it required- to fill aecu- understanding is unsearchable.
bical space which will measure'ten minutes, when    The four figures toward the right-hand of the
seen:at the distance of a star of the eighth or plate, marked No. 69, represent some specimens
ninth mag.nitude, is well considered, and properly  of planetary nebulae.  One of those bodies may
comparedwithI the very s.mall angle our sun  be seen near the star v Aquarii, as above stated.
would subteind at the samediqtane, no degree  of Its right ascension is nearly 201h. 52', and its south
rarity of the nebulous mater t0 which,we ha'e declination about 120 26'.  It lies north by west
recou/rse can be any: objection:'t:the solidity re- of the star Deneb Algedi, at the distance of about
qauired for the cnstruction: of abody  of equal ten degrees.  Other nebule of this description.uevih o, sn.-,                             ma gb oudna
magniiitdewith our sun.'                         may be found near the following stars:-3 p Sa.
The6nature of these nebulm is involved in con- gittze, 14 Andromeda, 63 b Crateris, 61.q Sagittam,
sid erable  darkness and" mystery.: As in the case 10 Camelopardus, 36 Ursa  Majoris, 6 Navis, and
of some of the other species cf these phlenomena, 6 Draconis.  About three minutes west from the
so inis  the mind  feels unable to form any def- star 16 c Cygni the following phenomenon is
mite 6or satisfactory, conceptions on the subject. found: —A bright point a little extended, like two
The:obillowing remarks of Sir J. HI-erschel com- points close to each other.  It is as bright as a
_rise most of what can be stated, in the mean- star of the eighth or ninth magnitude, surrounded
time, on this subject:-"Whatever be their na- by a very bright milky nebulosity, soddenly terture;' they must be of enormous magnitude.  One minated,  having the appearance of a planetary
of them is to be fohud:in the parallel of v Aquarii;, nebula with a lucid center.  The border is not
rand about five minutes: preceding that star. Its well-defined; it is perfectly round, and about one
apparent diameter is about twenty seconds.  An- minute and thirty seconds in diameter. This is
other, in the constellation Andromeda, presents a a beautiful phenomenon, and of a middle species
visible disc of twelve seconds perfectly defined between the planetary nebuli and nebulous stars.
an&ed round. Granting these'objects to be equally    Sir John Herschel, during his late residence at
distant,from us with the stasrs, their real dirmen- the Cape of Good Hope, is said to have discovered
sions must be suchi as would fill, on the' lowest several new and singular objects in the soutlhern
computation, the whole orbit of Uranus.   It is no hemisphere, some of them  bearing a certain re-la
less evident that, if they be solid bodies of a solar tion to the objects now described; among others,
nmiture, the intrinsic splendor of thieir surfaces he is said to have detected a beautiful planetary
must-be almost infinitely inferior to that of the nebula, which presents a perfectly sharp, wellBlu's.  A circular portion of the sun's disc, sub- defined disc of uniform' brightness, exhibitilng the
tending an angle of twenty seconds, would give exact appearance of a small planet with a satellite
a light equal to 100 full maoons, while the objects near its margin. The regular compactness'and
in question are hardly, if at -all, discernible with globular  form  of such objects seem  to indicate
the naked eye.  The uniformity of their discs, that they are bodies sui generis, neither collece
and their want of apparent central condensation, tiolens of distinct stars nor exactly of the same
womuld certainly: augurJtheir light to be merely  nature with the other masses of nebulous matter
superficial, and in the natulie'of a hollow superfi- dispersed through the heavens.  They seem  to
cial shell; but wiethier filled with:solid or gaseous' present "a view  of an immense system  already
matter, or altbgether empty, it would be a waste completed, but of what nature it would be vain to
of time to conjecture,''                        conjecture. Another phenomenon of thiu kind




DESCRIPTION;OF THE NEBULA IN ORION.                                    -75
is stated as being of an extraordinary nature, on  seats the same nebula, as seen by Sir W. Her;account of the blue color which its light exhibits. schel in the year 1774 and ill 1811. Its shape
He has'likewise discovered a close double star appears-considerably different from  the delineainvolved in the center of a nebulous, atmosphere,  tions of Huygens and Dr. Long; but the stars
which is considered as a new and singular'object. within and around it, which are common to both
______________            delineations, appear nearly in the same relative
position. Sir John Herschel has given a repreS E C T I O N  I V.                 sentation of this nebula, as viewed through' the
ON' THE  NEBULA  IN  ORION.                twenty-feet reflector at Slough, which appeals
considerably different from the figures to which I
ONE of the largest and most remarkable nebula  have referred. I have frequently viewed this phein the heavens is tliat which is found in the con-  nomenon. with telescopes of differentl sizes, partistellation of'Orion.~ When a common observer cularly with a six feet and a half achromatic,
looks at that constellation, the first object that having an aperture of four inches diameter, and
arrests his attention is the three brilliant stars which showed sidereal objects with great brilequidistant from  each other inW  a straight line, liancy and distinctness; but the shape of the object
which is called the belt of Orion.  Immediately  appeared more nearly resembling Dr. Long's rebelow these, hanging down as it were from  the  presentation (fig. 72) than any other delineation
middle of the belt, three small stars at nearly  I have seen.  A fourth star was distinctly seen in
equal -distances are perceived, which are, termed  addition -to the three-represented by Dr. Long
the sword. On directing the naked eye to the  near the head of the opening,:but smaller than
middle star- of the three, the. observer perceives the other three, and forming with them a small
something that has the appearance of a small star, irregular square. The three other stars, instead
but not well-defined; this is the great nebula of  of being within the one sideof the nebula, as
Orion; of which, however, he can form  no defi- represented in -both the figures, appeared -quite
nite conception until his eye be assisted by optical beyond it, but nearly in a line with its margin.
instruments.  With a common one-foot pocket Whether this was owing to the inaccuracy of the
achromatic telescope the nebulosity may be plainly  delineation or to the actual chango of the nebula
perceived; but the higher the magnifying power, I do not pretend to determine. The left-hand
and the-larger the aperture of the object-glass, the  branch of, the nebula likewise appeared considermore brilliant and distinct does this phenomenon: ably longer than here represented; but I cannot
appear, along with a number of small stars con- pretend to say what the appearance may be as
nected with it, which are quite invisible to the  seen through -a twenty-feet reflecting telescope.
unassisted eye.  In forming a proper conception of this object,
The first who discovered this phenomenon was it is of some importance to ascertain the exact
the celebrated Huygens, who gave the follow- appearance it has presented at different Deriodsn
ilg description of it ill his Systema
Saturnium   - "Astronomers  place
three stars close to each other in the
sword of Orion;; and whien I viewed
tihe middlemost with a telescope in
the year 1656, there appeared, in the
place of that one, twelve other stars;
among these, three that almost touch
each o0tlther, and four more beside appeared twinkliag as thlrough a cloud,
so that the space abodt them seelned 72
much brighter tllanl tile rest of theheavens, wlhich  appearing  wholly
blackish, by reason of the fair weather, was seen as through a certain
opening, thlrough which one had a
free view inIto another: region which
was more enlightened.  I have'fre- 
quently observed tile same appear-,
ance in the sanme place, without any
altera-tionS; so that it is likely that
this wolnder, whatever - it maybe ill
itself,hhas been there from all timres;
butI never took notice of anythling
like it aniong the rest of tile fixed,
stars." 
Fig. 7 exhibits a viewv'of this pheomeinnon as seen by Dr. Long in
1741'with a seventeeli-fe-et refracting
telescope, which appears exactly the
same shape as originally delineated
by Hinygens; but tile apparellt inagnitudes of tthe stars connlected withx
it are more accurately siowll than
in thile elgraved delineation of Huy- 73
gels.  Dr. Lolng says that tile luminous space ilas sometimes appeared
to him  niearlyof tile same Shape: as
the figure which  is formed: by the
seven stars within  it.  Fig. 73:repre



76'SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
and- whether there be reason,to conclude that it which we can place the faintest part of the great
has been subject to changes.:The following is Sir nebula in Orion, to- which the' nebulosity. surJ. Herschel's description of this phenomenon:.    rounding the star belongs, cannot well exceed
"I know not how to'-describe-it better than by the region of the stars of the seventh or eighth
comparing it with a curdling liquid, or a:urface magnitude."-.
strewed over with flocks of wool- or to the break-   P From these observations it would appear that
ing:up of a nmackerel: sky, when the clouds of the nebulosities connected with the great nebula
which it' consists, begin to assumne a cirrous up- are subject to certain changes, and that its dis.
pearauce..It is not very unlike the mottling of tance from our system is lessthan that of stars of
the sun's disc, only, if I may so express myself, the eighth magniitude, since a portion of the uebu
the grain is rmuch coarser and the intervals darker,' lous matter interposes between our sight and stars
and the flocculi, instead of being generally round, of this description.  But this distance must, be
are drawni into -little, wisps.  They presents how. very great.  If stars-of the eighth magnitude are
ever, an appearance. of. being composed of stars, to -be considered at an average as eight times farand their aspect-is altogether different from that of ther distant than those of the first, then this -neresolvable  nebulte, - Iln the latter we fancy by hula cannot be supposed to be less than 320,000,gli-mpses that we see stars, or thatcould we strain  000,000,000, or three hundred and twenty billions
our sight a little more Vee- would see. them; but of miles from the earth. If its diameter at this
the former suggests no idco — of stars, but rather distance subtend an angle of ten milnlltes, which it
of something quite distinct from them."           nearly does, its magnitude must be utterly inconThe following are' some of Sir W. Herschel's ceivable.  It has been calculated that it must
remarks on this nebula, and oeustars with wuich exceed 2,000,000,000,000,000,000, or two trillions
it is connected:                                  of times the dimensions of the sun, vast and in":-In the year 1774, the 4th of March, I observed comprehensible as these dimensions are.
the'nebulous  star which is tlhe 43d of the Con-     This nebula has never yet been resolved into
noissance des Temps, and is not many minutes stars by the highest powers of the telescope that
north of the great nebula; but at the same time have yet been applied; nor is there any reason to
I also took notice of two similar, but much believe that it consists of a system  of stars,.as is
smaller, nebulous stars, one on each side of the the case with many other nebula ich appe ar
large one and at nearly equal distances from it.- much smaller, and are evidently mor{ istant. It
(See fig. 73, &c.)  In 1783, I examined the nebu- is therefore, in all probability, a m    of self-lulous star, and found it to be faintly surrounded  minous matter not yet formed into t   system or
with a circular glory of whitish nebulosity, faintly  systems, but of what nature it would be vain
joining it to the great nebule. About the latter to conjecture. Whether it is more condensed
end of that year I remarked that it was not equally than when it was first observed nearly two hunsurrounded, but most nebulous toward the south. ldred years ago, as some have conjectured, orIn 1784, I began to entertain an opinion that tlie whether any portions of it have shifted their postar was not connected:with the nebulosity of tihe sition, as seems to have been the opinion of Sir
great nebul'e  of Orion, but was one of those W. Herschel from  the observations above stated,
which are scattered over- that part of the heavens. appears on the whole somewhat uncertain.  OnIn 1801:,!806, and 18L0, this'opinion was fu1lly  this point Sir J. Herschel makes the following reconfirmed by the griadual change which happened  mark:-"Several astronomers, on comparing this
in that great nebula to which the nebulosity sur- nebula with the figures of it handed down to us
rounding the star belongs; —for the'intensity of by its discoverer, Huygens, have concluded that
light about the nebulous star.had by this'time its form has undergone a perceptible chang'e; but
been considerably reduced by the attenuation of when it is considered how difficult it is to repredissipation of tile nebulous matter, and it seemed  sent such an object, duly, and how  entirely its
now to be pretty evident that the star is far behind  appearance will differ even in the same telescope,
the nebulous matter, and that consequently its according to the clearness of the air, or other
lighlit in passing;through it is scattered and deflec- temporary causes, we shall readily admit that we
ted so as to produce, the appearance of a nebulous have no evidence of change that can be relied on."
star."-....."When I viewed this interestilg object   The phenomenon we have now been contemin December, 1810, I directed my attention parti- plating is calculated to suggest a train of refleccularly to the two nebulous stars by the sides of tions and inquiries. —What is the grand design in
the large one, alnd found they were perfectly free  the system of nature of such an immense mass of
from every nebulous appearance, which colnfirmed  lttminosity-a mass of luminous matter to which
not only my former surmise of the great attenua- the whole solar systemn is but only as a point-a
tion of the nebulosity,.but also proved that their mass at least twenty-nine millions of times larger
former inebulous appearance had been entirely the than a globe which wouldfill the orbit of Uranus?,
effect of the passage of their feeble light through  Is it in a state of perfection completely answerthe nebulous matter spread out before them,-  ing the ultimate end of its creation, and will it
The 19thlof January, 1811, I had another critical remaiin forever in that state?  Or, is it only a
examinlatio-  of the same- object, in a very clear chaotic mass of materials progressing toward
view, through the forty-feet telescope;- but not- some glorious consummation in the future ages
withtstanding the superior light of this iistrument, of eternity, when worlds and systems will be
I coul(t not' perceive any remaifls of nebulosity  evolved from  the changes and revolutions now
about "the two small stars, which were perfectly  going forward within its boundaries?  Or, may
elear, and in the same situation where about thir- we suppose that a luminosity  of so vast extent
ty~seven years befoSe I had seen them involved in serves the purpose of a thousand  suns to ten
nebulosity. Ijf, then,; the light of these three  thousands of opaque globes which revolve within
stars is thus proved to have undergone a visible its wide circumference?  Considering the diversinlmoification;il its passage through the nebulous fied methods of Divine operation, and the vast
matter, it follows that its situation among the variety- of modes by which worlds are arranged
stars is less distant from us than: the largest ofthe and enlightened, it is not impossible, nor even
three, which 1 suppose to be of theeighth or ninth
magnitude,  The farthest distan e,:therefore, at                   *See pa_ 74




NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS.                                        77
improbable, that numerous worlds may-be in this masses of unformed matter we call the nebulae?
way illuminated with a perpetual'iand  uninter- and what purposes do they serve in the economy
rupted day. As there appear to'be worlds con- of creation?"
nected with, one sun, with two, with three, and   It is an opinion now very generally entertained,
even'more suns, so there may be thousands of that the self-luminous matter to which we refer
worlds cheered and illuminated without such a is the chaotic materials out of -whicll new suns or
sun as ours, and with an effulgence of light which  worlds may be formed, and that it is gradually
is common to therm all. But on these points we concentrating itself by the effect of its own grashall never be able to arrive at certainty so long vity, and of the circular motions of which it may
as we sojourn in this sublunary sphere. Suffice be susceptible, into denser masses, so as ultimately
it'to say, that such an enormous mass of lumi- to effe.ct the arrangement and establishment of
nous' matter was not created in vain, but' serves sidereal systems.  It is argued that this opinion is
a purpose in the divine arrangements correspond- highly probable, from  the consideration that we
ing to its magnitude and the nature of its lumi-'find the nebule in almost every stage of condensanosity, and to the wisdom  and intelligence of tion. Such nebule as are represented in Figures
Him whose power brought it into existence.  It 59 and 62 are viewed as consisting of nebulous
doubtless subserves some  important purposes, matter in its rudest and most chaotic state; and
even at the present moment, to- worlds and beings Figures 63, 64, 65, and also Figures 66, 67, 68, as
within the range of its influence.  Were we similar matter in a state of progress toward conplaced as near it as one-half the distance of the densation.  The four figures marked 71 are connearest stars great as that distance is, from such a sidered as specimens of this gradual condensation,
point it: would exhibit an effulgence approxima- in which the progress may be traced from the leftting to that  of the sun; and to beings at much hand figure to the right. It has even been mainnearer distances it would fill a large portion of the tained by some late writers on this subject that
sky, and appear with a splendor inexpressible. — this,' in all probability, is the mode in which the
But the ultimate design of such an object, in all different systems of the universe were gradually
its bearings and relations, may perhaps remain to brought into the state ill which we now behold
be evolved during the future ages of an intermi- them, and that the sun and planets of the system
nable existence; and, like many other objects inll to which we belong derived their origin from  a
the distant spaces of creation, it excites in the similar cause; and it has likewise been attempted
mind a longing desire to behold the splendid and to connect the geological changes in the structure
mysterious scenes of the universe a little more of our globe with the operation of a principle or
unfolded.                                        law by which such a thin filmy substance as a
nebula was condensed into such a heterogeneous
mass of solidity as we find in the constitution of
the terraqueous globe; and it has been insinuated
SECT I 0 ON  V.                   that the zodiacal light is a portion of the original
nebula of which the sun and planets were formed,
ON THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS.              and a presumptive evidence that the nebular hypothesis is true. According to these theorists, the
I HAVE already stated that the nebulae may be sun is still to be considered as a nebulous star in
arranged into two classes, the resolvable and irre- a high state of condensation, and may exhibit
solvable. When Sir W. Herschel commenced his such an appearance when viewed from  a neighobservations on the nebulous part of the heavens, boring system.
and for several years afterward, he was dis-   Such conclusions, to say the least, are obviously
posed to consider the nebule in general to be premature. We know too little, in the meantime,
no other than  clusters of stars disguised'by of the nature of that nebulous matter which is
their very great distance; but a-long experience dispersed through the heavens, or of the motions
and  better acquaintance  with  the  nature of with which its particles may be indued, to be
nebulae  convinced  him  that such  a princi- able to determine its susceptibility of being conpie ought not to be universally admitted, al- densed and arranged into suns and planets. We
though a cluster of stars may undoubtedly as- have never yet seen the same- nebula progressing
sume a nebulous appearance when it is too remote from one stage of condensation to another, from
for us to discern the stars of which it is composed. a chaotic to a state of organization; nor is it likely
When he perceived that additional light had no we ever shall, even supposing the hypothesis to be
effect in s:esolving certain nebulae into stars, he well founded, as an indefinitesnumber of years, or
was forced to the conclusion, that though milky  even of ages, must be requisite before such a renebulie may contain stars, yet there are also nebu- volution can be accomplished.  Yet the observa.
losities which are not composed of them, nor im- tions of future astronomers on this department
mediately connected with them.                   of the sidereal heavens may tend to throw some
Hence astronomers have been constrained to  additional light on this mysterious subject.
admit the existence of a certain species of fine    It forms no conclusive argument, however,
luminous matter, distinct from  stars, or planets, against this hypothesis that it is difficult to conor any other materials existing around us, which ceive how a fluid of a nature so apparently rare
is' diffused ils immense masses throughout the can ever be condensed to the hardness of a planet
spaces of the universe.  The large nebula in or asull; for if we suppose a nebulosity in  its
Orion, described above, is considered as- one of most diffused state to be twenty minutes in diamtho most striking evidences that such a substance eter, and to be compressed by central attraction
is distributed throughout the sidereal regions; for and' rotary motion until it become only one minthe whole light and power of Herschel's forty-feet ute, in diameter, the ratio of its density in the
telescope, though four feet' in aperture, was insuf- latter state, compared with that of the former,
ficient to resolve it into stars, although from  cer- would be as eight thousand to one, since splheres
tain circumstances it appears to be one of the are to each other as the cubes of their diameters
nearest, as  it is one of the brightest, of those ne- Suppose its density in the first state were equal to
bulous masses. It has therefore become a subject that of atmospheric air; its density, when comf'interesting inquiry,' Vhat are those huge pressed in the proportion supposed, would be nine




7 8                               SIDEREAL HEAVENS
times heavier than water, which is nearly equal, nebule will ere long lead to some, clearer underto the weight of silver, and twice the average den- standing of their intimate nature."
sity of our globe; but if sucha;i process be going    On011 thle whole, the lnebulm, whether resolvable
on ill any of these bodies, numerous ages muAst or irresolvable, opel to view an inexihaustible field
elapse before Such a consolidation can be effecited, of contempllation and wonder.  By far the greater
for no sensible change appears to have takeln place part of the nebule are undoubtedly clusters of
during the-period in which such bodies have come stars, some of them perhaps containing as many
unlder our observation..;    -               millions as our Milky Way, and occupying a space
*Nor do we conceive that this -hypothesis is in- in the tracts of immensity which imagination call
consistent with what we. know of the attributes never fathom; but a considerable proplortion of
and operations- of the Almighty; for all the move- these bodies evidelltly appear to be -asses of selfmeaits and changes going oli inl our.terrestrial luminous substanlces, without any indication of
system and thrloughoutthe universe are the effects beiig formed into organized systems; and how
of certain laws. impressed  Uponl matter by the enormous must be the extent of most of'those
hand of thle Creator, by,:the uniform  operation of masses, and how vast the regions of space which
which his wise and beneficent designs- are accom- they fill! If every one of those bodies be only
plished. If, then, it forms a part.of-llis designs one-half the size of tile great nebula in Orion,
that new suns and systemsshall be formed to di- what a prodigious mass of matter must they conversify the-, spaces of imimensity, anld if lie has tailn, and what an immense space must hundreds
created hluge masses of subtile luminous matter, and thousands of them occupy!  To limityd minds
and. indued them with certain gravitating powers such as ours, such spacesappear as approximating
and rotary miotions for thlis purpose, his almighty  to infinity, and all our previous ideas of the amagenicy and infinite wisdom may be as cleally and plitude of planetary systems sink into something
magnificently displayed il this case as if-a sys- approachilg to illaity. Whatever purposes these
tem of worlds, completelyorganized, were to start immense masses of matter may serve under the
into existence illn a monellt.- Perhaps the gradual administration of Infinite Wisdom, certainl it is
evolution of his designs:imn such a case might af- they exist not in vain.  They accomplish designs
ford matter of admiration and enjoyment to certain worthy of tile plans of Divine Intelligence, and
orders of superior beings who are privileged to have doubtless a relation, in one respect or another,
take a near view of such stupendous operations. to the enjoyments of intelligent beings; but the
But supposing such physical processes going for- full development of the plans and agencies of the
ward, we must necessarily admit that a direct in- Deity ill this, and in many other parts of the econterference of the Deity is necessary before such omy of the  universe, must be considered  as
worlds, after being organized, can be replenished reserved for allother and a future scene of exwith inhabitants; for matter and motion, by what- istelnce.
ever laws they may be directed, canllot be supposed to produce the organization of a plant or anl
animal, much less of a rational being, whose intellectual principle and faculties must be commu-            SSECTION  VI.
nicat'ed by -the immediate'"inspiration of tle
Alnighty."  To suppose otherwise would be vir-       LIsT OF SOME OF THE LARGER NEBULE.
tually to adopt a species of atheism.
All that we require on this point is some more   FOR the sake of those who wish to inspect some
direct anld'decisive proofs of the validity of the of the nebulous bodies by means of telescopes, I
hypothesis we are now conlsidering; and until have subjoinled tile following list from  Messier's
such proofs be elicited we are not warranted to Catalogue, along with the more recent observaellter into particular speculations, and to speak tions of Sir W. Herschel.  The right ascensions
with so muchl conlfidence onl the subject as certain  aild declinations are givell in degrees and minutes,
theorists have lately done.  Sir John Herschel, by which the places of these bodies may be very
who has paid more attention to this subject, and  nearly found on a celestial globe.  If it be judged
made more accurate observations onl these nebule  expedient to reduce the degrees and minutes of
than almost anlly other individual, is far from be- right ascension to time, it may be done by tile
ing confident, and speaks with becomilg hesita- followiing rules:-Divide the number of degrees
tioIl and modesty ill relation to this hypothesis. by 15, the quotient is hours; anld the remalinder
4 If it be true," says he, "that a -plosphorescent reduced-to minutes and divided by 15, gives the,or self- luminous matter' exists, disseminated  milnutes, &c. of time: or, multiply the given numthrough extensive regions of space in the manner ber of degrees and minutes by 4, and divide the
of a cloud or fog- now assuming  capricious degrees in the product by 60, the' quotient is
shapes like actual clouds drifted by the winmd, and hours, and the remainder minutes, &c.  Thus,
1noW conltractinlg itself like a comrietic atmosphere 3200 17' is equal to 21 hours, 21 minutes, and 8
around particular stalrs-what, we naturally ask, seconds of time.
is tile nature aand destination of this nebulous   In the following, list, R. A. means right ascenmatter?  Is it absorbed by the stars in whose sioln; dec., declination; S., south; N., north; diam.,
neighborhood it is found to furnish, by its collden- diameter of the object, which is expressed in minsation, their supply of light and lieat? or is it utes of a degree.'
progressively concentlrating itself by the effect of
its own gravity into -masses, and so laying the  1. R.A. 800 0' 33"; dec. N. 210 45 27"; abovo
foundation of snew sidereal systems or of insulated  the Bull's southern horn west of the star ~:
stars?  It is easier to propoumsd such questions than  this consists of a whitish light, elongated like
to offer any probable reply to them., Meanwhile,     tile flame of'a taper: it exhibited a mottled
appeasl to fact, by the method of constant and dili-  nebulosity to Sir W. Herscihel.
gent observation, is - opem to us; and as the double  2. R. A. 3200 17'; dec. S. 10 47"; diam. 4'; in the
stars have yielded to this style.of questioning,    head of Aquarius, -near the 24th star- it apand disclosed a series of relations of tle, most inl-  pears like the nucleus of a comet, surrounded
telligible and interesting description, we may rea-  with a large round nebula: Sir W.. Herschl
sonably hope tlhat the assiduous study of tie       resolved it into stars.




-LIST  OF NEBULAE.                                       79
3" R.A. 2020 51' 19"; dec. N. 290 32' 57"; diam.  1~ 30'; near 65 Ophiuchus: a mass of stars
3'; between Arcturus and'Cor Caroli:it it is  very near each other.
round, bright in the center, and fades away 24. R.A. 270~ 26'; dec. S. 180 26'; near end of:
gradually: it exhibited -a mottled nebulosity:    the bow of Sagittarius in the Milky Way.
to Sir WHerschel. Herschel.                    great nebulosity containing several stars, the
4. R.A. 2420 16' 26"; dec. S. 250 55' 40"; diam.  light is divided into several parts.
5i~ght is divided into several p arts.'.21/', near A.ntares. a mass of stars.    25i R.A. 274~ 25'; dec. S. 19~ 5'; diam. 10'; near
5  R.A. 2260 39'; dec. N. 2~ 57'; diam. 3'; near  preceding, near2l Sagittarius: a mass of small
6 Serpent: a round-nebula, resolved into stars  stars.
by Sir W. Herschel.                        26. R.A. 278~ 5' 22"; dec.S. 90 38' 14"; diam. 2';
6. R.A. 2610 10' 39"; dec. S. 320 10' 34"; diam.  near n and o Antinous: a mass of small stars.
15'; between the bow -of Sagittarius and the 27. R.A.-297~ 21' 41"; dec. N. 22~ 4'; diam. 4';
tail of Scorpio: a mass of small stars.        near 14 of the Fox: oval: it exhibited a mot7. R-A. 2640 30' 24"; dec. S. 340 40' 34"; diam.  tied nebulosity to Sir W. Herschel.
30': a mass of small stars near the preceding. 28. R.A. 272~ 292'; dec. S. 240 57'; diam. 2'; a
8. R.A. 2670 29' 30"; dec. S. 24~ 21'; diam. 30';  degree from  A Sagittarius: round, and rebetween:the bow of Sagittarius and the right  solved into stars by Sir W. Herschel.
foot of Ophiuchus: an elongated mass of 29. R.A. 3030 5412'; dec. N. 370 12'; below
stars. Near this mass is the 9th of Sagitta-   Cygni: a mass of seven or eight small stars.
rius, which is encircled with a faint light.   30. R.A. 321~ 46'; dec. S. 240 19'; diam. 2'; near
9.i R.A. 256~ 202'; dec. S. 18~ 13' 26"; diam.'41 Capricorn: round, and resolved into stars
3'; in the right leg of Ophiuchus: round and   by Sir. W. Herschel.
faint, but resolved by Sir W. Herschel into 31. R.A. 70 26''; dec. N. 390 9X'; diam. 40';
stars.                                         in Andromeda's girdle: it resembles two
1. R..A. 2510 12' 6"; dec. S. 300 42'; diam. 4'; in  cones of light joined at their base, which is
the girdle near 30 Ophiuchus: a fine and       15',broad: resolved into stars by Sir W.
round nebula, resolved into stars by Sir W.    Herschel.
Herschel.                                  32. R.A. 70 272'; dec. N.!8q 459';   diam. 2';
11  R.A. 2790 35' 43"; dec. S. 6~ 31'; diam. 4';   below the preceding: rdund, without stars,
near K  Antinous: a mass of many stars,        and with a faint light.
mixed with a faint light.                  33. R.A. 290 9'; dec. N. 290 3212'; diam. 15';
12. R.A. 248~- 43'; dec. S. 20 3012'; diam. 3';     below the head of the North Fish and the
between the arm and left side of Ophiuchus:    Great Triangle: its light is uniform  and
round and faint: near it is a star of the ninth  whitish: it exhibited a mottled nebulosity to
magnitude: resolved into stars by Sir W.       Sir W. Herschel.
Herschel.                                  34. R.A. 360 51'2'; dec. N. 410 39/2'; diam. 15';
13. R.A. 2480 18'48"; dec. N. 360 54' 44"; diam.    between Medusa's head and the left foot of
6; in the girdle of Hercules, between two      Andromeda: a mass of small stars.
stars of the eighth magnitude: round, and 35  R.A. 880 40'; dec. N. 240 33X1'; diam. 20';
bright in the middle, resolved into stars by   near,u and X Castor: a mass of small stars
Sir W. Herschel. -                             near Castor's left foot.
14. R.A. 2610 18X2'; dec. S. 3~ 5' 45";- diam. 7'; 36. R.A. 80~ 11' 42"; dec. N. 340 8' 6"; diam. 9';
in the drapery over the right arm of Ophiu-    near p Bootes: a mass of small stars
chus: round and faint: near a star of the 37. R.A. 840 15'; dec. N. 320 12'; near -the preninth magnitude: resolved into stars by Sir    ceding: a mass of small stars, with a nebuW. Herschel.                                   iosity, resolved into stars by Sir. W. Herschel.'5. R.A. 3190 40'; dec. N. 100 40'; diam. 3'; 38. R.A. 780 10'; dec. N. 360 12'; near - Aurigae:
between the head of Pegasus and that of the    a square mass of stars.
Little Horse: round, and bright in the center, 39. R.A. 3200 57'; dec. N. 470 25'; diam. 15';
resolved into stars by Sir W. Herschel.        near the Swan's tail: a mass of small stars.
16 R.A. 2710 15'; dec. N. 13~ 51' 44"; diam. 8'; 40. R.A. 1820 45X/'; dec. N. 590 24'; diam. 10;
near the Serpent's tail; a mass of small stars,  at the root of the Great Bear's tail: two stars,
mixed with a faint light, resolved by Sir W.   very near each other.
Herschel.                                  41. R.A. 98~ 58'; dec. S. 200 33'; below Sirius:
17. R.A. 2710 45' 48"; dec. S. 160 14' 44"; diam.  a mass of small stars.
5'; north of the bow of Sagittarius: a train 42. R.A. 800 59' 40"; dec. S. 50 34' 6"; diam. 6,
of faint light, with stars.                    btween 0 and c in Orion's sword: a beauti18. R.A. 2710 34'; dec. S. 170 13'; diam. 5';    ful nebula containing seven small stars.
above the preceding: a mass of small stars, 43. R.A. 810 3'; dec. S. 50 26' 37"; above the
surrounded with nebulosity.                    preceding: a star surrounded with nebulosity.
19. R.A. 2520 1' 45"; dec. S. 250 54' 46"; diam. 44. R.A. 1260 50/'; dec. S. 200 3112'; between
3'; between Scorpio and the right foot of      ~ and J Cancer: a mass of small stars.;Ophiuchus: round; and resolved into stars by 45. R.A. 530 27' 4"; dec. N. 230 22' 41"; the
Sir W. Herschel.                               Pleiades: a cluster of stars.
20. R.A. 2670 4' 5"; dec. S. 22~ 59' 10"; between 46. R.A. 1120 47' 43"; dec. S. 140 19'; between
the bow of Sagittarius and the right footof    the Great Dog's head, and the hind feet of
Ophiuchus: a mass of stars of the eighth and   the Unicorn: a mass of stars with a little
ninth magnitudes, surrounded with nebu-        nebulosity.
losity.                                    47. R.A. 116~ 4'; dec. S. 140 50'; near the pre
21. R.A. 2670 31' 35"; dec. S.: 220 31' 25i"; diam.  ceding: a mass of small stars.
6'; near 11 Sagittarius: similar to'the pre- 48. R.A. 120o  36'; dec. S.' 10 16' 42'; nearshe
ceding.                                       three stars at the root of Unicorn's tail: a
22. R.A. 2750 28' 39", dec. S. 240 6'11"; diam.     mass of small stars.
15'; near 25 Sagittarius: round, and resolved 49. R.A. 1840 26' 58"; dec. N. 90 16' 9"; near'into stars by Sir W. Herschel.;       Virgo.
23. R.A. 2650 42' 50"; dec. S. 180 45', 55"; diam. 50. R.A. 1020 57k'; dec. S. 70 57' 42"; above 9




SIDEMEWAL HEAVENS.
Great Dog: a mass of small stars below Uni- 74., R.A. 210 14'; dec, 150 39 35";: near  ihi the
corn's right thigh.                             string that connects the Fishes: very faint,
51. R.A. 2000 5' 48"; dec. N. 480 24'24"; below     but resolved into stars by-Sir -W. Herschel.
-   Great Bear, near the ear of the Northern  75. R.A. 2980 17' 24"; dec S. 220 32' 23"; be-Greyhound: double: the two atmosphereS,        tween Sagittarius and the head of Cap icorn:
whose centers are 4' 35" distant, touch one     composed of small stars with nebulosity.
another, and are bright in the middle; -the     The astronomer Mechain makes it only neone ~is fainter than -the other: resolved into  bulous. -
stars by Sir. W. Herschel.     -            76. R.A. 220 10' 47"; dec. N. 500 28' 48"; diam.
52. R.A. 3480 393''; dec. N. 60' 22"; below d       2'; in Andromeda's right foot: composed of
Cassiopeia: a mass of stars mixed withl  a neb-  small stars with nebulosity, small and faint.
uloslty, according to Sir W. Herschel: this 77. R.A-. 370 5212; dec. S. 57'43"; in theWhale:
cluster appears like a solid ball, consisting of  a mass of stars containing nebulosity.
small stars, quite compressed into one blaze 78. -R.A. 830 53Y1; dec.-S.-1' 23"; diain. 3'; in
of light, with a great number of loose ones     Orion-: a mnass of stars with two bright nuclei,
surrounding it.                                 surrounded with a nebulosity.
53. R.A. 1950 30'; dec N. 19~22' 44";   near42 79. R.A. 780 49'; dec. S. 240 43";:below the.-Berenice's hair: round, and resolved into stars  Hare: a fine nebula bright in the center, and
by Sir W. Herschel. -     -.                    a litle diffused, resolved into a mottled ne-,54., J.A. 2800 13'; dec. 5.:30o 44'; diam. 6'; in  bulosity by Sir W. Herschel.
- Sagittarius: faint, and bright in the center.   80. R.A. 2416; dec. S. 220 25'; diam. 2'; be55. R.A. 291o  30:'; dec. S. 31~ 26'"; in Sagit —   tween y and J' Scorpio: round, and bright in
tarius; awhite spot, resolved into stars by Sir  the center, like a comet.
W. Herschel.                                81. R.A. 1440 27' 44"; dec. N. 70' 7' 24"; near the
56. R.A. 287o; dec. N..29048'; near the Milky       ear of the GreatBear: a little oval, bright in the
Way, faint, and resolved into stars by Sir W.   center, and exhibiting a mottled nebulosity
HIerschel.                                      to Sir WV. Herschel..57. R.A. 2810 20'; dec. N. 320 46'; between? 82. R.A. 1440 29' 22"; dec. N. 700 44' 27"; near
and C Lyrae: round, and consisting of a mot-    the preceding: faint and elongated, with a
tied nebulosity.                                telescopic star at its extremity; it showed a
58. R.A. 136~ 37'2'; dec. N.- 130 2' 42"; in Vir-    mottled nebulosity to Sir W. Herschel.
go: very, faint, without any star.          83. R.A. 201o   8'; dec. S. 280 42Y2'; near fhe
59. R.A. 1870 41' 38"; dec. N. 120 522'; near        head of the Centaur: very faint.
the preceding: very faint, without any star. 84. R.A. 183~ 301S'; dec. N. 140 7'; in Virgo;
60. R.A. 188o 7'; dec. N. 120 46'; in Virgo:         bright in the center, and surrounded with
brighter than the two preceding.                nebulosity.
61. R.A. 1820 41'; dec. N. 50 12'; in Virgo: very 85. R.A. 183~ 35' 21"; dec. N. 190 24:X; above
faint.                                          and near Spica: very faint.
62. R.A. 2510 4812'; dec. S. 290 452'; in Scor- -86. R.A. 183o 46' 21"; dec. 140 10'; inVirgo.
pio: like a comet, with a brilliant center sur-  the same as No. 84, and near it.
rounded with a faint light; resolved into stars 87. R.A. 1840 56'; dec. N. 130 38'; in Virgo: as:by Sir W. Herschel.'                           luminous as the preceding.
63  R.A. 196o 5'2'; dec. N. 4301-212'; in the Canes 88. R.A. 1850 16'; dec. N. 15o 38'; in Virgo:
Venatici: very faint.                           very faint, and like No. 58.
64. R.A. 1910~ 27' 38"; dec. N. 220 52X''; in 89. R.A. 1860 9' 36"; dec. N. 130 46' 49"; near
Berenice's hair: faint.                         No. 87: very faint.
65 - R.A. 1660 51'; dec. N. 140 16'; in the Lion: 90. R.A. 1860 27'; dec. N. 140 23'; in Virgo:
faint, but resolved into stars by Sir. W.       very faint.
Herschel.                                   91. R.A. 1860 37'; dec. N. 140 57'; above tihe pre66  R.A.- 1670 11' 39"; dec. N. 140 12' 21"; very   ceding: fainter than the preceding.
near the preceding: very faint, but resolved 92. R.A. 2570 38'; dec. N. 430 22"; diam. 5';
into stars by Sir W. Herschel.                  between the knee and left leg of Hercules; a
67. R.A. 1290 7'; dec. N. 120 36' 38"; below        beautiful nebula, bright in the center, and
the northern claw of the Crab: a mass of        surrounded with great nebulosity: resolved
stars with nebulosity. It is a cluster pretty   into stars by Sir W. Herschel.
much compressed, in which Sir W. Herschel 93. R.A. 113~ 48' 35"; dec. S. 23~ 19' 45"; diam.
has observed 200 stars at once with a power     8'; between the Great Dog and Ship: a mass
of 157. (See p. 63.)                            of small stars.,68  R.A; 1860 5412'; dec. S. 250 3013'; diam. 2'; 94. R.A. 1900 10' 46"; dec. N, 420 18' 45";
below the Crow, very faint.                     diam. 232'; above Cor Caroli: bright in the.69. R.A. 2740 11' 46"; dec. S. 320 31' 45"; diam.   center, with a diffused nebulosity.
2'; below the left arm of Sagittarius: faint, 95. R.A. 158o 3' 5"; dec. N. 12~ 50' 21"; in the
like the nuclleus of a small conmet.            Lion, above l: very faint.
70. R.A. 2770 13'; dec. S. 330 31'; diam. 2'; 96. R.A. 1580 46X3'; dec. N. 120 58'; neartho
near the preceding, near four telescopic        preceding: fainter than the preceaing.
stars.'. \                           97. R.A. 1650 18' 40"; dec. N. 560 13k'; diam
71. R.A. 2950 59' 9"; dec. N. 180 13'; diam. 3'      2'; near ~ Great bear: very faint: another near
30"; between -? and J- of the Arrow: very       it, and another near 3.
faint, and resolved into stars by Sir W. Hier- 98. R.A. 1800 50' 49"'; dec. N. 160 8' 15"; above
schel.                                          the north wing of Virgo: very, faint.
72  R.A.. 3100o20' 49"; dec. S. 130 20' 51"; diam. 99. R.A. 1810 55' 19'"; dec. N. 150 37' 12'; on
2'; above the tail of Capricorn: faint, but re-  the north wing of Virgo: brighter than the
solved into stars by Sir W-. Herschel.          preceding: between two stars of the seventh
73. R.A. 311o  43'; dec. S. 130 28' 40"; near the    and eighth magnitude.
preceding; three or four small stars, contain- 100. R.A. 182~ 59' 19"; dec. N. 160 59' 21"; in thle
ing a little nebulosity.                        ear of corn of Virgo,; brighter than No. 98




ABERRATION OF, LIGHIT.                                       81
t)I  R.A. 2080 52'; dec N. 550 24' 25"; diam. 102. Between Omicron iln Bootes and Iota of
7'; between the left hand of Bootes and the      the Dragon, very faint: discovered by Mle-,
tail of the Great Bear; very faint::discover-   chain.
ed by Mechain: mottled nebulosity, accord- 103. Between s and X Cassiopeia:  a mass of.Aig to Sir W  Herschel.                         stars.
C H APT ER XIII.
ON THE ABERRATION OF THE STARS, AND ON THEIR PROPER MOTIONS.
THE aberration of the fixedstarsisasmall change meets the ray, and, as he perceives not his own
of place in the heavens which they seem to under- motion, he supposes the light to be moving ill a
go, and by which they appear to describe, in the different direction, as whon we sail along a windcourse of a year, an ellipsis or circle, the great- ing river, certain objects on the banks appear t..
est diameter of which is about forty- seconds. pass us in differcnt directions.  The eye misses
This remarkable fact was discovered, near the the perpendicular ray, but meets an oblique one,
middle of the last century, by the. celebrated Dr. and thence receives the impression of the light ill
Bradley, formerly Regius Professor of Astronomy the direction which results from  this compound
at Greenwich.                                    motion-namely, in the diagonal of a paralleloIn Chapter IV, when describing the- mode of gram, the sides of which represent the real motion
finding the parallaxes of the fixed stars, I have of light. The spectator sees the star in its true
given a brief detail of the, circumstances  which place only when he is approaching it or receding
led to this discovery, and the observations from  from it in a straight line. When moving in any
which the aberration of the stars. was deduced. other direction, the star appears a little in adBefore perusing  the follo.ving illustrations of vance of its true position; and these apparent
this subject, it may not be improper for the reader charges in the situation of the heavenly bodies,
to reperuse what was therestated in reference to occasioned by the annual motion of the earth,
this point, particularly the illustration of this phe- are distinguished by the aberration of light. They
nomenon, given in the description of Fig. 7 (p. 29, are common, to a certain extent, to all the celestial
30)  It is-there stated that Dr. Bradley and his orbs, and are only more perceptible and striking
friend Mr. Molyneux were very much perplexed  in the case of the fixed stars.  In consequence of
at the result of their observations; since, instead this aberration during the revolution of the earth
of observing a motion indicating an annual paral- round the sun, the stars appear, according as they
lax, they found a result directly opposite to what are situated in the plane of the ecliptic, or in its
they expected,  Many theories and conjectures poles, or somewhere between them, in the first
were proposed to solve the appearances, but no- case, to deviate in a straight line to the right or
thing satisfactory was elicited, until one day, when left of their true place; in the second, to describe
Dri. Bradley was enjoying the amusement of sail- a circle, or something nearly approximating to it;
lig about on the Thames, he observed that every and in the third, an ellipse about that pointwhich
time the boat tacked, the direction of the wind, observation determines to be their real situation.
estimated by the direction of the vane, seemed to    This subject requires a little degree of attention
change.  This immediately suggested to him the in order to a clear understanding of it. Perhaps
cause of the phenomenon which had so much the following illustrations may, in some measure,
perplexed him, and he ultimately found it to be render it plain to the general reader. Suppose A
an optical illusion occasioned by a combination B, in the following figure, to represent a part of
of the motion of light with the motion of his te- the orbit of the earthy and C B a ray of light delescope while observing the polar stars-a dis- scending from a star upon the earth's orbit A B;
covery of no inconsiderable importance, and which
will immortalize the name of this sagacious and                       Fig. 74.
indefatigable astronomer.  He perceived that, if
light is propagated in time, the apparent place of        5  4  3   2   1  0
a fixed object will not be the same when the eye           e Z     i   T
is at test, as when it is moving in any other direction than that of the line passing through the                 \  \
eye and the:object; and that when the eye is
moving in different directions, the apparent place
of the object will be different.  
We see an object in consequence of the rays
of light proceeding from it striking our eyes, and
we see the place- of the object in the direction in
whicha thie  proceed. -If light be in motion and the              \    f, \
-eye at rest, the object will appear in its real
place, provided no refracting medium   intervene;,         I.  
but ifthe eye, be in motion, and this motion in a   
different direction from that of the rays of light,                 \   \    \
the object will not —be seen in its true position.
Let us suppose the earth; in its circuit- round the              B  Xi 
sun, just arrived opposite to:a fixed star, which
Sends off rays pehrpendicularly  to the direction of if the eye be at rest at B, the object wll appear
the earth's nmotion.  The eye of the spectator in the direction B C; but if the eye be moving




8'2                               -'SIDEREAL' HEAVENS.
fronm  A toward B, and light be propagated with  shall be received upon its'cross-wire,'it is etvidint
a'velocity that is to the velocity of the eye (or from what has beell said, that the inclination of
of the earth's motion) as C B to B A, ithat par- the tube must be such as to make P S: S Q:
tide of it, by which the object.wilL be.'iscerned  velocity of light: velocity of the earth:: tanwhen the eye comes to B, will be at, G when the gent 202": 1; and therefore the angle S P Q,
eye is at A; the star, therefore, will appear in  or P S R, by which the axis of the telescope
the direction As C;'and as the earth  moves must deviate from the true direction of the star,
through the equal parts of its orbit, A H,, H  I, must be"202)".
I K, &c., the'light coming from  the star will   The aberration of the stars has also been illusmove through the equal divisions (C d, d e, eflf, tf rated by the direction in;hich a gunner points
-g B, and the star will appear successively in the his gun at a bird on the wing.  Instead of leveldirections H 1 I 2, K 3, L 4,' B 5, which are pa- ing it exactly at the bird, he direc.ts it a little
rall.l to-A C; so that when the eye comes to B, before the bird in the path of its flight, and so
the object will be seen in the direction of B 5.    much the more in proportion as the flight of the
The following is an explanation of this pheno- bird is more rapid compared with that of the shot.
menon as given by Sir John Herschel.  Suppose It may likewise be explained by supposing a perash'ower of'rain to fall perpendicularly in a dead son to'be walking in a shower of rain with a
calm;.a person exposed to-the shower who should  narrow tube in his hand, in which case it is evistand quite still. and upright would receive the dent that the tube must have a certain inclination,
drops on his hat, whiclk would thus shelter him; so that a drop of rain which enters at the top may
but- if he ran forward in any direction they would  fall freely through it without touching its sides;
strike him in the face.  The effect would be the which inclination must be greater or less accordsame as if he remained still, and a wind should  ing to the velocity of the drops with respect to
arise of the same velocity and drift them against the tube.
him.'Suppose a ball to fall from a point A (fig.   From  the discovery of the aberration of the
75) above a horizontal line E  F, and that at B  stars the following conclusions, among others,
was placed to receive it the open mouth of an  have been deduced,-1. That the small apparent
inclined hollow tube P Q; if the tube were held  motion which the fixed stars have about their real
immovable, the ball would strike on its lower places, arises from the proportion which the veloside; but if the tube were carried forward in the city of the earth's motion in its orbit bears to that
direction E F, with a velocity properly adjusted  of light.  This proportion is found to be as 1 to
at every instant to that of the ball, while pre- 10,310; or, in other words, light moves with a
serving its inclination to the horizon, so that when velocity ten thousand three hundred and tell times
the ball in its natural descent reached C, the tube greater than that of the earth in its annual course
should have been carried into the position R S, it round the. sun.*  2. From  this discovery it is
is evident that the' ball would, throughout its proved that the velocity of light is uniform and the
whole descent, be found in the axis of the tube; same, whether as emitted originally from  the sun
and a spectator, referring to the tube the motion  and stars, or reflected from the planets.  The velocity of the earth in its orbit is about 68,000'Fig. 75.                     miles an hour; consequently, the motion of light
in the same time is 701,080,000, or a little more
than seven hundred millions, which gives about
eight minutes and eight seconds as the time it wil:
take in passing from the sun to the earth.t  This
is about the same rate of the Motion of light as
first determined by Roemer from  the eclipses of
Jupiter's satellites; so' that the two discoveries
iR               B    -mutually harmonize and confirm each other, and
t P 2    ~'prove to a demonstration the progressive motion
of light, and that its rate of motion is the same
whether as emanating from  the sun, reflected
from the satellites of Jupiter, or descending from
the stars.  3. The aberration  of light affects
the apparent right ascensions and declinations
of all the stars.  Its effect on each particular
star is to make it apparently describe a small
F                               Q  E         ellipse in the  heavens, having  for its center
the point in which the star would be seen if the
of -the ball, and carried along with the former earth were at rest. Hence, in all very nice calcuunconscious of its motion, would fancy that the lations and determinations of the positions of the
ball had been moving in the inclined direction R  stars, allowance must be made for the effects proS of the-tube's axis. Our eyes and telescopes are duced by aberration. 4. The aberration of light
such tubes.' The earth is moving through space affords a sensible and direct proof of the motion of
with a velocity of nineteen miles -per second in an  the earth in its orbit round the sun.  If the earth
elliptic path round the sun, and is therefore changing the direction of its- motion at every instant.    This is the proportion of radius-to the tangent of twenty:traels withaeoit,of 192,000 mi, es. pr seconds and a half, which is:the greatest apparent displace.
Light travels With a velocity of192,000 miles per ment of the star caused by aberration, and the radius of the
second, which, although much greater than that circle described by the star round4 its real place in the course
of the earth, is yet not infinitely so.  Time is of a year.
occupied by it in traversing any space, and in that   t This  is tound by multiplying 10,310 E.the number of
~occupied by it in traversing any space, and illthattimes that the velocity, of light exceeds that of the earth, by
time the earth describes a space, which is to the  68,000 = the rate of the earth's motion in an hour;, the pro
former as 19 to 192,000, or as the tangent of duct is 701,080,000. This: product divided by 60 gives the
20".5 to radius.  Suppose, now, A P S to repre- rate of motion in a minute = 1,84,666.  Divide  95,000,
sent a ray of light froma star at Aan  let the 000, the distance of the sun from the earth, by this last
sent a -ray of light frorim;a star at- triand let the  number, and the quotient'will give eight minutes and nearly
tuhe, P. Q, be that of a telescope so inclined for- eight seconds as the time light should take in passing frotn
wsrd that the focls' formed by its object-glass the sun to the earth.




PROPER MOTION OF THE'STARS.                                     83
were not in motion, no such effect as that of the or planetary system is moving is yet determined,
aberration of the stars could' take place.: If the although it is admitted that our system has a meoearth were at rest, rays from  a'starwould  pass tion in space, and that the apparent proper moalonIg the axis of a telescope directed to it; but tions of some of the stars maybe thie result of our
were it set -in motion with its present velocity, being carried in a certain direction through absothese rays, would strike against the side of the lute space by this motion., Such a motion, andi
tube, and it would be necessary to. incline the even the direction of it,  might be detected by suchl
telescope a little in order to see the -star. The  sidereal observations as those to which we alludre,,
angle contained between the axis of the telescope if we. knew accurately the apparent proper noand a line drawn to the true place of.the star is tiols of those bodies, and that they were indiejust what we., call its aberration, which  could not pendent of any general motions common to all the
take place if the eartht were not in motion.  That  stars; but in the present stage of sidereal observathle earth is a planetary body moving through the tion, it seems to be the general opinion of tile
depths of space along with the.other planets of  most eminent astronomners, that no sufficient data
our system can be proved by, numerous consider- are yet afforded for deducing defifiite conclusionss
ations; but the fact of the aberration of the stars on this subject.
exhibits this motion to our senses as clearly as if    The following table contains a few specimelns
from a fixed:point in the firmamrent we actually  of.the annual proper motions of the stars in right
belheld it pursuing'its course through the ethereal ascension and de lination, in seconds and decimals
regions; so that the planetary nature of our globe, of a second, selected from the observations of Dr.'
and the truth of the Copernican system, are:no Maskelyne.  T'he first column contains the name
longer to be considered as mere hypotheses, but as of the star; the second, its magnitude; the third,
facts susceptible of the strictest demonstration.   its annual proper motion in right ascension; and
the fourth, its motion, in declination.
ON THE PROPER MOTION OF -THE STARS..,.         M
Names                   nnual MO.Anual Moof the Stars.  asgnitude. ion    in R. A. tion in Dec.
To the eye of a common observer, all the stars. _.ec_ d. _ _                         -.. 
i.of t.e Stars.j.'-Se~           -- g..clis..i,s:
and colfstellations in the heavens appear to pre-   apella           1    +0.21        0.44 N
serve the same relative distances from each other;  Sirius           1    -.4    +-1.04 S.
and even astronomers, not more than two. -centu-  iCastor            1    - 0.15       0.44 S.
ries ago, could perceive no separate motions or  Procyon           1.2    -0.80       -0.95 S.
variations in the positions:of these distant orbs. IPollux               - 0.74       0.00
From' this circumstance they were denominated                      1.2    -0.57   - 0.07 S.
fixed stars, to distinguish them from  the planets,  C Virginis     3    + 0.74        0.24 S
which were observed to shift their positions and   Arcturus         1.26      1.72 S.
to move through different parts of the, heavens.  Altair           1.2     + 0.48   -0.54N.
After' the'telescope, was invented and applied  -a Ly              1    +0.23   -0.7 N
to astronomical instruments, astronomers began  Antares                      0.00              1
to suspect that some of the. stars had a slight  _....,,
degree of proper motion or change in their rela-   In the above table, the sign +  prefixed to the.
tive position, but it was a considerable time before  annual variation of right ascension, indicates thala
such motions could  be distinctly ascertained, the variation is to be added to, and the sign --
These motions first began to be observed by Dr. that it is to be subtracted from, the riglht aseenHlalley, and afterward by Lemonnter and Cassini, sion, to obtain the. true place of the object; at. allny
and were'completely confirmed by Tobias Mayer, given time.
who compared the places of eighty, stars as deter-   It is found that not only among- single,. but,
miined by Roemer with his own observations, and  even among double stars, suchl mo-oLnls exist.
found that the greater part of them  had a proper While revolving round each other in the mantler,
motion. He likewise suggested that the change  formerly' described, they are at the same: time
of place he had: observed among these stars might carried forward through space with a progressivearise from a progressive motion of the sun toward  motion common to both, and without sensiblyonie quarter of the heavens.. La Lande deduced a altering their distances from each. other. One of:'
siinilar opinion from  the rotary motion of the  the most remarkable of, these is the double star
sun,'by supposing that the same mechanical force 61 Cygni, formerly described,wvllose annual parliwhich -gave it a motion round its axis, would also  lax and distance Professor Bessel appears to havee
displace its center; and give it a motion of trans- lately determined.*  Tlietw.ostars of; which it is
lation in absolute space. Of the same opinion  composed are  nearly equal in  apparent sizee.
wyas Sir W. Herschel, and. he attempted, by. a and they have remained, constantly at, the saine
comparison of the proper motions of all the stars  distance of 15 seconds for at least fifty-seven.
that,had been ascertainred, to determine the point years past, or since their: positions; began to be
of the hehavens toward which the motion of.the  accurately observed.  The annual proper motionsun was directed, which he supposed was that of these two stars is found: to be, according to
occunpied by the star Zeta Herculis.            Bessel, 5'.123; which is the greatest annual prope,,If <the' suil really have a motion in absolute:  motion of any. of the stars whicli has yet; been;.
space directed,toward any particular. quarter of discovered; consequently, during the periodnowv,
the heavens, it is  obviou:s'that the stars in that mentioned, they must have shifiedn  their local
quarter mUist, appear to recede from each, other,  situatio-a in the heavens.by a space equal to 4.
whlile those -ii the opposite region, which.-the sun  minutes, 52 seconds; thatis, a space equpal to,,
ls leaving-:beliind, must-seem  gradually to ap- more than one-seventh of the apparent diameter
proach, in the same manner: as when we walk  of the moon. Such a change of place in bodies
through a forest, the ranges of trees to'which we  so  immensely distant as 6200,000,00000,000 of
ldvance are constantly-widening in their.apparent miles indicates a prodigious rapidity of motiont
listance from each other, while. the' distance of " The relative motion of these stars and the sun.s,
those we leave behind is  gradually: contracting.
[t does not, howvever,.appear, from the most recent
)bservations, -that the direction in which- the sun           * See chap. iv, p. 31,&o.
Vol. II. —25




834'SIsEREAL HEAVENS.says Bessei, "must be considerably more: than  If this star be reckoned-at the same distance from
sixteen* semidiaimeters of the earth's prbit; tha t the earth as the doublestar 61 Cygni, the velocity
s 1,552,)000,000 of miles.:Theymust therefore  of its motion every.day will'be,112,000 miles;
move at the rate of four millions two hundred.every hour, 130,000; and every minute, 2,16Q
and fifty-two thousand' miles a day, and one huin-, The annual proper motion of Arcturus, in declie
dred and, seventy-seven: tihousand    miies-,every' nation, is 1".72, which is nearly one-half the mohour;; which is 68;000 miles-aan hour greater than- tion of tcu Cassiopeia; and a great many others are
the velocity Of:Mercury, which is' the.swiftest found by observation to be constantly progressingmoving body.:-in,the -planetary system.  Here, through the heavens by annual intervals of difthen, we- have a system'of bodies of immense ferent degrees in extent, but generally smaller
size. moving with amazing Velocity in different than those stated above. These changes of posidirections; for as"these stars are' doubtless suns, tion in the stars cannot be perceived by the naked
and consequently have a system, of planets re- eye, and are consequently imperceptible to cornvolving round each, the-.planets must move, round  mon observers; and even with the most accurate.
the-sun to which they  more -immediately belong, astronomical instruments some of them cannot
and likewise roundthe other sun, or theircom- be determined until after a lapse of years. Such
mon center of gravity, and at the same time they  motions llgiveus reason to conclude that all.the
are. carried forward to some distant region with  bodies in the,universe are in perpetual motion1
the velocity now stated.                        and many of them acted upon by Separate forces,.Among single stars, that which is marked /  which carry them  in different directions; and
Cassiopeia, one of the smaller stars in that con- although some of these motions appear little more
stellation, is marked as having the greatest proper than just perceptible at the immense distance at
motion of any yet ascertained, The amount of which we are placed from them, yet it is probable
its- annual motion is, estimated at. 3Y  seconds, that even the slowest motion of any of the stars
which in the course of azcentury will amount to  is not less than at the rate of several thousands
6 minutes 15 seconds, a space in the heavens equal of miles every hour, indicating the operation of
t one-fifth of the.apparent diameter of the moon  forces incomprehensible by the human mind.
CHAPTER XIV.'ON THE DESTINATION OF THE STARS; OR, THE DESIGNS THEY ARE
INTENDED TO SUBSERVE IN THE SYSTEM OF THE UNIVERSE.
FoR lmany ages during the infancy of astro- trable darkness, and not an object around us
honly, the stars were considered chiefly as an could be distinguished. In the absence of the
appendage to the world in which we dwell. The moomn all would be dark, as was chaos before light
crystalline sphere in which they were supposed to was formed to illuminate creation. Were the
be fixed was regarded as only the canopy of- man's  light of.the starry orbs extinguished, instead of
terrestrial habitation, and the orbs with which it the grand and beautiful aspect now presented
is diversified as so many brilliant spangles to adorn from above, the firmament would appear only like
it, an'd to diffuse a few glimmering rays to cheer an immense blank, or a boundless desert, whele
the darkness of the night.  This celestial arch, nothing would be seen to stimulate human inin which the sun and moon are also placed, was quiry, or to display the attributes of the Creator.,
supposed to revolve around us every twenty-four Those orbs are likewise of essential service to
hours, producing -ianalternate succession of light differenit departments of human life; they serve
and of darkness, while the earth, as the center of as guidesto the traveler when journeying through
the universe, was- considered as remaining in a vast and unfrequented deserts, and to the mariner
state of perpetual quiescence. Above the visible  when conducting his vessel from  one country to
heavens, where the stars are.placed, nothing was another through the wide and pathless oceanm
supposed to exist'except the throne of the Al- The Pole-star, on account of its apparently fixed
mighty and the abodes of the blessed; and'such position, has in every age been viewed' with
are still the contracted views. of the majority of solicitous attention by the navigator; and before
the inhabitants of our globe respecting that im- the invention of the compass it was his principal
menso and glorious firmament with which we are guide to direct his bark to the desired haven.  In
surrounded... short, by means of the stars we have been enaIt is true indeed that the stars,. in a certain bled to determine the exact length of the day and
subordinate esense, were intended for the benefit of the year, the various-subdivisions of time, the
of man; for we actually derive many advantages commencement and termination of the seasons,
from their apparent motions and influence. They  the circumference of the globe, the density of its
present to our vie.w a scene'of beauty and mag- materialsj and the relative positions of places on
nificonce which enchants the eye and gratifies.the every part of its surface; all which advantages it
imagination, and tends to raise the soul above becomes man duly to appreciate, and with a grategrov'eling pursruits.,and terrestrial vanities. They ful heart to adore the wisdom  and goodness of
cheer the shades of midnight and; enable us to Him'" who. made the sun to rule the day, and the
prosecute our journeys after the'sun has left our moon and. stars to rule the night," and who has
hemisphere;, without the influence of whose light rendered all his arrangements subservient to the
our winter evenings wouldbeo shrouded in impene- happinesss of his, intelligent offspring.'- But although the stars are of essential benefit
*About l6 —See p.'3z2.            to the inhabitants of our globe, yet we ought not




STARS SHINE BY THEIR; OWN NATIVE LIGHT.                                    8
bor a moment to imagine that this was the chief for which the- stars were created, but that:the
and ultimate end for which they were brought-: Deity had a higher and more expansive design.to
into existence. We know' that they are bodies of accomplish in' their formation.  We, do not preimmense size, the.least of, them  many tliousands tend to fathom  all the subordinate designs the
of times larger than our globe.'But such ma num- Creator may have had in his view in the creation'baer of magnificent,globes were not necessary, in of.the stars, or of any other object; but as he has
order to shed''a few glimmering rays upon the- -endowed us with rational faculties for the investiearth; since the creation of an additional moon  gation of his works, it is evident that he intended
would diffuse far nmore light over our world than we should be able to discover some of the main
that which' descends to the earth from'all the and leading designs which he intended to accomvisible stars in the firmament. And'we know  plish in the formation of the great bodies of the
that the Creator does nothing in vain.  It is the universe.
characteristic of infinite wiedom'to proportionate' We therefore maintain that one of the grand
hmeals to- the.end intended to'be accomplished; and leading designs of the creation of the stars
but in ithis case there would be no proportioli- was, that they should serve as suns to give light
Ibetwbeen the means and the end-between cre- to other worlds and systems with which they are
ating a thousand globes'of light of incalculable more immediately connected. This proposition I
m1agnitude, and shedding a few glimmering rays have all along' taken for granted inl the preceding
to a.lleviate-the darkness of midnight; and there- pages, and shall now adduce a few arguments to
fore. this cannot be supposed' the chief end of elucidate and support it.
their creation;, without impeaching the wisdom   - 1. They all shine by their own native light.
and intelligelnce of Him"' who stretched out the This is the peculiar characteristic of a sun in
heavens by' his understanding."' Beides what- distinction from  the planetary globes, which all
ever might.be said in reference to the'stars visible shine with refected light, derived from the lumnito the unassisted eye, it is impossible'lr a mo- nous center around which they revolve.  The
ment to confceive that thos' thousands, and' ten immense distance at which the nearest stars are
thousands, and millions of stars, which are only placed from our globe is a clear proof that they
visiblethrough the mos.t powerful telescopes, and shine, not with  borrowed, but with  inherent
whose light has never yet reached our globe, splendor; for reflected light from such a distance
could have heen created merely for the use of would be entirely dissipated ere it -could reach our
the inhabitints of this earth.  Such a suppo- eyes. This likewise appears from actual observasition most be forever discarded by every one tion, and from  a comparison of the brilliancy of
who would entertain.-an honorable and consistent the fixed stars with that of the planets, in which
ideaiIof the operations of infinite wisdom.      there is found a striking difference. Mercury
What, then, it may -be, asked, is thee chief and  and Venus are the two planets which revolve in
ultimate destination of those. magnificent globes? the immediate neighborhood of the sun, and conWe may answer in general terms, that it is a des- sequently derive from  him  a greater portion of
tination  corresponding  to the  magnitude and light than any of the other planets; yet it is found
grandeur, and the intrinsic splendor of those dis- that the luster of the star Sirius, and even that
tant bodies.  it is the characteristic of every wise of Capella, is much more brilliant than that of
artist and architect, that he selects the most pro- either Mercury or Venus; and it is demonstrably
per means to accomplish the end intended, and certain  that both these  stars are situated far
proportionates every part of a.machine or edifice beyond the orbit of Uranus; and therefore, if they
to all the other parts, so as to produce a harmony derived their light from the sun, they behooved to.and unity of design. A philosophical ilistrument- be incomparably more obscure than any of the
miaker, for example, in constructing an orrery  planets.  The luster and brilliancy which the
does not make'wheels of a hundred yards in dia- fixed -stars exhibit when-viewed with telescopes
meter for carrying balls of less than an inch in of large apertures.'and powers is exceedingly
diameter round a circle of only six feet in circu- strikin.  Sir W. Hersche - seldom  looked at the
ference; nor does a watchmaker employ two larger stars through his forty-feet telescope, be.
hundred wheels' and pinions in the construction cause'their blaze was injurious to his sight. At
of a.tim'epiece, when less than a dozen may suf- one time, after sweeping a portion pf the heavens
fice; nor does an''architect msnake the portico of an with that instrument, he tells us that " the appearedifice five hundred times larger than the whole ance of Sirius announced itself at a great distance
structure.' Were any'individual to act -in this like the dawn of the morning, and came on by
maanner, he would at once be denounced as utterly degrees, increasing in brightness, until this brildestitute of wisdom, and viewed as'a'fool or a liant star at last entered the field of the telescope
maniac.' Now, we are toconsider' the Almighty, with all the splendor of the rising sun and forced
inal-l'hiis arrangemetnlts throughout the universe, me to take my eye -from the beautiful sight."
as acting. on the same general principle which Thllese and other circumstances clearly show that
directs a Wise and intelligent artist in allhis plans the stars are indued with native splendor, and are
and operatiohs; for wisdom is an'essential attribute not dependent on any other luminaries for the
ofthie Divinity, and all his works, when -minutely  brilliancy they-display, and consequently are fitted
hnsected, must necessarily display this perfectionto act as suns for the illumination of opaque
to intelligent minds.  To suppose otherwise, to globes with which they are more immediately
imaginile for a momerint-'either that he' has not pro- connected.
pr)tioned one part of the universe to another, or   2. They are pZeed at an immense distance from
that the, greater part of it was created for no nse our earth and from one another, and consequently
at all, would be the bight of, profanity and im-  it is impossible that they could derive their luster
piety, and would rob the eternal Majesty of -Hea- from our sun; for the sun in his present situation
ven of one of the mos distinguishing attributes could afford thenr no more light than a single star
of his nature. Bearing' tis principle in' mind, we- transmits to our globe; and to some of the more
are necessarily led to the:conclusion-a:conici- distant stars his rars would - be altogether illvisiston as ceinti.as'-any  athematical demonstra- ble.- And if the sun cannot be -supposed to ention' namnely, that the,benefit- of the inhabitants  ighten any of those orbs, from  the distance at
of our giobe was n  the clief or ultimat -designI  which he is placed, there is no other body known




86                                   SIDEREAL HEAVENS.'
to us whence their light may be: derived, if they  may accomplish in the grand scheme of the  ulndo not shine with their own native-:splendor.     verse, bieside.the advantages we derive from them,
3. They are bodies of immense mgnitude.  We  is beyond our province to determine. It is not
have- already shown,, both fiom' mathematical, improbable, however, that every star or system,
considerations and poptlar illustratiolls that the  whether single, binary, or, ternary, may have a
stars are unquestionably ak-.a:vey great- distance subordinate end to serve to every other system, as
from our globe, a distanlce which is almost,acom- forming parts of one whole under the government
prehensible. (Chap;. IV.) Thleir:bulk must there- of Infinite Wisdom. As we derive advantages froln
fore be very great.  If th;er were no larger than  these orbs, distant as they are, and as they diverthe globe on which We. litve' they would be: alto- sify the ceiling of our eaithly habitationl with a
gether invisible, even: altho'ugh they shine with  splendid decoration, so they will likewise adorn
their own native light. Few of them can be con- the firmament of other systems, and display to
sidered as'much less' than our sn, and the greater   view of their inhabitants both the energies of
number of them are inall probability much larger; Omnipotelt Power and the manifold wisdom of
they are therefore fitted by their enormous size, - God.
and their consequent attractive, power, to be the    6. We have some direct indications that the fired
centers of systems of planetary- worlds, and -to  stars are in reality suns. It forms no argument
diffuse around them, to an immense distance a against the idea of the starsbeing the centerlsof
splendid'illumination.  But it would be absurd to  systems, that we have hitherto been unable to
suppose that such a number of vast luminous detect any of their revolving planets; for unless
globes, placed at such immense distances fiom  such planets be far beyond the magnitude of those
each other, and from  the earth,, could have been  belonging to: our system, and unless their surfaces
created solely for the benefit of the inhabitants  be fitted to reflect the rays of light with extraorof. our world; for it would argue a want of wis- dinary brilliancy, we could not expect them to be
dom in not proportioning means to ends; since a  visible at the remote distance at which we are
single star of the one-thousandth part of its pre- placed, since the stars themselves appear only as
sent bulk, placed within a million of miles of the  shining points.  But certain phenomena which
earth, would afford us far more light than all the  have been observed, chiefly within the last censtars put together.                              tury, give indication of the solar nature of the
4. Were we removed to the distance only of the  fixed stars. In the first place, there are phenomnearest stars, our sun would appear no larger ena which indicate that some of them  at least,
than one of those twinkling orbs, and from some  like our sun, have a rotation round their axes.
of them he would disappear altogether; at most, In Chapter VII we have given a brief view of
he would appear only as one of the small stars the phenomena of variable stars. One of these,
which deck the firmament, and probably one only  named Algol, is found regularly to pass through a
of the fifth or sixth magnitude; consequently all change of brightness from  the second to the
the planets of our system  would entirely disap- fourth magnitude, and again to its original bright.
pear. Even Jupiter and Saturn, though each of  ness in two days'and about twenty-one hours
them is a thousand times larger than the earth, The star C Lyra passes through a periodic vrariawould be quite invisible, by reason of their com-  tion, from the third to the fifth magnitude, in six
parative smallness and their shining only by re- days and nine hours.  A star in Hercules varies
flected light. The system  to which we belong  its luster periodically, in the course of sixty days
cannot therefore be supposed to have any immedi- and six hours.  A star in Sobieski's shield changes
ate connection even with the nearest stars; and  from the fifth to the seventh or eighth magnitude,
these stars must be considered as havingappropriate  and returns to its greatest brightness, in a period
purposes to fulfill in their own immediate sphere.  of sixty-two days. These and many other stars
5. The -stars,  in point of number, size and  give pretty evident indications of a rotation round
splendor, constitute almost the whole uni.verse, at their axes. Their periodic changes are exact and
least, so far as it has been unfolded to our view. regular; and, in order to account for the phenomThe bodies'which compose the planetary system  ena, we have only to suppose that one of their
contain a mass of solid matter about 2480 times hemispheres is either covered xwith large dark'arger than that of the earth, and the sun is about spots, or is encompassed with a medium which
500 times greater than the whole of them  taken  prevents it from  emitting so much light to our
together. But this system, great as it'appears in  eyes as the other, and that each hemisphere is
the eyes of mortals, is but as a diminutive ball, presented to our view  in alternate succession
or even as a mere point, when compared with the  Our sun, indeed, would-not exhibit any sensible
myriads of stars which the firmament displays, variation of luster at the distance of the stars,
and which the telescope has brought to view. notwithstanding some large spots on his surface;
These innumerable globes of light were created  but we have no reason to conclude that the stars.
for use —to subserve important purposes in the  although they are all luminous bodies, are exactly!plan of-the Divine administration.  They were  alike in every part of their constitution, since
not launched through the spaces of infinity at variety appears to be a clharacteristic of all the
random, merely to display the energies of Om-ni- arrangements in the universe. The darker hemipotelnce, and to, lightl up the wilds of immen- sphere of the stars to which we allude may prosity with a useless splendor. Such a supposition  duce a change of illumination, which will form
would be derogatory to the attributes and charac- an agreeable vicissitude to the inhabitants of the
ter of the All-wise Creator, and would distort all: worlds which roll around them, and which may
the views we ought to eni'ertain of a Being pos- produce an effect somewhat analagous to that
sessed of infinite perfection,  Those immense  which is produced by the alternate shining of a
bodies must therefore be conceived as intended  white and a yellow sun, as in the case of some of
chiefly to diffuse their light and splendor over the double stars (see pp. 52, 53.)
worlds with which they are more immediately    Again, there are stars whose periods of variable
connected, and for the ultimate design of com- luster are much longer than those now stated.
municating, happiness in various forms to the dif- Some of theni pass through their periodic changes
ferent orders of beings with which they may be in 331 days, some in 494 days, and others not
replenished. What other subordinate ends they  until after the lapse of eighteen yars. Such




FIXED STARS AND SUNS.                                         87
changes, at east in some instances, may be ac- is still susceptible, that this interesting fact, will,
counted for by the intervention of opaque revol- ere long, be determined by ocular demonstration;
ving bodies, or planets' of a large size, passing.and when such a discovery shall have been made,
directly between our eye and the stars'when re- the telescope, which has already disclosed. so many
volving through that half of their' orbits which  wonders, will then have performed one of its
lies next the earth. It is almost certain that either most sublime and mighty achievements.
tile one or the other of the circumstances now       In the meantime, we have no reason to entermentioned is the cause which produces the phe- tain the least doubt that the stars are in reality
nomena of variablei'stars, and in either -case'a suns and the distributors of light to other worlds
strong presumption is afforded of the reality of  any more than we ought to doubt of the motion
other planetary systems. If rotation be-the cause  of the earth, because we have never, from a fixed
of the changes alluded to, the analogy between  point in the firinament, beheld it wheeling its
our sun and the stars' is almost verified, for the rapid course through the ethereal spaces around
rost eminent philosophers have always considered  the sun. Since the stars cannot, With the least
that the rotation of an orb is necessarily connect- show of reason, besupposed to have been creared
ed both with motion in space, and with the exist- chiefly for the use of'our globe, it is as certain
ence of revolving planets.  If such changes arise  as, moral demonstration canl make it, that they
from' the- interposition  of opaque globes,: as is were principally intended to fulfill a higher and a
highly probable in some of the cas-es we have  nobler purpose, and that'this purpose has a resstated, then we have direct evidence that the stars pect to the accommodation and happiness of inare, in reality the centers- of systems, and that telligent existence, either in the stars themselves
their planets are constructed on a scale of magni- or inl worlds which revolve around them; for
ficence far surpassing that of our solar systeisi. theCreator and Governor of the universe must
(See Ch. VII, pp. 43, 44.)  It is highly probable  be considered, in all his arrangements,' as acting
that both the causes to'which we have now ad- in perfect consistency with those perfections of
verted operate in, producing the phenomena of  his nature-with which he is eternally and essenvariable'stars.  Those' whose periodic varia- tially invested. But to suppose the innumerable
tions are the shortest may be produced by ro-'host of stars to. be only so many vast insulated
tation, and those in which years-are requisite  globes,'hung up to irradiate the void spaces of
to accomplish, all' the,. changes,_ may arise from  infinitude, would, be repugnant to all the concepthe intervention of very' large opaque revolving  tions which reason and revelation lead us to form
bodies.                                           of a Being'of infinite perfection.
It has been surmised by some astronomers that   If then, the fixed stars are the centers of light
certain.very.small stars which accompany larger and influence to surrounding worlds, how  imones probably shine by reflected light. Sir John  mense must that empire be over which the moral
Herschel, a few years ago,' called the attention of government of,the Almighty extends!-how  exastronomical observers to this point.  Tie stars pausive the range, and how diversified the order
to which he has requested particular attention are  of planetary systems!-how  numerous beyond
such as the following: —Urse Majoris,   I Hydrne, calculation the worlds which  incessantly  roll
~ G emillorum; a 2 Cancri, a 2 Capricorni, and  throughout the, immensity  of space!   What
several others. Iota Ufrse is a star of the third or countless legions of intellectual beings, of every
fourth magnitude, in the fore foot of the Great rank and capacity must crowd  the boundless
Bear: right ascension, 8h. 46' 54"; north declina- dominions of the King eternal, immortal, and
tion, 470 51' 20".  Gamma Hydre is a star of the  invisible!-and how gloriousand incomprehensible
fourth magnitude, about thirty-five degrees south- must he be whose word caused this vast fabric to
east from Regulus, and about twenty-nine degrees start into existence, and who superintends every
west by south from  Spica Virginis: right ascen-  moment the immensity of beings with which it
eion, 11h. 16' 57"; south declination, 160 42'. is replenished!  In attempting  to grasp' such
Kappa Geminorum  is a star of the fourth magni- scenes the human mind is bewildered. and overtude, situated about three degrees and a half south  whelmed, and can only exclaim, " GREAT AND
of Pollux: right ascension, 7h. 33' 38"; north de- MARVELOUS ARE THY WORKS, LORD GOD ALMIGHrY."
clination, 240 49'. The star at 2 Capricorni is of
the third magnitude, about twenty-two degrees  Seest thou these orbs that numerous roll above?
ut~h  b astof Altu aird, abtnd about ytwo deg~rees  Those lamps that nightly greet thy visual powers
south by east of ltair,   and about two degrees       A          hbright  capacious sun like ours.
and a half north of' Capricorni, &c. It is to        The telescopic tube will still descry'the very small and point-like stars which accom-     Myriads behind that'scape the naked eye,
Andfarther ona new discovery trace
pany -these that the attention is-to be directed;    ATdofahthe ondanewdiscoverytrace
Through the deep regions of encompassed space.
they are minute points of light which call onlyf      if each bright star so many suns are found
-be perceived by telescopes of considerable power.    With planetary systems-circled round,
Some- of these are suspected as shiflng'with re     - What vast infinitude of worlds may grace,
flected light; and if this point could: be ascertained,  What beings people the stupendous spacei
Whatever race possess the ethereal plain,
it would,form a direct proof of planets circulating  What orbs they people,' or what ranks maintain?
around stars ound  and enlightened  by their beamns.  Though the deep secret heaven conceals below,
We have reason to hope, from the increase of as-      Qne truthof universal scope we know;
observers, from  the   cuacy with  Our nobler part, the same ethereal mind,
tronomical observrs, from the acuracy  with           Relates our earth to all their reasoning kind,
which': sidereal observations are, now conducted,.One Deity, one sole creating cause,
and from the improvements of which the telescope      Our active cares and joint devotion draws."




-CHNAPTER X v.
ON UNKNOWN CELESTIAL BODIES —ON METEORIC-PHENOMENA —AND ON
SHOOTING STARS.
W~ are nbt to imagine thatwe have yet dis- mutual gravitation, and whose views have bein
covered the greater part of the bodies which exist partly confirmed by the discoveries of Herschel.
in those spaces whose range'lies within the-reach This illustrious mathematician and astronomer
of our'telescopes.<' All the ediscoverieswhich have endeav ors to prove, by an induction of facts and
hitherto; beewn made in the "heavens have been reasonings, that, in order to the stability of those
owing to' the' light emitted by very distant' orbs systems, it is necessary, on the principles of unihaving been concentrated on the eyeby the mag- versal gravitation, that, there  be a large centrtd
nifying an'd space-penetrating power of the tele-  body, around which all the individuals which
scope;' but it is'not improbable -that-there are compose the system revolve..There is no necesnumerous'bodies within the circuit of the visible sity that such a central body should possess origiheavens which send forth no rays of light suscep- nal or underived light. The fixed stais do not
tible of being refracted or reflected to the eye by stand in need of it; and as for itself, if it require
our'fidnest instruments. Some of the largest bodies illumination, it will receive it fiom the suns that
in the universe may either be opaque globes, or are more immediately adjacent. As to the mnaqso slightly illur6inated that no traces of their ex- nitude of such a center, Lambert estimates that
istence can ever be perceived froln the region we the central body of the system  to which we benow' occupy. The greater part, if not the whole, long must have a diameter at least. equal to tho
of the orbs which have been described'in the fir- whole circumference of the orbit of Saturn. " The'mament, with'the exception of the planets and magnitude of those bodies,"' he says, "ought not
comets of our system, are globes which shine to alarm us, for, in the first place, we have nothing
with their own inherent luster, without which to do with their bulk, but with their density or
their existence would have been to"' us forever quantity of matter by which the law of gravitaunknown. We are not warranted to call iii ques- tiou is regulated. We. have no idea of the density
tion the existence of any class:of bodies merely of matter that'is not porous; perhaps gold, the
because our limited organs of perception and our most dense of terrestrial substances, would be
situation in the universe prevent us from perceiv- found a mere sponge compared with such a cening them.  We have never yetbeheld the planets tral body.  Beside, nothing is great or small in imwhich doubtless circulate around other suns, al- mensity;'and since on the wing of light we can trathough there can be no question- that such bodies verse the vast regions of the heavens, matter and
really exist; and there may be opaque globes of volumes ought nolongertoexciteourastonishment.
a size incomparably largei than either planets or Beginning with the satellites, even suns are but
suns, which may serve as the centers of certain bodies of the first' magnitude; the centers of the
systems, or for some other important purposes fixed stars, of the fourth; those of groups of sys.
to us unknown; for all that we have yet explored tems, of the fifth, and so of the rest."
of the distant regions of creation is but the mere   Lambert supposes that since such bodies must
outskirts of that boundless empire which stretches be-of enormous bulk, and illuminated beside by
out oin every hand toward ilfinity. It is not un- one or more fixed stars, it might. be possible to
reasonable to believe that the number of magnifi- perceive the one which belongs to our own syscent bodies imperceptible to our organs of vision tem, either in -whole or in part, with the help of
may far. exceed all that we have hitherto discover- the telescope; that its apparent diameter may be
ed either by the naked eye or the telescope, even very considerable; that, however weak its reflectwithin the compass of that region which lies open ed light, it may not be enfeebled to such a degree
to human inspection.                           as -to be rendered imperceptible; that, being enIt has been remarked by La Place, that "a   u- lightened by one or more suns, it ought to pr'esent
minous star of the same density as the earth, and phases analogous to those of the moon; that sucll
whose diameter should be two-hundred and fifty a central body ought to extend its influence even
times larger than that of the sun, would not, in to the extremities of its system, and consequen tly
consequence of its attraction, allow any of its ought to appear under a sensible diameter, or at
rays to arrive at us."  "A  star which, without least be visible by the telescope; and that as the
being  of this magnitude, should yet considerably attractive force of a body decreases as the square
surpass'the sun, would:'peiceptibly  weaken the of the sine of its apparent semidiameter, so this
velocity of its light, and thus augment the extent apparent semidiameter cannot be invisible in any
of its abberration."  It is therefore possible that place to which its attractive force and its sphere
the largest linminous bodies ill the universe, if their of activity extend. Without sanctioning all, the
Internal structure be composed of dense materials,' opinions which this ingenious mathematician has
would be invisible to us, in consequence of their thrown out on this point, we may admit that the
great attractive power preventing their light from  subject is worthy of special attention, and might
reaching the system  to which we belong. In be kept in view when we are exploring the heaCliapter XII, I have given a brief view of the vens. with our best telescopes. What if some of
ideas entertained by Lambert respecting -the ar- the planetary nebulae be bodies of a nature similar
rangement of the universe into'distinct systems to those to which we have now alluded?
of stars which havea, more immediate connection   I-f opaque globes of a prodigious size exist
with one another in consequence of the law of throughout the regions of the firmament, as there
(88)




NOVEMBER M/TEORS.                                          89
Is reason to believe, they would afford usa clue'for non, though most frequentiy observed in tropical
unraveling certain phenomena which have hith- regions, is common in all parts of tile earltli, and
erto remained in some degree inexplicable. Stars has been seen in almost every season of the year.
have appeared all at once, and, after having shone A shooting star seem's to burst from a clear sky,
for a year or more with a brilliant- light, have and to dart across the heavens with a long trailn
graduudlly disappeared.  Certain stars are found to of light, which in a few seconds leaves no trace
pass through regular variations of luster, and for behind..Dr. Burney, of Gosport, for several years
a certain period entirely disappear, but after a kept a record of such of these bodies as came under
lapse of a certain number -of months, or days re- his own observation, and found that in the year
appear, and resume their former brightness., Onl 1819 there were 121, and in 1820 about 131; but a
the supposition that opaque bodies exist nearly il much greater number than these would doubtless
the direction of suchl stars, some of these pheiio- be perceived could we detect all that make their
inena would admit of an easy explanation. Their appearance in tile sky, thle greater proportion, in
appearing and  disappearing might be nothing all probability, being visible' only during tle hours
more than an occultation or an eclipse, caused usually allotted to sleep. Various opilnions have
by the interposition, of- the opaque globe between  beun entertained respecting the Cause of these ap-our eye and the star.:  This would, indeed, s'up-  pearances.  Beccaria was of opinion they were
pose moeion- to exist either in the opaque body, or occasioned by electricity, and brought forward the
in the star, or in the eye of the observer; and-pel-  followillg facts as corroborative of his hypothesis:
haps the annual motiol of the-earth, or tlle motion  -,Aboult al hour after sunset, he and some friends
of the sun in absolute space, might contribute, in that were with him  observed a falling star directa certain degree, to produce the effect.  Motion, ing its course directly toward them and apparently
of some kind or other,,must necessarily-be sup- growing larger.and larger, but just before it
posed, in order to account for the phenomena of reached  them  it disappeared.   On vanishing,
variable stars, whatever hypothesis we may adopt their faces, hands, and clothes, with the earth and
for their explanation; but-as nothing decisive can all the neighboring objects, became suddenly-illube stated  on this subject, inl the meantime I minated with a diffused and lambent light. Dushall, proceed to the consideration of some: me- ring their surprise at this appearance, a servant
teoric pllenomena which are now  supposed to informed them that lie had seen a light shine sudhave a conrlection with certain moving:bodies in denly in tile garden, and especially upoll the streams
the heavens.  that lie hlad bee.n throwing to water it; wheln,
sending up) an electrical kite into the atmosphere,:MPETEORIC PHENOMENA AND SHOOTING STAfRS.   ihe likewise observed a quantity of electric matter
about the kite, which assumed the appearance of
1n-l my volume entitled "Celestial Seenery,"  a falling star. Wlatever be the cause of shootwhen describing tle small planets Vesta, Juno, ing stars, it is pretty evident that they have their
Ceres, and Pallas, I hlave given a detail of Certain  origin at a very considerable elevation above the
facts respecting thle fall of large masses of solid earth. Brydone illnforms us that, from the top of
matter from the higher regionls of the atmosphere, Mount Etna, he noticed some of these meteors,'usually denominated meteoric stonles, which, there "-which still appeared to be as much elevated
is every reason to believe, descend from  regiolls above us as when seen fromn the plain; so that in
at a considerable distance, and even beyond the all probability those bodies move in regions much
sphlere of thle moon. Suclh phellomenal  seem to beyond the boulnds which sonle philosophers have
lindicate the probability that certain opaque bodies, assigned to our atmosphere."
of different dimensions, are revolvillg tllroughll    The most striking alnd remarkable form  in
space ill certain regions within the limits of our which shlooting stars ]lave appeared is that of
systemn.  " Nor is thi.s," says Mrs. Somerville, " nmeteoric shlowers.,"  when thousandlls of those
"an llunwarranted presumptioll; manly suchl do bodies have appeared to sweep along at once, and
come within the sphere of tile earthl's attractiol, in conltiinued succession for'several hours, so that
are iglnited, by tile velocity with which thley pass almost thle whole visible calopy of the sky seemed
throulgh tile atllosphllere, anmd are preCipiitated Wiith  to be ill a bllaze. As this phlenomelon has recently'great violence, upon tile eartl. - Thle fall of umete- excited considerable attention among phlilosophers,
oric stolies is mucht more frequenllt tlall is geler- -Iand as it is nIow generally consideredas con'lected
ally believed.  Hardly a year passes withlout some with some llovillg bodies in tile ileavens, I shall,
ilIstances occurring; and if it be considered that ill tile first place, give a detail of some of the
only a small part of tile eartlh is illhabited, it may  more remarlkable circutmstances witi which it has
be presumed that numbers fall inl tile ocean, or o011 beeiln attellded, as described by those who'were
the uuinhabited part of thle land, ulseenl by man. eye-witllesses of tlie scelle.  One of the most reThey are somnetilnes of great maglitude; thle vol- markable displays of the phenomenella to which we
unle of. several has exceeded thlat of a body of allude is that wllicll was seen on the evening of
sevenlty mniles inll diameter.  One wwhich passed the 12th and the morillng of tile 13th of NovemWithlin twelity-five miles of us'was -estimated to bear, 1833, il tile Ullited States of America.  The
weigll about 600,000 tons, and to move witll a followilg accoult of it is albridged from the New
velocity of about twenlty miles ill a second, a frag- York  Commercial Advertiser of November 13,
meait of it alone reached thle earth. - The obliqui- 1833 
ty  f'the descent of meteorites, the peculiar sub-  -"The sky was remarkably clear on the night
stances they are composed of,-and the explosion of this remarkable phenomenol.  Some time beaccompallyillg their fall, show thatlthey are for- fore twelve'clock, tile meteors so frequemltl)
Iga to our system."'                 seen oln summer evenings, called shooting stars,
-But, without resuming the cosideration of this were observed to fall with unusual frequelcy an4
particular phellnomenolln, there-is allother which of splenldor.  They conltiued from that hour to flash
late yearls' las excited a colsiderable degree of at- athllwart tle skies more and more, ultil they were
4teintion, ald which may proceed from  a cause eclipsed by the glories of the rising sun this mornsomewllat siilar, to Wliich I lshall chiefly direct lhg. From four to six they were most nlumerous
tlie attentiol; of tile reader-nilanely, thle phleno- ald refulgent.  Within the scope that the eye
01on of swoting or falling stars.  This phenome- could contain, more than twenty could be seen at




90                                 SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
a`time shooting (save upward) in every direction. -written, and which'could not have been noticed
Not a cloud obscured the broad expanse, and mil- by me had I not kept my eye on the center or
lions of meteors sped their way- across it on every  point from whence the meteors all shot forth for
point of the compass.  Were it possible to enu- a considerable time, and that was. an appearance
molerate them in the swiftness of their ariowy haste,  of -a star less at first than the stars of the constelwe might venture to say that for the space of two lation by which it was surrounded, but it would
hours, intervening between four land six, more  increase until it was much larger than the stars,
than a thousand  per minute might have been  then totally disappear from ten to fifteen minutes,
counted. Their coruscations were bright, gleamy, and then appear again; but the meteors shot forth
and incessant, and they fell thick as the:.flakes in  ini greater numbers in the interval between the
the early snows of December. In one.instance appearances above-mentioned."*
we distinctly heard the explosion'of a meteor that"  It is worthy of particular notice, that the point
shot across to the north-west, leaving a broad and  from which the meteors seemed to emanate was
luIninous track.; and witnessed another which left observed, by those who'fixed its position among,a path of light that was. clearly discernible for the stars,-to be!in the constellation Leo;* and, ac~more than tell minutes' after the ball, if such it be, cording to their concurrent testimony, this radiant
had exploded.  Its length was graduailly shortened, point was stationary among the stars during the
widening in the center,.and apparently co'sisted  whole period of observation-that is, it did not
of separate and distinct globules of light, drawn  move along with the earth in its diurnal revoluaround, a common center, glimmeriiig less and  tion eastward, but accompanied the stars in their
less vividly.until they finally faded in the distance. apparent progress westward, which proves the eleCompared with the splendor of this celestial ei- vation of' the meteors to-be far beyond our atmoshilbition, the most brilliant rockets and fireworks phere.  The following cut represents the appearof art bore less relation than the twinkling of the  ance of these meteors for several hours, as seen at
most-tiny star to the broad glare of the sun. The
whole heavens seemed in motion, and never be-                          Fig. 76.,
~ fore has it fallen to our lot to observe a phenomenon so magnificent and sublime."
Var;ous similar accounts of the same phenomena were given in the Philadelphia, Hartford, Boston, and other newspapers of the same date, of'which  the following are extracts:
"From a point in the heavens, about fifteen de.
grees south-easterly from our- zenith, the meteors
darted to the, horizon in every point of the compass.  Their paths were described in curve lines
similar to those of the circles of longitude on an
artificial globe. They were. generally short in
their Course, resembling much an interrupted line,
thus.  Theyzceased to ap- Boston, Newv York, Philadelphia, and other places
poar when within ten degrees of the horizon. I in the eastern parts of the United States.  It is
dild not see a single meteor pass the meteoric pole copied from one of the Am      erican peridicals pubI have described, nor one pass in a horizontal di- lished about the time when those phenomena aprection.. Several of them afforded as much light peared.
as faint lightning.  One in the north-east was    Meteoric phenomena nearly resembling'What
heard to explode with a sound like that of the rush  has been now described, have occurred at several
of the distant sky-rocket.  Millions of these me- former periods. One remarkable instance of what
teors must have been darted in this shower. The  was called " showers of fire," occurred over eighty
singularity of this meteoric shower consisted in  years ago in South America. At Quito, so many
the countless number of the celestial rockets, and  falling stars were seen above the volcano of Gamore especially in their constant uniform  diverg- yambo, that the inhabitants were led to inmagine
enqe from near the zenith.":           the mountain to be in flames.  The people assemThe following was an account sent by Profes- bled ini the plain of Exico, and a procession was
sor Thomson, of Nashville, to Professor Olmsted, about to set out in consequence from the convent
of New  Haven, of the meteors which appeared  of St. Francis, when they discovered the phenomNovember 13, 1833, as seen in the State of Mis- enon to be occasioned by meteors which ran along
sissippi:-" About anil hour before daylight I was the skies in all directions.
called to see the falling meteors; it was the most   A more extensive and remarkable phenomenon
sublime and brilliant sight I had ever witnessed. of this kind occurred in the night of the 12th of
The largest of the falling bodies appeared about November, 1779. Of this appearance, as it was
the size of Jupiter or Venus when brightest. The  seen at Cumana, an accurate account has been
sky presented the appearance of a shower of stars, given by M. Humboldt and M. Bonpland.  It ocwhich many thought were real stars and omens of curred toward the morning, when thousands of
dreadful events. I noticed the appearance of a meteors, eolides, fire-balls, or falling stars, as they
radiating  point, which I conceived to be the van- were variously denominated, succeeded each other
isling point of straight lines as seen in perspective. during four hours.  Their direction was from
This point appeared to be stationary.  The meteors north to south. They rose in the horizon at eastfell to the earth at an angle of about seventy-five  north-east, followed the direction of the meridian,
degrees with the, horizon, msoving from the east and fell toward the south. There was little wind,
toward, the west."  The following is from a wri- and this from  the east. No trace of clouds was
ter in the Boston Christian Register:-" My first seen. There was not a space' in the firmament
attention was to determine the center or point from
which the meteors started, which, from the place     This astonishing exhibition covered a very considerable
where I stood (lat. 426 45' N.),'appeared- in the part of the earth's surface. It has been traced from the
eartnear Regulu  ongitude of 610 in the Atlantic Ocean to 100~ in Central
Lin's heartnear Regulus. There  is one thing Mexico, and from the North American lakes to the West
that I have not seen noticed by any,that have Indies.




CIRCUMSTANCES. ATTENDING METEORIC SHOWERS                                    91
equal in extent to three diameters df the moon annual phenomenon.  According to his, notion,
which was not filled with burning stars.  They  the zodiacal light is an attribute of the same
were of different sizes; they left luminous traces cause, or an emanation from  the same radiant
of from five to ten degrees in length. The ap- Accordingly, my friend Dr. Olmsted was fortupqarance of these traces continued seven or.eight- nate enough to see just so much of the zodiacal
seconds.  Many of the stars had a distinct nucleus light last May' as to enable him  to identify it
as large as the apparent disc of Jupiter.  The with the phenomena of November, 1834, except
largest were from 10 to 10 13' in diameter. Their that.it.was in the other node."
light was white, and they seemed to burst as by    One of the most remarkable circumstances
explosion.  They were seen by all the inhabitants attending this display, in 1833, was, that the meof Cumana, the oldest of. whom asserted thaf the teors all seemed to emanate from  one and the
great earthquakes of 1766 were preceded by simni- same point, a little south-east of the zenith. Follar phenomena.                                  lowing the arch of the sky, they ran along with
It is a circumstance worthy of particular no- immense velocity, describing in some instances
tice,' that these meteoric showers have taken place an are of 300 or 400 in a few seconds. On an
chiefly on the 12th and 13th of November, and attentive inspection, it was seen that the meteors
hence they are now distinguished by the name of exhibited three distinct varieties; the first consistthe November Meteors.  Captain Hammond gives ing of phosphoric lines, apparently described by a
the following account of shooting stars seen at point; the second, of large fire-balls that at interMocha, on the Red Sea, November 13th, 1832, the vals darted along the sky, leaving lumninous trains
day and month on which they have most general- which occasionally remained in view for a numly been seen:-" From  one o'clock, A. M., until her of minutes, and in some cases for half an
after daylight, there was a very unusual phenom- hour or more; the third, of undefined luminous
enon in the heavens. It appeared like meteors bodies, which remained nearly stationary in the
bursting in every direction.  The sky at the time heavens for a considerable time.  Those of the
was clear, the'stars and moon bright, with streaks first variety were the most numerous, and reof light and thin white clouds interspersed in the sembled a shower of fiery snow driven with insky. On landing in the morning, I inquired of conceivable velocity.  The second kind appeared
the Arabs if they had noticed the above.  They  more like falling stars,-a spectacle which was
said they had been observing it most of the night. contemplated by certain  beholders with great
I asked them if ever the like had appeared before? amazement and terror.  They were sometimes of
The oldest of them replied that it had not."    enormous size. One of them seen in North CaOn the morning of the 12th of November, 1799, rolina appeared larger than the full moon rising,
a remarkable phenomenon of this kind was seen  and its light rendered even small objects visible.
by Mr. Ellicot, near Cape Florida, which he thus The same ball, or a similar one, seen at New Hadescribes:-'" The phenomenon was grand and  van, passed off in a north-west direction and exawful; the whole heavens appeared as if illumi- ploded a little northward of the star Capella, leavnated with sky-rockets, which disappeared only ing a train of peculiar beauty.  Tile line of diwith the light of the sun after daybreak. The rection was at first nearly straight, but it soon
meteors, which at any one instant of time appeared  began to contract in length, to dilate in breadth,
as numerous as the stars, flew in all possible direc- and to assume the figure of a serpent scrolling
tions, exceptfrom the earth, toward which they all itself up until it appeared like a luminous cloud
inolined more or less, and some of them descended  of vapor floating gracefully in the air, where it
perpendicularly over the vessel we were in, so remained in full view for several minutes.  Of
that we were in constant dread of their falling on the third variety, the following are examples:us."  The same appearances were observed on At Poland, State of Ohio, a luminous body was
the same night at Santa F6, Cumana, Quito, and  distinctly visible in the north-east for more than
Peru, in South America, as far north as Labrador an hour. It was very brilliant, in the form of a
and Greenland, and as far east as Weimar in pruning hook, and apparently twenty feet long
Germany; thus having been visible over an ex- and eighteen inches broad. It gradually settled
tent on the globe of 640 in latitude, and 940 of toward the horizon until it disappeared. At Nilongitude. Meteoric showers were also seen on  agara Falls, a large luminous body, shaped like a
the morning of the 13th of November, 1831, in square table, was seen near the zenith, remaining
the Ohio country, and along the coast of Spain.  for some time almost stationary, emitting large
Flights of shooting stars, more or less numerous, streams of light.
have been seen in different places, both in Europe    The recurrence of this wonderful phenomenon
and -America, at the same period-namely, the at the same season of the year soon attracted the
13th of November, in the years 1834, 1835, 1836, attention of the philosophers of Europe, and they
and 1837, so that they are now considered as a resolved to watch more particularly the aspect of
regular periodical phenomenon. In a letter I re- the nocturnal heavens in the month of November.
ceived, in 1837, from  Elijah H. Burritt, Esq.,, The celebrated M. Arago made arrangements to
A. M., a scientific gentleman in the state of Con- procure simultaneous observations from  the difnecticut, and a correspondent of Professor Olmin- ferent parts of France, for the night between the
sted, lie has the following notice on the subject: 12th and 13th of November, 1836. The follow"With respect to the stlooting stars, I believe, ing is the substance of the report which was
Professor Olmsted is now very strong in the be- published of these observations.  The places at
lief that they are exactly periodical and annual. which observations were made, and the number
The recurrence of this singular phenomenon on  of meteors counted, were as follows:
the morning of the 13th of November, 1836, and Paris, at the observatory.............170
very nearly at the same hour,-the radiation of Dieppe, 100 miles north-west of Paris......  36
the meteors from the same point of the heavens, Arras, 100 miles north of Paris............  27
differing only one half a degree (as did those of Strasburg, 250 miles east of Paris......... 85
1834), namely 1450 right ascension in the face Von Altemare. 260 miles south-east of Paris.. 75
of Leo, and all the attending phenomena being Angou, 180 miles south-west of Paris.          49
the same, though upon a scale less magnificent,- Rochefort, 260 miles south-south-west of Paris 23
settle the questi in as to its being a regular and Havre, 120 miles west of Paris............ 300




92                                  SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
Beside these positivc observations, iiiformation different situations -to  have described  arcs -t
was received of similar phenomena having been great circles.
observed at other places.  In the neighborhood    5. They entered the earth's atmosphere  with
of Tours, for example, the peasants declared they velocity equal to about foiur miles per second, o
had seen a rain of fire during the night; an-d in more than ten times greater than the:maximnum
the valley of the Rhone, near Culloy, three aste- velocity of a cannon ball, and about nineteen
roids succeeded each' other with such rapidity times that of sound.  This was inferred from
that the people, seeing them  through-a fog,' sup- the laws of falling bodies.
posed them to be flashes of lightning, or a repeti-'  6. The meteors consisted of combustible matter
tion of the brilliant aurora of the,18th of October. and took fire and were consumed in traversing the
As in the great meteoric shower of 1833, so at atmosphere.  They were seen -gl6wing with inthis time, the greater part of the falling stars tense light and heat, increasing in size and splenwhich were particularly observed, seemied to issue dor as they approached the earth.  They were
from  a point in the constellatio'n of Leo.  Of seen extinguished in a manner'in all respects
those noticed at Bei'cy, fifty seven'traversed lines resembling a combustible body like a sky-rocket;
which, if:continued, would have- ended.in that and in the case of the larger, a cloud of luminous
constellation;  and of eighty-five o'berved at'Stras- vapor'was seen as the product of combustion.
-burg, fifty-seven had similar courses. M. Arago  That they took fire in the atmosphere is inferred
purposes an inquiry, whethler, from"their number, from the fact that they were not luminous in
~this`shower of fallinlgstars may or may not be con- their original situation in space, otherwise'the'sidered unusual; and he gives the following com- body from which they emanated would have been
parisons: At Paris, on the preceding:night, none visible.
were:seen, during'an hour.; from  three to five    7. Some ofthe larger meteors must have been bodies
were seen in the same space of time on the of great size.  Some of them appeared larger than
night after the shower, and from'two to three on' the full moon rising. Such a body seen at 110
th6 second night.  On the preceding night, at miles distance behooved to have been one mile in
Bercy, not one was seen ill two hours.  At Von diameter; at fifty-five miles, one half mile; at 22
Altemare, on the 6th of November, noine were miles, one-fifth of a mile; at 5   miles, one twenseen during two hours' watching; on the 7th, there tieth of a mile, or 264 feet.
were four in four hours; on the 8th, none in    8. The meteors were constituted of light and
three hours; on' the 9th, one in.six hours; and transparent materials.  They were of light mateon the 14th, two. -in six hours.                 rials, otherwise their momentum would have been
I have been somewhat particular in stating the sufficient to enable them to make their way through
more remarkable circumstances connected with the atmosphere to the surface of the earth. They
this phenomenon, as there is every reason to be- were~ transparent bodies, otherwise we cannot
[ieve that it is produced by an unknown-celestial conceive how; they could have existed together in
body at a considerable-distance from  the earth; their original state. without being visible by reand I shall', now proceed to give a brief view of flected light.
the- opinions, which certain philosophers enter-   9. The next, and one of the principal subjects
tain, and the deductions they have been led to of inquiry was, What relations did the body which
make iun reference to this subject.              afforded the meteoric shower sustain to the earth?In; the "American Journal of Science" for Was it of the nature of a satellite that revolves
April, 1834, Dr. Olmisted, professor of nmathema- round the earth as its center of motion?  Was it
tics and' natural philosophy in Yale College, New  a'collection of nebulous matter which the earth
Haven, has entered into an elaborate investiga- encountered in its annual motion? or was it a
tion of this subject in a communication which comet which chanced at this time to be pursuing
occupies about forty-two pages.  The whole of its path along with the earth around their conmthis paper is well worthy of the attentive perusal mon center of motion?  It could not have been a
of the philosophic' inquirer, but the limits to. satellite, because it remained so long stationary
which I'am  necessarily confined in this chapter with respect to the earth; nor was it a nebzula,
will permit me to state only the general results of either stationary or wandering lawless through
the professor's investigations; all of which appear space.  Such a collection of matter could not reto be deduced from  the phenomena with great main stationary within the solar system; and had it
acuteness and ingenuity of reasoning.  These been in motion in any other direction than that in
results are:                                     which the earth was moving, it would soon have
1. That the meteors of November 13 had their. been separated from  the earth, since during the
origin beyond the limits of-our atmosphere.  For the eight hours while the meteoric shower lasted, the
sourde of  the meteors did not partake of the earth moved in its orbit through tile space of
earth's motion, which was demonstrable from a 540,000 miles. The conclusion to which Profesvariety of circumstances, some of which have been sor Olmsted arrives, after a due consideration of
alluded to above.                                all the circumstances, is the following:
2. That the hight of the place whence the meteors    That the meteors of November 13th consisted of
emanated, above the surface of the earth was portions of the extreme parts of a nebulous body,
about 2238 miles.  This' was ascertained from a which revolves around the.sun in an orbit interior
comparison  of different observations made in dif- to that of the earth, but little inclined to the plane of
ferent places, and from trigonometrical. calcula- the ecliptic, having its aphelion near to the earth's
tions founded upon them.                        path, and having a periodic time of 182 days nearly
3. The -meteors fell toward'the earth being at-    This conclusion, the profeissor thinks, will
tracted to it by the force of gravity.  It seemed account for the following, among other circimunnecessary  to assign any other cause, since stances: —Why  the phenomenon  remained  so
gravity is adequate to produce the effect.       long stationary with respect to the earth; why it
4. They fell toward the'earth in straight lines,'and was seen in that particular part of the hIeavnls;
/in directions which, within considerable distances, and why it returns at stated periods, having apwere' nearly'parallel with each other. The courses peared at Mocha, in Arabia, just one year preceare inferred to have' beein straight lines, because ding, and in a manner very similar to the present,
no others could have appeared to'spectators in as described by Humboldt and by Ellicot thirty



NOVEMBER METEORS.                                               93
our years before.  It will likewise account for    Thus -it appears that celestial bodies are revolvan auroral light, resembling daybreak, which was ing around  us of which. we formerly  had  no
seen in the east several hours before the dawn of  knowledge or conception.  A  new planetary sysdayr and it is also supposed it may account for the  tem, within the limits of the old, is beginning to
diffei'ent appearances of the zodcl-lcal light.- The  be revealed to us, the number of the bodies belongprofessor is-'of opinion that the bodyf'alluded to is -ing' to which may. be much greater than we are
somewhat analagous to that of a comet.' Fig. 77  yet aware of, and their particular properties and
represents the supposed orbit of this body. in re- motions may at no distant period be detected and
lat.oon-to that of the earth.  E  H: I K represents explained.  This is one proof, among others, that
the orbit of the earth; S, the  position': of'the  bodies of a considerable size may exist in the hIeasun; and C  D  F  G, the supposed orbit of the  vens, and be' prosecuting their courses in various
body which was the source of the meteoric phe-. idirections, though they have never been detected
nomena. At the time these phenomena were seen, by our telescopes.  The subject is peculiarly in
the body is supposed to have been at C'when the  teresting  to philosophers aild astronomers.  The
earth was at E.''      facts which have already been observed afford a.Fig. 77.'                      sensible proof of the attractive power of the earth
I                       -  over bodies at a distance iln the heavens; and it is
-to be hoped that the future observations and investigations of scientific men, in relation to such
phenomena, will throw some further light on the
nature and properties  of bodies which have hitherto been ilivolved in darkness and mystery.What the destination of such bodies may be, or
the ends they serve il the economy of nature, we
are as yet entirely ignorant of.  It appears pretty
evident that they are bodies of no great density,
K       otherwise their effect on the earth might have
beenl  more terrific  and  disastrous.  Had  their
quantity- of matter been considerable, when ac~l  >  ld -   /   / ~Companied with so prodigious-a velocity as they
evidently Lad, their momentum would have been
such as to have dasbed them  with violence upon
the earth, where'the most appalling effects might
have beell produced, in the demolition of human
habitations, and the destruction of thousands of
Arago appears to entertain an opinion on this their inhabitants.  But it does not appear that any
subject not very different fiom  that of Dr. Olm- of them made their way througl the atmosphere
sted.  He supposes that there may be myriads of  to tAe surJiice of the earthl, which was doubtless
bodies, composed  probably of nebulous matter owing  to  the comparatively light materials of
similar to the tails of comets, circulating  round  mfwhich they were composed.  This circunstance,
the sun in a zone or ring that crosses the earth's  along withl many others, evidently shows that we
orbit at that part where it is about the 12th No- may  be surrounded  witl  numerous bodies and
vembor, and that some of them, drawn from their substances impalpabie to the organs of vision, any
course by tilhe earth's attraction, fall toward it, onle of which might be sufficient to' deprive us of
and taking fire when they enter the atmosphere, in  our comforts, and even prove destructive  to our
consequence of their prodigiously rapid motion, existence,  were it not - under the direction and
present the luminous phenomena of falling stars. control of Infinite Wisdom and Benevolence.
Ihe  body or bodies from  which' these meteors
proceed, he conisiders as unquestionably in rapid
motion, performing a revolution round tl  he sUn il suddenly awakened by the most distressing cries that ever
some planle differenit from  that-of the e~arth's orbit  fell on may ears. Shrieks of horror anl eries  of' mercy I
ome le differet from thatof the erti's obit   conill ear from most or thile neroes on three plantations,
atd that the apparent course of the meteors will amounting in all to about six or eight hundrel. While ear.
be conipounded of this proper motion and of tile  nestly listening for the cause, I heard a faint voice near the
deoorailing my name.   I arose, and taking my sword, stood
earth's motion in its orbit at the time.  It follows, da   lli"t my name  I tose, anal tai   y savord, sted
at the door. At this moment  I heard the same voice still be.
that the point from which they seem  to come will seechli)g me to rise, all sayin,,'Oih, my God! thie vorldl is on
be that toward wllich the earth is movinlg-at the fire!' I tlien ol)ene(l the dloot, anl it is lliflialt to av wrlich
time, anamely, the constellation Leo.; for the line  excited me most-the awlfitless of the'sceie, or hile dis.
or tanigent of the earth's ainnual` motion  at the  tressel cries ofthe negroes.  Ulawalofone fitanlrel lay
ro13th  exactly  state ontt thie grondll; some spleechless, anlt solne utter13th and 14th November points exactly to that ingi thle bitterest cries, hut most with their Ials raised, inconstellationl.*'                                     plolring (otl to'save the worll ansl them. Tile scene was
truly awfltl; for never did rain fall much tllicker than tile
*,A gentleman ins South Carolinla thlils describts the effect meteors fell toward the earth, east,'west,' north and sou' h, it
of the )phenomenon of 1833 upon his negres  " I was was  vasthe same!"




CHAPTER XVI.
4RGUMENTS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE DOCTRINE OF A PLURALITY OF WORLDS.
HAVING in the preceding pagers exhibited a    con-l regions of infinity, far beyond the utmost stretch
densed view of the principal facts in relation to  of mortal vision.  But huge masses of matter,
the Sidereal Heavens, I shall now- inquire into however numerous and widely extended, if devoid
some of the designs which the Almighty Creator of intelligent beings, could never comport with
appears to have had in view in,replenishing his the idea of happiness being coextensive with the
universe with such an immense number and va- range of the Creator's dominions. Such an idea
riety of magnificent orbs. In Chapter IX, of would completely obscure the luster of all his
"Celestial Scenery," I entered on a consideration other attributes, and prevent them  from  being
of this subject, and illustrated at some length a known  and appreciated wherever his Omnipotence
few leading arguments, which tend to prove that is displayed. To consider creation, therefore, in
matter was created chiefly in subserviency to all its departments, as extending throughout remind, and that the main object of the creation  gions of space illimitable to mortal view, and
of the planets, as proved from all the decora- filled with intelligent existence, is nothing more
tions and special arrangements connected with  than what colnpolts with the idea of HIMI who
them, was to afford habitations for numerous or- inhabiteth immensity, and whose perfections are
ders of — sensitive and intellectual beings.  With- boundless and past finding out.
out resuming the consideration of any of the    2. The idea of the indefinite extension of the
arguments there stated, I shall in this chapter universe and a plurality of worlds is most accoroffor a few additionall arguments corroborative of dant with the eternity of the Divine Mind. When
the same position, which, taken -in connection  we go back in imagination to ages and centuries
with the former, will, I trust, amount to a moral of duration more numerous than the drops of
demonstration that all the great globes in the uni- ocean or the sands on the sea-shore, we finld the
verse are in sorme respect or another connected Deity existing in all the plenitude of his incomwith intelligent existence.                      municable attributes; for "He inhabiteth eterI. The first class of arguments I shall illustrate nity," as well as immensity.  There is nothing
Is the following: —That the doctrine of a plurality repugnant either to reason or revelation to sup.
of worlds is nore worthy of the perfections of the pose that, innumerable ages before our globe was
Infinite Creator, and gives us a more glorious and arranged into its present state, many regions of
magnificent idea of his character and operations infinite space were  replenished  with  material
than to suppose his benevolent regards confined to existence; for the Scriptures nowhere assert that
the globe on which we dwell.                    the materials out of which our globe was arranged
1. The doctrine of a plurality of worlds is more were brought from nothing into existence at the
accordant with the idea of the inrfinity of the Divine period when Moses commences his narrative of
Mind.than any other position. It is admitted by the processes which preceded the formation of
all rational theists and theologians that the Divine man. Nor have we any reason to believe that the
nature fills the immensity of space, and we con- operations of Creating Power have ceased since
sequently adore the Creator as an infinite and in- the structure of our world was completed, but
comprehensible being. But we can have no ideas have some evidences of the contrary; for example,
*approximating to what infinity really is, unless in the case of new stars which have made their
by the prospects opened to us of the indefinite appearance at different periods since the time of
extension of material existence.  Beyond  the the Mosaic creation, and even within the limits
limits we may assign to the material world, our of the last century. It does not appear corresideas, if we have any ideas at all, run into confu- ponding. to the idea of an Eternal Being, whose
sion, and approximate to inanity.  It does not existence can never terminate, and whose perfeccomport with the idea of a Being of infinite per- tions are the same at all periods of duration, that
fection that his works should be confined to one everything should stand still in the universe, and
point of infinite space, or that one comparatively  that nothing  new  should arise into existence
small race of: intelligent beings should be the sole during the lapse of infinite duration, which would
object of the moral government of Him  whose in effect be the case if the work of creation were
presence fills the regions of immensity. It is absolutely finished, or if man were the principal
more corresponding to the conceptions we, ought intelligence connected with the material system.
to form of such a Being that the immensity of   Whether the happiness of the Divinity may be
his works should correspond; in some degree, to increased by the contemplation of his purposes
the immensity of his nature; and, so far as our and plans being brought into effect, we cannot
knowledge and observation extend, this is in real- positively declare; though it does not appear conity the case. Beyond the range of natural vision, trary to reason or the Dictates of Scripture to
the telescope enables us to descry numerous ob- suppose that even the felicity of the Deity may,
jects of amazing- magnitude; and, in proportion  in a certain limited and modified sense, be suscep.
to the excellence of the instrument and the pow- tible of augmentation.*  But whatever opinion
ers applied, objects still more remotein the spaces
of immensity are unfolded, to- our view, leaving       s declared n Psalm cxlv, 11:,It is declared in Psalm cxlvii, ]1: "The Lord takefJ
us no -room to doubt that countless globes and pleasure in them that fear him, in those that hope in his
masses of matter lie concealed in' the still remoter mercy; " and in relation to Messiah it as said, " Jehovah i;
(94)




ARGUMENTS FOR A PLURALITY OF WORLDS.                                        95
may be formed on this point, from the constitution  acknowledged to be one of the eternal and esselof.finite minds, and the principles and desires tial attributes of the Divinity.  But how could
implanted in them, it appears necessary to their the glory of this attribute be traced from the con.
progressive enjoyment that new scenes and mani- templation of a mass of more inanimate matter,
festations of Divine perfection should be contin- however vast and splendid in its general aspect,
uually opening to their view; and if the universe when no end or design of its creation is perceived'
be indefinitely extended, as it appears to be, and if Where should we be enabled to perceive the nice
new worlds are continually springing up under adaptation of means to ends? the harmonious
tite creating hand of the Omnipotent, then we operation of principles and causes producing
oehold a prospect of progressive knowledge and  grand and beneficent effects? the accomplishrinent
enjoyment suited' to the desires and aspirations of of glorious and useful designs by admirable arintellig'ent minds, which can never terminate  rangements?  We. could only behold:a vast and
throughout all the future periods of eternity.  It stupendous assemblage of means without an end;
is-indee.d absurd to suppose that a Being without or, at least, without.an end corresponding to their
beginning and without end should have his atteni-  magnitude and grandeur.  We should behold
tion solely or chiefly directed to one point of his merely a display of boundless and uncontrollable
universe, and to one class of intelligences, "to power acting at random, and producing no effect
whom," in point of number and of rank, "they  which could excite thle love and admiration of
are counted as nothing and less than nothing, sld holy intelligences. - For what could they behold
vanity."                                          to excite such emotions, although they were perIn respect to a Being, then, who fills the in- mitted to make the tour of the universe?  Scenes
finity of space with his presence, and who is of emptiness and desolation, of silence and solipossessed of eternal duration, it is nothing more tude, where no sound is heard, where no animated
than what is consistent with these attributes, and being enlivens the boundless prospect, where no
what we should naturally expect, that his empire interchange of sentiment or affection can take
should stretch over the regions of immensity, and  place, and where no praises from  adoring wor-that it should be filled with innumerable intelli- shipers ever ascend to the Ruler of the skies.
gonces, capable of appreciating his power and A rational being traversing scenes of this descripgoodness, and of paying a tribute of gratitude tion would feel as little enjoyment as a bewildered
and adoration.  The two attributes to which we traveler,-amid storms and tempests, wandering
have adverted could never be thoroughly displayed  over a vast howling wilderness, where humtlan
to finite minds, unless creation were extended feet had never trod, and where the sw_:et accents
through the illimitable tracks of space, and new  of the human voice are never heard to chleer the
creations gradually unfolding themselves to view. surrounding solitude.
Were creation as limited as many suppose, were    But wholen we view  the magnificent globets
it confined chiefly to the world in which we dwell, which are scattered throughout immensity -as
and the beings connected with it, we might in the replenished with numerous orders of intelligent
course of a few ages be said in some measure to beings, we behold an end worthy of the grandeur
comprehend the Creator, havipg explored all the of the means which'have been employed, worlthy
displays he has made of his power, wisdom, and  of the omnipotent power which has been exerted,
goodness; for we know  nothing more of the and corresponding to the perfections of hirm who
Deity than the manifestations he has made of him- is "the only wise God," who is " wonderful int
self in his works and his moral dispensations. counsel, and excellent in working."   We behold
Everything in relation to man and his habitation  a display of Divine wisdom and muiiificence which
might be known after the investigations of a very  is calculated to arrest the attention and draw forlth
limited number of ages, and nothintl further would  the admiration of all rational beings, and to excite
remain to stimulate the exercise of the rational the most ardent desires of beholuing the distalit
faculties throughout all the succeeding periods of scenes of the universe more completely unfoldetlinfinite duration.  But we may rest assured that a display calculated to gratify intelligences of the
the Divine Being is absolutely incomprehensible, highest order, and of the most capacious powers,
and that no created intelligence will ever be able to excite them to the most sublime investigations,
to sound the depth of his perfections, or to trace and to inspire them with emotions of love, revethe full extent of'his operations.               rence, and adoration of Him  who created all
3. It is more accordant with the wisdom of the worlds, and for whose pleasure they are and were
Deity that the universe should be inhabited by created.
intelligent minds, than that it should remain in a   4. The idea of the universe being replenished
state of perpetual desolation and solitude.       with sensitive and intellectual existence is accorCould it be, proved that the planets of the solar dant with every rational view we can takel of the
system, and all the other magnificent globes which  goodness or benevolence of the Deity
are dispersed throughout creation, are only rude    The goodness of God is that attribute of his
masses of matter, without life and intelligence, it nature by which lihe delights to communicate
would confound all our ideas of the intelligence happiness to all the ranks of his sentient and
of the Divine mind.   Wisdom  is universally  intelligent offspring.  Like every other attribute
of the Divine mind, it is strictly boundless or
infinite, coextensive with the eternal greatness of
well pleased for his righteousness' sake." In reference to that mind, and commensurate with infinite knowthe material works of creation it is said, Psalm civ, 31m,'i'he  be o"The glory of the Lord shall endure forever; the Lord shal ledgewisdom, and omnipotence.
REJOICE in all his works." The expression, " The glory of lence of the Deity may be said to constitute his
the. Lord," denotes the display of the Divine perfections whole moral character, and to reflect a radiance
made in the works of creation, as is evident from the sub- on all his other perfections.  To his love of lap-'ecl of the psalm in-which it occurs, which celebrates the
power, wisdom, and providence of God, in relation to the piness, as it now exists among every order of his
objects -of the visible world. In r ~ference to'these objects creatures, and to his desire of producing it in all
It is said, "The Lord shall rejoice.:in them, which seems his future arrangements, no possible limits call be
to imply, speaking after the mar. er of men, a degree of affixed.  Hence, in the acred records, the Divine
pleasure or satisfaction in beholdi.g his wise and benevo.'ent plans, and his eternal purposes, brought into effect and Being is summarily described by this pelfection
fulfiling the ends intended.                     alone, " God is love."  It is not merely asserted




fr96,';   SIDEREAL  HEAVENS
that God is benevolent, but that he is benevolence with the ten-thousandth part of the scenes which
itself. Bencvolenco is the essence of -his being lie in the remoter spaces of creation.
and character-a summary of everything that call   If, therefore, we would'not rob the Divinity of
render him amiable and- adorable in the eyes of the most distinguishing attribute of his nature,
all his intelligent creatures.  This benevolence is we must admit that:wherever creation  extends,
permanent and immutable, and-must be forever his goodness and beneficence are displayed, and,
active in distributing blessings wherever percipieniit.'consequently, that intelligent beings of various
beings exist. As it con sists in the love of happi- orders must exist throughout all its amplitudes.
ness, and the desire of communicating it wherever Wherever power and' wisdom  are displayed, it,here is scope for its exercise; as it is the bound- ought to be considered as a necessary consequence
less energy of the infinite Mind- in,unceasingly that there also goodness is exercised, as the one
doing good, it mnust be -displayed, in a greater or is subsidiary to the'other, and stands related as
less degree, wherever matter exists, and wherever means to an end, or as cause to effect. It would
wisdom  and  omnipotence-  have  been  exerted be a most glaring piece of- inconsistency to supthroughout the universe.  We know that it is pose that the Divine benevolence is confined to
incessantly displayed throughout all the depart- one or two worlds or orders of beings, when mil-ments of  our- terrestrial system, in;. the ample lions of expansive systems diversify the fields of
provision, made for the'wants of every species -of immensity; more especially when we consider
animated  existence, in -":-giving-" -the' various that the goodness of the Deity is of so communitribes of men 1"rain from heaven; -and fruitful cative a nature that all the interval between a
seasons, and filling their hearts with food'and  polypus and a man is filled with thousands of
gladness;" and, in a wondeiful diversity of modes, species of animated beings, of every conceivable
distributing elnjoyment:amrong percipient beings. form, and structure, and capacity, in order that
It is celebrated in the -highest strains by the happiness of every degree may be diffused among
inspired writers as one of the most glorious and every possible order of sentient existence. Every
distinguishing characteristics of Jehovah.  "The element of nature, every department of our terLord is good to- all; his tender mercies are over all restrial system, forms an appropriate abode for
nis works."   "He is merciful, and gracious, and living beings.  The air, the waters, and the earth
abundant in goodness,"  " His bounty is great teem with animated existence of every size and
above' the heavens," and "he exercises loving form, and in such vast multitudes as to exceed all
kindness throughout the earth."  "0 give tharnks human calculation; and if the displays of Divine
to'the Lord, for he is good, for his mercy endu- goodness be thus exuberant in our sublunary
reth forever."                                   world, it would be absurd in the highest degree to
But however great and inexhaustible the source suppose for a moment that the millions of vast
of happiness in the Divine mind, the exercise of globes, which roll ill the distant regions of creagoodness necessarily supposes the existence of sensi- tion are devoid of inhabitants, since the commutive or rational beings, toward whom benevolence nication of happiness appears to be one great end
may be displayed.  Where no such beings are to of all the operations of infinite wisdom  and ombe found, this attribute cannot be exercised or nipotence.
traced in'its operation.  Mountains and plains,    Thus it appears that the doctrine of a plurality
rocks of marble and diamonds, or valleys adorned of worlds is not only accordant with every rationwith all manner of precious stones, however rich al view we ought to entertain of the eternify and
and splendid, cannot feel the effects of Divine be- immensity, the wisdom  and goodness, of the Dineficence.  If, therefore,, the numerous globes vine Being, but that the opposite opinion would
throughout the universe were destitute of-inhabit- be repugnant to every consistent and scriptural
ants, there would be no extensive display of this view we can take of the character of the Supreme,
essential perfection of the Divine nature; and to and would obscure the glory of every divine perthose- few-intelligences who might be permittedto fection.  This view, therefore, of the universe,
view the desolate wastes of the universe, or to re- considered as replenished with innumerable intelceive information respecting them, it would ap- ligences, is calculated to exhibit a more glorious and
pear as if the Divine goodness had either been ex- magnificent idea of the character and operations of
hausted or had ceased its operations, and been with- the Deity than to suppose his benevolent regards
drawn from the scene of creation, as if " the Lord confined to the globe on which we dwell. Instead.
had forgotten to be gracious, and in anger shut up of having only one comparatively small world'and
his tender mercies."  We have reason, however, race of beings under his sway, we here contemto believe, both from  scripture and from  reason, plate him  as the supreme ruler of ten thousand
that it is the great end of, all the operations of times ten thousands of mighty worlds, and conDeity that a theater may be prepared, on which  ducting them all, with unerring skill, in their vast
the emanations of his goodness may be commu- career.- We behold him exercising his moral adnicated to innumerable orders of beings through- ministration over a vast universe of minds, more
out his vast creation. There is no' other conceiv- numerous than the faculties of men or of angelic
able end for' which the fabric of universal nature  beings are adequate to compute, supporting and
was reared than that it shlould serve as a scene of directing all the amazing powers of thought, wisenjoyment to innumerable beings susceptible of dom, intelligence, affection, and  moral action
feeling the effects of the Creator's bounty, and throughout every part of his eternal empire, dis
that therein- they might behold a magnificent dis- playing the depths of his wisdom and intelligence.
plavy of the grandeur of his eternal attributes; the rectitude of his character, and the grandeur
but if by far the greater part of creation were un- of his omnipotence to countless orders of intellectinhabited,such- an end would be frustrated.'How- ual existence, presenting before them prospects of
ever expansive the scene of the universe may be —  magnificence and grandeur boundless as immensihowever numerous and magnificent the worlds ty, distributing among them  all the riches of his
and systems which existwithin its boundless range, beneficence, and inspi ing them with the hope that
the glories of Omnipotence would remaincforever'the grandeur of his ki; gdom and the glory of his
vailed and unknown,  except to a small race of perfections will continlue to be displaved with inbeings-whlo occupy only a point in the immensity creasing splendor thro ig]lout all the periods of an
of space, and who cannot possibly be - acquainted endless duration. Such a Being- is calculated to




ABSURDITY OF DENYING THE PLURALITY OF,WORLDS.                                    97
draw forth the highest degree -of love and admira- every part of his procedure, he acts in the plenition from all his intelligent offspring, to inspire tude of all his essential attributes, although the
them with glowing ardor in his service, and to full display of allxhis perfections may not, in every
excite the-in to incessant adoration; whereas, did instance, be open- to our inspection.
the universe consist merely of, a bouldless mass.  If, then, the. positions now stated be admitted
of matter without animation, thought, or intelli- (and I see not how they can be called in quesgence, a vail of darkness and mystery-would be tion), it necessarily follows that all the vast globes
thrown over all the perfections and purposes of dispersed throughout the universe are either inhathe Divinity; creation would appear'a vast, mys- bited or contribute, as our sun does, to the comterious, and inexplicable system.; and no hope fort and enjoyment of percipient existence; for
would ever be entertained of tracing the designs if wisdom and goodness uniformly and of necesfor which it was brought into existence.         sity accompany the agency of power, and if these
II. Another general argument for the plurality attributes can be exercised only in relation to
of worlds, and'for an extensive population- of the sentient or intelligent beings, such beings must
universe, may be founded on the following propo- e/ist wherever such perfections are exercised. To
sition:-that wherever any oneperfection b'Deity is suppose the contrary would involve a palpable abe3erted, there also ALL his attributes are in operation, surdity, and present a distorted and inconsistent
and must be displayed, in a greater or less degree, view of the adorable character of Jehovah.
to certain orders of intelligences.  This is a most   In our survey of the sidereal heavens, and the
important consideration, which ought to be taken remoter provinces of the' Divine empire, we beinto account in all our views of the Divine char- hold little more than an overwhelming display of
acter, and ill all our investigations of the Divine almighty power. Our remoteness from those magadministration —a consideration which- is too fre- nificent scenes prevents us from tracing the mliquently overlooked in the views and reasonings nute contrivances of Divine Wisdom in relation
both of philosophers and theologians.            to any particular system, or the displays of Divine
The DivineBeinglis oNE undivided essence; he Beneficence toward  its inhabitants.  But our
is not compounded of separable parts or qualities, incapacity in perceiving the effects of wisdom and
insulated from each other. We ought not, there- goodness forms no arguments against the actual
fore, to conceive of his attributes as-so many in- exercise of these perfections.  If it be admitted
dependent powers or properties, anlly one of which that infinite wisdom  and benevolence are the
may be exerted without the concurrence or co- necessary accompaniments of almighty power, we
operation of the other.' From  the limited views may rest assured that those perfections are in full
we too frequently take of the'Divinity, and from  and constant exercise wherever creating power
the imperfection of our present faculties, we- are has been exerted, although, from our present situapt to fall into this. mistake; but since all the ation in the universe, their operation be concealed
perfections' we attribute to the Eternal Mind are from our view. In every instance where Omrniattributes of one indivisible and uncompounded potence has put forth its energies, it may be conBeing, we ought never to imagine that power in sidered as a stage or theater on. which the Divine
any instance operates without goodness, or wisdom  wisdom and benevolence may be displayed.  And
without rectitude,4or that it can ever happen that as wisdom and goodness can only have a reference
any one of those perfections can be displayed to percipient and  intelligent beings, wherever
without the harmonious operation of the whole. those perfections are exercised, such beings must
In whatever regions of the universe, therefore, necessarily be conceived to exist; otherwise, we in
God is seen to operate by his power, we may rest effect -destroy the simplicity of the Divine nature,
assured'that there also he displays himself in the we divide the Divine essence into so many indeplenitude of all his other perfections; that intelli- pendent attributes, and virtually declare that in the
gence, wisdom, benevolence, veracity, and recti- work of creation the Deity does not act in the full
tude follow in the train of omnipotence, displaying exercise of his indivisible and eternal perfections.
in undivided luster and harmony the glories of   The above considerations, if duly weighed and
his character.  It is GoD, invested with all his understood, appear to me to embody an argument
eternal and immutable, his natural and moral at- for the doctrine of an indefinite plurality of worlds,
tributes, and not any single perfection; that acts, which may be considered as amounting to a moral
arranges, and governs throughout the whole am- demonstration.
plitude of creation; and as such, his moral gran-   III. There is an absurdity involved in the condeur, as well as the physical effect of his power, trary supposition —namely, that the distant regions
must be displayed in every department of'the ma- of creation are devoid of inhabitants.
terial universe. From the influence of habit,and    1. There are two modes of reasoning which
in consequence: of the limited faculties of, our na- have been employed to prove the truth of a proture, we are accustomed to say, that in one object position: the direct method, by bringing forward
power is displayed, and in another that' wisdom is arguments, or following out a train of reasoning
manifested; because, that in the one the attribute bearing expressly on the position to be supported;
of power appears to us most prominent, and in or the indirect method, by showing the absurdity:the other, wisdom is more strikingly apparent. A  of maintaining the opposite position. Mathernalofty range of mountains, rearing their summits ticians term  this latter species of reasoning the
above the clouds, and stretching along for several reductio ad absurdum, and sometimes employ it
hundreds of miles, strikes the mind with an idea instead of the direct method, by showing that the
of power in-Him who formed them; but the fine contrary of the' position laid down is impossible,
mechanism, accomplish'ing certain useful purposes or involves an absurdity; and this method of
in the body-of'an emmet or a gnat, or the delicate proof is considered as valid, and as strictly demonconstruction of the eye  of a dragon-fly, arrests strative as the other; for the opposite of truth
our attention more particularly as an evidence of must be falsehood. If, therefore, any proposition,
wisdom, altho.ugh in each of these cases both power whether mathematical or moral, can be shown
and wisdom are displayed. In no act or operation to involve an absurdity, or to be inconsistent
whatever of the Divine Being can'itbe said, that with a well-known  andi  acknowledged truth,
in that act iie is only wise, or onlly.powerful, or or directly contrary to it, we may safely conclude
only benevoleut; for in' every operation,a and in that such a proposition must be false.




98                                   SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
To feel the force of such an argument in the. recognized.and admired by Contemplative min:ls,
present case, let us -suppose for a moment that and that the wisdom and benieficeuce of the De;ty
the planetary aud'stellar orbs are destitute of in- are traced in all their minute and multifarious
hablitants. - What would be the consequences?  bearings.  In our world, as it now  stands, the
All those vast bodies must then be'considered as arrangement of mountains and vales, the varioui
regions of eternal silence, solitude, and desola- properties of the watery element, and its tranlls
tion.  The sun illuminates the surfaces of psuch  mutation into vapors, clouds, and dew, the admira.
huge globes as Jupiter and Saturn, bit there are  ble mechanism of the. atmosphere, the, fertility  of
no visual organs to perceive the luster he throws the earth, and the beautiful coloring whic:t is
arounld, no percipient beings to feel the influence. spread over the face of ilature, —whicli are proof his heat and other- benign, agencies.  Time is ductive of so many beneficial effects, and so evimleasured, with exquisite precision by days, and  dently display the wisdom  of Deity, -would all
months, and years, but all to no purpose; for no  appear as so many means without an eold, as courational' beings enjoy the advantage of such mea- trivances without use, if the earth were d(estituts
sores of.'the lapse of time, and the Deity-to  of inhabitants.  And if all the other departments
whom r" one day is as,a thousand years, and: a of creation were likewise devoid of animation and
thousand, years as one  ay"-Lstands in no need  intelligence, scarcely a trace would be left throughof such movements -to mark thle periods of dura- out boundless space of the wisdom  and beolevotion.':Day and night, spring and summer, suc- lence of the Eternal. Mindl.
ceed, each other, but they have no relation to the    2. hI the next place, such a position as that
wants or enjoyments of sensitive'or intellectual which I am  now opposing would be inconsistent
natures. The melody of cie' groves, the bleating  with that principle of variety which appears so
of flocks, the lowing of herds, the harmonious  conspicuous throughout the whole range of the
accents of htlman voices, or the music of angelic  Divine operations, and with that progressive expranchoirs, never for a moment disturb the profound  sion of intellectual views which appears necessary
and awful silence which forever prevails; not a  to the perpetual enjoyment of immortal beings.
single murmur rmeots the ear, unless howling    In order to permanent enjoyment it is neceswinds, amidst dreary deserts and rugged rocks, sary, from the very constitution of the mindl, that
should render the scene still more hideous and  one scene of happiness should succeed another,doleful.  Some of those mighty globes are ehcir-  that the soul should look forward to tile future, to
cled with splendid rings and-a retinue of moons, something new or more grand and expansive than
Which adorn the canopy of the sky, and present a it has yet behlleld or enjoyed.  It can never rest in
scene of grandeur far more diversified and sublime  present objects and attainmelts, but is always on
than human eyes have yet beheld, but no intelli-  the wing for something higher and more exquisite
gent agents exist in those regions to admire and  than it has yet grasped or enjoyed.  What is the
enjoy the wondrous spectacle and to adore the  reason, in most cases, why impriso7nment produces.
great Creator.  In short, all is one wide scene of  so doleful an effect upon the. mind, but because
dreariness, desolation, horror, and silence, which  its views and its actions are confined to a narrow
would fill a spectator from  this-world with terror circle?  And if in such a situation newspapers,
and dismay..          books, paper, pens and ink, be frithheld, so as still
Were- an. inhabitant of the earth to be trans- further to circumscribe the mental view, its want
ported to Jupiter or Saturn,- he might behold  of enjoyment and its misery are still inore inl
resplendent scenes in, the canopy of the firma- creased. Why would a literary man feel unhapment; but how great would be hlis disappointment piness had he no access to books, journals, and
to find nothing but boundless deserts and desolate  the periodicals of the day, nor any other means
wastes,. without one sentient being to cheer the of information respecting passing events, but behorrors of the scene, and not a rational intelligence  cause he would thus be confined to his present
to communicate a single sentiment or to join him  range of view, and prevented fiom  enlarging it'!
inl the contemplation of' the objects above and  And why should the mall who devours the periodiaround him; and were he to range throughout an  cal journal to-day feel as craving desires to-morIndefinite lapse of ages from one globe to another, row to peruse similar records of intelligence, to
anti from one corner of the universe to another, mark the progress of passirng events, but from the
and find the same gloomy solitudes and desola- same vehement desire to expand his present inteltions, he could find no stimulus to excite him to  lectual views?   Were such desires to remain
admiration or rapture, or to elevate his soul in  ungratified, and the prospect of further informaadtoration of the Creator. Even the most resplen- tion entirely shut up, a certain degree of misery
dent scenes, adorned with all tile riches and beau-'would necessarily be felt by everv rational mind.
ties which the most lively imagination can depict, In another world, somnething sirmilar would hap-mountains of -diamonds and plains diversified  pen in the case of all intellectual beings, were no
with all the beauties of: the vegetable creation,- new scenes and prospects ever unfolded to view.
could impart no real pleasure while unenlivened    Divines. have generally admitted that the eterwith the principle of animation and the energies nal world, in the case of the righteous, will be a
of mind.  What a gloomy and horrible picture  state of perpetual and uninterrupted enjoyment.'would such a scene presentof the frame of uni- Such enjoyment, however, could never be realversal nature, and what a vail of darkness and  ized, unless new scenes and objects, worthy of the
mystery would, it throw  over the perfections of  admiration of exalted intelligences, were progresthe Eternal! for it is tile scenes connected with  sively displayed. -But the contemplation of rude
life, ainimation, mental activity, and moral senti- masses of matter, however vast in point of size
mnent; glowing affection, social intercourse, and  and extent, and however magnificent in point of
the mutual sympathies of intellectual beings, that splendor, were they entirely unconnected with
can alone inspire the soul with: rapturous emo- mind and moral action, would produce no high
tions, throw a charm  over any -part of creation, degree of enjoyment to beings possessed of capaand exhibit the Almighty Creator as amiable and  cious powers of intellect; for in such objects they
adorable. It is chiefly from the relation in which  could trace no evidences of skill or desigLn,  nor
the material world stands to sensitive and intel- would they perceive  any overflowings or Divine
lectual existence that its beauty and order are  goodness to. inspire thenm  with  gratitude  and




HARMONY OF DIVINE PERFECTIONS.                                    99
praise. We are warranted from Revelation to ex- wisdom, goodness, and rectitude, can only be expect that ill the future world the knowledge of ercised in reference to intelligent natures, and
good men will be indefinitely increased, in respect cannot possibly be displayed where such beings
to their more enlarged conceptions of the Divine have no existence.
Being, and of his works and ways; that, among   The denial therefore of the position, that the
other subjects, they shall become more acquainted great universe is peopled with inhabitants, would
with the distant regions of creation, the destina- lead us to contemplate a Being whose power has
tion of those great globes which we now behold brought into existence a magnificent assemblage
at an impassable distance, the history of their in- of means without an end; who has prepared
habitants, the various stages of improvement glorious habitations fitted for the enjoyment of
through which they have passed, the most remark- rational natures, but has never peopled them; who
able events which have happened among them silce is the alone source of happiness, and yet refuses
their creation, the relations which the different to communicate of his goodness where there is
worlds bear to each other, the various orders of full scope for its exercise; and who is the Supreme
Intellectual beings and their distinctive character- Lawgiver and the spr'ilng of moral order, and yet
istics and endowments, with many other particu- affords no display of his moral attributes thl'oughlars which would afford an ample field of investi- out the immensity of his works: for this earth,
gation and contemplation which could scarcely and all the beings that have ever been connected
ever be exhausted, and a source of progressive with it, are but as a drop to the ocean compared with
and permanent delight. But all such prospects the immensity of the material universe. Call it
of knowledge and enjoyment would be forever therefore be a theater of sufficient expansion for
shut out, were the universe a collection of mere the display of the character and attributes of that
matter unconnected with mind or intelligence, being who has existed from eternity past, and will
and the distant view of an immortal existence exist to eternity to come, and whose presence fills
would present little else than a scene of monotony the amplitudes of boundless space?
or a boundless blank..                     If, then, such absurd consequences necessarily
In the future world, although the circumstances follow from maintaining the position, that there
In which the mind will exist, will be different is no plurality of worlds, that position cannot posfrom its present local associations, yet its facul- sibly be true. It undermines truths of the first
ties, desires, and affections, will not be essentially importance, which lie at the foundation of all
changed.  It will continue the same' identical consistent views of the character of the Deity,
being, only transported to another region, and and which are acknowledged to be such by all raconnected with other objects and associations.-  tional theists and Christian divines. And, since
It will have the same or similar aspirations after what is directly opposed to truth must be error, and
happiness, the same desires after new objects and v'ece versa, it follows that the doctrine we are supdiscoveries, and the expansion of its intellectual porting must be considered as susceptible of moral
views, and the same delight in beholding one demonstration; for it may be laid down as an
scene of creating grandeur after another unfold- axiom, that it is essential to the character of Deity
ing itself to view, as it feels, in a certain degree, that he act consistently in all parts of his dominin the present state. Such desires after progres- ions, that he display in every instance all his persive improvement in knowledge and happiness fections in harmony, and that wherever his olnare implanted by the Creator, and form an essen- nipotence has been exerted, there likewise he must
tial part of the constitution of the human soul, display his wisdom, benevolence, and rectitude.and therefore can never be eradicated so long as Whatever opinion therefore directly tends to unit is sustained in existence.  But it is evident, dermine or oppose such views of the Divine
from what has been already stated, that such de- character and perfections must be absolutely unsires could never be gratified, and that its expec- tenable, and the opposite opinion must be indistations of higher degrees of intellectual expansion putably true.
and enjoyment would be frustrated, were the   In my work on " Celestial Scenery " I entered
scene of Omnipotence nothing more than an in- on the consideration of several arguments which
definite extension of matter without life or intel- tend to prove the doctrine of a plurality of worlds,
ligence; for in such a case there would be little and that the planets of the solar system  in partiscope for the exercise and expansion of its powers cular are the abodes of intellectual beings. This
throughout an immortal existence.               position was illustrated at some length from the
3. The supposition that matter throughout the following considerations: that there are bodies in
universe is not connected with mind would pre- the planetary system  of such magnitudes as to
sent a distorted view of the character of the Al- afford ample scope for myriads of inhabitants;
mighty, and throw a vail over the most glorious that there is a general similarity among all the
perfections of his nature.  It would virtually de- bodies of the system, which affords a presumptive
prive the Creator of the attribute of wisdom; evidence that they are intended to subserve the
since no display of it would be perceived in the same ultimate designs; that, connected with the
most magnificent works of his hands. It would, planets, there are certain special arralngements
in effect, rob him of his goodness; since, through- which indicate their adaptation to the enjoyment
out the mightiest and most extensive portion of of sensitive and intellectual beings; that the
his works, no enjoyment is communicated to be- scenery of the heavens, as viewed from the surfaces
ings endowed with either sensitive or rational of the larqer planets and their satellites, forms a
natures, which are alone capable of being recipi- presumptive proof of the same position; and that
ents of his bounty; consequently, no tribute of the fact that every part of nature in our world is
gratitudes and thanksgiving would be offered, and destined to the support of animated beings, affords
no praises or adorations would ascend to the a powerful argument in support of this doctrine.
throne of the "King eternal, immortal, and iuvi- These arguments and considerations, when viewed
sible," fiom the greatest portion of his boundless in all their bearings, and in connection with the
dominions  It would prevent us from beholding wisdom and goodness of the Divine Being, might
any extensive display of the rectitude of his char- be considered, without any further discussions,
acter and the equity of his government in the as quite sufficient to substantiate the position,
moral administration  of the universe.  Now, that the planets and satellites of our system, a*
VOL. II.-26




100                    ~ -:  ~ ~SIDEREAL  HEAVENS.
-well as other departments of the-universe, are- the there is an absurdity involved: in the contrary supabodes of sensitive and intelligent beings.     -position; that this supposition would: represent
In the- preceding pages, I have offered a few  the universe as an immense desert, unworthy ofthe
additional considerations bearing' on- the:same contemplation of:'inteilligent minds; that it would
point,; which,- I trust, will: tend to corroborate prevent the progressive expansion of intellectual
the arguments and reasoning formerly-adduced.-  views in a future state, and.present a. distorted'I have shown that the'doctrine of a plurality of view of the character and'attributes of the Alworlds is more worthy of the perfections of the mighty Creator. All these arguments and coil.
nfinite Creator, and gives us-a more magnificent siderations, when viewed in a proper light, tend
dea of his character and works, than to suppose to yield a mutual support to each other, they hang
his benevolent regards confined ton.'ur compara- together in perfect harmony, and they are ill full
tively diminutive world; that it is more accordant  consistency with the most amiable and sublime
with the infinity and eternity of the Divine Being, co nmeptions we can form  of the Di'vinity; and
and with his wisdom and benevolence  than   op  the- efore ought to carry irresistible conviction to' osite position; that wherever any one perfection the mind. of every unbiased and intelligent:inof'Deity is exerted, there alsfdall his'attributesare quirer. To my own mind, they amount to a
in operation; and consequently, wherever Omni- moral demonstration; so that I am as fillly con- ptence is seen to operate, there likewise, wisdom, vinced of the truth of the position we have been
benevolence, rectitude, and every ather Divine maintaining, as if I were transported to the reperfection, must be'displayed, and can-only  be dis- gions of distant worlds, and permitted to mingle
played in reference to intelligent beings; that in association with their inhabitants
_...,
C H A P T E R XVII.
A PLURALITY OF WORLDS PROVED FROM DIVINE REVELATION.
IT is somewhat difficult to persuade the greater tradiction between the intimations given by the
part, of mankind that there are any habitable one and by the other.. lf the investigations of
worlds beside our own, or that rational beings, reason in regard to the material universe necessomewhat analogous to man, may inhabit the sarily lead to the conclusion that numerous worldt
planets:of our own or of other systems. Evel exist throughout immensity, and if the Scriptures
the greater part of Chlistians, and some who are contain a communication from  God, we should
possessed of a considerable degree of- intelligence, never expect to find in that revelation any propo.
canl scarcely be persuaded that there are more sition asserting that there, is only one world and
worlds than one, or that the Divine government one race of intelligent beings in the universe, and
extends beyond the Christian Church and the na- it is needless to say that no such proposition is to
tions of theearth; and they attempt to vindicate be found in the Bible. On the contrary, though
their opinion by asserting that the Scriptures the Scriptures never directly or explicitly treat of
never make the least allusion to any world except this subject, the doctrine of a plurality of worlds
that in which we dwell. Although this were in is embodied in many passages of the sacred writings;.lreality the case, itwould form noargumentagainst and the language of the inspired penmnan is in all
the doctrine of a plurality of worlds; for the reve- cases perfectly consistent with the idea of myriads
rations contained in the Scriptures. are chiefly of a of worlds existing throughout the universe.  To
moral nature, their great object being to, counter- illustrate this position, in a few instances, is the
act the depravity of man, and to afford informa- object of this chapter; and. as the passages of
tion: respecting the. plans,- and perfections, and Scripture in which'this sentiment is embodied are
moral government -of the Divine Being, which more numerous than is generally apprehended, I.the unassisted light. of nature was unable to ex- shall select only a few of them  astlhe   subject of
plore. They were not intended to teach us'the comment and illustration.
principles of physical science, or the particular    The first passage on which I shall. offer a few
knowledge. of-any other-subject which the human remarks is Psalm  viii,, 4:' " When I consider
faculties were of themselves adequate to acquire; thy- heavens, the work of';thy fingers, the moon
but to direct us, in all: our surveys of the works and the stars, which thou bast ordained;.what. is.of God, to look upward to him  as the Supreme man, that thou' art mindful of. him!: or the son of
Agent, to trace his attributes in all his operations, man,.that thou visitest him! "
and to offer him a tribute of grateful adoration.-   When composing this hymn' of praise to God,
The Scriptures,- therefore, would be fully sufficient the Psalmist evidently appears to have been conto answer all-,the purposes of a revelation to man, templating, with intelligence,'and pious emotion,:although they made no allusion to other worlds, the glories of the nocturnal:sky, the moon walkor- to other intelligent;es within the range. of the ing in brightness along the canopy of heaven, and
Divine government,....                   the stars and, planets diffusing their luster from
Since the system of nature, the system of reve- more distant regions. Viewiqg those resple ndeit
lation, and the rational faculties of man, had their orbs, his thoughts seem to liave taken a flight into
origin from. the, same Almighty Being, we should the regions of immensity, and by the guidafice of
naturally' expect that they should perfectly' har- his rational powers, and aided by the spiiit-.of
monize in their:grand lineamentsj-and in the inspiration, he takes an'expansive, view. of the
truths they are calculated respectively to unfold; multitude, the magnitude, and'the grandeur of
or, at least,. that there-. should be no, glaring con- those magnificent orbs which roil. in the distant




SENTIMENTS OF THE INSPIRED WRITERS.                                 I01
tracks of creation. Overwhelmed with his views apt to indulge in very contracted and erroneous
of the immensity of the universe, and of the per- views respecting his nature and universal governfections and grandeur of -its Creator, he breaks ment, as well as in regard to the revelations of his
out into this striking exclamation, "Lord! what word and the dispensations of his providence.
is man, that thou art mindful'of him! or the son   The next passage I shall notice is Isaiah xl, 15,
of man, that thou visitest him!"  Surveying 17. "Behold, the nations are as a drop of a
with his intellectual eye the boundless extent of bucket, and are counted as the small dust of
God's universal empire, he shrinks, as it were, the balance."  "All nations before HIM are as
into nothing, and seems almost afraid lest he nothing, and they are counted to him  less than
should be forgotten or overlooked amid the im- nothing and vanity."
mensity of beings over which the Divine govern-   In the chapter from  which these words are
ment extends.  Now, there could be no emphasis taken, the prophet announces deliverance from
or propriety in this exclamation, if the inhabi- the captivity of Babylon, and the approach of
tants of this globe were the only rational beings that period when " the glory of Jehovah shall be
that peopled the material universe; for, if mall is revealed, and when all flesh'shall see it together."
the principal inhabitant of creation, it could be -In order to obviate every difficulty that might
no matter of wonder and astonishment-that God seem to stand in the way of the accomplishment
should be "mindful of hinm," and exercise toward of such a glorious event, the prophet describes, in
him  a special regard and superintending care. the most sublime language, the perfections and
Such a minute attention and affectionate regard character of him by whose agency this astonishis nothing more than what we should have natu- ing change in the world was to be introduced.
rally expected. But, if the immensity of space He is declared to be that Almighty Being "who
be diversified with ten thousand times ten thou- measures the ocean in the hollow of his hand,
sand worlds, replenished with rational inhabitants, who meteth out the heavens with the span, who
as science and right reason demonstrate; if comprehendeth the dust of the earth in a measure,
the race of Adam  appear no more in propor-, and weigheth the mountains in scales, and the
tion to the beings that people the amplitudes hills in a balance."  The prophet likewise deof creation, than as a drop to the ocean, then nounces the folly and wickedness of idolatry, by.
the Divine condescension appears truly won- exhibiting the character and operations of him
derful and astonishing,-that, from  the hights whom no material images, however splendid, can
of his glory in the heavens, the Most High should ever represent or adumbrate. "He sitteth on the
look down with an eye of complacency on the circle of the sky which surrounds the earth, and
puny-inhabitants of earth, and regard them with the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers; he
a Father's attention ahd care. This is evidently stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain; he bringthe leading idea which the pious exclamation of eth forth their host by number; he calleth them
the Psalmist is intended to convey; and therefore, all by their names, by the greatness of his might;
if this globe were the only or the principal abode for that he is strong in power, and there is no
of rational beings, such language would be mere searching of his understanding."  Among these
hyperbole, or something approaching to bombast, sublime descriptions are contained the passages 1
which would be inconsistent with the veracity have quoted,-" Behold, the nations are as the
and solemnity of an inspired writer.           drop of a bucket."  "All nations before him
It appears, then, that the passage under con- are as nothing," &c.  Such declarations could
sideration is not only consistent with the doctrine scarcely be made with propriety, if all the rolling
of a plurality of worlds, but necessarily embodies orbs of heaven were destitute of inhabitants; for
ill it the idea of the Divine empire being indefi- then it would not be true that" all nations are as
nitely extended, and comprising within its range the small dust of the balance," and that they are
numerous orders of exalted  intelligences.  It "counted to Jehovah as less than nothing and
likewise teaches us, that while the Almighty has vanity."  They who deny the doctrine of a plu-.diversified the fields of immensity with innume- rality of worlds assume the position, "that man
rable worlds; that while he- sits enthroned on the holds the principal station in the material unimagnificence of his works in the distant regions verse; " but were this the case, then the nations
of his creation, and governs the affairs of un- of the earth, and "their multitude and glory,"
numbered orders of intellectual existence, he also behooved to be considered as the greater.portion,
exercises the minutest superintendence over every or as one of the greater departments of the Diworld he has created, however diminutive in corm   vine empire; and if so, it would be approaching
parison of the whole. His eye rests on the hum- to extravagance and bombast for any one to
blest'and the minutest of its objects, and his declare that they are only like a drop compared
Spirit watches over it as vigilantly as if it formed with the ocean, like a few particles of dust comthe sole object of his physical and moral adminis- pared with a mighty island, or, in comparison
tration; so that neither man nor the smallest with other departments, that "'they are as nothing,
microscopic animalculce are overlooked amid the and less than nothing and vanity."
multifarious objects of the Divine government.   We are here to consider the comparisons and
This is an attribute peculiar to the Most High, contrasts drawn in those passages as referring, not
which flows from the immensity of his nature to Jehovah, abstractedly considered, but to the
and the boyndless knowledge he has of all his manifestations he has given of his power, wisdom,
works, and- which gives us a more glorious and and grandeur, in the scenes of the universe.
sublime idea of his character tihan if his regards Hence we are directed in the chapter from which
were confined to one department of his empire, our quotations are taken, to " lift up our eyes on
orto one order of his creatures; and in nothing high," and contemplate "the firmament of his
is the Divine Being so immensely separated from  power;" to "behold the hosts" of resplendent
man, or from any other rank of intelligent exis- globes which he has dispersed throughout the retenlce, as in the display he gives of this wonderful gions of space " by the greatness of his strength,"
and incommunicable attribute. By overlooking and to consider that the vast extent of the celesthis peculiar characteristic of the Divinity, and tial spaces have been "meted out with a span."
attempting to compare his procedure with the When the inspired writers demand from  their
limited conceptions of our -own:minds, we are hearers a sentiment of reverence nd admiration,




.102                             SIDEREAL  HEAVENS.
they do not present to them metapliysical reason- lime conceptions of the grandeur of "the high
ings or abstract views-in reference to the perfec- and lofty One who inhabiteth eternity," ana
tions of Jehovah, but-describe those exhibitions whose presence fills the immensity of creation.
of his power and grandeur which are calculated   The next passage I shall, adduce ill support of
to strike the senses and imagination, and to excite the position under consideration, is Nehemiah ix,
the emotion intensded. Thus, when the prophet 6: "Thou, even thou, art Lord alone; thou hast
Jeremiah wished: to.'impress his -hearers with a made heaven, the HEAVEN OF HEAVENS, with all
reverential sense of the greatness of God, he de- their host, the earth, and all things that are therescribes him by the effects of his power and wisdom  in, the seas, and all that is therein, and thou preas displayed in his operations. "Who would not servest them  all; and. the HOST OF HEAVEN worfear thee, 0 King ofr-lations!.  He hath made the shipeth thee."
earth by his power, he hath established the world   Here the Most High is represented, not by a
by his wisdom, atndhath stretched out the heavens metaphysical exhibition of his infinity, eternity,
by his discretion. When he uttereth his voice, and omnipotence, abstractedly considered, but by
there is a noise of waters in the-heavens, and he the manifestations he has made of himself in his
causeth the vapors to ascend fronm:he ends of the wonderful operations, both in heaven and on earth;
earth; he maketh lightuings with rain, and bring- and this is the general, I may say universal, mode
eth. the wind.out of his treasures."           in which the sacred writers exhibit the character
In like manner, in the passages under considera- and perfections of the Deity.  "Thou hast made
tion, We are toconsider the contrast here stated as heaven, the heaven of heavens, with all their
drawn, not between all nations and Jehovah as hosts.'  By " heaven" is here. to be understood
an abstract Being, whose perfections'are infinite; the visible firmament,'with all the stars and planfor ini this respect nio comparison call be made, ets perceptible by the human eye, which is the
but as drawn between this earth with all its in- sense in which the term heaven is generally taken
habitants, and the innumerable globes which are when God is represented as its Creator. The "heascattered throughout the regions of immensity. yen of heavens" is an expression which is worthy
And the most enlightened astronomer, after his of particular attention, and evidently includes in
boldest excursions into the illimitable tracks of cre- it an idea far more extensive and sublime than
ation, could devise no language to express his emo- what most readers generally attach to it. It evitions, and the contrast that subsists between this dently intimates that, far beyond the visible starry
globe and the immensity of the heavens, more heavens which we behold, there are unnumbered
appropriate and energetic than the passage before firmaments, composed of other stars and systems
us. This world, with'"all that it inherits," is stretching out toward infinity on either hand,
here represented as a single drop of water to the and which mortals in their present state will never
mighty ocean, or as a few particles of dust to the be able to descry. We have already attained some
most spacious continents, when compared with glimpses of such firmaments. More than a hunthe grandeur and immensity of nature; yea, to dred millions of stars, in'addition to those distincomplete the contrast, it is "counted as nothing guishable by the naked eye, are within the reach
and less than. nothing and vanity."  When we of the telescope, if all the regions of the sky were
survey the vast globes which compose the plan- by this instrument thoroughly explored. We beetary system; when we wing our flight in imagi- hold several hundreds, and even thousands of nenation to the starry regions, and leave the sun and bulme in different spaces of the heavens, each of
all his attendants behind us, until they dwindle to them  consisting of thousands of stars,'which
an undistinguishable point; when we prosecute would form a firmament as glorious and expansive
our course through thousands of nebula, every as that which appears to a common observer in
one I of.them containing unnumbered suns and the midnight sky; so that were we removed from
systems;.and when the mind is bewildered and one of those nebulae to another, we should behold
overpowered at the immensity of the prospect, we at every stage a new firmament, composed of stars
cannot but perceive that the language of the or other luminaries altogether different frolm; what
prophet is the most impressive; and the fittest that we had seen before, or from what we perceive in
could have been selected; that it is most emphatic, the firmament which is visible from our globe.and literally true. But if this earth were the prin- These facts, which have been brought to light by
cipal part of God's universe, there could be no the discoveries of modern astronomy, while they
propriety -in such language, and it could be con- display the infinite power and grandeur of the
sidered as allied only to extravagance and pompous Divinity, serve likewise to illustrate many of the
declamation —   characteristic which ought never declarations of his word, and particularly such
to be applied to the writers of the sacred records. expressions as that before us,-" the heaven of
We ought likewise to consider that the contrast heavens," the boundless empire of the "King
is not stated between the earth considered merely eternal and invisible," in which he reigns over
as a material system, and the amplitudes of the fir- unnumbered intelligences. The same emnphatical
mamentj but between the nations of the earth and expression is used in the prayer of Solomon at the
-the innumerable ord6r of beings which people the dedication of the temple: "But will God in very
universe, plainly implying, in my apprehension, deed dwell on earth?  Behold, the heaven and
that unnuribered myriads of intelligences occupy heaven of heavens cannot contain thee!" implythe celestial worlds, in comparison of which all ing that far beyond the' range of the material
who now dwell upon the earth, or who have occu- universe, vast and extensive as it is, the great Je.
pied. its surface since time began, are only as a hovah resides in the glory of his invisible attridrop to the ocean. The passage before us may butes, filling immensity with his presence. 
therefore be considered as al nost a direct intima-   By:'.' the host of heaven" is doubtless to'e untion of a plurality of worlds; and, if it could be dersto6d the inhabitants of those numerous worlds
proved that no other.wolds existed, I should and vast regions here designated by the most emscarcely consider the strong language here used phatic expression which could be selected, "the
as the dictate of inspiration; but when we consid- heaven of heavens;" intimating that the same
er what appear to. be the true references of the Almighty Being who launched into existence those
prophet's language, and the magnificent ideas innumerable globes also replenished them with
it suggests, it conveys the most glorious and sub- countless orders of illaligent existence, capable




PLURALITY OF WORLDS, PROVED FROM DIVINE REVELATION    103
of enjoying his bounty, and offering to:him  a ever these expansive heavens extend, and however
tribute of adoration. Hence it is here declared, numerous and august the worlds and systems
"the host of heaven worshipeth thee;" evidently which lie wit in their range, they are all under the
inplying, if there is auy-rational idea to be elicited superintended ce and sway of the Divine govern
from the:passage, that the bodies which: compose ment, which extends its care and moral energies
" the heaven of heavens" are occupied with in- over the remotest regions of the universe.  But
habitants; -that these inhabitants are endowed as there can be no kingdom  without rational and
with capacious powers of intellect; that their moral subjects, therefore, wherever the kingdom
numbers correspond with the amplitude of the of. Jehovah extends throughout the illimitable
regions which they occupy; that most, if not all spaces of immensity, there must be myriads of
of them, are invested with the attribute of moral beings endowed with rational and moral natures.
perfection, and are consequently in a state of hap- Similar remarks might be made upon such declapiness; that they employ their faculties in con- rations as the following:  "The Lord, he is God
templating the perfections and operations of their in the heaven above," intimating his rule or do-.Creator; and that they magnify and -adore him in minion. over the worlds on high: "Behold the
the loftiest strains, as the center and-source of all heaven and the heaven of heavens is the Lord thy
their felicity: all which appears to be implied in God's," intimating, likewise, that he presides in
the passage, "the host of heaven worshipeth high authority over all the beings they contain;
thee." - For no being can with propriety be said "Thine, O Lord, is the greatness, and the glory,
to worship Jehovah, unless such as are endowed and the majesty; for all in heaven and in earth is
with moral and intellectual powers,-capable of thine.  Thine is the kingdom, O Lord, and thou
appreciating his perfections, as displayed in the art exalted above all;" " Heaven is my throne and
universe, and of perceiving that he is worthy of the earth is my footstool;" "His kingdom is an
all homage and adoration. In' accordance with everlasting kingdom;" "His dominion is an eversuch views the Psalmist, when his soul was in- lasting dominion;" and "He doeth according to
spired with the higher strains of devotion, in a his will in the army of heaven, and among the insublime apostrophe, calls upon the whole intelli- habitants of the earth."  All these, and similar
gent universe to adore the name of Jehovah:-  passages, imply rule and dominion over the inhab"-Praise ye Jehovah from the heavens; praise him  itants of the heavens; and consequently intimate
ye heaven of heavens," —or, ye inhabitants of that the celestial worlds are occupied by the subthose, higher regions,-" praise him, all ye his jects of the Divine government.  It is not improalgels; praise him, all ye his hosts. Let them  bable that the expression which so frequently ocpraise the name of the Lord, for his name alone curs in Scripture, "The Lord of hosts,' or the
is exalted, and his glory is above the earth and Lord of armies, has a particular reference to the
heaven.":. If therefore there were no other worlds universal dominion of Jehovah over the countless
than that on which we dwell, such magnificent myriads which people the distant regions of creaexpressions would lose all their sublimity, would tion.
be'almost without meaning, and might be regarded   Psalm cxlv, 9: "The Lord is good to all; and
rather as the turgidexclamations of an enthusiast his tender mercies are over all his works."
than as.the sober dictates of inspiration. But   The goodness of God, in innumerable modes
when we take into view. the immensity of the and instances, is displayed, not only toward man,
universe, and the numerous worlds and beings it but to all the diversified orders of animated existcontains, such expressions, though among the ence in this lower world. But it is not confined
strongest which human language can furnish, fall to this terrestrial sphere, but is diffused wherever
far short of communicating the. lofty ideas they his wisdom and omnipotence have prepared habare intended to represent.                     itations for sensitive and  intellectual beings.
Such passages as the following may likewise be Hence it is here declared, that " his tender merconsidered as embodying views of the same de- cies," or the emanations of his goodness and bescription: —Psalm ciii, 19, —" The Lord hath pre- neficence are diffused "over all his works;" implypared his THRONE in the heavens; and his king- ing that throughout the whole range of the
dom ruleth over all."                          material system, however far it may extend, the
This, along with a number of similar passages beneficence of the Deity is displayed to numerous
interspersed throughout the Scriptures, evidently ranks of his sensitive and intelligent offspring;
implies that the heavens form the principal part of for unless such beings exist throughout all places
the Divine empire, compared with which, this of his vast dominions, there could be no scope for
earth is but as a point, and " all its inhabitants the exercise of his benevolence, and of course, it
reputed as nothing."  They are represented as could not be said, with propriety, to extend "over
the chief and appropriate residence of Jehovah, all his works."  In the same point of view we
where'he displays the glory of his perfections to' may consider an analogous expression in Psalm
unnumbered intelligences. Hence he is declared  cviii, and other places of Scripture, —"Thy mercy
to have "established his throne in the heavenls,'" is great above the heavens;" or, as Mr. Locke
intimating, that, it is in those higher. and more translates it, "Great is thy BOUNTY above the heaexpansive regions that the principal arrangements vens;" an expression which leads us to conclude,
of his government have been- made, that the be- that far beyond these visible heavens which the
neficenceand rectitude of his character:are mani- unassisted  eye beholds, and even beyond  the
fested, and that the grandeur of his moral admin-'reach of all the orbs which the telescope has enistration is most extensively displayed. But.it is abled.us to descry, the Divine goodness shines in
evident, that where there are no intellectual be- rich manifestations, diffusing felicity and ecstatic.ings, there. can be no moral government; and joy among unnumbered legions of happy existtherefore, if.-the Almighty has a government in ence; for "bounty" or "goodness," can have a
the heavens, -these heavens must be peopled with relation only to such beings.
beings end owed with moral and intellectual facul-   In the. following passage of Psalm  cxiv, 10ties, capable of being the subjects of a moral ad- 13, it is declared, " All thy works shall praise
ministration. To suppose a government without thee, O Lord, and thy saints shall bless thee.subjects, is evidently preposterous and absurd. It They shall speak of the glory of thy kingdom,
is added, "fils kingdom ruleth over all."  Where- and talk of. thy power; to make known to the




104                                 SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
ions  of men his mighty acts, and the glorious is so expansive, and that his universal kingdom
majesty  of his kingdom.  Thy kingdom  is all extends through regions so immeasurably distant
everlasting kingdom,' &c.                         that he may be said, speaking after the manner
This passage, may be considered as embodying  of men, " to humble himself when he beholds the
a prediction that in the future ages of the church objects in the heavens" which lie within our obsermen of piety will acquire more elevated and com- vation.  This  declaration contains not only a
prehensive views of the extent and the grandeur sublime representation of the magnificence of the
of the universal kingdom  of Jehovah, and will Divine nature and operations, but appears to me
display a more enlightened zeal than in ages past, to embody in it a demonstration of what we
in exhibiting to their -fellow-nien the august ope- formerly asserted as highly probable-namely, that
rations of Omnipotence, and the, magnificence of that portion of the universe which lies within the'that empire over which tile Most High presides. —  range of telescopic vision, and which contains so'Tlhey shall speak of the glory of Jehovah's king- many millions of splendid suns and systems, is
dom, and talk of his power."  If this kingdom  but a small part of the universal kingdom of Jewere chiefly confined to the evanescent speck of hovah, compared with what lies beyond the utmost
earth' on which we live, it would scarcely be boundaries of human vision; for he is here repreworthy of the epithets which'are' here bestowed sented as humbling himself when lie looks down:upon it. It- is a kingdom of  loY; it is a king-  from the remoter glories of his empire on all that'dom in which are displayed' niighty acts or opera- is visible to the view  of mortals. To the same
tions; it is a kingdom  of glorious majesty; it is a purpose is the pious exclamation of the Psalmist'kingdom  in which are displayed "power," and in the 8th Psalm   " O Lord, our Lord, how excel"greatness which is -unsearchable;" it is a " king- lent is thy name ill all the earth! who hast set thy
dom of all ages," and its administration will be glory above the heavens!"  And if the glory of
carried forward throughout all the revolutions of the Divinity be manifested in regions far beyond'eternity-".thy  kingdoln  is an everlasting king- the visible firmament, we may rest assured that
dom."'Were its government conducted chiefly  it consists in displaying his perfections, and comin reference to earth and its inhabitants, such  munlicatitng happiness to ilnnumerable orders of
descriptions of its grandeur could scarcely be ex- rational beings, who are the subjects of his moral
pected from inspired writers, nor would such a government.
limited kingdom correspond to the majesty of an    I shall only further offer a few cursory remarks
infinite, omnipotent, and eterial Being, who has lon the following passages:-Psalm  xix, 1, " The'the range of immensity as thetheater of his ope- heavens declare the glory of Geod," &c.  The
rations. But when we contemplate the universal word glory in this and similar passages, when apkinlgdom  of Jehovah extending throughout the plied to the Divinity, denotes the display of his
unlimited regions of space; when we behold it wisdom, goodness, omnipotence, and other attrifilled with worlds of irnmmense magnitude, and  butes.  The heavens, with all the host of rolling
with systems of worlds in such a multitude and  orbs which they contain, are here declared to
variety that no manll call number them, we per-   anifest the "glory," or the infinite perfections,
ceive at once that such a kingdom  warrants the of Hiln who formed them.  The n.umber and
application of such lofty epithets and expressions magnitude'of the opaque and luminous globes
as are here           used; that it is indeed a kingdom dis- coltaiiied within the vast expansion of these heaplaying omnipotent "power," and "greatnless un- veils, and their astonishingly rapid motions, evisearchable;" that it is connected with "mighty  dently  proclaiml his omnipotence; but if those
operations;" that it is invested with "glorious ma- bodies accomplished no eld corresponding to the
jesty;" and that it is worthy of everlasting duration. extent and grandeur of the means employed; if
But as the idea of a kingdom necessarily includes they were all so many expansive deserts, without
subjects, and as the multitude of subjects consti- ally relation to intellectual existence, they could
tute the chief glory of an empire, so we must afford no evidenlces of wisdom and beneficence,
smecessarily admit that all the provinces of this and consequently could not be said, with any
celestial kingdom are replenished with inhabitants, show  of reason, to "declare the glory of God."
or in other words, subjects of the Divine govern- In the visions recorded in the Book of Revelation,
nlerit; aw ithout which it could have no "glory'"  the celestial inhabitants are represented as falling
nor "majesty," nor could it with propriety be en- down before the throne of the Eternal iii acts of
titled to the designation of a'.kingdom."      adoration, and proclaiming, "Thou art worthy,
Such passages as the following may likewise O Lord, to receive glory, and honor, and power;
be considered as corroborating the preceding po- for-thou hast created all things."  And ill anothler
sitions: Psalm  cxiii, 4-6, "Who is like unto scene they are introduced as celeblrating with
the Lord our God, who dwelleth on high?  The rapture thle Divine operations: "Great anmd marLord is high above all nations, and his glory above velous are thy works, Lord God Almighty."the heavens.  He humbleth himself to behold the "Blessinlg, alnd glory, and wisdom, and thanks.
things that are iin heaven and in the earth."  " Thy  giving, and honor, and power, be unlto our God
goodness is great above the heavens, and thy truth  for ever and ever."  Similar remarks to the above
reacheth to the skies. Thou are exalted, O God, might be made in reference to these ascriptions
above the heavens," &c.                           of praise and adoration.  If creation were a kitnd
These passages, and others of a similar import, of chaos, or wilderness void of inlhabitanlts, and
embody the' general idea that the omnipotence. and if wisdom, design amnd goodness were not displaygrandeur of the Divinity are displayed in regions ed in the Divine arrangemenlts, there would be
far beyond tliat firmament which is visible fiom  little to excite the admiration and devotional rapour globe by common observers, yea, beyond the ture of superior iliteiligelices; and they could nlot
utmost limits to which telescopic discoveries have be said with propriety to ascribe wisdom, and
conducted us; for " his-glory is above," or beyond glory, and thanksgiving to God, while they beheld'these heavens."   And if nothing but empty  no display of some of these  attributes in the
space existed beyond these limits, or mere matter mightiest of his works. But we are told in various
without mind, it could scarcely be said that the passages of Scripture that tile Most Highs "estabDivine glory is displayed beyond these heavens. lished the world," or the universe, "by  his
It is further stated that the glory of the Almighty  wisdoir, and stretched out the heavens by his




PLURALITY OF WORLDS PROVED FROM DIVINE REVELATION.  105
unlderstanding."  In Psalm  cxlvii, 4, it is de- key to illustrate many others, as they happen to
elared-"  He telleth the number of the stars; he' occur to the intelligent student of the Scriptures.
calleth them all by their names."  It is evident We read, for example, of the Almighty " operatthat we are not to consider this declaration as ex- ing, by his moral government and arrangements,"
pressive merely of an arithmetical idea or some- "among the army," or armies, " of heaven,"
thing sirnilar to the practice of an astronomer, as well as "among the inhabitants of the earth;"
who distinguishes the stars by certain letters, char- and that the whole population of our world " is
acters or: appel'lations; but as expressive of the reputed as nothing in his sight."  We find il
intimate knowledge which the Almighty has of different portions of the psalms, the inhabitants of
all those mighty orbs wherever dispersed through- the heavens, and " the heaven of heavens"-the
out the'regions of infinitude, and likewise his " angels who excel in strelngth"-" all his hosts,"
perfect acquaintance.  with  all the intellectual or legions of intelligences, " in all places of his
beings, and the special'arrangements connected dominions, who do his pleasure, hearkening to
with every one of them-a circumstance which the voice of his word,"-we find all these ranks
conveys a most sublime idea of the omniscience and of beings called upon to join in one united chorus
ominipresence of the Deity. Hence, in the words of praise and thanksgiving to " Him whose name
immediately following, the mind of the Psalmist, alone is exalted, and whose glory is above the
overpowered with this idea, bursts forth in this earth and heaven."  We read in the Book of
exclamation, " great is our Jehovah, and of great Job, among many other descriptions of the gralnpower; his understanding is infinite."         deur of the Deity, that "by his spirit he garIn the Epistle to the Hebrews, chapter-i, 2, and nished the heavenls;" and that the astonishing
xi, 3, a plurality of worlds is declared: "Tihrough displays of his omnipotence they conitaiu "'are
faith we understand that the worlds were framed but parts of his ways," and that " the thunder of
by the word of God, and that the things which his power none can uiderstasnd."  All of which
are seen were not made of things that do appear." representations, and many others, may be conThe Greek word'tlwv, inll this passage, is some- sidered as embodying the idea, not only of a plutimes used to denote an age or dispensation, but rality, bfit of myriads of worlds existing in the
is also frequently used to designate the material universe.
world; in which sense it must be taken ill the   There is one general remark which may be appassage: before us, as is evident from  its conl- plied to all that we have stated in this chapter,
nection, and from the subject on which the apostle' and that is-It is not necessary to suppose that the
is treating. It is to the visible or material world inspired writers had revealed to them all the wonders
that our attention is here directed as having been of modern astronomy. They appear, in some inproduced from  an invisible cause.  The terlm  stances, to have been ignorant of the precise meanwvova; being used in the plural number, evidently ing and the extensive references of the language
intimates that there are more worlds than one, they used. The prophets are said to have "inand that there may be thousands or millions; but, quired and searched diligently what manner of
independently of this direct intimation of a plu- time the spirit of Christ which was ill them did
rality of worlds, the passages formerly quoted, signify, when it testified beforehand the sufferwhen viewed in a proper light, and considered inll ings of Christ and the glory that should follow;"
all their references and bearings, may be consi- intimating that they were partly unacquainted
dered as conclusive proofs of the same position, withs tie precise references of tilhe predictions
and as intimating to us, not simply a plurality of they uttered. They were only the amanuenses
worlds, but extending our views of their number of the Divine Spirit, and were directed to such
and magnificence as far as science has yet con- language as was accordant with the Divine ecoducted us, and even beyond the range of astrono- lnomy and with the facts existing inl the universe,
mical discovery; for we are told that the Divine although they themselves might not be aware of
perfections are displayed " above," or beyond, the grandeur of those objects to which their exthe utmost range of " the visible heavens."   pressions referred; and the correspondence of
Many other passages beside the above might their language with tile phenomena of the heahave been pointed out as bearing on the samne vens and the earth, and the discoveries of modern
subject, but the remarks already made on the pas- times, constitutes one evidence among others of
sages which have been selected may serve as a the truth of Divine Revelation.
C H A P T E R XVIII.
ON THE PHYSICAL AND MORAL STATE OF THE BEINGS THAT MAY INHABIT
OTHER WORLDS.
ON the enunciation of this topic, some readers tllis sublunary sphere, we cannot fly on the
will probably, be apt to surmise, that the author wings of a seraph to visit any of the distant orbs
is atteinpting to go beyond the range of subjects of the' firmament.  It is true, that on such a subwithin which the human understanding should ject we cannot attempt to descend into particube confined.'We have never seen the inhabitants lars. But there are certain general and admitted
of other worlds;  we have been favored with no principles on which we may reason, and there are
gpecial revelations respecting them; we have not certain phenomena and indications of design exeven caught a glimpse of the peculiar scenery -of hibited in the structure of the universe from
the globes in which they reside, excepting a few  which certain general conclusions may' be deportions of their celestial phenomena; and while duced; beyond such generalities I. do not intend
we are chained down by the law of gravitation to to proceed, nor to indulge in vain conjecture.




106                                 SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
There are many things of which we have ac- globe. When we inspect the surface of the moon
quired a certain degree of knowledge, and yet through a good telescope, we behold a beautiful
have never seen. We do not see the-air we diversity of extensive plains, of lofty mountains,
breathe, nor most of the gaseous fluids; we do in every variety of size and form-of plains and
not see the principle of life, or the rational spirit valleys surrounded with circu'lar ramparts of hills
which animates our bodies; we cannot possibly -of mountains towering far above, and vales and
see the Divine Being,-although'his presence per- caverns sinking far below the general level of the
vades all space. But, in regard to all these objects, lunar surface, with many other varieties; and we
we have acquired a certain degree of information; have only to suppose the general surface of that
and therefobre, although we have never seen any  orb adorned with vegetable productions somewhat
of the inhabitants of other-planets, and never will analogous to those of our globe, in order to present
so long as we remain in, our present abode, yet a scene of picturesque beauty and magnificence.
we may form some general conceptions respect-   Now, it appears a natural, if not a- necessary
ing them, both as to their physical and moral state. conclusion, that such grand and beautiful scenes
All that I propose on this point may be compre- could only be intended for the contemplation and
hended under the following general remarks:      enjoyment of beings endowed with rational na1. The planets, wherever they exist, in our tures, since mere sentient beings, such as the
own or in other systems, are inhabited by sentient lower animals in our world, are insensible either
beings.  The formation of material fabrics, such to the beauties of the vegetable kingdom or the
as all the planetary bodies are, necessarily indi- glories of the spangled firmament.  If our globe
cate that beings connected with material vehicles had been created merely for the support of such
and organs of sensation were intended to inhabit beings, it is not probable that it would have been
them. The arrangements for the diffusion of adorned with all the beautiful arrangements which
light, heat, and the influence of the power of at- now exist, and the splendid and diversified scenes
traqtion, -and other material agencies, evidently with which it is furnished.  The lion, the tiger,
show that such agents were intended to act on and the hyena find every accommodation they
beings formed with organical parts and functions, desire in dens,- deserts, thickets, and forests; and
capable of being the recipients of impressions from  they appear to feel no peculiar enjoyment in
them. All such beings, therefore, must be consi- flowery fields, expansive lakes, beautiful landdered as furnished with bodies constructed with  scapes, or the sublimities of a starry firmanlment.
organical parts analogous to what we find in man If, then, there were no rational intelligences in
or other animated beings on our globe; but the the planetary worlds, we cannot suppose that so
size and form of such bodies, the parts of which  many grand and magnificent arrangements as we
they are composed, the functions they respectively  find existing would have been made; particularly,
perform, their symmetry and decoration, and their we cannot suppose that the motions of the planets
powers of locomotion, may be very different from  and their satellites would have been so accurately
those which obtain in our sublunary world; and adjusted as to perform  their revolutions with so
it is not unlikely,- from  a consideration of the much precision as we find they do. The reguvariety which exists in the universe, that there is larity and precision of these motions are evidently
a certain difference, in these and other respects,, intended to serve as accurate measures of time or
in every planet and world that exists throughout duration,-a circumstance which must always be
immensity.                                       a matter of importance to rational beings where2. The principal inhabitants of the planets and ever existing, but which seems to be scarcely
other worlds are not merely sensitive beings, but attended to, and perhaps not in the least appreciare likewise endowed with intellectual faculties. ated, by merely sentient beings, such as the lower
This may be inferred firom the scenery connected  orders of animated nature which exist around us.
with their habitations. Connected with the planet   From what has been now stated, we may conJupiter, we behold four splendid moons, larger clude that the inhabitants of the planets are not
than ours, performing their revolutions around it purely spiritual beings; for pure spirits, entirely
in regular periods of time, without the least devia- divested of material vehicles, cannot be supposed
tion from  their courses. The general aspect of to have a permanent connection with any material
these moons, their diversified phases and rapid  world or system; nor could they be supposed to
changes, along with their frequent eclipses, must be affected by air, light, colors, attraction, or
produce a sublime and variegated appearance in other material influences, which operate on the
the nocturnal sky of that planet; while, from the surfaces of all the planetary bodies. If pure
surface of the moons themselves, the still more intelligences, disconnected with matter, exist in
splendid appearance' of Jupiter and the phases of the universe, they must be conceived to have a
the other moons will present a nocturnal scene more expansive range than the limits of any one
of peculiar sublimity and magnificence..  Con- globe, and those material agencies which affect
iaected with the planet Saturn, we find scenes still the organs of sensitive existence cannot be sup
more august and diversified; beside seven large posed to operate upon them; and, consequently,
moons, two resplendent rings of vast extent sur- their modes of perception must be altogether difround the body of this planet, producing the most ferent from those of organized intelligences. We
sublime and diversified phenomena, both to the may therefore with certainty conclude that the
planet itself and to all its satellites, adorning the intelligent beings connected with the planetary
firmaments of those bodies with a splendor and worlds, either of our own or of.other systems, are
magnificence of which we can form but a faint furnished with bodies, or corporeal vehicles of
conception.*  Were we permitted minutely to some kind or other. These may differ in size and
inspect the surfaces of these planets, we should  form in different planets; perhaps their size may
doubtless find many beautiful arrangements in the depend on the amplitude of space which the difscenery of nature with which they are adorned, ferent planets may contain.  But I cannot acquiprobably far surpassing in picturesque variety and esce in a supposition lately thrown out by a
grandeur what appears on the surface of our certain reviewer, "that in some worlds the inhabitants may be as large as mountains, and in
* For a particular description of the scenes here alluded others, as small as emmets."  In the one case,
to, the leader is referred to" Celestial Scenery," chap. viii. comparatively- few  inhabitants could live in a




INHABITANTS- OF OTHER WORLDS.                                      107
world whiere every one was a walking Mount as that which emanates from the sun. It is reBlanc or Mount E]tna; and it would be contrary fracted and reflected by the same' laws, and conto all the known arrangements -of the Creator; sists of the same colors, as that which illuminates
who appears to act on the principle of compres- the bodies which compose thie solar syste m, and
sing into a small space the greatest degree of sen- which throws a luster on the objects immediately
sitive and intellectual enjoyment:. Beside, such around us.  The mediums of vision must therea huge.mass of matter as a mountain is notonly fore be acted upon by light, in the most distant
unnecessary, but in all probability would behighly  regions of creation, in nearly the same manner
Injurious to the exercise of the intellectual facul- as with us, although there may be numerous  vaties. In the other case, were rational- beings as rieties and modifications of the visual organs, so
small as emrets, they could neither contemplate as to render vision far more perfect and extensive
the beauties and sublimities of the scene of nature than in the case of the inhabitants of our globe.
around them, nor the glories of the starry firma- We find that there is an immense variety in the
meait; their range of vision could extend only a modes of vision among the lower animals.  Some
few  feet or yards around them, and they never of the smaller insects have their eyes nearly of a
could be able to explore the nature, extent, and globular form  and very small, so that they can
peculiarities of scenery of the world they inha- see only a few inches around them; while the
bited. So that all such suppositions are evidently  eyes of other animals, such as the eagle, are so
extravagant and absurd, being directly contrary  constructed that they can perceive their prey at a
to the proportion and harmony which exist in the great distance, and from a very elevated pusition.
universe, ind which characterize all the arraige- Some animals have only one'or two visual organs
meats of the Creator.  In regard to the powers or eye-balls, as man, birds, and quadrupeds; others
of locomotion, there may be considerable differ- have eight, as in the case of spiders; and, others
ences in different worlds. In -many instances have several hundreds, and even thousands, of
there is reason to believe their inhabitants are transparent globules, each of which is capable of
enabled to transport themselves from  one region forming a distinct image of anly object, as is the
to another with a velopity far surpassing the loco- case with flies, butterflies, and other insects. All
motive powers of man. In the planet Venus some these diversified constructions of the organs of
of the mountains are reckoned to be twenty-two  vision, however, perform  their functions accordmiles in  perpendicular elevation, from the top of ing to the same invariable laws of optics.
which ernminences the most sublime and'diversified    But altho~ugh light must act on the eyes of all
prospects must be enjoyed; and in order that its organized beings in a manner somewhat similar,
inhabitants  may be enabled to ascend with ease or at least analogous to what it does on our
such lofty elevations, it is not unreasonable to organs, yet there may be certain configurations
believe that they are endowed. with powers of of the organ of vision by which a more glorious
motion far superior to those of the inhabitants and extensive effect is produced than by the
of:our globe.                                   human  eye.  The inhabitants of some other
3. The inhabitants of the planets are furnished worlds, instead of being confined in their range
with organs of sensation, particularly with the of vision as we are, may be able to penetrate
oqan of vision. This may be certainly deduced through space to an indefinite extent, and to perfrom the fact, that there are connected with the ceive with distinctness all the prominent objects
planets arrangements for the equable distribution connected with neighboring worlds; and even the
af light.. TIhe sun, the source of illumination, is peculiarities of distant suns and systems may be
placed in the center of the system  for diffusing within the range of their view. The difference
light in certain proportions, over the surfaces of between the eye of an insect, which sees only an
all -the planets, their satellites, and their rings. inch or two around it, and the eye of a man,
Each planetary body revplves round its axis, in which can grasp at once an extensive landscape,
order that every part of its surface may alternately is perhaps as great as the difference between the
enjoy the benefit of the solar radiation.  Around vigor and extent of human eyes and such organs
the larger planets are moons for the distribution of vision as I have now  supposed. And who
of light in the absence of the sun; and one of shall set boundaries to the mechanisms of infinite
them is invested with a double ring, which reflects wisdom, especially when we consider the varieties
the solar rays during the night both on the surface which exist in our terrestrial system?  It is not
of the planet itself and on the surfaces of its beyond the limits of probability that an inhabitant
moons.  This diversified apparatus for the diffu- of Jupiter may' be able to perceive and to trace
sion of light evidently appears to be an arrange- all the variety of scenery connected with Saturn,
meit of means in order to the accomplishment of and its rings and satellites, and to distinguish the
an important end; for it would be a reflection on planets that revolve around other suns, as disthe character of the All-wise Contriver to suppose tinctly as we perceive with a telescope the satelthat means have been arranged where no appro- lites with which that planet is attended. We have
priate end is-intended to be accomplished; but all experimental proof that the inventions of art can
the',arrangemients for the-regular and equable dif- extend the range of human vision.  The rings of
fusion of light have been made in vain, if there Saturn, the motions of its satellites, the changes
be no eyes or organs of vision on which light may  which happen in the belts of Jupiter-which no
act; for mountains, and vales, and barren deserts unassisted eye could ever have; discerned, —and
do not require'its regular influence.'That there millions of stars a thousand times more distant
ae furneished with -veisualt
are beingsfurnished with visual organs through- than the limits of natural vision, have been
out all the worlds and systems of matter in the brought toview by the invention of the telescopn;
universe appears from the consideration, that not which shows that the extent of human vision is
onily in'our own system, but amoig the myriads Susceptible of an indefinite increase.  And if man
of fixed stars dispersed throughout immensity, can thus improve his natural vision, we need not
provision is made for such organs in the existence doubt that the Deity has infinite resources at his
of light,, whichis a substance that appears to be command, and that when he pleases, he 6an conuniversally diffused throughout creation.  It is struct visual organs of such vast, and extensive
found by experimenit, that the ligti which radiates powers as far surpass the limits of our comprefrom the most'distant star is of the same nature hension; and it is not improbable, from the vari



108                                SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
ety already known to exist, that'such organs are more swift and energetic than those.of mall, it is
actually to be found throughout'different regions highly p'robable'that ration'il land social beings, in
of the universe..Our extent of'vision by the more expansive worlds'thail ours, are capable of
telescope is found to depend on the extent of area traversing space with much mnore ease and agility
contained in the object-glass, or speculum of that than the human ilihabitants of our globe, other:
instrument, which enables the eye' to takein a wise they could not be- supposed for ages to ac.
greater portion of rays from  distant-objects than complish a survey of the world in which'they
it can do in its natural:'state;.aid therefore, if our dwell, or to become acquainted  with its leading
eyes were formed;with'pupils of a large dimen- features.  Whether such motions,'however;, are
sion, and with a corresponding degree of nervous performed on a principle' analogous to that on
sensibility in the retina, we.might'be enabled to which the wings of birds are constructed, or on
penetrate into space to'an. extent of which we. any other principle to usunknown, is beyolnd'our'have no conception. Such-modifications of vision, province to determine.
and thousands of- others, are' obviiisly within the    5. We may also infer that the inhabitants of
power of Him who'at first organized all the'tribes other worlds are furnished with a sense corres.
of animated existence,                           po''  ponding to the organ of hearing, and a faculty of'It is highly probable thatit is one great'design emitting articulate sounds. Without'such a sense
of the Crieator to exhibit to all initelligent beings and: faculty, it is-scarcely possible to conceive that
throughout creation'a visible display of his glory  social intercourse, and a mutual interchange of
through the medium  of'their visual organs; for sentiment and feeling could be carried on'to any
where no organs of vision exist,.the wonderful extent, or with any great degree of pleasure or
apparatus for the. production and distribution of improvement, among  organized  beings.  Pure'
light so conspicuous throughout the universe, ex- spirits may have modes of intercourse and of com-'
ists in vain; and, therefore, if it'be allowed -to municating thought peculiar to themselves, of
reason from  the means to the- end, or from  the which we can at present form no distinct concep
cause to the, effect, we must admit -that the' uni- tion; but organized intelligences must necessarily
versal diffusion of light through infinite space, have some -material mediums, or faculties, by
from ai infinite variety of bodies, must be intend- which sentiments and emotions'may be expressed
ed. to produce vision through the medium  of or- and communicated.  Some' of the planets are
sans similar'or analogous to' ours; in.order that found to be environed with atmospheres; and as
rational beings may enjoy the pleasures arising air is the medium  of sound in our terrestrial refrom this'sense, and be enabled to; appreciate the gion, it doubtless serves a similar purpose in other
wonders of the universe, and the perfections of worlds; and consequently. we may conclude that
its Creator.  The variety of means and contri- the animated beings they contain' are furnished
vances for the diffusion of light throughout crea- with organs for the perception of sounds'in, all
~tion is therefore a demonstrative evidence both of their modulations.  In the representations given
-the existence of intelligent beings in other worlds, in the sacred records of the exercises of superior
and that they are furnished with visual organs for beings, they are exhibited as uttering articulate
the purpose of contemplating the objectswhich it sounds, and joining in. the harmonies of music.
reilders visible.                                 When a multitude of angels descended on the
4. The inhabitants of other worlds are invested plains of Bethlehem  to announce:the birth of
with locomotive powers. This we may infer from  Messiah to the shepherds, they uttered articulate
the amplitude of space' which every world con- sounds, and joined in musical strains which struck
tai'ns, and from  the consideration that they are the ears of the shepherds, and conveyed a distinct.
social beings, and hold a regular intercourse with impression of the meaning of the sentiments comeach other. We must, indeed, necessarily sup- municated; which circumstance leads us to conpose that there are no rational beings confined to clude, that superior intelligences in otherlregions
one spot or point of space, as a tree, a shrub, or express sentiments and emotions in a manner
any other vegetable; for if this were the case, somewhat similar to that in which we hold interthere could be no improvement! either in knowl- course with one another, by the faculties of speech
edge or in moral action,'the capacity of the in- and hearing.
tellect could never be expanded, the variety of    6. It might, perhaps, be inferred from the rotrbeauties and sublimities which distinguish all the tion of the planets-which produces the alternaworks of God could never be properly contem- tlons of light and darkness-that their inhabitants
plated, most of the pleasures peculiar to an intel- are subject to something analogous to sleep, or
ligent being could never be enjoyed, and the man- stated intervals of repose.  This may probably be
ifold delights which flow' from  social intercourse the case in some of the planets, such- as- Mars. or
and the contemplation of diversified scenes and  Mercury, which are unaccompanied with satelobjects could never be experienced:.  The suppo- lites; but we know too little'of the peculiar cirsition of an incapacity for local motion is there- cumstances of other worlds to warrant us to speak
fore inconsistent with' the idea of a rational be- decisively on: this point, as the bodies of the ining, and almost involves an' absurdity.  We find, habitants of other planets. may be so' constructed
moreover,'that in many of the planets, particularly  as not to stand in need of being daily invigorated
il Jupiter and Saturn, there is the most ample by repose as the bodies of men.  Beside, the
space provided for exercising the powers of loco- celestial scenery of some of the planets is so.
motion; these two planets containing more than  grand, diversified, anrd picturesque, that a consider.
220 times the area of the earth's surface, which  able part of their studies and social pleasures may
affords a vast field-for excursion, and Lor observa-  be prosecuted and enjoyed amidst the solemn
tion to their inhabitants.  These locomotive pow- grandeur and beautiful diversity of their noctur.
ers may be very differentl from those of man, both  nal scenes, and their contemplations directed to'in their fleetness and in' their mode of operation. the interesting objects then "presented to. their
We have reason to believe that in'many instances view.  This is probably the case in the regions of
they will far exceed ours in swiftness, and in the Jupiter and Uranus,-particularly  in  Saturn,
ease with which they may be performed; for if where seven moons may occasionally be beheld in
birds andflying insects, and even certain quadru- the nocturnal. heavens, all exhibiting  different
peds, are endowed' with powers'of motion. far 2phases,-sorne of them changing their apparent




LOCOMOTIVE POWERS.                                        109
plhases, magnitude, and motion with great rapidi-'creation can possibly alter or modlify; and there-.
ty; some of them  entering into an eclipse; and fore must be recognized, in a greater or less doothers nemerging from  it; while two stupendous gree, by every rational being.  The Creatot himrings stretch across the concave of the sky, pre- self has laid the foundation of this science, for-he
sen'ting every moment different objects oln their presents us in his works with geometrical. figures
surface in the course of their rapid'diurnal revo- of various descriptions,-with circles, squares,
lution.  Such scenes will, perhaps, be more inter- parallelograms, hexagons and  polygons-with
esting to the inhabitants of this planet than all ellipses, spheres, spheroids, and other figures, and
the splendors of their noonday;* for all the ob- proposes them, as it were, to'our study and conjects on the surface of this planet, and likewise templation. With geometry, arithmetic and other
those on Jupiter and Uranus, will present a differ- sciences are intimately  connected, so that the
ent aspect from  what they do in the. daytime. study of the one supposes that of the other. -In
Being illuminated by the light reflected from  a short, truth, and every branch of knowledge by
retinue of moons, and by the still more efful- which the mind of a rational being can be adorngent splendor emitted from  the spacious rings, ed, must be substantially the same in every world
every object will appear enlightened and distinct- throughout the amplitudes of creation.
ly visible, a diversity of coloring will be exhibited    Some persons, however, may be disposed to
by the' diversity of reflected rays proceeding fromi  object, that the inhabitants of other' worlds mav
the different moons and rings, and the shadows of see all truths intuitively, and that they may have
objects will be increased and blended together, no need to use any means, as we are obliged to
and thrown in different directions, according to do, to acquire and to make progress in knowledge,
the number and relative positions of the nocturnal and that they acquire all their knowledge at once
luminaries which may happen to' be above their without any exertions,-opinions which  have
horizon.  Oni which account, Ishould-be disposed been frequently broached by divines, in reference
to conclude that the inhabitants of such planets to the happiness of the future world. But there
have their physical constitutions organized in such  appears no foundation for such opinions.  We'manner by Divine Wisdom  as to fit them  for have reason to believe that every intellectual being
perpetual activity, without standing in need of throughout creation exerts its powers for the acany repose similar to that of sleep.              quisition of truth, and that its advancement in
The above cursory remarks respecting the phy- knowledge is progressive; for its faculties were
sical state of the planetary inhabitants have been  bestowed for the very purpose that they might be
deduced chiefly from  the ascertained  circum- exerted on all the different objects and manifestastances and phenomena of the planlets, and from  tions of the Divinity within its reach; and if all
the general constitution and economy of the uni- knowledge were intuitive and required no exerverse. Several other conclusions might likewise  tion  of the mental faculty, the individual would
have been deduced, but I do not intend to enter be reduced to something like a mere machine, and
into the regions of mere conjecture.  As rational would be deprived of the pleasures which arise
and intelligent beings, the inhabitailts of other from mental research and investigation.  There
worlds must necessarily be considered as prosecu- must likewise be a progress in knowledge, arising
ting the study of useful science in reference to from  the consideration of the immensity of the
all. those departments of nature which lie open to Divine Being, and of his works, and of the limited
their iaspection, and that they exercise their men- nature of finite intelligences.  No finite being can
tal faculties in such pursuits and investigations. ever grasp the incomprehensible Divinity, or thl
If this be admitted, then we must necessarily con- immensity and variety of his operations throughelude that they use all the requisite means for the  out boundless space; but it may always be advaninvestigation of truth, and for progressing in  cing to a more comprehensive view of the perfecknowledge.  If, for example, they engage in the tions and the empire of the Eternal, and may thus
study of astronomy (as we have reason to believe go on from one degree of knowledge to another,
the inhabitants of all worlds do) they must make  gradually approximating toward perfection durning
observations, both general and particular; and ill all the periods of all immortal existence, but will
order to do so with accuracy and precision, in- never reach it; and its happiness is connected
struments of various descriptions are requisite, with this circumstance, that it will never reach
and the Inanagement of these requires the use of perfection, or obtain a fdll discovery of all the
hands, or some bodily parts answering a similar glories of the Divinity.  But this gradual progrespurpose; for none of the lower animals on our sion and expansion of intellectual views will be a
globe that are deficient in such a member could perennial source of felicity to all virtuous intelperform the operations of art which mail call per- ligelces.  Whereas, were the whole  of their
form  by the use of his hands.  If a horse or a knowledge acquired at once, or after a short period
bear were furnished with the same intellectual I of duration, the mind would flag, mental activity
faculties as the human race, and still retain its would cease, the prospect of future knowledge
present organization, it could make little or no  and enjoymelt  would be cut off, and misery to
progress either in science or art, without mem- a certain extent would take possession of the
bers corresponding to human hands; and there- soul.
fore we may confidently conclude that members   In fine, although there are, doubtless, niarked
similar or analogous to these are common to us differences between tile planetary inhabitants and
and to the planetary inhabitants.  The study of: the inhabitants of our globe, and althiough the
astronomy likewise supposes an acquaintance with  natural scenery of those worlds may be considergeomeltryt.  The truths of geometry must be the  ably different from ours, yet it is not improbable,
same in every region of the universe, and perhaps were we transported to those abodes, that we
of equal utility to the inhabitants of the most dis- should feel more at home in their society' and
taut worlds as to mall on earth.  They are truths arrangenments than we are now apt to imagine,
which are eternal and unchangeable, and which I provided we were once made acquainteedwith
no locality or circumstances within the iimits of their language, or mode of communicating their
ideas. For there are certain relations, sentimel:ts,
*For a particular description of these seenes, the reader dispositions and virtues, which must be common
ki referred to' Celestial Scenery," chap. viii.  to intellectual and moral beings, wherever existing




110                               SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
throughout tne material universe. Iln respect to with the most extensive and intimate intercourse
bodily stature and appearance, we might:be apt of all rational and virtuous beings.'  There Inay
to suspect that there would be. many  striking dif-  be a spirituzal economy  establislied in the uniferences in the aspect of the inhabitants of all- verse, of which thie physical structure of creation
other planet, and that strange and novel forms of is the basis or platform, or the ilntroductory scene
corporeal organization would everywhere be pre- in which rational beings are trailed and prepared
sented to view; yet it is just as probable that in  for being members of the higher order; of this
such a world we should contemplate beings not celestial orintellectual economy. It appears highmuch unlike ourselves anid alirnated by similar ly probable that the first introduction of every
or analogous views, sentim'ents, and  feelings, rational creature into existence is on the scene of
though placed in circumtstances a'nd surrounded a physical economy. The diversified scenes and
with a scenery veryV different froim those of our relations of tlhe material world appear to be nesublunlary region.                              cessary, in the infancy of being, to form a subWhetherwe may ever enjoy  1an.intimate cor- stratum for thought, or to afford scope for the
respondelnce with beingsbelonging to -other worlds, exercise of the moral and intellectual powers, or
is a question which will frequently obtrude itself  materials on which these powers may operate,
on a: contemplative mind. It is evident that, in- and likewise for exhibitingl  a sensible display of
our present state, all direct intercpurse with-other the character and perfections of the Alrighty.worlds isimpossible. The law of gravitation, which  The knowledge which may thus be acquired of
unites all the worlds in the universe in one grand  the scenes and relations of the universe, allnd
system, separates man from his kindred spirits in  the attributes and moral government of its Omother planets, and intelrposes-an impassable barrier  nipotent Author, in the Course of myriads of
to his excursions to distant regions, and to his cor-  ages, must be great and extensive beyond what
respondence with other orders of intellectual be- we call well conceive.  This knowledge and exings. But in thepresent state he is only in the in-  perience of physical objects and relations may
fancy of his beinq;, he is destined to a future and  prepare the rational soul for entering on the coneternal state of existence, where the range of his fa-  fines of a higher and nobler economy, where
culties and his connections with other beings will immaterial scenes and relations, and particularly
be indefinitely expanded. "A wide and boundless the attributes of Divinity, abstractly considered,
prospect lies before him," and during the revolu-  may form  the chief objects of.reearch and contions of an interminable duration, he will, doubt-  templation. Under such a state of economy, we
less, be brought into contact and correspondence  may conceive that intellectual beings, to whatwith numerous orders of kindred beings, with  ever portion of the material universe they oriwllorr he may be permitted to associate on terms ginally belonged, may hold the most intimate
of equality and.of endearing friendship. All the  converse with one another, by modes peculiar to
virtuous intelligences throughout creation may  that economy, and which are beyond the conicepbe  considered as members of one great family, tions of the inhabitants of the physical universe;
under the peculiar care and protection of the so that distance in point of space shall form no
UNIVERSAL PARENT; and it is not improbable, that insuperable barrier to the mutual communication
it is one grand design of the Deity to promote a of sentiments and emotions.
regular -and progressive intercourse among the    Onl grounds similar to those now stated, we
several branches  of his intelligent offspring, might conceive it as not altogether improbable,
though at distant intervalsand in divers mgnners, that the spiritual principle which animates the
and after the lapse of long periods of duration.    lower orders of animated nature, and which in
Such an intercourse may be necessary, in order some cases bears a near resemblance to the reason
to the full expansion of the moral and intellectual of man, may be susceptible of indefinite expanfaculties, and to the acquisition of all that know- sion and improvement by being connected with a
ledge which relates to the attributes of the Divin- superior organization, and that such beings may
ity, and the physical and moral government of ultimately pass through various gradations of
the universe. For this purpose it may be neces- rank in the physical and intellectual economy,
sary that branches of 4he universal family that until they arrive at a station superior to that of
have existed in different periods of duration, and  the most enlightened and improved human beings.
in regions widely separated from  each  other, But as we are now bordering onl the regions of
should be broughi into'mutual association, that doubt and uncertainty, suffice it to say, that it
they may communicate to each other the results appears highly probable, from  a consideration of
of their knowledge and experience, the diversity  the Divine benevolence, of the relations which
cf lphysical and moral circumstances in which  subsist throughout the physical and intelligent
they have been placed, and the different arrange- system, and of the intimations contained in the
melts of God's moral government to which they  records of revelation, that virtuous and holy inhave been respectively subjected.  Such views telligences, from different regions of the material
correspolnd with the representations given  in  creation, as brethren of the same great family,
Scripture in reference to the heavenly state. The  shall, at one period or another, hold the most iutispirits of " just mnen rnmade perfect" are represent- mate converse. and comnmunion, and rehearse to
ed as joining the society of " an  innumerable each other their mutual history and experience
company of- angels," which are only another or- Such intercourse would evidently enhance that
der of rational beings; and in the visions of felicity which it is the great design of the Creator
celestial bliss, recorded in the book of Revelation, to communicate, and the means by which it may
both men and the angelic hosts are exhibited as be effected are obviously within the limits of infiforming  one society, and joiningin unison in-cel- nite Wisdom and Omnipotence.
ebrating the perfections of Him who sitteth on the
throne of the universe.                           ON THE MORAL STATE OF THE INHABITANTS OF
But-should the laws of the physical system, and               OTHER WORLDS.
the immense distances which intervene between
the several worlds, prevent such associations asI   The. moral state of intellectual beings in other
have now supposed, there may be another econo- worlds is a subject of still greater interest and immy, superior to the physical, which may consist portalce than their physical state and constitution,




MORAL STATE OF OTHER WORLDS.                                       ill
and the scenes of nature with which they are sur- exhibit to the intelligent system  a display of the
rounded; for on the moral temperament of such miserable and extensive effects which necessarily
beings, and the passions and affections tlhek'dis- flow from  a violation of the original moral laws
play, will chiefly depend the happiness of'the in- given forth by the Creator, and to demonstrate the
telligent system  throughout every region of the indispensable necessity of a universal adherelce
universe.  It is possible to suppose a region of to these laws, in order to secure the harmony and
creation furnished with everything that is grand, the happiness of the intelligent universe.
beautiful and magnificent, and calculated to gra-   In conformity fo the axiom  stated above, we
tify in tile highest degree the senses and imagina- must necessarily suppose that rational beings,
tion, and yet the abode of wretchedness and mise- wherever existing, were created in perfect moral
ry. I'f passions and dispositions similar to those purity, and had a law or.laws impressed upon their
which actuate the m6st vicious and depraved class minds congenial to the holiness of the Almighty
of mankind were universally to prevail in any Creator, and calculated to- promote the moral orworld,'however beautiful and sublime its physical der of the intelligent system, and consequently
arrangements, true happiness W'ould be banished the happiness of every individual belonging to it.
from its society, and misery, in all its' diversified Moral order coprsists; in the harmonious arrangeramifications, would be found pervading its abodes. ment, disposition, and conduct of intelligent beEven the tempers and dispositions which are fre- tngs, corresponding to the relations in which they
quently exhibited in polishedsociety, and by-some stand to one another and to their Creator, and
men who call themselves Christians and philoso- calculated to promote their mutualhappiness.phers, —jealousy, emulation, envy, pride, revenge,, Wherever moral order prevails, every being holds
selfishness, and. such like,-were- they'!to reign its proper station in the universe, acts according
uncontrolled inl any region, would.soon transform  to the nature of that station, uses its faculties for
intellectual. beings into an'assemblage of fiends, the purpose for which they were originally intendand banish trueenjoyment from every department ed, displays dispositions  and emotions toward
of the social systemni.                          fellow-creatures and the Creator corresponding to
If these sentiments be admitted, it will follow, the respective relations in which they stand, and
that were we permitted to range through any of endeavors to promote enjoyment among all surthe planetary  worlds, the pleasures apd enjoy- rounding beings.*  For the purpose of securing
ments of such an exculrsion would chiefly depend moral order, certain moral laws must be supposed
on -the. character, and dispositions of those who to be promulgated by the Creator, or at least writaccompanied us, and of the inhabitants of the ten upon the hearts of all rational beings, as prinplaliet (through which we roamed. Were' we to ciples of action, to regulate all the movements of
be treated by the inhabitants of.,another world in the intelligent system. These laws must be subthe saine way as Mr. Park was treated by the stantially the same as to their general bearings
Moors when he was traversing the wilds of Afri- throughout all the worlds in the universe.
ca, or as a poor wretched foreigner is sometimes   But, it may be asked,-what are those general
treated in our own country, we should find little laws to which I allude, and have they ever been
elnjoyment amidst all the beauties and novelties promulgated to man upon earth? I answer, they
of scenery which might meet our eye in such a have actually been revealed to the inhabitants of
world, for upon the affections and conduct of in- our globe by the highest authority, and reason
telligent beings toward one another must depend call demonstrate their applicability to all worlds.
-the happiness of individuals, and of the whole so- They are these-" THou SHALT LOVE THE LORD
cial system throughout every departmentof crea- THY GOD WITH ALL THY HEART, AND WITH  ALL
tion.                                            THY MIND, AND WITH ALI. THY STRENGTH. This is
It is probable that the greater part of the inhab- the first and great commandment.' And the second
Itants of all worlds are in a state of innocence, is like unto it: THOU SHALT LOVE THY NEIGHBOR
o)r, in other words that they remain in that state AS THYSELF."  These laws are not to be considerof moral rectitude in which they were created; ed as confined merely to the regulation of the affor we may assume it as.an axiomn that every ra- fections and actions of'human beings, but to evetional being, when first ushered into existence, is ry individual of the moral system, wherever explaced in a state of innocence or moral rectitude, isting; for we cannot for a moment suppose that
without any natural bias to moral evil. To sup- laws directly opposite to these would be given by
pose the contrary would be to admit that the Di- the Creator to any class of intelligences.  It would
vine Being, who is possessed of perfect holiness be inconsistent with everything we know of the
and rectitude, infuses into rational beings at their character of the Divinity to imagine that he would
creation a principle of sin, or a tendency to moral promulgate to any class of beings such laws as
evil, which would be inconsistent with every  these:-"Thou shalt hate thy Creator," and "thou
scriptural view we call take of the character of shalt hate all thy fellow-creatures."  And if such
God. Such beings, therefore, so long as they  an idea would evidently involve in it a glaring incontinue in their primeval rectitude, are in a state consistency and absurdity, then it follows that the
of happiness; and every arrangement of theCrea- very opposite of such injunctions must be the
tor in relation to them must be conceived as hav- general principles which govern the inlabitalts
ing a direct tendency to promote their sensitive of all worlds that have retained their allegiance to
and intellectual enljoyment. Moral evil, however, their Creator. There is not a single being possesshas been introduced into the universe, and we ed of a rational nature, either in the planetary
know by experience many of its malignant ~and system to which we belong or to any other system
miserable effects. For anything we know to the throughout the sidereal heavens, but is under:ncontrary, the'operation of this principle may be dispensable obligations to regulate its conduct by
felt in some other worlds beside our own, though  the -two general laws or principles to which we
we have reason to believe, from a consideration of. have referred, and to yield a complete and unreDivine goodness, that its effects are not very served obedience to all that is included in such reextensive. Its introduction into the world has                         _
doubtless been permitted in order to bring abouto  * For a particular illustration of moral order, the reader
a greater good to the universe at large than could is referred to "The Philosophy of Religion," Prelie.inarl
have been accomplished without it, in order to  Deftnitions, Sect. i.




112. SIDEREAL  HEAVENS.
quisitions. Wherever such obedience-is complete, circumstances connected with moral conduct.order, harmony, and happiness are the natural and  Butall the particular rules and precepts alluded to
necessary results; but: could we suppose these are resolvable into the general principlesor affeclaws reversed, and the:inhabitants of any worlds tions' stated above, and bear the same relations to
to act on principles directly opposite, a scene of each other as the trunk of -a tree to its branches,
anarchy, confusion, and misery would  ensue, or as a fountain to the diversified streams which it
which would completely  disorganize the social sends forth.  In other worlds-relations may exist
system, and render existence a curse rather than a different from  those which are found in human
blessing; and i' woilds wheie those laws are par- society, and consequently particular precepts, diftially violated, as in thewvorld:in which'  we dwell, ferent From ours, may form  a part of their moral
disorder and misery will.be the- result in propor- code, while certain relations which obtain among
tion to the frequency and extent of their viola- us, may have- no place among other orders of betion.;                                           ings, and of course, the precepts which particuThese are the laws by which not only man on  larly bear upon such relations will' be in their cirearth, but all "the principalities -and powers of cumstances altogether unnecessary.  But we may
heaven," are governed and dire, ed, and by which  rest assured that all the particular precepts, applithey are bound to regulate all their thoughts, af- cable to whatever circumstances and relations
fections, and conduct.  The lowest orders of ra- may exist in other regions of creation, will be
tional existence come within the range of these  founded on the universal principles to whiclhwe
universal laws, and the highest orders of the sera- have adverted, and be completely conformable to
phim are not beyond their control.  As the law  their spirit, aid to the benevolent designs they are
of gravitation, extends its influence throughout all intended to accomplish.
the planetary w'orlds, and even to- the remotest   In all those worlds Where the love of God and
stars, uniting the whole in one harmonious sys- of fellow-intelligences reigns supreme, the inhabitem, So the law of universal, love diffuses its influ- tants may be conceived to make rapid improveence. over the,: intelligelnt universe, uniting the in- ments in knowledge; for the malignant principles
dividuals who are subject to its sway in one har- and passions which prevail among men have, in
monious and'happy association.  Hence it follows, numerous instances, been the means of retarding
that were we completely animated by this noble  the progress of useful science and its diffusion
principle, and were we permitted to visit those throughout society. But where love in all its
worlds where it reigns supreme, and to mingle  emanations pervades every mind, society will
with their inhabitants, we should be recognized as unite and harmonize in the prosecution of every
friends and brethren, and participate of all those  plan by which the intellectual faculty may be
pleasures and enjoyments of which it is the source. irradiated and happiness diffused. Beside, in such
The full recognition, then, of the laws to which  a state of society, truth will be forever triumphant
we have referred, and their complete and uninter- and falsehood unknown.   Every fact will be
rupted influence over the moral powers, may be fairly and truly exhibited without deception, or
considered as qualifying the individual for being  the least tendency to misrepresentation or exagge.
a Citizen of the great moral universe, and for'as- ration. There will be the most complete reliance
sociatingwith all holy b6iiigs throughout the wide  on personal evidence in regard to every fact and
empire of omnipotence,: should he ever be'per- circumstance which has been witnessed by any
mitted, at any period of'duratien, to visit other individuals; for want of which confidence in our
worlds, and mingle with' other orders of rational world, the' rational inquirer has been perplexed
intelligences.*                                  by the jarring statements of lying travelers and
These laws, in reference to the'inhabitants of pretended philosophers; erroneous theories have
our world, diverge' into numerous ramifications. been framed, the mists of falsehood have interThe precepts of the moral law, or the ten com- cepted the light of truth, the foundations of true
mandments, are so many branches of moral duty  knowledge undermined, and science arrested in
flowing from these first principles; and in the dis- its progress toward perfection.  All such evils,
courses of our Saviour and the practical parts of however, will be unknown in worlds where the
the. apostolic epistles they diverge into still more  inhabitants have arrived at moral perfection.
specific and minute' ramifications, bearing upon    In fine; from  what has been now stated, we
all the diversified relations of life and the various may conclude that the spirit, the principle, and'_;___________________________                   essence of our holy religion, as delineated in the
F -or more particnlar details on this subject, the reader iptures,  ust be co on to all the in
i.s referred to "The Philosophy of Religion;" particularly  of the universe who have retained their primeval
Cha'pt. ii, Sect. vi.                            rectitude and innocence.




CXHAPTER XIX.
A SMU1tIARy  VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE..~ ~ ~ ~ ~~:. ~. ~....
HAVING in: the preceding, pages afforded a few  hundred of similar globes; and were five hundred
sketches in reference to the principal facts con- giobes, as large as that on which we dwell, arnected. with the sidereal heavens, wiich constitute ranged on a vast plain, the outermost ring of the
the most extensive portion of creation Within, the planet Saturn, which is 643,000 miles in circumlimits of our knowledge, it may not be inexpedient ference, would inclose them  all. Such are the
to take a summary viewof the range of objects vast dimensions of some of those bodies, which
to which our attention has ben directed, in order appear only like lucid specks on the concave surto direct our'occasional reflections on this subject, face of. our sky. This earth, however, and all
and tio enable us to form an approximate, though  the huge planets, satellites, and comets, comprised
faint and limited, idea of that universk over which within the range of the solar system, bear a very
Omnipotence presides, and of the perfections of small proportion to that splendid luminary which
its adorable Author.                             enlightens our day. Thesn  is five hundred
We can obtain an approximate idea of the uni- times larger than the whole, and would contain
verse, only by commencing a train of thought at within its vast circumference thirteen hundred
those objects with which we are more immediately thousand globes as large as our world, and more
conversant, and ascending  gradually to objects than sixty millions of globes of the size of the
and scenes more distant and expansive. We are moon. To contemplate all thevariety of scenery
partly: acquainted with the objects Which consti- on the. surface of this luminary, would require
tute the landscape raound us, of Whicl We form   moie than fifty-five thousand years, although a
a pairt,-tihe hills, the plains, the lofty mountains, landscape of five thousand square miles in extent
the forests, the rivers, the lakes,'and the, portions  were to pass before our eyes every hour.  Of a
of the ocean that lie immediately adjacent.  But globe of such dimensions, the most vigorous imall the range of objects we can behold in an ordi- agination, after its boldest and most extensive
nary landscape forms  but a very small and incon- excursions, can form no adequate conception.  It'siderable speck, compared with the whole of the appears a kind of universe in itself; and ten
mighty continents and islands;the vast ranges of thousands of years would be requisite  before'lofty mountains, and the expansive lakes, seas, human beings, with their present faculties, could
and oceans which constitute the surface of the thoroughly investigate and explore its vast dimenterraqueous globe.  It'would be requisite that sions and its hidden wonders.
more than nine hundred  thousand landscapes, of   But great as the sun and his surrounding planets
the extent we geneialy behold around us, should are, they dwindle into a point when we wing our
be made to pass in review before, and a sufficient  flight toward the starry firmament.  Before.we
time allowed to take a distinct View'of the objects c6uld arrive at the nearest object in this firmaof: which they are composed, ere we could form  ment, we behooved to pass over a space at least
an adequate conception of the' magnitude and the twenty billions of miles in extent, —a sp:ace which
inimmense variety of objects on thle whole earth. a cannon ball, flying with its utmost velocity,
Were only twenty minutes allottd' for' the con- would not pass over in less than four millions of
templation of every landscape,: and ten hours years. Here every eye, in a clear winter's night,
everyday, it would require ninety years of con- may behold about a thousand shining orbs, most
sta'it observationi'befb're ail the proriinent objects of them emitting their splendors from spaces imon'the surface of the globe could thus be:surveyed. measurably distant; and bodies at such distances
Weri e:it possible to take:a distinct mental survey mustunecessarily be of immense magnitude. There:of: such'a lumber df landscapes,'we might acquire is reason to'believe that the, least twinkling star
a tolerable conception of the amplitude of our which our eyes can discern is not less than the
gLo be, and' it would serve as a standard of comn- sun in magnitude and in splendor, and that many
parison' for othier globes,which far: excel it in of them  are even a hundred or a thousand times
magnitude.:But, I believe,- very few persons are superior in magnitude -to that stupendous lumicapable; of forming,' at one conception, a. full and  nary. But bodies of such amazing size and splencomprehensive idea. of the superficial extent of dor cannot be supposed to have been created in
the world in whiChwe dwell, whose surface con- vain, or merely to diffuse a useless luster over the
tains no-less than one'hundred.and ninety-seven wilds of immensity.  Such an idea would be
millions of,square miles.- The: most complete utterly inconsistent with the perfections of the
concepition we can form'must indeed fall very:far Divinity, and all that we know of his character
short of the reality.:,   from  the- revelations of his word.: If this earth
lut however ample and correct our conceptions would have been. "created in Vain," had it not
might be, and however great this earth might been inhabited,* so those, starry orbs, or, in other.
appear in the view:of the frail beings that inhabit words, those: magnificent suns would likewise
it,'we know' that it is only anrinconsiderable ball, have been created in vain, if retinues of worlds
when compared with some of the planetary bodies and. myriads of intelligent beings were not irrabelonging to our-own system. One of these bodies diated and cheered by their benign influence.
would contain within its dimensions nine hundred'
globes:as large as this earth,-another, fourteei                 ~ Isaiah xlv, 18..............  -                                   (113




114                                 SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
These thousand stars, then, which the unas- paratively insignificant speck in the map of crewsisted eye call perceive in the canopy of heaven, tion, which beings at remote distances may be
may be considered as connected with at least fifty  unable to detect in the'canopy of their sky, or at
thousand worlds; compared with the amount of most will discern it only as an obscure noint in
whose population all the inhabitants of our globe the farthest extremities of their view, as we diswould appear only as "the smallest dust of the tinguish a faint nebulous star through our best
balance."  Here the imagination might expatiate  telescopes.
for ages of ages in surveying this portion of the    Ascending from  the Milky Way to the still
Creator's kingdom, and'be lost in contemplation  remoter regions of space, we perceive several
and wonder at the vast extent, the magnitude, the  thousands of dim specks of light which powerful
magnificence, and the immense variety of scenes, telescopes resolve into immense clusters of stars.
objects, and movements, which would meet the These nebule, as they are called, may be consiview in every direction; for here we have pre- dered as so many milky ways, and some of them
sented to the mental eye, not only single suns are supposed even to "outvie our Milky Way in
and'single systems, such as that to which we grandeur."  Above three thousand of these nebelong, but suns revolving around suns, and sys-  bulva have been discovered; and if only two thouterns around systems,-systems not only double, sand be supposed to be resolvable into starry
but treble, quadruple, and multiple, all in com- groups, and to be as rich in stars at an average as
plicated but harmonious motion, performing mo- our Milky Way, then we are presented with - a
tions more rapid than the'swiftest planets in our scene which comprises 2000 times 20,191,000, or
system, though some of them move a hundred  40,382,000,000, that is, more than forty thous"na
thousand miles every hour,-finishing periods of millions of stars. And if we suppose, as formerly,
revolution, some in 30, some in 300, and some in  fifty planetary globes to be connected with each,
1600'years. We behold suns of a blue or green  we have exhibited before us a prospect which
luster revolving around suns of a white or a ruddy  includes 2,019,100,000,000, or two billions, ninecolor, and both of them  illuminating with con- teen thousand one hundred millions of worlds.
trasted  colored light the same assemblage of Of such a number of bodies we can form no disworlds. And if the various orders of intelli- tinct conception, and much less can we formn even
gences connected with these systems were un- a rude or approximate idea of the grandeur and
vailed, what a scene of grandeur, magnificence, magnnificence which'the whole of such a scene
variety, diversity of intellect, and of wonder and  must display. Were we to suppose each of these
astonishment, would burst upon the view!  Here  bodies to pass in review before us every minutc, it
we might be apt to imagine that the whole glories would require more than three millions, eight
of the Creator's empire have been disclosed, and  hundred and forty thousand years of unremitting
that we had now a prospect of universal nature  observation before the whole could be contendin all its extent and grandeur.                  plated even in this rapid manner. Were an hour's
But although we should have surveyed the  contemplation allotted to each, it would require
whole of this magnificent scene, we should still two hundred and thirty millions, four hundred
find' ourselves standing only on the outskirts, or thousand years until all the series passed under
thle extreme verge of creation. What' if all the  review; and were we to suppose an intelligent
stars which the unassisted eye can discern be only  being to remain fifty years in each world for the
a few scattered orbs on the outskirts of a cluster purpose of taking a more minute survey of its pecuimmensely: more. numerous?   What if all this liar scenery and decorations, 100,955,000,000,000,
scene of grandeur be only as a small lucid speck  or a hundred billions, nine hundred and fifty-five
compared with the whole extent of the firma. thousand millions of years would elapse before
ment?   There is demonstrative evidence from  such a survey could be completed; a number of
observation that this is in reality the case. In  years which to limited minds seem to approximate
olne lucid circle in the heavens, scarcely percep-  to something like eternity itself.
tible on a cursory view of the firmament, there    Still, all this countless assemblage of suns and
are twenty thousand times more  stars distin- worlds is not the universe.  Although we could
guishable by the telescope than what the naked  range on the wings of a seraph through all this
eye can discern throughout the visible canopy of  confluence of sidereal systems, it is more than
heaven.  The Milky Way, were it supposed to  probable that we should find ourselves standing
contain the same number of stars throughout its only on the verge of creation, and that a boundwhole extent as have been observed in certain  less prospect, stretching toward infinity on every
portigns of it, would comprise no  less than  side, would still be presented to view; for we cau20,191,000 stars; and as each of these stars is not suppose for a moment that thte empire of
doubtless a sun, if we suppose only fifty planets Omnipotence terminates at the boundaries of
or worlds connected with each, we shall have no  human vision, even when assisted by the most
less-than 1,009,550,000, or more than a thousand  powerful instruments.  Other intelligences may
millions of worlds contained within the space oc- have powers of vision capable of penetrating into
cupied by this lucid zone. Here an idea is pre- space a hundred times farther than ours when assented which completely overpowers the human  sisted with all the improvements of art; but even
faculties, and at which the boldest imagination  such beings cannot be supposed to have penetrated
must shrink back at any attempts to form  an  to the uttermost boundaries of creation.  Man, in
approx;mate conception. A thousand millions of future ages, by the improvements of optical instru
iworleds! We may state such a factin numbers or ments, may be able to penetrate much farther into
inll words, but the brightest and most expansive hu- the remote regions of space than he has hitherto
man intellect must utterly fail in grasping all that done, and may descry myriads of objects which
is comprehended in this' mighty idea; and perhaps have hitherto remained invisible in the unexplored
intelligences possessed of powers far superior to  regions of immensity. Ever since the invention of
those of manl are inadequate to form  even an  the telescope,'one discovery has followed another
approximate conception of such a stupendous in almost regular succession. In proportion to the
scene. Yet this scene, magnificent and over- increase and activity of astronomical observers,
powering as it is to limited miinds such as ours, is and the improvement of the instruments of obsenot the scene of the universe; it is only a corm- vation, the more remote spaces of creation have




MULTITUDES. OF BEINGS IN THE UNIVERSE.                                 115
been explored, and new scenes of the universe adequate to grasp a scene so boundless and august
laid open to human  contemplation.  And who It will be a part of his happiness that he will
shall set bouecnries to the improvements aud dis- never be able to comprehend the universe; for at
coveries of future and more-enlightened —genera- every period of his future existence he-will still
titons?  Before the invention, of the telescope, it behold a boundless prospect stretched out before
would have been foolish to have- asserted that no'him, with: new objects continually rising to view,
more stars existed than those which were visible in the contemplation of which, innumerable ages
to. the naked eye; and after Galileo had discovered may roll away without the least apprehension of'
with his first telescope, hundreds.f stars:which' ever arriving at the termination of tie scene.
were previously unknown, it would'have' lteen Were a superior intelligence  ever to arrive at
equally absurd to have maintained that the tele- such a point, from  that moment his hlappiness
scope would never be further improved, and that would  be diminished, his: ilitellectual powers
no additional stars would afterward be discovered. would lose their energy, his love and adorations
It would be a position equally untenable to main- of the -Supreme would wax faint and languid,
lail, that we shall never be able to descry objects and he would feel as if Pothing new and trallsin the heavens beyond the boundaries which we porting weie to  be added  to his enjoymentsll
have hitherto explored, since sciendce has only  throughout all the periods of his future existenc'-.
lately commenced its rapid progress, and since But the immensity of.the universe, and the boundlmlan lis little more than just beginning to employ less nature of the dominions of "the King EterLis powers in such investigations.              nal," will forever prevent any' such effects frolo
But however extensive may be the discoveries being produced in the case of all virtuous and
of future ages, we irmay lay it down as an, axiom;  holy intelligences.
that neither mall nor any other rank of finite   Beside the numerous bodies to which wve have
beings will ever be able to penetrate to the further above alluded, there are several other objects whicl
boundaries of creation. f It would bepresumptu- require to be contemplated, in order to amplify
ous to suppose that a being like' man, —whose our views of the'visible universe. Those nebulous
stature  is comprehended within the extent of specks in the remote regions of the heavens
two yards, who vanishes from  the sight at the termed planetary netule have lever yet been redistance of a German mile, whose'whole habita- solved into stars, and are in all probability bodies
tioni: sinks into an invisible point at the distance of a different nature from. the Milky Way and
of Jupiter, who resides on one of the smallest other sidereal systems. Their magnitude is a-toinclass of bodies in the universe, and whose powers ishing, since some of them would fill a cubical
of vision and of-intellect are so limited,-should  space equal to the diameter of the orbit of Urnbe able to extend his views to the extreme limits iUS, which would contain 24,000,000,000,o00,of the empire of the Eternal, and to descry all the 000,000,000,000,000, or twenty-four  thousand'
systems which are dispersed throughout the range quartillions of solid miles; that is, they are sixtyof infinitude. It is more reasonable to believe eight thousand millions of times larger than the
that all that has yet been discovered of the opera- sun. Such bodies present to our view mnagnitudes,
tions of Omnipotence that lie within the bounda- more astonishing than any others to be foands
ries of human vision, is but a very small portion within the range of the visible creation, and. overof what actually exists within the limits of crea- whelm the mind with wonder and amazerent at
tion; that the two billions and nineteen thousand what can possibly be their nature and destinatioln
millions of worlds which we have assumed as the Several other nebulae are no less wonderfill, suckx
scene of the visible universe, are only as a single star as that in the constellation of Orion which even.
to the whole visible firmament, or even as a single surpasses in magnitude the dimensions now stated.
grain of sand to all the myriads of particles which It has been computed to be 2,200,000,00O)0,t00(cover the sea-shores and the bed of the ocean, 000,000, or two trillions, two hundred thousand.,
wheni compared with what lies beyond the utmost billions of times larger than the su,-ll —a magl —
range of mortal vision; for who can set bounds tude which we can scarcely suppose within the:
to infinitude, or to the operations of Him whose power of any finite being to grasp or to compre —
power is omnipotent, " whose ways are unsearch- hend. For what end such huge masses of matter.
able," and " whose understanding is infinite?" were created must remain a mystery to martals.
All that we have yet discovered of creative exis- so long as they are confined to' this sublhuiary
telce, vast and magnificent as it appears, may be scene.  Perhaps they are intended to give as a,
only a small corner of some mightier scheme glimpse of objects and arrangements in the IOvine,
which stretches throughout the length and breadth economy altogether different firom  those we peTr —
of immensity,-of which the highest created intel- ceive in the planetary system, and il the other
lect may have only a few faint glimpses, which parts of the sidereal heavens. But whatever may.
will be gradually opening to view throughout the be their ultimate destination, we may rest assured:
revolutions of eternity, and which will never be that they serve a purpose in the plan of the Dit
fully explored during all the periods of an inter- vine administration worthy of their magnittde,.
milnable existence. What is seen and known of and of the perfections of Him  by whom  they
creation   may be as nothing compared with what were created. They were brought into existence
is unsee;and unknown; and as the ages of eter- by the same power which reared the other parts
nity rdll.on, the empire of the Almighty may be of creation;. and as power is always accompanied.
gradually expanding ill its extent, and receiving with wisdom  and goodness, they must have an
newvadditions -to its glory and magnificence.   ultimate reference to the accommodation an.d hapHence we may conclude that there is no cre- piness of rational beings, under an economy, perated being, even of the highest order of intelli- haps, widely different from that of the planetary
gelices, that will ever be able to.-survey the whole and other systems.
scene of the universe.  Of course, man, though    Having taken a cursory view of the magnitudes
destined to -immortality, will never acquire a corn- of the numberless bodies scattered through the
plete knowledge of the whole range of the Crea- regions of space, let us now. consider the mnotions
tof's operatious, even during the endless existence which are incessantly going forward in every part
which lies before him; for his faculties, however of the universe; for all the myriads of globes al.a.
much expanded in that state, will be utterly in-  system  to which we have alluded are il iapUS
VoxL. II.-  27




116                                 SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
and perpetual- motion; and we have no, reason  to ing throughout infinite space as mere masses of
believe that there; is' a'siigle  4.uiescent:' body rude matter, arranged ito systems merelyto give
throughout theimmensity of' creation.  We. have a display of Almighty Power, but &as  means fot
here planets revolving arund   suns, planets ire-  accomplishing a higher and nobler end, —the difvolvming around planets, suns prrrfmng thei  fusion of happiness amog.countlss oirders ci
revolutions around sunl, suns' ievolving aroujnd intelligent existence. And as this  idea:must nethe: centeis    of: sidereal systems,: anad,'in  all cessarily be admitted, what  a countless multitude
probability, every  system,of':"creation: -revolv- of percipient beings must people the amplitudes
lug rounld ithe center "andt (Grand;Mover ofthe  of creation! On ou.r globe'there: are suppeorted'volPe..-: The:rateof'f't'sS:mo tiono,   in every at least 800 millions of human beings; but it is
k nown' instanlce, is:not: legs than iseveral thousands  capable ofnsupporting twenty "times that number,
of,miles- every hourm:ia'd'in  many instances,  or sixteen thousand millions, if all its desolate
tihouisauds of mues in a minute. -' The motidns wastes were cultivated and peopled.  Beside man,
which are6found amhaong the,-planetary:globes ap- there are numerous orders of other sensitive bepearI at first' view, altogether asto4iising, and:al- ings; there are atileast 500 species of quadrupeds,
most to exceed belief, whlieiiwe c6nsidel; the einor-  4000'species of birds, 3000 species of fish, 700
mois size of some of ithesebodies. i'Tha aglo obe species of reptiles, 50,000 species of insects, be
a thdousand tiheS larger-than:ur world should fly side thousands which the microscope alone can
atthe rate of -thirty thousand'miles an hor, and enableus to perceive-at least sixty thousand Apecarry along::with:it a retinue  of'f'ther mighty   ies in all. If every'-species contain about 500
globes in its swift Career, is an iobject that- may millions of individuals, then there will be no less
well strike us with wonder and amazement.  But than 30,000,000,000,000, or thirty billions of inthe fixed stars —though- to'a common observer dividuals belonging to all the different classes of
they' appear exactly in the same positions with  sensitive existence on the su'face of our globe.
regard' -to each other are Tfound, inii some in-   If this earth, then, which ranks among the
stances, to be carried forward with motions far smaller globes of our system, contain  such an
more rapid thianeven the bodies of the planetary  immense number of livin  beings, what must be
system, though their magnitude is immensely su- the number of sentient and intellectual existence in
perior. We have already seen that the star 61 all the worlds to which we have alluded! We
Cygni, whose apparent motion  is five seconds an-  assumed, on certain data, that 2,019,100,000,000,
nually, and cnisequently imperceptible to a com- or two billions of worlds, may exist within  the
mon observer, yet at the distance at which the bounds of the visible universe; and, although no
star is known to be placed, this motion is equiva- more beings should exist in each world, at an avelent to one thousand five hundred and fifty-two  rage, than on our globe, there would be the folmillions'of miles inna year; four millions, two lowing number of living inhabitants in these
hundred and  fifty-two  thousand  miles a day, worlds, 60,573,000,000,000,000,000,000,000; that'and one hundred and  seventy-seven thousand  is, sixty quartillions, five hundred anid seventymiles an  hour.-'Other'stars are found to move three thousand trillions, a number which tranwith velocities:nearly'similar, as /z Cassiopeia, scends human conception.  Among such a num.
which moves above three millions of-miles a day, her of beings, what a variety of orders may exists
which is at lthe rate of two thousand one hundred  from the archangel and the seraph to the worm
and sixty miles every- minute., These are mn- and the microscopic animalculum! What a di.
tions altogether imomprehensible byhuman be. versity of ranks in the intellectual scale, from the
ings, especially wien -we -take into consideration  point of the human faculties to the highest ordet
the enormous nmagnitude of the stars, some of of created beings, may be found throughout thih
wtichi' may be a thousand times larger than all immensity of existence!  Some, perhaps, invest.
the planets and comets belonging to our system. ed with faculties as far surpassing those of man
They display the amazing and uncontrollable EN- as man surpasses in intellectual energy the wormi
EROiES OF -:OMNiPOTENCE, and  afford a distinct of the dust, and still approximating nearer anc
source of admiration and astonishment in addi- nearer to the Deity.  What a variety may exist
tion to all the other wonders of the universe.  If, among them in the form, organization, senses, and
then, wewould endeavor to attain a'comprehen- the movements of their corporeal vehicles! What
siVe idea of the motions going forward through- a wonderful and interesting scene would their his.
out the spaces of:immensity, we must not only  tory disclose, were the whole series of events in:conceive of planets revolving around: luminous the Divine administration toward them laid'open
centers, but, of suns revol-ving around suns,-of  to our view! — the different periods in duration at
suns and systems revolving around the centers of which they were brought into existence;, the spe.
the nebulae to which they respectively belong,-   cial laws of social anld moral order, peculiar tc
of allthe systems and nebuhle of the universe re- each class of intelligences; the modes of imprnvvolving in immense circumferenCes around the ing  thile intellect, and the progress they hav
throne of the Eternal,: the great center of all made in universal knowledge; the scenes of glory
worldsu and beings,-of feach sun, and planet, and  or of terror through which any particular classei
system, notwithstanding, pursuing a-course of its of beings might have passed; the changes am'
own in different directions, and: in numerous in- revolutions that may await them; and the final
stances acted upon by'different- force; —in short, destination to which they are appointed.  These
of the ten thiousadjtimes ten thousands of lumi- and numerous other circumstances connected witl
nons and opaque globes, of every rank and order, the moral and intellectual universe open to vie;i
within the, circuit of cireation,-all performing a source of knowledge, and-a subject of sublline
their rapid but harmonious motions. throughout investigation,which superior intellects might pro.
everyregion of space, and without  intermission,  secute without intermission,  with increasing ad.
in obediencelto the laws of their Creator.        Mniration and rapture, and never arrive at the ter.Again, we cannot besupposed  to have attained a mination of their pursuits during all the periodt
comnpreheisive conception ~of the universe, with- of an endless existence.
out taking into account tle sensitive' and  intel-   Such is a summary view of the universe, illn s
lectual beings with whi.ch it is:-replenished.  We far as its scenes lie open to our knowledge and
ought nevert0o consider the numerous orbs revolv- investigation, The idea it presents is altogethe.




CREATION A PROOF OF DIVINE EXISTENCE.                               117
Overpowering   to the human  faculties but it is through depths of space immeasurable by human
nothiiig else than what we should naturally ex- art, we.must penetrate ifito the center of the
pect, when we consider that the Beingf who form- Milky Way, where we are surrounded by suns,
ed it is self-existent and. eternal; zpossessed of not only ill thousands, but in millions. Here the
infinite wisdom, almighty power, and boundless imagination must be left for a length of time, to
goodness; and fills the infinity of space' with his expatiate in this amazing and magnificent scene,
presence.  It is like himself,;boundless, and in- and try if it can form  any faint idea of twenty
comprehensible by finite minds; but exhibits to' millions of suns, surrounded with a thousand milevery order of intel!igent'bei'ngs a sensible display lions of planets. Suppose one of these bodies to
of,"His Eternal'Power andGodhead."  Without pass before the eye or the imagination every
the existence of such a universe, the infinite at- minute, it would require 1900 years before the
tributes of the Almighty could not be fully re- whole could pass in review, and each produce a
cognized and appreciated by his intelligent off- distinct impression as a separate object.
spring.'- But here we behold,` as in a mirror, the   In a scene like this, the boldest imagination is
invisible perfections of the Divinity, "whom  no  overpowered and bewildered, amidst number and
maun hath seen or can see,":adulmbrated, as it magnitude, and feels utterly incompetent to grasp
were, and rendered visible, in every part' of'crea- the ten thousandth part of the overwhelming idea
tion, to the eyes of unnumbered intelligences; presented before it. Wingiiig our flight from the
for there is no point of space illn which a rational Milky Way, over unknown  and immeasurable rebeing could be placed, in which he would not gions, regions where infinitude appears opening
find himself surrounded with sensible evidences upon us in awful grandeur, we approach some
and displays of the operations of an all-wise, an  of those immense starry clusters called NEBULA,
all-powerful, and incomprehensible Deity. "He  every one of which may be considered as another
has not left himself without a witness" to his ex- milky way, with its ten thousands and millions
istence, and his incessant energies, ili: any.parts of-suns. Here the imagination  must make ausoof -his dominions, or to any order of his creatures, lemnn pause, and take a wider stretch, and sumwherever:existing.  "If we should ascend to  mon up all its powers, and force, and vigor; for
heaven he is there."  If we should descend to the here we have not merely one milky way, with its
lower regions, he is there also to be seen in his millions of stars, to contemplate, but thousands.
operations., —" If we take the wings of the morn- If the immense splendor and amplitude of one
ing," and fly along with the sun from east to west, milky way overwhelms us with amazement, and
and. continue our course without intermission  with an  emotion almost approaching to terror,
through regions of space invisible to mortal eye, what an overpowering effect should two thousand
"even there his hand would lead us, and his right of such scenes, which have already been discoverhand uphold us."  " Darkness," unfolds the gran- ed, produce upon minds so feeble and limited as
deur of his operations and the glories of his na- ours! Such a scene not only displays to us, betare, as well as the "light" of the orb of day. yond every other, the incomprehensible energties
Though, on the wings of a seraph we could fly  of Omnipotence, but seems to intimate that there
iu every direction through boundless space, we are created beings existing in the universe, endow-.should everywhere find ourselves encompassed  ed with powers of intelligence.capable of formwith his immensity, and with the manifestations  lng a much more approximate idea of such obof his presence and agency. Of such a Being, jects than beings such as man, who may be conand of the universe he has formed, we may ex- sidered as standing near the lowest point of the
claim in the language of al inspired writer-"O. scale of intellectual existence. These "thrones
the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and  and dominions, principalities and powers of Heaof the knowledge.of God! How unsearchable are yen," may be able to form a comprehensive conhis operations, and his ways past finding out! "  ception of such a scene as the Milky Way, which.Of this universe we can only form an approxi- baffles the utmost efforts of the human faculties.
mate idea by comparing one small portion of it   Soaring beyond all these objects, we behold, as
with another, and by allowing the mind to dwell it were, a new universe in the immense magnifor a considerable time on every scene we con- tude of the planetary and other nebula, where
template. We must first endeavor to acquire- a separate stars have never been perceived; and be-.omprehensive. conception of the magnitude of side all these, there may be thousands and ten
the globe on which we dwell, and the numerous thousands, and millions of opaque globes of prodiversity of objects it contains; we must next digious size, existing throughout every region of
stretch our view to some of: the planetary globes, the universe, and even in that, portion of it which
which are athousand tinles greater in magnitude; is within the limits of our inspection, the faintand to such an orb as the sun,.which fills a space ness of whose tight prevents it from ever reaching
thirteenthundred thousand times more expansive, our eyes.  But, far beyond all such objects as
Ranging through the whole of the planetary sys- those we have been contemplating, a boundless
tem,f we. mustrfix our attention on every particu- region exists, of which no. human eye has yet
htr.scene and object, imagine ourselves traversing  caught a glimpse, and which no finite intelligence
thle-hills, and plains, and immense regions of Ju- has ever explored. What scenes of power, of
piter, and surveying the expansive rings of Saturn  goodness, of grandeur, and magnificence, may be
in all their vast:dimensions' and rapid motions, displayed within this unapproachable and infinite
until we have obtained the most ample idea which  expanse, neither men nor angels can describe nor
the mind can- possibly grasp of the extent and  form, the most rude conception.'But we may
grandeur of the planetary'system. Leaving this  rest assured that it is not an empty void; but disvast system,  and proceeding through boundless plays the attributes of the. Deity in a manner no
space until all- its planets have entirely disappear- less admirable and glorious, and perhaps much
ed, and.its sun has dwindled to-the size of a snmall more so, than all the scenes of creation within
twinkling star, we must next survey the thousand  the range of our vision. -Here, undoubtedly, is
stars that deck the visible. firmament, every one that splendid region so frequently alluded to in
of'which must be consideired ts a SUN, accompa- the Scriptures, designated by the emphatic name,
lied with a. system  of planets no less spacious "TTHE HEAVEN OF HEAVENS," evidently import-;and august th.am  ours. Continuing our course ing that it is the most glorious and magnificent




i:   SIDEREAL -HEAVENS.
department of creation.  Countless:-myriads of light of reason and intelligence with which he
beings, standing at the: highest point"of the scale  was originally indued, or that  he is sometimes
of intellect, and investedwith'faculties of which- urged on by depraved passions and a-pride' of sinwe have -no' conception,  must inhabi't'those' re- gularity  to utter sentiments which- he does not
gions; for we are positively informed that "hosts sincerely believe.  As Cicerolong ago declaredof intelligent beings reside in -such abodes, and  "He who thinks that the " admirable order of the
that   hese host,ofhese  heavoe. of, heavens wor-' celestial orbs, and their constancy and regularity,
ship God."':But here our contemplations must on which'the conservation and good of all things
terminate. Here imagination must drop its wings, depend, to be void of a mind that governs them,
since it'can penetrate no further intfothe domin- he himself deserves to be accounted void of a
ions of Him who sits on the throne of immensity. mind."  It is "the fool" alone, in the strictest
Overwhelmed'with a view of the magnificence  sense of the word, whatever may be his pretended
of the universe;-and of,the perfectidons of its Al- learning, who dares to declare " there is no God."
mighty Author, we can'only fall' piostrate in deep    And as the universe demonstrates the existence.
liuility and adoration, and exclaim,,'"'Great and  so it displays the attributes of the Eternal. Tlh
marvelous are thy; works,:Lord God Almighty! manifestation of'himself to numberless orders of
T ho tart, worthy to receive glory,;and honor, and intelligent beings must have been the great end
power;- for/ thou hast: created'll t.orlds,'and for intended -inbringing the universe into existence.
thy pleasure they are and were'created.":        This manifestation is made chiefly in actions —in
I shall conclude this subject with thhefollowing  actions which display greatness, wisdom, and goodremarks:  -                                       ness, beyond' all bounds. His greatness appears
1.-All the vast systems [to which we have al- from the immensity of power which the universe
luded are the wo-rkmanship of an Infinite and  exhibits. The power necessary to move a single
Eternal Being, and display the grandeur of his planet in its course far transcends human concepperfections. It is impossible.that such an amazing  tion.  What, then, must be the energy and extent
universe, arranged with such exquisite' order,'and  of that power which set in motion and still upall the bodies it contains moving with such regu- holds all the planets, worlds, and systems'dispersed
Iar and rapid'motions, could have formed itself, or throughout the spaces of infinitude! The highbeen produced by the fortuitous concourse of est created intelligence  must be  utterly  overatoms.  The very surmise that such a thing was whelmed and confounded when it attempts to
possible is one of the wildest hallucinations  that contemplate or to grasp an idea of Omnipotence.
ever entered the human mind   It is a first prin- His knowledge, wisdom, and unceasing agency
ciple connected with the constitution of every in- are no less conspicuous in the arrangement and
tellectual nature, and without the admission of  direction of everything that exists in heaven and
which there can be no reasoning, that there is " a  onearth. As his presence pervades all space, so
connection between cause and, effect," and that his agency is displayed in the minutest movement
"every effect must have a,corresponding cause, of every part of the vast whole.  This great and
adequate to its production."/ The universeis an  incomprehensible Being moves every atom, exe#iect, the most sublime and glorious which the  pands every leaf of the forest, decks every flower,
human -mind can contemplate, and the natural conveys the. sap through the ramifications of every
and necessary conclusion which it almost instince- tree, conducts every particle of vapor to its aplively draws is, -that it iss the production of an  pointed place, directs every ray of light from the
Eternalu Intelligent,'and Almighty, Being. This sun and stars, every breath of wind, every flash
is a conclussion which has been deduced by men  of lightning, every movement of the meanest
of all nations, and in every period of the world. worm, and every motion of the smallest micro"There is no nation or people," says Cicero, "so scopic animaleulum; while at the same time lie
barbarous and ignorant as not to acknowledge a supports the planets in their courses, guides,the
powerful and Supreme Divinity."                   comet in its eccentric career, regulates the moveIt is as natural for the human understanding, ments of millions of resplendent systems, and
in its original, and unbiased state, when contem-  presides in sovereign authority over unnumbered
plating the frame of the universe, to infer the ex- hosts of intelligent existence; directing all the
istence of a Deity, as it-is the property of the eye  mysterious powers of knowledge, virtue, and moto distinguish light and colors, and of the ear to  ral action to subserve the purposes of his will,
distinguish sounds.  The principle firom  which  and accomplish the ends of his moral government,
this conclusion is deduced is exactly the same as In every department of this universe, likewise, his
that by which, from the contemplation of a build-  goodnessis displayed to unnumbered orders of belng, we infer a builderand from the elegance and  ings, sentient and intellectual; for all the powers
utility of every part of the structure, We conclude  of intelligence and action possessed by every
that he was; a wise and skillful architect; or that creature in heaven and on earth, from  the archby which,from an inspection of a clock or watch, angel to the.worm, and'all the happiness they now
or any other piece of useful machinery, we infer or ever will enjoy, are derived fron him as the
not only the' existence, but the qualities and attri-  uncreated source of all felicity.
butes, of the -contriver and artificer. The mall   Under this glorious and stupendous Being we
who is incapable of at once deducing such con- live and move; our comforts and enjoymenluts,
clusiois:ought to be regarded as destitute of the' while passing through this transitory scene, are
reasoning faculty; and' if we thus necessarily in- wholly in his hands, -and all our prospects and
fer the cause from the effect'in the caseof human  enjoyment beyond the range of aur earthly career
art, can we for a, moment hesitate to ascribe tle are dependent on his mercy and favor.  His omproduction of this amazing universe which sur- nipotent arm  supports us every moment; every
rounds^us,?to a Being of infinite knowledge, wis- breath we draw, every pulse that beats within us,
dorm, and power, adequate to bring into existence   every muscular power we exert, every sound that
such an immens'e and wonderful, machine, and to  strikes our ears, and every ray of light that enters
preserve it in harmony, from  age'to age, amidst our eve-balls is dependent on his sovereign will.
all.its diversifie'd'and'complicated movements? All that we hope- for beyond the'limits of time
That ever a.doubt was entertained on this subject and throughout the revolution of eternity depends
Pi a plain proof that man has lost, in part, that upon his power, his wisdom, his benevolence and




THE UNIVERSE DISPLAYS THE ATTRIBUTES OF DEITY.                                 119
his promises. Were he to. withhold the powers he may occasionally vouchsafe, on certain emerand agencies under!which we:now live'and act, gencies, to particular worlds.  Had man contiwe could neither think nor speak, hear nor'see,   nued in primeval innocence, the contemplation of
feel nor move; the whole assemblage of:living  the vast creation around him, with all.its diverbeings in. our world would be changed into im-'sified wonders and beneficent tendercies, would
movable statues, and this earth.transformed into a have led him to form correct views of the attribarren waste and an eternal solitude. To the  butes of his Almighty Maler, and of the moral
service of this glorious Being all the powers and.: laws by which his conduct should be regulated;
faculties with which he has.; endowed, us ought to  but it does not follow, that because the study of
be unreservedly consecrated. As his highest glory  nature' is now of itself an insufficient guide to
and blessedness consist in bestowing benefits on  the knowledge of the Creator and the enjoyment
his intelligent offspring, so we ought to be imita- of eternal felicity, such studies are either to be
tors of him  in his: boundless:-beneficence, by  thrown aside, or considered as of no importance
endeavoring to -communicate happiness to  all in a religious point of' view. To overlook the asaround.us..: " To do good, and to communicate, tonishing scene of the universe, or to view it with
forget not; for with such sacrifices God-is well indifference, is virtually to " disregard the works
pleased.'"  To him, as the "' Fatherof.. our spirits of Jehovah, and to refuse to consider the operaand the former of our bodies," is due the highest tions of his hands."  It is a violation of Christian
degree of our'love and gratitude; on him  we duty, and.implies a reflection on the character of
ought to rely for every blessing, and humbly  the Deity, for'any one to imagine that he has
resign ourselves to his disposal under every event; nothing to do with God considered as manifested
for'call things are of'God," and all are conducted  in the immensity of his works; for his word is
with'supreme and unerring wisdom and goodness pointed and explicit in diiecting the mind to
to an end iimmortal and divine.                  such contemplations.  "Hearken unto this; stand
2. -The immensity and magnificence'of the uli- still, and consider the wonderful works of God."
verse and the attributes  of Deity it displays are  "Lift up thine eyes on high,'and behold who hath
considerations which ought to be taken intb ac- created these orbs.'"  " Remember that thou magcount in all our views of religion. There' is a nifv his works which men behold."'Great and
class of men who, in prosecuting scientific pur- marvelous are thy works, Lord God Almighty!
suits, wish to-discard-everything that has a.bearing Thy saints shall speak of the glory of thy kingon religion when deduced from theinvestigations dorn and talk of thy power, to make known to
of science, and can scarcely refrain-from'a sneer, the sons of men thy mighty operations and the
when the arrangements in the economy of nature glorious majesty of thy kingdorn."
are traced to the agency' of their All-wise and    3. The Christian revelation, throughout all its
Omnipotent Creator; as if the objects which —sci- departments, is not only consistent with the views
ence professes to investigate had n.orelati'oii to the we have taken of the universe, but affords direct
views we ought to entertain of the Divinity, and evidence of the magnificence of creation, and of
ought never to be traced to their great first cause. the myriads o-f beings with which it is peopled.
On' the' other hand, there are many professed  Of this position we have exhibited some proofs
religionists who, from mistaken notions of piety, in the- remarks and illustrations  contained in
would set aside the study of the works of God, as Chapter XVII, which show at the same time the
having no connection whatever with the exercises harmony which subsists between the discoveries
of piety and the business of religion, and as even  of revelation and the discoveries which have been
injurious to' their interests. Both these classes of made in the system of nature.  There is no other
nimen verge, toward extremes which are equally system  of religion or pretended'revelation that
inconsistent and dangerous. The amazing fact, was ever propagated in the world to which such
that creation consi'sts'of a countless number of a characteristic belongs. If we examine the Ma1magnificent systems and worlds beyond the com- homedan Koran, the Shasters of Bramah, the
prehension of' finite,minds, ought not thus to be system of Confucius, the mythology of the Greeks
recklessly set aside in our views of God and of and Romans, and every other Pagan code of re.religion; for they are all the workmanship of ligion, we shall find interspersed throughout the
oN-EBEING, and they'are connected together as whole of them  numerous sentiments, opinions,
parts of ONE grand system, of which the God we and pretended facts at utter variance with the true
prof'ess tlo worship is the supreme and universal system  of nature, and to what are known to be
governor. They present to the view of -all intel- the established laws of the universe. This is
ligen'ces the imost glorious displays of his char- strikingly exemplified in the extravagant stories
act'er and perfections,' and consequently demand and descriptions contained in the pretended revefrom usa corresponding sentiment of admiration lations of Mahomet, and the absurd notions reand reverence,  and a corresponding tribute of specting the creation  contained in the sacred
homage and adoration. Such'enlarged prospects books of the Hindoos, which assert that the uniof the',u'nhverse -are therefore available for the verse consists of seven heavens and seven worlds,
loftiest purposes of ieligion and piety,'and oughit which are all at a future period to be absorbed
toenter a aan'element into all our views- of the. into God; with many other absurdities. In oppoadministration of the Almighty, and of that wor- sition to all such foolish and absurd opinions, the
ship aid obedience he requires from  his rational inspired writings, when properly undgrstood, and
offspring, -unless we would be contented to render: rationally interpreted according to the rules of
him' a degree of homage far inferior to that which  just criticism, are uniformly found to be perfectly
the manifestation of his attributes demands.  consistent with the discoveries of science, and the
God is known only by themanifestations which facts which are found to exist in the system  of
he makes of his character and' perfections. The the universe;:- and this correspondence and harhighest created' intelligences can- know nothing mony ought to be considered as a strong premore' —'of: the',Divinity than what is derived -from  sumptive evidence that the revelations of Scripthe. boundless universe he has presented to their ture and the scenes of the material universe
view, the dispensations  of his providence to cer- proceed from the same All-wise and Omnipotent
tain orders of beings, anid the special revelations Author.




C HA P-T ER X X.
ON COMETS.
As this class of the celestial bodies foris a part bit of the moon itself. Its motions were likewise
of the solar system, it might have' been, more particularly observed by Hagecius, at Prague, in
appropriate to have introduced& the subject into Bohemia, at the same time that they were obcur volume entitled, "Celestial Scenery," which  served by Tycho, at Uraniburg. These two places
has for its principal object a description of the differ six degrees  in  latitude, and are nearly
bodies connected with that system; but as that under the same:meridian, and both measured the
work swelled to a greater size than was at first distance of the comet from the same star, which
foreseen, it was judged expedient to postpone the was in the same vertical circle with the comet;'consideration. of comets to the present volume. yet both observers found their distances the sanle,
As our- knowledge of these bodies, however, is and consequently they both viewed the comet in
very limited, and no discoveries have yet been the same point of the heavens, which could not
made which might lead us to form  a decisive have happened unless the comet had been in a
opinion of their nature and destination, I shall higher region than the moon. After Tycho, Kepcontent myself with giving a brief detail of some ler had an opportunity of making observations
of the leading facts w'hich have been ascertained  on the comets which appeared in 1607 and 1618,
respecting them.                                 and from all his observations he deduced this conThe word comet literally signifies a hairy star; clusion, " that comets move freely through the
because such bodies are generally accompanied  planetary orbs."  From this period comets began
with a nebulosity, or train, which has the appear- to be more accurately observed, and to be considance —of luminous hair. The luminous point near ered as constituent parts of the solar system; and
the center of a comet, which is the most brilliant, at length the illustrious Newton demonstrated
is called the nucleus. The haze or nebulosity that their motions are performed in long ellipses,
which surrounds the nucleus is called the hair, having the sun in one of their foci.
and sometimes the envelope; and the nucleus and    Before proceeding  to inquire into the nature
hair combined constitute what is usually termed and physical constitution of these bodies,'I shall
the head of' the comet.'The luminous train, ex- presenlt the reader with
tending sometimes to a great distance from the
head, is called the tail of the' comet.  These A BRIEF SKETCH OF TIIE HITORY OF THE MOST RZ.
bodies have occasionally appeared in the heavens   MARKABLE COMETS WHICH  HAVE APPEARED  IN
in all ages. The ancients were divided in their   MODERN TIMES.
opinion respecting them; some considering them
as wandering stars; others, as meteors kindled    One of the most remarkable comets which have
in the.'atmosphere of the earth, subsisting for a appeared in modern times is that which made its
time, and then dissipated; and others viewed them  appearance toward the close of the year 1680, and
as prodigies indicating wars, famines, inundations,. wlich was particularly observed by most of the
or pestilences.  Aristotle, who -believed that the astronomers of Europe.  This comet, according
heavens were incorruptible and unchangeable, to the accounts given by the astronomers of that
maintained that comets were  generated when period, appeared to descend from  the distant rethey.first made their appearance, and were de- gions of space with a prodigious velocity, almost
stroyed when they ceased to be visible, and con- perpendicular to the sun, and ascended again in
sequently that they could not be reckoned to the same manlier from  that'lumIinary with a vebelong to the heavenly, bodies, but were only  locity retarded as it had before been accelerated.
meteors or exhalations:raised into the upper re- It was olbserved, particularly at Paris and Gireengions of the air, where they blazed for awhile, wich, by Cassini and Flamstead, by whonm it was
and disappeared when the matter of which they  seen in the morning from the 4th to the 2ath of
were formed was consumed. And as the opinions November, 1680, in its descent toward the sun;
of this ancient sage had a powerful influence and after it had passed its perihelion,* in the even.
on the  philosophers and astronomers' of later. ing, from  the 12th of December to the 9th of
times,-as his assertions were frequently regarded  March, 1681. The many exact observations made
as little short of demonstrations,-few  persons on this comet enabled Sir I. Newton to discover
had.the boldness and independency of mind to that so much of its orbit as could be traced by
call in question the -positions he maintained on the motion of the comet, while it was visible, was,
any subject discussed in his writings.           as to sense, a parabola, having the sun in its
It wasn.sot before the time.of the celebrated as- focus, and that it was one and the same comet
tronomer, Tycho Brahe, that the nature of comets that was seen all that time.  This comet was rebegan to be a little understood, and that theywere markable for, its very near approach to the suan.
considered as moving in the planetary regions. At its perihelion, it was not above a sixth part of
This astronomer observed'with great diligence the the sun's diameter from its surface; that is, about
famous comet which. appeared in 1577; and from
many accurate observations,during.the' time, of..its appearance, found that it had. no sensible diur-   * The perihelion  is that point in the orbit of any planet
nal parallax, assd therefore~ wasnot only far above or comet which is nearest to the sun. It is also called the
nal parallax,i and therefore was -not only far above  ower apsis. The aphelion is thsat point in the orbit shlich
the.lilnits of oair atmosphere, l4ut beyond the or- is farthest from the sun; called, also, the higher ap.is
(i20)




THE  COMET- OF 1680.                i                     21:146,000 miles from the surface of that -luminary, concleude that it was identical with the great comrn-:and 584,000 from  its center.- According to Sir ets:which appeared in 1456, 1-531, and 1607,
Isaac Newton, the velocity of this comet when whose elements he had also ascertained. The
nearest the sun, was 880,000 miles an hour. - On intervals between these periods being about sevtaling. its perihelion distance, asgiven by M. Pin- enty-five or seventy-six years, he was led to coilgre, Mr. Squire found, by:two different calcula- cdude that this was the period of the revolution
tions,' that its velocity in- its perihelion was no of the comet, and ventured to predict that it
less than 1,240,000 miles-an hour!  This velocity would again return about the latter. part, of the
was so great that, if continued, it would have car- year 1758. As this was the first cornet whose
ried it through 124 degrees in an hour; but its return had been predicted, when the time of its
actual hourly motion during that interval, before expected appearance approached, astronomers beand after it passed the perihelion, was 81 degrees, caine anxious to ascertain whether the attractlon
47 minutes.  At this period, the diameter of tile of the larger planets, Jupiter and Saturn, inight
sun, as seen from the cornet, must have subtended  not interfere.with its orbitual motion, and prevent
an angle of more than a hundred degrees, whichl it fro. arriving at its perilelion as soon as the
must nearly have filled its whole hemisphere.    time predicted. Clairant, all eminent French ranFronm  Dr'. Halley's determination of its orbit, thematician, after many. intricate ad. laborious
it appears that when in its aphelion, or greatest calculations in reference to the subject, concluded.iistance from the sun, it cannot be less than 13- ti-at the. attraction of Saturn would  lengthen thie
00(0,000,000, or thirteen thousand  millions of period 100 days, and the; action of Jupiter 518,
mniles distant from that luminary; that: is, seven making in all 61-8 days, by which the expected
times thle distance of-Uranlus.;  According to the return would happen later than if no such iliflusame asttronomer, this comet, in passing through ence had taken place; so that instead of the period
its southern node, came within the length of tlie being.74 years, 323 days, it ought to be 76 years,
sun's seminidiameter of the orbit of the earth, that 211 days; and as the. comet passed its.peil-lelion
is, within 44-0,000 miles;; and.he remarks," "had on Septeimber 14,1682, it ought to reach the same
the earth been then in that part of its orbit near- point on April 13, 1759. These calaculations were
est that node of the comet, their mutual gravita- real before the' Academy  of Sciences, on tie 14t1.
tion must have, caused a change in the plane of of November, 1758; but Clairaut gave notice that,
tihe earth's orbit, and in' the length.of our year; beingi pressed for time, he had neglected in his
aiid if so large a body with so rapid a motion were calculations small values, which collectively might
tb strike the earth, a thing by no means impossi- amount to  hbont thirty days, in the seventy-six
ble,, the-shock might reduce this beautiful frame years.  These predictions  were accordingly  erito, its original chaos."   Modern observations, filed, for the comet appeared about the end of
however,: render such deductions somewhat im- December, 1758, and arrhied at its perihelion onil
probabl'r The.period of this comet is supposed the 13th of March, 1759, only thirty days before
to be about 575 years. It is conjectured that it is the time fixed by the calculations of Clairaut.
the same comet which appeared in 1106, in the who, upon repeating the. process by which he h;ad
reign of Henry I, that was seen during the con- arrived at the result, reduced this error to nineteen
snulate of Lampadius and Orestes, about the year days.'The same comet again made its appeal -
531,,andi in the forty-fourth year before Christ, in ance, according to prediction, in- 1835, of which
which year Julius Cmusar was murdered. Its nu- a particular account will be given in the sequel.
dlens was computed to be about ten times as large    3. Another remarkable. comet made its appearas the moon. Its tail extended over a space of ance in 1744, which excited a considerable degree
seventy degrees in extent.                       of attenltion.  It was first seen at Lausanne, in
This is the comet, to the near' approach of Switzerland, Decemnber 13, 1743:; from that period
which to -the earth, Mr. Whiston attributed the it increased in brightness and maglitude as it
universal deluge in the time of Noah. -His opin- approached nearer the sun.  On the'evening of
ion was, that the earth, passing through the at- January 23, -1744, it appeared exceedingly bright
mosphere of the cornet, attracted fiorm it a great and distinct, and the diameter of its nucleus was
part of the water of the flood; that the nearness nearly equal to that of Jupiter.  Its tail then exof the comet raised a great tide in the subterra- tended above 16 degrees from  its body, and was
nean waters; that this could not be done without supposedl to be about 23 millions of mniles in
making fissures or cracks ill the outer crust of length.  On the 11th of February, the  nucleus,
the'earth; that through these fissures thesubterra-.which had before been always round, appeared
neous waters were forced; that along with the oblong in the direction of the tail, and seemedl
water much slime or mud would rise, which, divided into two parts by a black stroke in the
after the subsiding of the water partly into the mniddle. One of the parts had a sort of beard,.'fissures and partly into the lower parts of the brighter than the tail; this beard was surrounded
earth to form the sea, would cover over to a con- by two unequal dark strokes, that separated the
siderable depth the antediluvian earth; and thus beard from the hair of the comet; these odd phehe accounts for trees and bones of animals being nomena disappeared tile next day, and nothing
foWund:. at'very great depths in the earth.- The was seen but irregular obscure spaces like smoke
same dqmet, -he supposed, when coming near the in the middle of the tail, and the head resumed
earth`aftael   being heated' to an immeinse degree  its natural form. On the fifteenth of February,
lsits-perihelion, would be the instrumental cause the tail was'divided into two: branches, the eastern
of that great' catastrophe, the general -conflagra- about 8 degrees long, the western 24. On the
tion.-  Modern geological'researches, however, 23d the tail began to be bent. It showed no tail
render:all such hypotheses utterly untenable.  until it was as near the sun as tihe or-bit of Mars,
2. Another comet which has obtained a certain and it increased in length as it approached nearer
degree of celeb'rity is. that wich appeared in'that luminary. At its greatest length, it was
1682, and is'usually distilnguished by- the name computed to equal a third part of the distance of,of Halle#y's  coet          rnhis  cet appeared with the earth from  the sun.*  This was one of the:considerable — splendor,: and'exhibited. a.tail thirty most brilliant Comets that had apj eared since that
degrees in len'gth..' On- calculating its-elements
from its perilelion passage, Dr. Halley was led to    Memoirs of the Academy of Scicnces for i744.




122                               SIDEREAL:HEAVENS.'of 1680. Its tail was visible:for a:long time after omers in 1805 and 1819, all of whom, at thosfe
its body was hid under:the horizon: it extended periods, supposed that the four comets were four
20 or -30 degrees above'the horizon; two hours different bodies. The elements of this comet, and
before sunrise.                                 the: short period of' its revolution, are now incon.
4. In the month of'June, 1770, Messier disco- trovertibly established;'forits reappearance in the'vered a comet, the motions of which appear to be southern hemisphere in June, 1822, took place
involved- in~ a considerable degree of mystery.-  very nearly in the positions previously calculated.
The conmet continued visible for a long time.-  The agreement was- not less remarkable in 1825;
lexell ascertained, from  observation, that'it de- and in 1828, the third period of its announced re.
scribed an'ellipse taround the sun, of which the turn, it occupied the -places assigned to it by
greater axis was only thbreetimes the diameter'of Encke the year preceding. It likewise appeared
tile earth's orbit, which corresponds with'a revo-'in 1832,' 1835, and 1838.
lution of 51.years. It was therefore' expected   This comet is very small; its light is -feeble; it
that- it would again frequently: makee.   its appear- has no tail; it is invisible to the naked eye, except
-ance; ~but it' has'lever sincebeen visible,-although in very favorable circumstances, but may be seen
it made a pretty brillianut appearance. in'1770.-  with a small magnifying power. It revolves in an
The Natiohnil Inlstitute of F rance, not many years elliptical orbit of considerable eccentricity, having
ago, requested M. Burkhardt to repeat all' the.cal- an inclination to the. plane of the ecliptic of 13 t1
culations with the utmost care; aid the result-of   egrees. On comparing the intervals between the
~his- labor has been a  ete conirmtion of the sucessiveperihelrmation passages of this comet, a sin-elements obtained by Lexell. What has become gular fact has been elicited, namely, that its peof this comet it is difficult to conjecture. Its riods are continually diminishing, and its mean
aphelion, or greatest distance from the sun, was distance from the sun shortening by slow but rereckoned to be not far beyond the orbit of Ju- gular degrees. This is supposed by M. Elcke to
piter, and that'it approached as near to the earth be produced by a resistance experienced by the
as the moon, andn ought to have appeared twelve comet from avery rare ethereal medium pervading
times since the year'1770. M. Arago attempts to the regions through'which it moves; since such
solve the difficulty by affirming that its orbit was resistance, by diminishing its actual velocity, would
then totally different from that which it has since diminish also its centrifugal force, and thus give
pursued; that its passage to the' point of perihelion the sun more power over it to draw it nearer. It
inl 1776, when it was expected, took place by day, is therefore the opinion of Sir J. Herschel, that
and before the following return; the form of the "it will probably fall ultimately into the sun,
orbit was so altered that had the comet been vlsi- should it not first be dissipated altogether, a thing
ble from the earth, it would not have been recog- no way improbable, when the lightness of its manized; that before 1777, during the whole progress terials is considered, and which seems authorized
of its revolutions, its shortest distance from the by the observed fact of its having been less and
sun was 199,000,000 leagues, and that after 1779, less conspicuous at each reappearance."  The acthe minimum distance became 131,000,000leagues, celeration of this comet is about two'days in each
which was still too far removed for the comet to revolution; and the frequent opportunities of obbe perceptible from the earth. Sir David Brews- servation which will occur, in o nsequence of the
ter attempts to account for'its disappearance by shortness of its period, may lead to new and insupposing that it -mst have been attracted by one teresting conclusions in relation to the nature of
of the planlets whose orbiiit crossed;'and must these bodies.
have imparted'to it its nebulous mass; and that it is   6. Beside the above, another periodical comet
probable the: comet passed' near Ceres.and Pallas, has lately been discovered, which is distinguished
and' imparted to them those immense atmospheres by the name of Biela's and sometimes Gambart's
whichl distinguish them from all the other planets. comet. This comet was perceived at Johannisberg,
Whether'any -of these opinions be tenable and on the 27th Feb., 1826, by M. Biela; and by M.
sufficient to -solve the difficulty, is left entirely Gambart, at Marseilles, ten days afterward. Gaminwith the reader to determine.,                  bart, without delay, calculated its parabolic ele-;'5. An6ther',comet which has engaged the par- ments from his own observations, and by inspectticular attention of astronomers;'during the last ing a general table of comets, he recognized that
twenty years,- is distinguished from all preceding it was not -its first appearance, but that it had bee,
comets by the shortness of its of itsperiodic revolution. already observed in 1789, and 1795. Messrs. Clau.
It is usually denominated Encke's comet, so called sen and Gambart undertook the computation of
from Professor Encke,' of Berlin, who first ascer- the comet's revolution, and found, each of them
ained its periodical return. Itkwas discovered at nearly at the same time, that the new comet made
Marseilles, on the 26th November, 1818, by M. its entire revolution round the sun in a period of
Pons, and its parabolic elements were presented about seven years. It was afterward found, more
to the Board of Longitude,-at Paris, by M. Bou- accurately, to be 2460 days, or nearly 634 years.
vard, on the'13th of January, 1819. It was im- M. Damoiseau calculated the perturbations of this
mediately remarked that the result of Bouvard's comet, and predicted that it would cross the plane
calculations was too similar t'o the elements of a of the earthi's orbit on the 29th of October, 1832,
comet which appeared: in  1805, not to consider a little before midnight, at a point about 18,480
that and the oine of 1818 as the same body; and miles within the orbit of the earth. According to
M. Encke soon after established, by incontestable this prediction, the4comet actually made its apcalculations, that this'comet took only about pearance in 1832 about the time now specified.
1200 days, or three years and three-tenths, to-tra- Its next appearance was calculated to happen in
veol through the whole extent of its elliptic orbit. 1839; and it was reckoned that it would arrive'at
This was considered as a very extraordinary re- its perihelion on the 23d July of that year.
suit; as an opinion had'ireviously prevailed that   The predicted appearance of this comet in 1832
the period of a revolutioi of a comet must' neces- seems to have produced'considerable alarm, parsarily be long. It'now appears that this' comet ticularly inFrance. Some German journalists'prewas first seen by Messier:-and Mechain in 1786; dieted that it would': cross the earth's orbit near
afterward by Miss Herschel inj1795; and its sub- the point at which the earth would be at the time,
sequent returns were' oberved by differient astron- and cause the destruction of our globe. Such was




THE' COMET OF  1807.                                    123
the degrree of alarm, exciteda on this,occasion, that and beautiful appearance, and the nuclens, coma,
M. G *  * %, a Professor in Paris, put -the question  and tail, nearly filled the field of view. When a;to -the Academy of Sciences, -hether it didi not power of sixty was applied, it was muclh motre
feel itself bound in duty to refute, as speedily'as indistinct than with the former power and,in all
possible, this:assertion:.,"Popularterrors,"i-heob- the subsequent observations the lower power was
serVed, " are productive of serious consequences.   gelerally  preferred.' Ill the course of five or six
Several:members of thie Academy may still re- weeks, or about the middle of November, it disapmember the accidents and disolders which follow- peared to the naked eye. I traced it with the
ed a"similar threat, imprudently communicated to telescope, as often as the weather would permit,
the Academy by M. de Lalande, in May, 1773. for two or three months after it had become inPersons of weak, mind died of fright, and women visible to the unassisted sight, and found that its
miscarried. There were not wanting people who apparent motion was pretty rapid,,and toward the
knew too well the art of turning Ito their advan- north-east.  About the middle of January, 1808,
tage the alarm inspired by the approachipg comet, at eleven, P. M., it appeared in a direction northanid places in paradise were sold at a vy high rate. i east by north; and at this time it appeared through
The announcement of the comet -of-1832 may th'e telescope like a small nebulous star, or like.produce similar effects, unless the authority of the -those species of comets called bearded comets,
Academy apply a prompt remedy; and. this salu- having no trace of anything similar to a tail.. The
tary intervention is at this moment implored by- last time't saw it was about the' end of January,
many) benevolent persons."  It was sepposed by when itwas still distinctly visible, like a nebulous
some, that:if any disturbing cause should.delay star;- but cloudy weather for. nearly a "fortnight
the arrival of the comet for mon  moth, the earth prevented any -further observations, and I saw it
must pass directly through its head.            no more. On the evening in which I had the last
-. In order to dispel such fears, and.to illustrate peep of it, I detected another comet within eight
the-nature of these bodies, M. Arago published an.or' ten degrees of it, which appeared like a star of
excellent and; popular: treatise on comets in the the third magnitude, and exhibited a pretty bril"Annuair-e" of 1832. He showed that the re'sult liant appearanlce through the telescope-. i It had
of the, calculation was, that-the passage of the no tail, like the former comet, but appeared surcomet ought to proeeeda little within our orbit, and rounded with radiant hairs like the glory which
at a distance from that curve, which is equal to painters represent around the head of our Saviour.
four terrestrial radii and two-thirds, or about 37,- It continued visible -for several weeks; but I have
000. miles; t1hat-on the 29th October, -1832, a por- not seen any particular. notices of this second
tion- of the earth's orbit might be included within comet, or any special observations on it, which,the nebulosity. of the comet; but that the'earth have. been, recorded by astronomers.
wotld not arrive at the same point of its orbit until.This comet appears to have beeh first noticed
the morning of the 30th November, or more than by, Herschel and Schroeter about the 4th of Octoa.-month afterward; and consequently that the her, 1807, who continued their observations upon
earth would be more, than twenty millioils of it for several months. According to'Schroeter's
French leagues (or fifty millions of, British miles) observations and estimates, the diameter of the
distant from: the comet. He adds, that' "if the nucleus of this comnet was about 4600 miles,.'r
comet, instead of crossing the plane of the ecliptic nearly the size of the planet Mars, and appeared
on the 29th October, had not arrived there until the to be of considerable density; the diameter of its
morning of the 30th November, it would have coma, 120,000 miles, but liable at different times,
iundoubtedly mingled its atmosphere with ours, to- variations of increase and decrease; and its
and perhaps even have struck us!"  The earth is rate of motion, at certain periods, 1;,333,380 miles
cousidered in more danger, if danger there be, a day, or 55,557-miles an hour.  Its tail was difrom this comet and that of Encke than from any  vided in a very unusual manner into two separate
other. Encke's comet crosses the orbit of the branches; the north side'continued much brighter
earth sixty times in the course of a century, and  and better defined than'the other, and was also inthere is certainly a possibility that it might come variably convex, while the other side was concave.
into collision with the earth, but the prob.abilitv of But what was deemed' most remalkable was the
its doing so is very small; and, beside, this comet variation in length atnd. the coruscations of the
and that of Gambart are so extremely rare, that tail.  Something like coruscation  had been- oblittle danger is to be apprehended, even althlongh served by the naked eye in the case of preceding
a contact were to take place. Gambart's is a small, comets, and such phenomena appear to have;beei
insignificant comet, without a tail, or any appear- confirmed by the observations of Schroeter.  In
Rance whatever of a solid nucleus, and:is not dis- less than one second', streamers shot forth to two'tnguishable by the naked eye.    a' nd a half degrees in length;' they as rapidly dis7. The Comet of 1807.  This was the first comet appeared and issued out again, sometimes in proaon.which I had an opportunity of making obser- portions and interrupted like our northern lights.
vations. _Myfirst observation was on the evening Afterward the tail varied both in length and
pf,Oc~\tober the 8th, 1807, a little after sunset, breadth, and in some of the observations, the
w.ihelin it: appeared in a-.north-westerly direction, streamers shot from the whole expanded end of
not/. far distant from Arcturus, which was then  the tail, so metimes here, and sometimes there, in
~ onlIyaI little, above the horizon... To. the naked  an instant, two and a half degrees long, so that
eye Wit.appeared:i  somewhat ilike:a- dim' nebu I within a single second they must have shot out a
1lus istar o.f the;second.magnitude, with a beam.distance, of 4,600,000 miles. Their light-was also
of light on one side of it.i Through.a telescope, sometimes whiter and clearer'at the end than at
its' taifpresented-a prettybrilli'ant appearance, and  the base, as is occasionally'seen in the northern
ioccupied.a space: of considerably'more than a de- lights.; Some have objected to the extreme rapidity
gree in.- length. The coma seemed:to have. a.of the  streamers as here stated, but the- fact of
roundissh! a'but dim anid, umsdefined appearance, and  coruscations having been seen appears, to be conappeared/'more indistint as the magnifying powerI firmed by the observations of this celebrated and
was.inreased.J.'.  W h~en vi ewed,:: w.With can achro- accurate observer.  The observations of Herschel
matic telescope of`t-hirty-one inches.focal, distance, on this cornet differ in some respects roln those
gad a power of thirty,  ps      e     y, distinct, of Schroeter, particularly in the estimate he




124,SIDEREAL HEAVENS.'
makes of the siz'e of the nucleus. which he reck- of its physical aspect and constitution, and for deons torbe considerably smaller than what hias been termining the elemelts of its orbit, than almost any
stated above.  other comet that had previously appeared. The
Fig.. 78 is a view of this comet as seen on the two celebrated observers, Herschel and Schroeter,
nflight of'October 21st by Schroet:r.. Fig. 79 is a made numerous and very particular observations
view of the same'comet as seen by Bessel, Octo- on-the phenomena and motions of this cornet,
her 22d, at, eight -in the evening;  both which ex- which were continued every clear evening for the
hibit its, divided tail.                         space.of nearly five months, Some of these ob-:8. The most remarkable comet which- has ap- servations, along with the remarksand deductions
peared in modern times, since that. of 1680, was connected with- them, are extremely interesting to
thie comet of 1811. -About. the beginniag  of Sep- the astronomical observer; but:my'  limits will
permit only a statement of tlhe
Fig. 78.                            -general results..
Some of the results deduced by
7Shobroeter are  the followingThat the central globe of light,
or, what -he calls the nucleus, was
50,000 milesw in diameter, or neary six and a half times the diame78                7_                                             teript of the earth,  which' he deduced from  thie mean of twentv-:''I~~~  -~ |                        thseven measurements, which gave
1 t49" as the meanl angular diameter of the body; that this great
body was in all probability chliefly
fluid, though  its c etnal parts
might consist of denser substances; and that there was reason to
at teo t Id |i p believe that it shone with its, own
native light.  The coma was extremely rarefied in comparison
with the nucleus, resemhling  a
very faint whitish light, scattered
in separate portions.  It was divided into two; one immediately
encompassing the nucleus, the
other of a more faint and grayish,
light, sweepieg round it at a distance, and forming the double
tail whichL the comet presented.
The train, or fhead vail, as hae
terms it, swept around the ande'  cleus, at a distance equal to its
80 breadth, and appeared as unconnected as the ring of Saturn with
its body, and. which sometimes
appeared darker than' tioe open
sky. The diameter of this exterior part of the head was 34' 15",
or about 947,000 miles, which is
larger than the diameter of thie
81 sun, and which he thinks' must
~JC~    have formed a hollow cone around
the nucleus, and whichli he thought
indicated a force of a repulsive
aature- residing in the nucleus.
Between the 4th and 6tii of December a great revolution took
tember in that year, about eight or hine in the place; the rarefied nebulousi matter, which:had
evening, as I was taking a random sweep with my  for three months- been so unusually repelled from
telescope over. the north-western quarter of the  the nucleus on every side, tp-a distance of about
heavens, an uncommon object appeared to pass one-fifth of the diameter of the'hea4, or 190,000
rapidly across the field of view, which on exami- miles, was again attracted to it, affording an innation appearedto be'a splendid comet.  Not controvertible, proof of physical action upon Ia
having heard of the appearance of any such body' great scale, arising doubtless from the tame causes'
at that time, IL Was led to  imagine that I had for- which' produce the other phenomena of naturei.
tunately got the first peep of this ill'ustrious stran - The rioubletail of this comet was exceedingly feint
ger; b but I'afterward letrued from' the public compared with the nucleus and coma.  On the
prints that~ it had been'seen a day or two before 23d of October, it extended fully eighteen degrees,
by Mr. Neitch, inA'the  neighborhood of Kelso, notwithstanding, its oblique position, the angle at
who appears to.have been thln first that observed  the sun being then 610 23'; at the earth, 690; and
it ih this country.' This cornet appeared'with pe-  at the comet, 490 37'.' Had it been viewed at right
culiar splendor, and  as-~ visible, even to' the na- angles, it would have subtended an angle of, 360
k-ed eye, for more than three mouths in succes- 36'.'equivalent to more than 60,000,000 of miles,
sion, and excited universal attention., It afforded which is more than half the'distance from  the
to astronomers more opprtunities forobservation  earth to the sun. Coruscations, similar to th nm




HALLEY'S'COMET.                                            125
hllich appeared, in the tail of the comet of 1807, to have been noticed in the northern parts.of Briwere likewise perceived, particularly on,October tain until more than a month afterward.  Its exthe. 16th, when a small tail instantaneously ap- pected reappearance excited universal attention
peared, then vanished, and reappeared, which was throughout Europe.  Soon  after the middle of
in length equal to three times tie diameter of the September, as I was taking a sweep with a twocomet's-head) or 2,373,000 miles. ~.Other displays feet telescope over the north-eastern quarter of
of the same_ kind took place- onl the 7th of No- the heavens, near the point where I expected.its
vember and the 18th of Decernber.  These facts, appearance, I happened to fix my eye on this longpf.the reality of -which Schroeter.entertained not expected visitor, which lappeared very small and
the least.doubt, must be considered as very curi-  obscure.  1 immediately  directed  an  excellent
ous and extraordinary phenomena.*                     three and a half feet achromatic telescope, with a
Hersclhel's observations nearly agree with. those  diagonal eye-piece, magnifying about thirty-four
of Schroeter, excepting that -he estimates the di- times, to the comet, when: it was distinctly seen,
amneter. of the nucleus as very m.uch smaller'than.  anld appeared of a considerable diameter, but still
what is stated above.- He estimates -thegtest somewhat hazy an. obscure.  I afterward applied
length of the tail, as seen on..tihe 15tlh fi Octoer, a power:.of for ty-fivc, aild another of  ninety-five:
to have been 100,000,000,0 or a hundred millions ofl but:it was- seen most distinctly with the lower
miles, which consequently extended over a Vspace  power.. -WTith ninety-five it appeared extremely
larger than that. which intervenes between the  obscure, and nearly of the apparent size of the
earth and- the sun; and-its- breadth, as deduced  moon.*  There appeared at this time 1nothing like
firom the observations of October      12the, nearly. a tail, -but the cenltral part was much more lumififteen millions of miles.  He calcLlat ed its dis- ]nous than the other portionis: of the comet, and
tance when nearest to the earth to be about 113. presented something like the appearance of a star
millions of miles.  He concluded that thle:solid dof tlie third or fourth magnituade surrounldedwith
matter.of the comet was spherical, tllhat it.shone:I a haze.,. In some of the views I took.of this obin part by its own native light, and that it:proba- ject, the luminous  part or nucleles appeared to be
bly had a rotation round its axis.   Fromnthe rnost considerably learer one side thanl.another.  At
accurate observations of the motion of" this comet,  this period, and for a week or tell days afterward,
its period of revolution has been'calcutiAted;to-ex- the comet was altogether invisible to the naked
ceed-3000 years. Bessel computes it at —3383 years.; eye. -Many subsequient observations.were made,
and several other astronomers conceive itsl peSriod  and; published in tile.provillciali newspapers, hut
to be considerably longer, even exceeding.  4000 [which my present limits prevent lie from insertyears.....  ig....
9. Reappearance of Halley's Comet in 1835..The.   After tlhe comet became visible  to:the  lnaked
return of. this comet was calculated by Messrs.'eye, the tail began  to appear, and inlceased in
Damoiseau and Pontecoulant; the former of whom, letngth as it approached its- perillhelion,and at its
calculated its return to the, perihelion on the 4th, utmost. extent was estimated to be above thirty
and the latter on the 7th of November, 1835, and  degrees in length.  On the-13th of October, acit actually arrived at that point only a few days cording to the observations of Arago., a luminous'
after these periods, namely, on the 16th of No- sector was visible in its head; on the day followvember.  It was first seen on the continent in the  ing, the sector had disappeared, and a more brilmonth of August that year, but does not appear liant] one and of greater longitudinal extent.was'formed in an otler place.  This second sector was
H Ilaving referred, on various occasions, to the observa. observed oil the 17th, when it appeared less brighlt;
tions of that indefatigable astronomer, Scl?'oeter, of Lilie-         th its weakness had de
thal, it may not be-uninteresting to some readers to insert 
the accot  of the losses he sustained by the burning and cleased.  The cometwas concealed ustil the 21st
plundtler of his observatory, as expressed in hi:s,own pathetic  but on that day three distinct sectors were visible
language                                              in -the nebulosity.  On the 23d, all'traces of. these: "At length, after the most touching afflictions of-mortali- is tho Ilebhlosity. Os   the 23d, atraes  of the
ty, I once more awake in my temple consecrated to the sectors had disappeared,   which had
fternal Godhead, andlam again able, after a total derange- previously beet brilliant and well-defined, havitg
ment of nmy, afairs, to edit these collections cencersning the become so large and diffuse that the observer
great comet of 1811. Through the most barbarous fuiry, in could celybeieve i          reality  f such a udconsequence of an' equally barbarous decision, the whole in- could scacely believe in tIme reality of suds  a sudnocent soft vale of Lilies lthe signification of the name of dos and importantl alteration, until he satisfied himLilienthal, where his observatory was situated) iwas bulrnt self that the appearance was not occasioned by
to the ground, without any previous examination.  They; tle. moistlre on the glasses.of his isistrumeiint.  It
likewise burnt down the royal government uilings. I  tof the                                     ous fas
aIppears, likewise,:hat one. of theselminous fns
felt by mie, amotlgst it, withl a considerable loss also to the  or sectors was observed by'-Sir J. Herschel, at the
booksellers of Europe, the sole copy of the'wlhole of my Cape of Good Hope, after the comet had passed
works and writin&gs deposited in the government house.-  its pe-ihelion.   The liebtlosity of this comet apEven -my observatory, preserved by Providence firom the fire,nitude as it a
was: a few: days. afterward broken into, plundered, an  pea   to  ave increased  in  magnitude as it apshamefully throwvn into confusion by demolishing the clocls,  preoached the sun, but its changes were sometimes
breakinng'off the finsders from the instruuments, anl carryingr  unaccountably rapid.  On one occasion it was oboff the smallder instrumfents.  Previsusly, issdel, Itaving  served to become obscure and enlarged  in  the
beerflremdveidfi'om r ypost, my income ha, gradually   be.
eomesoovery straiteneod, I was oslligneml to foregrasl iut Ithe  cousrse of a few hours, though a little before, its
most necessary olitlays, anti to give myself up to a scienti- nucleus was clear aiid well-defined.  Onl tie 11th
fin slumber. Under the entlurnce of these troubles all my of October, the Rev. T. W. Webb, and two otherbci exnificse me, if thro s ellnc doutless, as    as possit ofsobservers, observed coruscations in the tail.  On
ei. excuse':me, if through melancholy, and oni-account' of
the extraorlinary higlh rate of postage, I have been comn- that evening, at 7h. 30', the tail was very conspipelled to put out of sight so matny obligations of courtesy, cUOUs, extel:dillg between x  and ~ Draconis, aImd:r to the -presenttine everything is so:straitened will me evidently  fluctuated, or rather coruscated, in
that my observatory, from want of time and heavy expenses legth, being occasionally short, and then stretchis for the most part a confusion. -      ~. -..
- J.'  Jori; IERONYM.' SCHROETER."'Lilienthal, Jan. 22, 1815."                           In viewing comets, telescopes with large apertures andt
comparatively low magnifying powers; should generally le'Suhroeter did not long survive the calamity alluded to used, as the faint light emi'ted by comets, whetler it be m
above. He died -or the 2S9th of P ugust, 1816(,:in the 71st hereuit or reflected, will not permit tile use of so high magyear of his age.' -; -; -  - -'   nifying powers as may be applied to the p anets..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. -.




1].26..': SIDEREAL  HEAVENS.
ing, in the twinkling of an eye, to its full extent, general phenomena' of comets; and I shall now
whicn was at least equal to ten degrees..Its changes briefly inquire into the- opinionqs which have been
were extremely similar to the kindling and-fa- formed respecting the.:
ding of a very faint streamer of the Ajirora'Bore-....
alis... -:-... -:;:    X   PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION OF COMETS.
-" The iniluence of the -ethereal medium on the.
~motion of Halley's cornet will be known after an-    On this subject our knowledge is very imperother revolution, and-future astronomers will learn, fect; in fact, we may be said to know little or noby the accuracy- of its returns, whether.it has met thing of the physical construction of those myswith any' unknown cause.of disturbance in its terious bodies, or of the nature of the substances
distant journeys.  Undiscovered planets beyond the; of which they are composed.  In regard to the
visible bou'ndary of our system  may change its nebulosity of cbmets, where there appears no nupath and —'the:; period of its revolution, and- thus cleus, it has been conjectured to be composed of
may.indirectly: reveal to us theirS'; existence, and  something analogous.to globular masses of vapor,
-even tllheir physical_ nature-and orbit.;: The secrets slightly condensed'toward the center, and shiling
of' the yet more distant heavens A m'ay be: disclosed- either by inherent light or by the reflected rays
to future generations by comets which penetrate  of- the sun.'  When there is a nucleus in the censtill farther into -space, such- as: that of 1763, ter of a comet, it seldom  happens that the nebuwhich,jif:any faith' may hbe placed in the compu- l/osity extends to it with a gradually increasing
tation, goes-nearly 43 times farther from the sun- intensity.  On the contrary, the parts of the neb.
than Halley's does, and shows that the sun's at- ulosity- near the nucleus are but slightly lumintraction is powerful enough at the distance of ous, and seem to be extremely rarefied and trans144,600 millions -ofmiles to recall the comet to its parent.  At some distance from their center, their
perihelion.  The periods of some comets are said  shilling quality is suddenly increased, so that it
to be many thousand years, and even the average looks like a ring of invariable size resting in equitime of the revolution of comets generally is about librium around the center.  Sometimes two, and
a thousand: years; which  proves that the -sun's even three of these colicentric rings - have been
gravitating force extends'very far.  La Place es-: perceived separated by intervals; but what aptimates-that the solar attraction is felt throughout pears to be a ring must in reality be a spherical
a sphere. whose radius is a hundred millions of covering, an idea of which may be formed by imtimes greater thall the distance of the earth from  agining, in  our atmosphere, at three different
thle sun.",-' Tthe orbit-of' Halley's comet is four hights, th -ee continued layers of clouds entirely
times longer than it is broad; its length is about covering the globe.  The matter of the nebulos-'3420 millions of miles, about036 times the' mean  ity is so rare and transparent that the smallest
distance of the earth from the sun.  At its peri- stars may frequently be seen through it.
helion it comes within 57 millions of miles of the    As to the nucleus, it is generally considered as
sun, and at its aphelion it is 60 tinies more distant. the-solid or densest part of the comet.  The nuclei
On account of this extensive range, it must expe- of comets are sometimes very similar to the discs
rience 3600 times more.ight when nearest to the of, planets, both in form and brightness. They are
sun than in.the mIost remote point of its orbit.  In  generally small compared with the whole size of
the one position the sun willfseem to be four times the comet; but in some cases they are of considlarger than he. appears to us, and at' the other he erable magnitude, as we have'already stated in rewill not be apparently larger than a star.5        spect to the comets of 1807 and 1811.  Some
The appearance of this comet, so near the time suppose that the nuclei of comets are transparent
predicted by astlronomers,and in positions so near- as well as their nebulosities, and allege as a proof
ly agreeing with those which were previously cal- that stars have been seen through a nucleus. Thus,
culated;-,is a clear: proof of -the astonishing accu- Montaigne is said to have seen a star of the sixth
racy which has been introduced into astionomical magnitude through the nucleus of a small comet)
calculations, and of the soundness of those prin- and Olbers saw a star of the seventh magnitude,
ciples on which the astronomy of comets is found- although it was covered by a comet, and without
ed.  It: likewise shows, that comets, inl general, its light being rendered less powerful; but the acare permanent bodies connected with the solar sys- curacy of such observations has been called in
te'm, and that niovery considerable change in their question.  On the other hanld, it has been concluconstitution -talkes place while traversing the dis- ded that the nucleus of, a comet'- has on several
tant parts of their'orbits.t  occasionseclipsed a star-which was in the same
From the preceding historical sketches and de- line  of vision.  Messier, when  observing  the
scriptions, the reader will learn something of the small comet of 1774, perceived a star which was
-_:'__.':__:_-_;.'__'_ __ -__'.' eclipsed by the opaque body of a comet, or at
least, all the circumstances attending it led to that
Mrs. Somerville's "Connection of the Physical Sci- conclusion.  On the'28th of Nov. 1828, at 10h.
ences," a work which, though written in a popular style, 30', P. M, M. Wartmann, at -:G6neva, perceived a
would do honor to the first philosophers of Europe. Of this star of the eighth agniude completely eclipsed
lady's profound mathematical work on the " Mechanism of
the Heavens," the Edinburgh Reviewers remark-" It is un- by Endke's comet. Comets have likewise been
questionably one of the'most remarkable works that female observed to transit' the disc of the sun like dark
intellect ever produced in any age or country; and with re- spots.  M. Garnbart, of Marseilles, calculated that
spect to the present day, we hazard little, in saying, that a coetwhich he had observed wold pass across
Mrs. Somerville is the only individual of her sex in the athmet which he had observed would pass aNovember,
world who could have written it."                  the sunon the morning of the 18th of-November,
jt The most' partieular observations onw Halley's comet, 1826, and both he and M.'Flaucerques were sucduring its appearance in 1835, which I have seen, are those cessful in obtaining a sight of it during its transit.
which were' made by the. Rev. T. W. Webb, of Tretire, Mr.' Capel Lift,   n the  thJune, 118,   t 11,
near Ross, an account of which, with deductions and re-   apethe 6th June, 1
marks, was read to the Worcestershire Natural History So- A. M., saw  a body passing over the sun's disc'
ciety.- The obse'rvations were made with anr excellent ach. which appears. to have been a comet.  It was
romatic telescope by Tulley,,of 5feet 6 inches focal length, likewise seen on the same day by Mr. Acton at
and 4 7-10 inc6hes aperture. Through the kindness of this h  30', considerablyadvace  bond the oint  n
gentleman I was- favored with a.manuascript copy of these                        beyond the point in
ohservations, and would have availed myselfofmany. f m   which it was seen at 11, A. M., and its progress
his juldicious remarks; had my limits permitted.,  over the disc seems to have exceeded that of Vennu




PHYSICAL  CONSTITUTION  OF COMETS.'               ]27
fn transit.  These observations seem,evidently
to indicate that some conmets at least have nuclei    MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS ON COMETS.
composed of solid and opaque materials. From
-.ll the observations in relation to this point, col-  -1. Whether comets shine with their own native
lected by M. Arago, he deduces: the following light, or derive their light from the sun? —This is a
conclusions: 1. That'there exist some comets question about which there have been different
destitute of the nucleus. 2. That there are other opinions, and at the present moment it may be
comets, the nuclei of which are transparent.  3. considered as still undetermined, though tthe proThat there are also comets, which are:; more bril- bability is, that in general, they derive their light
liaht than the planets, the nuclei of which are from the same source as the planets. It appears
probably solid and opaque.                      to have been the opinion of both Schroeter and,In respect to the tail, or luminous train which Herschel, that the cornet of 1811 shone by iuilegenerally accompanies comets, it is found that it rent light; and the rapid variations which have
is generally in opposition to the sun, or on the: -been observed in the brightness'of the nucleus,
prolongation of the line which would join' the and the coruscations of the tail, are considered
sun and the nucleus. But this is not always the by some as inexplicable on any other hypothesis.
case. Sometimes the, direction of the tail has It is likewise supposed that certain phenomena
been found at right angles with this line; and in which have been observed in the case of faint and
some extraordinary instances, the tails of comets. rarefied comets tend to corroborate the same pohave been-observed to point directly toward the sition. For example, Sir J. Herschel, on Septemsun. This was the case with a comet that ap- her 23, 1832, saw a small group of stars of the
peared in 1824, which: for about eight days ex- 16th and 17th magnitude through  the comet of
hibited an additional luminous train in opposition Biela. Though this group could have been efto that which assumed the ordinary direction. faced by: the most trifling fog, yet they were visiThis anomalous tail, according to Olbers, was 70 ble through a thickness of more than 50,000 miles
long, while the other was only 3120, and it was of;ometary matter; and therefore it is supposed
bright enough to be seen with.anopera-glass. In scarcely credible that so transparent a material,
general, however, it is found;that the-tail inclines affording a free passage to the light of such miconstantly toward the region last quitted by the nute stars, could be capable of arresting and recomet, as if in its progress through. an ethereal:flecting to us the solar rays. On the other hand,
medium, the matter forming it experienced more. it has been objected to this opinion, that comets
resistance than that of the nucleus. The tail is have aplJeared as dark spots on the disc of tilhe
generally enlarged in proportion to its distance sun; that theirlight exhibits traces of polarization:
from the head. of the comet, and in certain cases and that they. have been occasionally observed to
it is divided into several branches, as already no-. exhibit phases. M. Arago remarks, that "on the
ticed of the comet of 1807. Some have supposed very day that any comet shall appearwith a disthat the divided tail is nothing more than a per- tinct phase, a.ll doubts on this subject will have
spective representation of the sides of a great hol- ceased."  But it is considered doubtful whether
dlowcone; but there are certain observations which any decided phase has yet been perceived, althoulgh
seem -to prove that, in some cases, they have a some observers were led, from certain phenonlena
separate existence as independent branches. The to infer that something like a phase was presented
most remarkable instance of a divided tail-was in to their view. It is found that all direct light
the comet of 1744. On the 6th and 7th of March, constantly divides itself into two poilts of the
there were six branches in the tail, each of them  same intensity when. it traverses a crystal posabout 4~ in breadth, and from 300 to 40~ long. sessing the power of double refraction; reflected
Their edges were pretty well defined and tolerably light gives, on the contrary, in certain portions
bright; their middle emitted but a feeble light, of the crystal through which it is made to pass,
alnd the intervening spaces were as dark as the two images of unequal intensity, provided the
rest of the firmament. The tails of comets, as angle of reflection -is not 900; in other words, it
already noticed, sometimes cover  an immense is polarized in the act of reflection. On this princispace in the heavens. The comet of 1680 had a ple, M. Arago pointed out a photometrical method
tail which extended to 680, that of 1811 to 23, - of determining whether comets borrow their light
and that of 1769 to 97~0 in length; so that some froln the sun, or are luminous in themselves. On
of these tails must have reached from  the zenith the 23d of October, 1835, having applied his new
to the horizon.  The length of the tail of tile apparatus to the observation of Halley's comet,
comet-of 1680, estimated in. miles, was 112,750,- he immediately saw two. images presenting the
000;V that of 1769, 44,000,000; and that of 1744, complementary colors, one of them red, the other
8,250,000 miles. A body moving at the rate of green. By turning the instrument half round,
20 miles every hour would not pass over the space the red image became green, and vice versa. He
occupied by the tail of the -comet of 1680 in less concluded therefore-that the light of the comet,
than 643 years. It has'been supposed by some at least thewhole of it, is not composed of rays
astronomers that certain changes in the appear- possessing the property of direct light, but conance of the tails of comets arise from the rotation sists of that which is polarizedz or reflected specuof the cometary body; as some comets have been larly: that is, of light derived fiom the sun. These
supposed to rotate about an axis.passing throtigh experiments were repeated with the same result
the center of the tail, such as that of 1825, which by three other. observers in the Observatory of
was concluded from certain- appearances, to per- Paris.
form its rotation in20 hours, 30. minutes.  2. It appears to be a remarkable fact in respect
As to, the nature of the immense tails of comets, to comets, that the real diameter of the nebulosity
their origin, or the' substances of which they are icreases proportionably as the comet 5ECO5ES DmScomposed, we are entirely ignorant, and it would TANT from  the sun. Hevelius appears to have
be, wasting time to enter into any- specula- been the first who made this observation; but it
tion ll-on this subject, as.nothing  could be pre- seems to have been overlooked, and even an
sented to the view of the reader but vague con- opposite position maintained. As the tails of
jectures, gratuitous hypotheses,:and unfounded. comets increase, in length as they approach their
Wheories.                           -.:. -.  perihelia, so it; was generally considered that tlh




.128:    SID3EREAL HEAVENS.
nebulosities followed the same law; but-tho ob- he could easily. disarrange the structure of our
servations.which have lately beenmade on Biola's globe, and reduce:its inhabitants either to misery
comet have confirmed -the oblservations of Heve- or to complete destruction; and that, too, without
lils.  On the  28th of October;,'i828, this comet altering a single physical law which new operates
was found to be nearlythree times-farther from  throughout the universe.
the sun than on the 24th of December, or in the   If we recognize the- Scriptures as. revelation
proportion of 1.4617, to 0.5419, yet in' Otober'from  God, we may rest assured-that  no danger
-its diameter wasabout twentyzsix? times greater from such a cause can happen to our world tbr
than in December, or ini the proportion of:79.4 to ages yet to come; for there are many} itaportant
3.1; that is, its solid, contents on'the 28th:of Oc- predictions contained in Revelation w;i:ih have
tober were 16,800 times- greater,than on the 24th  not yet received their accomplishment, anld must
of December, and the:smallest size of the comet be fulfilled before any fatal catastrophe can happen
corresponded to -its least. distance fromn the sun. to our globe. It is predicted that the Jet's shall
M. Valz, of Nim'es, andy Sir John Herschel -have be brought into the Christian church "w.i h the
attempted to account for this/ circumstance: on  fullness of the Gentiles,"'!-that i" the idols of the
very' different principles; but- neither hypothesis nations; shall be abolished,"-that " wail  shall
-appears to be satisfactory.'  cease to the ends of the earth," —that the king3. Whethersa comet may ever come in cotact with dom  of Messiah shall extend over all nations,the carth, and produce- a concussion? —As'comets  that."the knowledge of Jehovah shall cover the
move ill orbits:which foim extremely elongated  earth, and that all shall know him from the least
ellipses; as they move in all imaginable directions; to the greatest,"-that " the earth shall yield its
as they traverse almost every part of the solar increase," and its desolate wastes be cultivated
system'in returning from  the farthest verge of and inhabited,-that moral order shall prevail,
their excu'rsions; as they penetrate within  the and "righteousness and praise spring forth bdfore
interior of the' planetary orbits —evenl within the all the nations," -and that this happy era of the
orbit[of Mercury, and cro'ss the orbits of the earth, world shall continue during a lapse of ages.
atld thle other planets, it is not- impossible that -a These events have not yet been accomplished,
comet may come, in contact with our globe. An  though at the present moment they appear either
apprehension; of sucih an event produced a con- in a state of commencement or of progression;
siderable degree of alarm  onl the continent at — but they cannot be supposed to be fully realized
different periods, particularly inl 1773 and 1832, until after a lapse of centuries.  The believer in
as formerly stated.' But when we'consider the Divine revelation, therefore, has the fullest assuimmense cubical space occupied by the -planetary  rance that, whatever directions comets may take
system in which the comets move, and compare  in their motions toward the center of out system,
it;with'the small capacities of these bodies; and  none of them shall be permitted to impinge upon
when we take into view  certain mathematical our globe, or to effect its destruction, for at least
calculations in reference to the subject, the, pro- a thousand years to come, or until the above and
bability of a shock from  a comet is extremely  other predictions be completely accomplished.
small.  "Let us suppose,' says Arago, "a comet   4. Another question occurs oil this subject —
of which-we onlyiknow, that at its perihelion it is namely, whether any comets have ever fallen into
Cnearer the sun than;we are, and.tht its diameter the sun?-It was the opmlnon of Sir Isaac Newton
is one-fourth of'that of the'earth, the calculation  that one purpose for which comets are destined is,
of probabilities sbows that of 281,000,000 of, to recruit the sun with fresh fuel, and repair the
chances there is only one unfavorable. there exists great consumption of his light by the streams
but one which can produce a -collision between  continually emitted every way from that luminthe two bodies.: As for the nebulosity, in its most ary; and that such comets as come very near the
general dimensions;, the unfavorable chiances will sun in their perihelions meet every time with so
be from ten'to twenty in'the same number of much resistance from his atmosphere as to abate
two hundred' andeighty —one millions.'Admitting  their projectile force; by the constant diminution
then, for a moment, that the comets which may, of which, the centripetal power, or gravitation
strike the earth with their-nuclei would annihilate  toward the sun, would be so increased as to make
the whole- human race, then the danger of death  them  fall into his body. On a similar principle,
to each individual, resulting fiom the appearance  Arago supposes that the comet of 1680, which
of an unknown comet, would, be exactly equal to  approached so near the body of the sun, must
the risk he'would. run if in al urn there was only  have passed nearer -to his surface at that time than
one single white, ball of a total number of 281,- at its preceding apparitions; that the decrease in
000,000 -balls,, and that' his condemnation to death  the dimensions of the. orbit will continue on each
would be the inevitable cohsequeiice of the white succeeding return to its. point of perihelion; and
ball being produced at the first drawing."  that "it will terminate its career by falling upon tha
-When we consider that a'Wise and Almighty  sun."  But he acknowledges that, "from  our
Ruler superintends and directs the mnovements of ignorance of the densities of the'various strata of
Ef11 the great bodies in the universe, and the erratic  the sun's atmosphere; of that of the' comet of
motions,of' cometsktamorng the rest;.and that no  1680, and of the time of -its revolution, it will be
event. can' befal' our world without'his sovereign  impossible to calculate after how many ages this
perpmission.and appointment, we may repose our'- -extraordinary event is to 1happen;" and he likeselves in perfect security that no  atastrophe from  wise admits that,'; the annals of astronomy do
the jimpulse of celestial- agents shall ever, take  not'afford-any reason to suppose the previous
place,' butf in: unison'withl his' will, and for the occurrencee of such an' event since the origin of
accomnplishmeniit; of the planis'of. his universal historical record;" so that we have no direct
providence. A't the same time, the possibility of  evidence that such an event has ever taken place,
a shock'from  a large::comet shows us that'this- or that it ever' will. We know too little of the
earth and. all'  its inhabitants are dependent for physical constitution of the sun, and of the nature
their present.existence a'nd comforts on the- will.of comets, to be able to assert that the falling of
of an Almighty Agent, "in- wliom we live, and- a comet into the:sun would actually recruit -the
nlove, and havo       being;  an  tat'were it luminous matter of which his outer surface is
conformable to hi':alliwise and'eternal' designs  composed; for we have reason to believe that there




WHETEhER COMET:S M7AY PROVE DESTRUCTIVE.                                  129
I's little or no analogy between the mode in which    We err egregiously, in this as well as in many
we:supply our fires by means of faguts, and that other respects, when we infer, from  two contemby which the solar light is recruited -ad preserved poraneous events, that the one is either.the signa
iln: its pristine vigor; and beside, it is: found that or the cause of the other. It is on a principle of
bodies, particularly in certain electric states, may this kind- that some persons -are led to attribute
be rendered luminous withoiut the addition of any the events to which we have alluded to the influextraneous body to their substances.             ence of comets. Because an inundation, a war,
-a political convulsion, or a volcanic eruption has
OF THE INFLUENCE OF COMETS ON THE EARTH.   taken place at the time of the approach of, a
comet to this part of our system, therefore they;
In former times the appearance of-comets was conclude that there must be a certain connection
Aupposed to be the forerunner of wars, revolu- between such events, and that the one is the cause,
tions, famine, pestilence, the deaths -of great men, and the other the effect; while the two events, in
earthquakes, inundations, and other calamities. point of fact, may not have the slightest relation
When the splendid comet of 1456 appeared (sup- to each other, except their casual occurrence at
posed to be the same. as HalIey's comet), its tail the same period. We might, on the same groirnds,
extended at one time over m-ore than 60 degrees. infer that the rising of the star Sirius along with
Three days before its perihelion, its nucleus was the sun, which announced to the Egyptians the
as bright as a fixed star, its tail of the color of rise of the Nile, tvas the cause of -the annual overgold, and it appears.to have exhibited corusca- flowing of that riverl.  Before.we can identify any
tions..  Pope Calixtus, believing it to be at once event with the influence of a comet, we must not
the sign and instrument of Divine wrath, was so confine our views to an event or two inll. our
frightened at its appearallce that he ordered public immediate nieighbc.hrbood, but must endeavor to
prayers to be offered up in every town, and the.ascertain whether similar events or phenomena
bells to be tolled at the nioon of each day to warn have happened on  every part of the earth at the
the people to supplicate the mercy of- Heaven. same period.  As comets, either large or. small,
He at, the same time excommunicated:both the either visible to the naked eye or through a telecomet and the Turks, whose arms had lately scope, make their appearance at an average almost
proved victorious against the: Christiains, and es- every year, and as epidemics, political commotablished the c'ustom, which still exists in Catholic tions, earthquakes, hurricanes and similar events
countries, of ringing the: church bells at' noon. are always to be found occurring in some particular
Inl-modern times, certain natural effects have like- portions of the globe, we should never be at a loss
wise been attributed to the influence of comets; for a physical cause to account for everything that
such as tempests, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, happens here below, if comets are to be supposed
cold or hot seasons, overflowings of rivers, fogs, to have such an influence over terrestrial affairs.
dense clouds of flies.or locusts, the plague, the Whatever takes place in any country of an
dysentery, the cholera, and other disorders.     uncommon nature might then be attributed to a
Mr. T. Forster, a respectable writer on natural comet which is either approaching-the center of
science, author of " Researches about Atmospher- our system  or receding from it.
ical Phenomena," &c., published in 1829 a work   It is remarkable that the announcement of a
on the "Atmospherical Causes of Epidemic Dis-: comet has generally been received with melaneases," in which he maintains that the most un- choly anticipations, and the effects attributed to
heialthy periods are those during which some great its influence have uniformly been of a calamitous
comet has been seen; that the:appearance of nature.  But why should it not be the precursor
these bodies has been accompanied'by eorth- of prosperous events-of peace,.plenty, social
quakes, eruptions of volcanoes, and- atmospheric  tranquillity, and genial seasons-as well as of
commotions; and that. no comet has been seen wars, famines, revolutions, cold winters, and
during seasons of healthiness.  For example, in parched summers?  It seems something like a
the year 1665 a comet made its appearance, and reflection on the general benevolence of the Deity
soon after its disappearance, the city of Loldon  to imagine that he has created such a vast number
was ravaged by the plague.  In 1680 one of the of bodies, and directed their course through every
most splendid comets which have been observed part of the planetary regions, chiefly for the purill modern times made its appearance.  The atmo- pose of "shaking from  their horrid hair" wars,
spheric effect produced by its influence, according famine, and pestilence; for if they produce such
to Mr.:Forster, was " a cold winter, followed by a effects upon the earth, we might with equal readry and;hot sumnmer,'" and "meteors in Germany." son believe that they produce similar effects on
As the influence of comets on our globe and its'the other planets of our system as they pass along
atmosphere (if such an influence exist) must have in their course toward. the sun; and this would
a respect to the whole earth, and not merely to lead us to infer that the inhabitants of all the
any particular portion of it,. we might ask in planetary orbs are liable to the same disasters
reference to.:-the first. example, why did.not the and calamities as the inhabitants of the earth; a
co met:..of 1665, produce- a similar effect in Am- position which seems scarcely consistent with the
sterdam, Vienlna, Pariis, and Madrid, and in the boundless benevolence of tile Divine mind.
principal cities of Asia, -Africa, and America?    But although I do not admit the conclusions
BUt of such effects we never had the least intimh- and the cometary influences to which I have
tion. sin:  respect to the second example, we are alluded, -I am far from asserting that comets have
warranted to inquire, whether the cold winter no influence whatever over our globe or its surwas followed.by a hot s      iummer. in every other rounding  atmosphere.  The universe is one great
limate of thile earth.? whether meteors were as whole, and all its parts, however remote, must be
eoinuno n Il. other countries vs in Germany? and supposed to have a certain relation to one another;
whether:the. comet produced opposite effects, at and they may produce an influence, however
one. -time congealing- the pools and rivers, axd at: small and imperceptible, on each other at the
another scorching the earth with heat?  If such greatest distances.  The remotest star perceptible
question) s cannot be satisfactorily answered,; we to the eye may produce a certain physical influare not warranted in- attributifng such effects to  ence on ourglobe, though so small and insensible
tihe infl auence of comets.  as to be beyond the limits of the nicest calcula-...  ~,..,:.:...




1830               i. -    SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
tion;. andi therefore comets which sometimes ap- I native or reflected, appEears to be peculiar, and
proach pretty near the earth may produce a certain  theimargin of their immnese tails may occasionsensible effect upon our globe,. prticlat rly should  ally graze our atmospherewhen we are- not aware
a portion of their immense tails at any time sweep  of it, and may produce a peculiar effect differelit
along the. higher region's of our atmosphere. But from'that produced by the other bddies of our
what special influence or. effects they may pro- system; but what that special effect is has not
duce on the phygical:.economy of our_,terrestrial hitherto been determsned; for the mere coincisystem  it is-imipossible for us, in the nleantime, dences of certain events witli the appealance of
distinctly.to ascertain, fromn: our ignorance of the  comets cannot be supposed to be owing to their
constitution of those mysterious bodies, and. of  peculiar influence, unless suclh events are founlld
the substances  of which Athey: are- composed.  uniformly to happen on the apparition of a comet,
While too much has doubtless been attributed to  and that too throughout a great portion of tlhe
the infl'uence of comets, it would be verging to -an  earth.  Thifs subject is  ortlhy of soine attention;
opposite extreme to maintain that. they can pro-  and perhaps future observers, by more accurate
duce no effect at all on our earth  and  atmo- observations than have hitherto been nmade, mlay
sphere.  We know  that certain  ~blestial bodies'throw some light on an influence which, on thle
produce. a powerful influence on our globe.  The one ehad, has been perhaps too rashly set aside,
e1o:, qinl conjunction with..the solar influence,. and on the other, carried to a pitch'of extravagance
ru!es tihe ocean and perpetuates the regular returns beyond tile line of sober reason and observation.
of ebb' and flow.  Its light not.only cheers ourI  Let it not be supposed that, in admitting that
winter nights, but produces a variety of other comets may have an influence on our globe, I
influences both ot. the human constitution, the mean to give the least countenance to foolish
atmosphere, andt on the productions of the earth; superstitions,  or to the absurdities of astrology,
and: there rasy; be many effects produced by its since all that I would be disposed to admit in the
-agency with which we are as yet unacqualnted.*  present case is purely a physical influence; an
The sun not only diffutses liglht over every region  influence which may exist, although we have not
of* the earth for the purpose of-4ision, but rays or yet been able to discrimllinate its specific effects.
emalnations'invisible:to- our sight proceed from  The most eminent philosophers have been diehis body, which promote evaporation, the growth  posed to admnit such  an  influence.  Sir Isaac
of vegetables, and the various.degrees of tempera-: Newton supposed that "the atmospheres and tails
turewhich. prevail throughout the.globe.   These  of comets nlay supply tihe planets with moisture,
ernanations are likewise foud:to produce certain  which is continually wasting by the growing of
chemnical effects, to dissolve certainl combinations, vegetables out of water and turning into earth;"
6f oxygen, and to give polarity to the magnetic, and that from  the same source may be derived
needle; and' many other effects, of which we are  " the purest part of our air, which is requisite for
ignorant,- may afterward be found to proceed from  the existence of living beings."  These opinions,
those invisible ir'.radiations.:The larger- planets, indeed, cannot be proved, and they are evidently
Jupiter and Saturn, and those which are nearest untenable; but they show that that great phlilosoto us, as Venus and Mars, may likewise. produce  pher admitted the influence of comets. M1M. Arago,
certain effects on our globe, bothil virtnueof their although  he scouts the vulgar idea of comets
attractive: power- and of the peculiar nature of  being the cause of rnost calamitous events, yet
the reflected rays:they transmit to the regions we  hlie admits that, 6' not only cometary matter may
occupy.   fall into our atmosphere, but that this pheormeaWe.cannot therefore but conclude, that comets  non is of a nature to occer frequently, and may
may exert apeculiar influence on our terrestrial possibly produce those epidemic  diseases which
syshtem in addition to that of other celestial bodies, have been attributed to it."
and: differont from  it, particularly  those whose    A variety of qseations has been started respectbulk and masses are considerable, andwhich ap- ilg cometary action and influence, beside those
proach -earest to the earth.  Their light, whether to which we have now  alluded. It has been a;;:_ttot~o eai~h. ~Thiiquestion whether we ought to have recourse to
~"-~              the action of a cone~t to Ccont fo'                   r he rigor f
* It is stated by Mr. Martin, in liis ",Descriptin  e te i on of     the
Western Isles," that "peat dugain the increase of,the moon the clamate of North America?  It is found that in
continues smoist and never buniss clear, while the entrary is the northern regions of America, the climnato ia
observed of that cut in thedeerease; and that earthen dykes the same latitude is much colder than in Europe.
thrown up in the.latter seasonare aalone found to possess To account for this, Dr. Halley supposed tat a
stability."  It is- alsO stated as a fac.,'that "if an animal
lestl killed hbeexposed to.ih'e amopn's rays, it vwiliin a few  comet had formerly struck the earth  obliquely,
lhlers become putrid, while another animal, only a fev feet and changed the position of'its axis-of rotation,
distant, protected from their influence, will not be in the In consequence  of that event, the North  Pole,
least affected; that fruits ex-posed to moonliglit have been whih had been o           near to  udson's
known to ripen much more readily; that plants breacheid in
the dark recover their color firom the beams of a full moon; Bay, was clanged to a more easterly position;
and-that in south America, trees cuit at the full moon split but the countries which it abando.lned had been
almost imnsediately, as if torn asunder by great external so long a time, and so deeply froen, that ves
force. Fishi are said to be rapidly decomposedsin the West tiestill rea    of its anc
Indies When taken by moonlight.I'-Web's,S. Treatiseo   tges still remain of its ancent polar rigor,. and
CometrSr s:(nless such alleged facts can be disprceel, we that a Iong series of years wuld be required for
must admit that the moon may have a certain influence in the solar action to impart to the- northern parts
such cases, though we may be unable to explainr the mode  of the new contilent the climate of their present
by:which itl is effected.  in Carne's "Letters firom the.East," we are told, tlat,"; the eftect of the moonlight on the geographical position But we have no proof
eyes -in eastern countries' is singliarly injurious.  The  that a cometl has ever'struck the earth, or thiat its
natives tell -you a!ways tocover your eyes when you sleep colcussion  would have the effect to chalge the
inl the 6pen ai.:The moon here really strikes or afiects the direction of the terrestrial axis.'Beside, it is ielD
sight when you. sleep e:posed to'it, much more than thek
sun;} a fact of which I had.a ery unpleasant proof one:known that the Asiatic coast is equally  cod in
night, and took care to' guard against it afterward, Indeed, the same latitudes as the Atlantic shores of No:rth
the sight of a, person.who should sleep with sirs face ex,- America..
posed to the moon at night would soon be utterly impaired
It has likewise  been a subject of inqt~iry
or destroyed,"  This circumstance: strikingly illustrates the  has  l kewise  been  a subject of ilquiry
expression of the,Psialmist — "The sunr shal not strike or whether the depression of the soil of a great pait o
suitge thee isr day,'sr0~: sqen ts#-b' ~,//'s _"    Asia has been produced by the shock of a coriet;



INHABITABILITY OF COMETS.                                    131
and whAr'er Siberia ever experienced a sudden of our system. The extremes of heat and cold
change by a similar event?  This latter inquiry  to which comets are supposed to be subjected
has been suggested by the circumstance of the form the principal argument against the opinion
-bones of elephants, rhinoceroses, and other ani- that these bodies are inhabited. But in reply to
mials peculiar to the torrid zone, having been such an objection it may be stated, that we have
foulnd imbedded in -the strata of that country, no proof that heat or cold depend altogether on
which has led to the supposition that Siberia was, the distance of a body from the sun, but most
at some remote period, comprised within the tro- probably on certain circumstances connected with
pies. But there is no proof, nor even probability, the constitution of the body itself. Beside, it is
that the action of a comet was concerned in a fact, that in the heating of bodies there is a
either case.'It has also been supposed that the certain point, beyond which their temperature
small planets, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pall'as, the can never be raised; as, for instance, in the case
supposed fragments of a large planet, may have of water, which cannot be heated beyond the
been broken to pieces by the shock of a comet. point of 212~ of Fahrenheit's thermometer; and
The circumstance that two of these planets, Ce- therefore the surface of a comet may have a cerres and Pallas, are encompassed with ah atmo- tain point beyond which its temperature can never
sphere of great density and elevation has been be elevated, even at its nearest approach to the
brought forward as a presumptive proof of the sun. "When, by any means," says Mr. Milne,
reality of such a concussion, and that the come- "the density of bodies is made to change by a
tary atmosphere, not being liable to destruction process, whether of rarefaction, on the one hand,
by the percussion, was imparted to these planets. or of condensation on the other,- they are always
But when we consider the very small density of found to undergo a corresponding diminution or
comets, it appears not at all probable that even' a increase of temperature.  When, therefore, in
direct concussion from such a body would have the approach of a comet to the sun, all the parts
produced such an effect, although it might have of its nebulous envelope and tail which in the
caused a considerable derangement of the physi- remoter regions of its course had been gathered
cal constitution of the planet. Beside, this hy- close aboutthe head, become expanded and attenupothesis does not account for the remarkable fact ated, a very large proportion of the solar heat,
that Vesta and' Juno exhibit no traces of an at- which would otherwise have passed' into the numosphere which, in consistency with the suppo- cleus, and contributed to raise its temperature to
sition, ought to have been imparted' to them  by a certain point, is carried off by the envelope and
the comet, as well as to Ceres and Pallas. On tail, in order to preserve an equilibrium  among
the whole, we have no direct or satisfactory proofs the several parts."  Mr. Milne proves'that, if we
that comets have ever come in direct contact with assume that the nebulous'matter is elevated:about
our globe, or that they have produced any consid- 30 times its former hight, the diminution of denerable derangements throughout the planetary sity corresponding with the increase of volume
system; and whatever specific influence they may will amount to 27,000, and that a quantity of ca-.
produce on our earth and atmosphere must be loric will be extracted corresponding to 1,215,009Jo
deduced from future observations.              of Fahrenheit.  He further shows that, " when
the comet retires toward its aphelion, wheire the
ON THE INHABITABILITY OF COMETS.         heat of the sun becomes so much weakened on
account of the distance, the condensation of the
Some philosophers have been disposed to doubt nebulous matter forming the tail and envelope
whether the constitution of comets be at all fitted serves not only to furnish the nucleus with confor the abode of rational beings, especially when tinual supplies from the heat acquired at the periwe take into consideration the extremes of heat helion, but even to render the warming influence
and cold to which they would be subjected in their of the solar rays much more efficacious than at a
lonfr and extensive career. Mr. Whiston supposed less remote part of the comet's orbit.''*
that on this account they could not be the abodes   The extremes of heat and cold, therefore, in
of happiness, and therefore was led to believe that comets may not be so great as at first view we
they were the places of punishment for the should be apt to imagine, and their constitution
wicked, who were alternately wheeled into re- may be such as is not incompatible with the idea
gilons of intolerable heat, and afterward exposed' that they are inhabited by animated beings. We
to all the rigors of the most intense cold.'But are'not, however, to suppose that the constitution
when we conisider the boundless beneficence of of beings like man would be adapted'to the cirthe Divine B1e'ing, and that " his tender mercies cumstances and changes to which comets are subare displayed over all his works," we cannot for jected, nor'is such a supposition necessary in ora moment suppose that so vast a number of these der to prove their inhabitabilitSy. For in the, case
bodies would be created for such an end. The of all worlds and beings, we must necessarily adcelebrated Lambert, on the other hand, considers mit that the Creator has adapted the constitution
comets'as constituting some of the most splendid of the inhabitants to the nature of the habitation.
regions of the universe, and that their inhabitants We find a striking variety in this respect in the
aren permitted to contemplate the scene of nature' constitution of the numerous orders of sentient
ona scale-of grandeur far surpassing that which beings that people the globe on which we live;
ism presented to'-the population of the planets.  and a similar variety doubtless exists in the,pecu-'MIay-of the comets which exhibit no signs of liar constitutions of the inhabitants of the differa nucleus appear to be composed of very light, ent planets, and of all the worlds in the universe.transparent, and gaseous substances; and there- For anything  we can prove to the contrary, some
fore it is not very-probable that such bodies are of the comets may be the abodes of greater hapnhabited. Comets in this state are supposed by piness than is to be found in our sublunary world,
some philosophers,  to be only approaching to a and may be peopled with intelligences of a higher
state of consolidation.  But as to those which order than the race of man. In consequence of
have a large and solid nucleus, there appears to be the extensive regions through which they move
no physical impossibility, nor even improbability,
of their being the abodes of sentient and intell6ctual' beings, as well as the other moving bodies      * Milne, Prize.Essay on Comets, Part IV.Y
VOL. II.-28




;132.: SIDEREAL;. HEAVENS.!
and the variety of objects which will successively fugitive in idea, we. should.:see it perhaps: at the
burst upon their view, their'prospects of the scenes end of some thousands of years flit along the fronof the universe. will be. far more diversified and  tiers of our system  and dive into a neighboring
expansive-. than those of the inhabitants of the world..The central body of this world would then
planets.                                          exercise its attraction over the new visitor, and
At lone period they will behold the stupendous give a curvature to his orbit.- From that moment
globe of the sun filling a great portion of their one of two things would happen.  Either its path
celestial hemisphere, and be enabled to- contemr- "would change into'. an ellipse, in which case its
plate the august and splendid operations going on travels would be at an end, and it would proceed
upon its surface and in; its luminous atmosphere, to make regular revolutions round the dominant
a spectacle of grandeur which must be beyond star of that system; or, perhaps, after passing its
conception sublime and overpowering. At another perihelion, it would.agai resume- its hyperbolic
period the~y will be enabled to survey, at"no great progress, and approaching the asymptote, withdistance, the phenomenon and economy of some draw in a straight line, and proceed to visit other
of the planetary worlds' The comet -   1744 worlds. Thus we:can conceive comets which, be-.passed:withiA180 terrestrial diameters, or 1,440,- ing attached to no particular system, are in corn000 miles of the earth's surface, at which time its mon to all, and which,. roaming from one world to
inhabitant~ (if any) would enjoy an interesting  another, make the tour of the universe. I ask
view of our earth and moon, with their diversified  why, in the infinite variety which the Creator has
motions,-:and the general aspect of their surfaces. introduced into.his works, such globes should not
The same comet twice traversed the system  of have a place?  Their destination may embrace the
Jupiter's satellites, when the magnificent globe of wisest purposes, concerning which we may be alJupiter':would appea at least 300 times larger than lowed to speculate."
thei mtoonl appears to/ us, and when its satellites    This celebrated philosopher concludes his re.
would:likewise present a very large and splendid  marks.on comets with the following reflections,
appearance. From  such a.position,-even  with which, although somewhat fanciful, may not be
eyes suchi as ours, assisted by' telescopes, all the unworthy of the attention of the reader:
diversity; of surface'of thishtige globe; as pre:"I love to figure to myself those traveling
sented in its diurnai: rotation, with the: changes of globes, peopled with astronomers, who are stationits be ts, aind the peculiar scenery of: its satellites,- ed there for'the express purpose of contemplating
would' be:dis tinctly perceived.  Above. all, the -nature on a large, as-we contemplate it on a.small
system of Saturn; will present a most magnificent scale.. Their movable observatory cruising from
spectacle to-the inhabitants of a comet when it sun to sun, carries them  in succession through
passes:through the regions in its immediate vicin- every different point of view, places them  in a
ty.' Its- expansive rings, filling a considerable situation to survey all, to determine the position
portion of the- visible firmament, their rapid re- and motion of each star, to measure the orbits of
tation round the planet, the vast globe of Saturn  the planets and comets which revolve round them,
itself, and'the anumerous satellites -which:accom- to observe how particular, are resolved into general
pany it, in all theirldifferent phases. and rapid  mo- laws, in one word, to get acquainted, with the
tions,:will present a: scene at once;-diversified and whole as well as the detail. We may suppose that
sublime.: To the. inhabitants.of comets, many  their year is measured by the length of their route
vast bodies within:therange:ofi our- system -may' from  one sun to another. Winter falls in the
bevisible, whieh- we hav' neve r yet discovered, middle of their journey;  each passage -of a periand whtch may  nekvelr beperceptible from the re- helion is the return of summer; each introduction
gion we occpy." Traversing vast regions of space to a new world is the revival of'spring; and the
fai, b,-e  ndhe orbit  of Uraius,'and perhaps ap - period of quitting it is the beginning of their auproaching. to the'nearest stars, worlds may be tumn.  The place of their abode is accommodated
presented to their view: of' which we: have no con- to all their distances from the fixed stars, and the
ception, nd::the:planets which revolve around idifferent degrees of their heat make the fruits and
other sun's maybbe distitnguishabie in- the -remoter vegetables designed for their use blossom  and
parts' f,: itheircourse.: Enjoying such diversified ripen.;  Happy intelligences, how excellent must
and extensive prospects of the operation's of Om- be the frame of your nature!. Myriads of ages
nipotence, the intellectual beings who "reside on passaway with you like so many, days with the
those bodies will:acqui re more expansive views inhabitants of the earth.  Our largest measurethan lithe inhabitants of Sthe' earth of the vast scene ments are your infinitely small quantities; our
of! nature and:of:the perfectionts of that Allwise millions the elements of,your arithmetic; we
and -Almighty Bei:ngh-;ih ose power brought into breathe but a moment; our lot is error and death,
e~xistenie, and.Whoss:eines'sant energy sustains in yours science and immortality.  All this is agreebeing, all the worlds-in: the universe.         able to the analogy of the works of creation. The
The number -of comets- is supposed by -some frame of the universe furnishes matter of contemr.
astronomers to amount to several millions; and if plation as a whole as well as in each of its parts.
so, they; mpist frequeatlypass near each other in There is not a point-that does not merit our obthei'r long' eccentric courses, and consequently the servation; this magnificent fabric is portioned out
beings conxnectedwvith them. will have their pros- in detached parts to created beings; but it is in
perts of other worlds wonderfully diversified and the unity of the whole that sovereign perfection
continually expanding.  It'is likewise supposed shines; and can we suppose that this whole- has
that comets sometimes extend their excursions to no observers?  The imagination, indeed, after so
other suns.' On this point.M. Lambert  has the sublime a flight, may be astonished at its' own tefollowing remarks: "1 shall suppose that a globe merity; but, in short, here the cause is propor
in our system  begins to describe a parabola.  If tioned to the effect, and there is nothing great o
this curve closes and returns into itself, the globe small in immensity and eternity."
will remain with us, and acquire a periodical motion Iound the - sun.. If, on the contrary,  it ex-   ON TalE MOTIONS AND ORBITS OF COMETS
tends its limits, so as to become a hyperbola, the
globe will recede more and more from the sun, and    When a comet-comes within the limits of our
ave us,-   never to -return.:  Were.we to pursue the view, its apparent motion is from east to west, and




EXCURSIONS OF COMETS.                                     133
it.generally appears to rise and set'. like most, Like that of other comets, it increased in length
-of tlhp other heavenly bodies. This motion, how- and brightness as it came nearer to the sun, and
ever, like-that of the diurnal motion of the.sun grew shorter and fainter- as it went farther from
and planets, is only appjarent, and arises from the that luminary and from the earth, until the comet
rotation of the earth upon its axis. Beside' this was too distant to be visible. This comet was ob.
apparent motion, it- has a real and- proper motion  served in the morning from November 4, to No.
of its own, by which it is continually shifting its vemb. 25, 1680, in its descent toward its perihelion
place in the heavens, in conformity to the nature
of the orbit in which it moves.  4' The proper                     Fig. 82.
course, of a comet may be found by observing
every nighlt its distance from  two fixed stars
whose longitudes and latitudes are known; or by.at      U 
finding its altitude when in the same azimuth with.
two known fixed stars; or by noting four fixed
stars in the point of intersection of the -two lines
connecting which the comet is found. If the places at P;.and its positions on the 17th, 21st, and 25th
of the comet as thus observed every night, be of that month are here exhibited. It appears to
marked on the celestial globe, a line drawn through have passed its perihelion sometime between the
them will represent the comet's path among the 25th of November and the 12th of Decembestars;' a great circle drawn through three
distant places will nearly show the way it                      Fig. 83.
has to go. If it becontinued until it intersect the ecliptic, it will show nearly the place 
of the node and the inclination of the orbit
to the ecliptic.*  There is, however, aprac-.
tical difficulty which perplexes the observer.
in attempting to ascertain the true form of:
a cometary orbit. A comet remains so short'
a time in sight, and describes so small a part
of its course within our view, that, from observation alone, without the assistance of
hypothesis, we should not be able to determine the nature of its path.  The only part
of the course of a comet that can ever be
visible is 1a portion throughout which the.
ellipse, the parabola, and hyperbola, so-closely resemble each other that no observations
can be obtained with sufficient accuracy to
enable us to distinguish them. The hypothesis most conformable to analogy is,
that the comet moves in an ellipse, having
the sun in one of the foci, and that the radius vector from the sun to the comet describes areas proportional to the times, according to the law observed by the planets.
If it be supposed that the comet describes an
ellipse or a parabola, in conformity to the
laws of Kepler, then from three geocentric&
places, known by observation, the orbit
may be determined. 
The orbits of the plane't, although ellip-.
t.cal, approach very nearly to circles; but
those of' comets are extremely eccentric,
and form very elongated ellipses. The orbit of Halley's comet is four times longer
than it is broad, and the orbits of those'
comets whose periodical revolution exceeds
a hundred or a thousand years must be still
more elongated and eccentric. Fig. 62 re-.
presents the orbit of Halley's comet nearly
in its exact proportions. E C represents the
length of the ellipsis in which it performs its
revolution: E D, the orbit of the earth, somewhat largerthan it ought to be in proportion to-the comet's orbit; S, the sun in one of the Its positions on the 12th, and 21st, and 29th of
foci of the ellipse; Sat., the proportional distance of IDecember, and on the 5th and 25th of January,
the planet;Saturn from the sun; and U, the propor- i 1681, after returning from its perihelion, as seen in
tional distance of'IJranus. The orbit of this cormet'1 the evening, are marked in the figure. The orbit of
extends to nearly double the distance of Ufanus.  thiscometmustbeextremelyelongated,asitsreturn
Fig. 8:3 represents so much of the trajectory of' is not expected for more than 400 years to come.
the comet of 1680 as it passed through while vi-   Fig. 84, taken from Arago's "Scientific No.
sible to the inhabitants of our globe, as delineated tices of Comets," exhibits a representation of the.n Newton's "Principia."  It shows' also the tail orbit of Biela's comet, with the' relative position
as it appeared on the days mentioned in the figure. of the orbit to the earth. It-shows both the space
and the position it occupies in the solar system,
P Dr. O.: Gregory's ", Treatise on Astronomy."  and the points where its orbit intersects, all thi




134                                 SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
planetary orbits through which it passes. It ex- lain," so as to move with freedom and security
hibits its course at its return in November, 1832, within the circumference of the universe. IHence
and the path it describes until its subsequent return  he infers, that the most perfect plan of our sysin 1839.  From this figure it is seen that its peri- tern will be that into which enters the greatest
helion lies between the orbits of the earth and  number of orbits, all separated from one another,
Venus, and that its aphelion extends beyond the  and which in no one point intersects the other;
orbit of Jupiter. It would arrivel at that point and that the orbits of comets correspond to this
which is most distsnt from the earth, in the spring  end better than those of the planets, as an irnof 1836, and will probably return to it inJanuary, mensely greater number of elliptic or cometary
1843.  The nearest approach to the earth of this orbits can be introduced into the system  than of
comet was 51 millions of miles; its nearest ap- those which are circular.  On tile ground of the
proach to the sun, 83 millions- its mean distance  number of comets which have hitherto been ob.
from the sun, or half the longest axis of its orbit, served, and on certain mathematical considera337 millions; and it is 507 million's of miles nearer tions, he instituted calculations which led to the
the sun in its perihelion than in its aphelion.  To  conclusion that "at least five hundred millions of
comets" might be contained within the
Fig. 84.                         limits of the solar system.  On this point,
RBPRE9sNTATION OF THE ORBIT OF THE COMET OF 1832, WITH  M. Arago reasons in the following manner: —The number of comets really known,
THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE ORBIT OF THE EARTH.     ner:- e number of comets really   own,
whose perihelion distance is less than the
radius of the orbit of Mercury, amounts to
thirty. This radius, and that of the orbit
of Uranus, are in the ratio -of 1 to 49; and
the volumes of two spheres are to each
other as the cubes of their radii. If, therefore, we adopt the hypothesis of the equal
distribution of comets in all the regions of
our'system, and calculate the number of
those luminaries whose perihelions are included in a sphere whose radius is the distance of Uranus from  the sun, the following proposition would be supplied to us:As the cube of 1:to the cube of 49:  so
is 30: to the number of comets sought; —
or thus, 13:493::30; or, 1:117,649: 30: 3,529,470.  Thus within the orbit of
Uranus, the solar system should contain
more than three millions and a half of
comets; or, we should  rather find the
double of that the true number, when we
consider that in this calculation the term
which represents the number of comets
contained within the sphere of Mercury is
certainly much too small, and that it ought
to be conceded that the light of day, our
clouded skies, and a too southerly declina*r _ _         U         _    tion, removes from our sight not fewer than
every alternate one of these bodies. Taking
these  circumstances into  consideration,
there should, on the same hypothesis, be
seven millions of comets.
The actual number of comets, however,
which have been observed since the commencement of the Christian era, does not
amount to above seven or eight hundred;
butwhen we consider that in thA earlier ages
of astronomy, and likewise in more recent
periods before the invention of the telescope,
only large and conspicuous comets were
be able to calculate and predict the future posi- noticed, and that the greater number, in all probations and appearances of such a body evinces an  bility, had their visible courses in the southern
accuracy of observation, and a degree of perfec- regions of the heavens, and of whose appearance
tion of astronomical calculus, whiich may justly  we have no records, it will easily be conceived
challenge admiration, and which should lead those that their actual number must amount to at least
who are unacquainted with the msinutiac of astro- many thousands. Since particular attention has
noIy to receive with confidence the results which  been directed to the astronomy of comets, and
have been deduced by those who have devoted  since the number of observers have increased,
themselves to celestial investigations.          scarcely a year has passed without the observance
of one or two of these bodies, and sometimes even
SUPPOSED NUMBER OF COMIETS.            two or three have appeared at once.  In the year
1825, no less than four comets made their appearIt is laid down as a principle by M. Lambert, ance within the space of three months.  The first
that as' the world is tlie expression of the perfec- of these was discovered by M. Gambart, at Martions of God, we must believethat -all the heaven- seilles, on May 9, in the head of Cassiopeia; the
ly bodies are inhabited, and "that universal space- second by M. Valtz, at Nismes, on July 13, in
is reiienished with as many globes as it can con- Taurus; the third by M. Ponoe, at Florence, on




COMETS DISPLAY THE OMNIPOTENCE  OF DEITY.                                1:a5
August 9, in Auriga; the fourth, or Encke's cornm-   The motions of comets when' approaching the
et, about the months of July or August. But it sun are in certain cases extremely rapid. The
is evident that multitudes must escape all observa- comet which was observed by Regiomontanus, in
tion, by reason of their paths traversing only that 1472, was said to have passed through 40 degrees
portion of the heavens which is visible in the day- of a great circle in twenty-four hours. Brydone,
tinnme.                                        in his "Tour through Sicily," relates that he
The number of comets whose paths have been observed a comet at Palermo, in June and July, 
particularly observed during theirvisible course is 1770, which moved, thrQugh 50 degrees of a great
about 137. Of these sixty-nine moved in'a direct circle in twenty-four hours. At midnight, oil the
course, or according to the order of the signs, as 30th of June, it passed the zenith of Palermo (latithe Dlaianets do, and sixty-eight in a retrograde di- tude 38~ 10'), and the next day, July 1, at 40 mrirection. As to the distances of their perihelions nutes past eight, P. M., it passed 4 degrees to the
from the sun and the earth. thirty were found to east of the polar star. He remarks that, (' suphave their perihelions between the orbit of Mer- posing it at the distance of the sun, at this rate of
cury and the sun; forty-four, between the orbits traveling, it would go round the earth's orbit in
of Mercury andl Venus; thirty-four, between the less than a week, which makes about eighty milorbits of Venus and the earth; twenty-three, be- lions of miles a day,-a motion that vastly surtween the orbits of the Earth and Mars; six, be- passes all human comprehension. And as this
tween the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Beyond motion continues to be greatly accelerated, what
the orbit of Jupiter no comets have been perceiv- must it be when the comet approaches still nearer
ed; and it is seldom they can be seen beyond the to the body of the sun!"  It is probable, however,
orbit of Mars. As to the inclination of their orbits, that the comet was considerably nearer the earth
nine comets have been observed whose orbits in- than the distance of the sun; but still the velocity
cline to the ecliptic from 00 to 10~; thirteen, from  with which it was impelled must have been amaz100 to 200; ten, from 200 tlo 30~; seventeen, from  ingly great.
300 to 400; fourteen, fiom 400 to 500; twenty-   Such is a brief summary of the most remarkthree from  500 to 600; seventeen, from  600 to able.facts,interesting to the general readers, which
700; nineteen, from 700 to 800; fifteen, from 800 have been ascertained in relation to comets. It. is
to 900. It appears, then, that these 137 comets to be hoped that, in the progress of astronomical
had their orbits inclined in almost every degree to discovery, some additional light will be thrown on
the ecliptic; and it is probable that this is the case the nature and the destination of those mysterious
with all the other comets which belong to the bodies, whose number appears so far to surpass
system.                                        that of the primary and secondary planets of our
Although comets generally emit an  obscure system. It was long ago predicted by Seneca, a
light, yet some have been seen whose splendor Roman philosopher who lived in the first century
was so great as to be visible in daylight, even at of the Christian era, "that the time will come
noon, and while the sun was shining in all its when the nature of comets and their magnitude
brightness.  Such, it is said, were the comets will be demonstrated, and the courses they take, so
which appeared in 1402 and 1532, and that which different from those of the planets; and that posappeared a little before the assassination of Cresar, terity will wonder that the preceding ages should
and which was supposed, after that event happe,- be ignorant in matters so plain and easy to be
ed, to have been an omen or prelude of his death. known."  In order that this prediction may be
It has likewise been stated, that comets have ap- fully realized, it is requisite that we should bepeared of such a magnitude as to have eclipsed come acquainted with all the observations that
the sun. Seneca relates that such a coincidence have hitherto been made, and the facts in relation
happened sixty years before Christ, when a large to these bodies which have been ascertained; that
comet was actually observed very near the sun.* we should compare the various observations with
The same author relates that a comet which ap- each- other, and attend to the minutest circumstanpeared in the time of the Emperor Nero was not ces and phenomena connected with comets; that
inferior in apparent magnitude to the sun him- numerous observers should be appointed to survey
self;t and the comet which Hevelius observed in different portions of the firmament, both in the
the year 1652 did not seem to be less than the northern and southern hemispheres, that no comet
moon, though it was deficient in splendor..   that comes within-the limits of our vision may
Comets traverse all parts of the heavens; and, pass unobserved; and that when a comet of large
as already noticed, their orbits have every possible size approaches near te center of our system,
inclination to the plane of the ecliptic. They are, every  inute particular in reference to its motions
however, governed in their motions by the same and the changes which take place in its nucleus,
physical laws which regulate the motions of the envelope, and tail, be carefully observed and deplanets. Their periodical times are to the peri- lineated by accurate representations.
odical times of the planets, in the sesquiplicate   Whatever opinions we may adopt as to thie phyratio of their principal axes. Comets, therefore, sical constitution of comets, we must admit that
being for the most part beyond the planetary re- they serve some grand and important purpose in
gions, and on that account describing orbits with the economy of the universe; for we cannot supmuch larger major axes than the planets, revolve pose that the Almighty has created such an immore slowly. Thus, if themajor axis of a com- mense number of bodies, and set them in rapid
et's orbit be four times as long as that of the orbit motion according to established laws, without an
of Uranus, the time of the comet's period would end worthy of his perfections, and, on the whole,
De to that of the planet as 8: 1; its periodic time beneficial to the ihabitants of the system throgh
would therefore be nearly 672 years; that is,         they move.
8 X 84 r~the period~.of ~Uranus~l~~ =672. Although    They display the wisdom of their Creator in the
comets move with great rapidity when near their arrangements of their orbits and motions. As we
perihelion, yet in the remote parts of their course   every reason to conclude that at least thoutheir motion must be proportionally slow.      sands of those bodies traverse the solar system  in'_.      all directions, and are certain that their orbits are
* Sir John Herschel's Astronomy.   inclined in every possible degree to one another,
t Dr. O. Gregory's Astronomy.       and to the orbit of the earth, so we find that they




136                 -               SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
have been so admirably arranged by Divine Intel- an eminent degree the power and magnificence of
ligence, that no one of them  interferes with an- the Great Creator.  Were such a body to sweep
other, or with the:courses of the planets, so as to along the regions which, lie in tile immediate
produce concussion or disorder. The: orbits of vicinity of our globe, at the distance of tell or
some comets indeed are found to.approach very twelve thousand miles, nothing that we have ever
near and even to cross the orbit of the earth and beheld or call well conceive could be compared'to
the oirbits'of several other planets, and conse- the majestic grandeur'of the. scene, which would
quently, there is a possibility that a- comet might overpower the mind both with astonishment and
come into concussion with our globe; and this with terror. On the view  of such all object,
consideration shows us that we are dependeit for sweeping along with such velocity, we could
our present security andcomforts on the wise ar- scarcely refrain from  exclaiming, in the language
rangements- of the Almighty, in securing perfect' of inspiration, " Great and marvelous are thv
harmony and order amidst apparent danger and  works, Lord God Almighty!"  What, then, shall
confusion. But we have no evidence that such a we think of thousands of such mysterious orbs
catastrophe has ever happened, either in;the case winding their flight in.every direction, in perfect
of the earth or of:any of the'bther:planets, or that regularity and order, through the immensity of
one comet has ever impinged upon another. Be- space!  Surely these are the wonderful works of
lieving that every object and event- in the universe Him who is mighty in operation and perfect in'is arranged and directed by an Omnipotent Con- knowledge.
triver, we -must.admit that when the Almighty   In all the works of the Deity, we must likewise
formed the wondrous plan of creation, "foresee- admit that his goodness is displayed, although we
ing'the end from the beginning,'" he arranged the may not be able to trace the mode of its commuperiods and'the velocities -of comets in such a nication; for we may lay it down as an axiom,
mannier that, although occasionally crossing the that wherever wisdom and omnipotence are exhibplanetary: orbits,:they should -not pass these orbits ited throughout the Divine economy, there is also
at the time when' the planets were in their imme- a display of beneficence, which appears to be one
diatevicinity.' And should such an event ever prominent designofall theworksofGod.  Comets
occur, we may rest assured'that it is in perfect have long been considered as objects of terror,
accordance with the plan and the will of Omnipo- and as omens of impending calamities; but there
tence, and that it is, on the whole, subservient to can be no question that they are as intimately
the happiness and order of the intelligent universe, connected with a system  of benevolence as are
and the ends intended by the Divine government. the solar radiations and their benign influence on
If there are thousands and perhaps millions of our globe and on the other planets.  It has been
comets of all descriptions traversing every part conjectured that comets may supply moisture to
of the planetary regions, in' orbits-of every degree the planets, and invigorate the vital principle of
of inclination, of extent, and of eccentricity, we our atmosphere; that they may recruit the sun
are sure that none but a' Being of infinite power with fresh fuel and repair the consumption of his
and intelligence'could' have arranged such' a vast light; or that they may be the agents for dispersand complicatedsystem, so as to have prevented  ing the electric fluid throughout the planetary renumerous interferences and disasters, and to make gions; and although there is little probability that
the whole move onward for ages in perfect hliar- such conjectures are accordant with fact, yet it
mony.                                             may be admitted that comets may produce a phy-.
The system'of comets likewise presents to us sical influence of a beneficial nature throughout
a display of the omnipotence and-grandeur of the the solar system. But what Iconceive to be one
Deity. The numberof these celestial visitors, the of the main designs of the Creator in the formavast magnitude of their tails, envelopes, and nu- tion of such a vast number of splendid bodies is,,clei, and the amazing velocity with which they  that they may serve as habitations for myriads of
wheel their courses through the ethereal regions, intellectual beings, to whom the Almighty bestows'exhibit before us objects of astonishing grandeur, his perfections in a peculiar manner, and on whom
and evince the Almighty power of Him who at he displays the riches of his beneficence.  Whatfirst:impelled them inl their rapid, career. The di- ever may be the intention of tliose comets which
amneter of the nucleus of' the comet of 1807 was are destitute of a nucleus, this, in all probability,'
estimated by Schroeter at 4600 miles, and that of is the chief design of those which are large and
its coma 120,000 miles. Beside its principal tail, which are invested with a solid nucleus; and the
it shot — forth coruscatious to the extent of four same arguments which we formerly brought for-,millions, six hundred thousand miles.  The nu- ward to prove that the planets are inhabited might
cleus of the comet of 1811 was, according' to the Ibe adduced in proof of the inhabitability of comsame observer, 50,000 miles in diameter, its come ets.  If this position be admitted, then we ought
or envelope 947,000 miles, and its tail or train of to contemplate the approach of a comet, not as an
light,-sixty millions of miles in length, or more object of terror or a harbinger of evil, but as a
than half the distance between the earth and the splendid world, of a different construction from
sun.  Let us conceive such a body, like the comet ours, conveying millions of happy beings to surof 1680, traversing the immense spaces of creation vey a new region of the Divine empire, to conwith the velocity of ten hundred thousand miles template new' scenes of creating power, and to
anl hour, and drawing after it a luminous train, a celebrate in loftier strains the wonders of Omnipohun'dred. millions of miles in length, approaching  tence.*' Viewing the comets in this light, what
at one' time so near the sun that his circumference an immense population must be contained within
would appear to fill the greater part of the firma- the limits of the solar system, which gives room
ment, and then rushing back through the depths for'the excursions of' such a vast number of these
of immeasurable' space, thousands of millions of bodies! and what an incalculable number of bemiles beyond the orbit of Uranus, and displaying ings of all ranks must people the wide-extended
its majestic trainto the other planetary worlds of universe!
our system-and we have presented to our mental
eye an object c. peculiar grasndeur and magnificene, different  rom everything else which the   c The most complete account of the phenomena, &c. of
placence,                                                 haveront  bbm  everqithing  else whic omets I have seen is a treatise on this subject in mane
planetary system  exhibits, and which displays in script, by the.Rev. Thomas W. Weub, of Tretire, nea, Ross,.




A-P P TE N D I X.
GENERA. APPEARANCE OF THE STARRY HEAVENS AT DIFFERENT PERIODS
OF THE YEAR.
THE  following  descriptions are intended  to  El-nath; from  this star' to Zeta, in the tip of the
point out to  the young observer the principal  southern horn of the Bull, is about 80 in. a southstars' and constellations in the beginning of every  ern direction.  This star forms a right angle with
alternate month  throughout the year, and- the  Aldebaran and Beta.  North/ of Beta, at the disparticular  quarter of the heavens where' they  tance of 170, is the bright star Capella, in the
may be perceived.  The time of observation is constellation of Auriga, a star of thee first magsupposed to be nine o'clock in the evening, except nitude, which aplea,:s at a high elevation a few
on the' ist of July; but the geneyal aspect of the  degrees south-east of the zenith.  In a direction
he'avens, and the relative positions of the different south-east of Aldebaran and the Pleiades is the
-stars  and  constellations, will not be materially  splendid  constellation  of Orion.   Bellatrix,  on
different when viewed an hour before or after the  the west shoulder of Orion, is, about 1 60 southtime specified.                                         east of Aldebaran, which is placed in the, middle
of the line. which connects. the Pleiades with BelASPECT OF THE HEAVENS ON THE' 1ST OF JA-NUARY, latrix; these three objects appealing nearly equiAT NINE O'CLOCK IN THE EVENING.                distalt in a line N. W. and S.E. of each other.
Nearly due east from Bellatrix, at the distance of
At this time the Pleiades, or $even..Stars, are,'7i20 is Betelguese; a star of the first magnitude
nea'rly on the' meridian; at an elevatto:a'of -more  in the east shoulder of. Orion.  About 150 south'than 60 degrees above the southern'h0orizon,. The  by west of. Beliatrix is Ri.qel, a star.of the first
bright star Aldebararn, or the Bull's Eye, which is  magnitude in the left foot, and 8/,sO to the east is
of a ruddy hue, appears to the left, in a direction  Saiplh, a star of the third magnitude in the right
nearly east by  south, at the distance of 140. knee of Orion.  These four stars.in. the form  of
About 150 east-north-east of Aldebaran is a bright a parallelogram, with the three-bright equidistant
star of the second  magnitude, marked Beta, or stars called  the Belt, form  the outlines of this
constellation.  There is a small triangle of threo
This treatise contains-1. A copious introduction, embody- small stars in the head of Orion which. forms a
ing avarietv of interesti ng general remarks in relation to this larger triangle with Bellatrix and Betelguese, the
sdubject. 2. A particular account of the comet of 1807, ac. two in his shoulders.  (See fig. of Orion, p.26,
cording to the observations of Sir William Herschel. 3. A
description of the same comet from the observations of Dr. and Plate I.)
Johan. Hieronym. Schroeter. 4. An account of the great    North-east of Betelguese, at the distance of
comet of 1811, according to the Iobservations of Sir W. EHer- 140, is the star Alhena, or ~ Geminorum, the prinschel. 5. A particular description of the phenomena of the    sar in e feet of the T                       200
same comet, according to the observations of Schroeter. 6.
A description of the second comet of 1811, according to the  N. E., nearly in the same right line from  Betelobservations of Sir W. Herschel. These observations, par- guese, are Castor.and Pollux, Castor being  the
ticilarly those of Schroeter, contain the most minute de- uppermnst ard the brightest, at the distance of
fcriptions which have hitherto been given of the phenomena
of this class of thecelestial bodies, and will be found of essential service, not only to amateur observers, but to as- stars which lie adjacent to them  form  the consteltronomers of every description. They have been extracted  lation Gemini, one of the signs of the.Zodiac.
and arranged chiefly from the "Philosophical Transactions,"  The small stars immediately to the east of Gerini
and the works of Schroeter,: which were published in the
German language. The Appendiz, or Second Part, wh ic are i  the constellation Cancer, another zodiacal
occupies nearly half the volume, comprises a lucid investi- constellation  through  which  the sun  passes'in
-gation of the following topics:-1. Comparison of observa- July and August.  Inl this constellation is a nebutions. 2. Examination  of hypotheses. 3. Nature, light, Ious custer of very small stars, cled  Presepi,
and solidity of comets; 4. Colors of Comets. 5. Brightness of Comets. 6. Dividedtails of Comets. 7. Corunca-  which  may be distinguished   as a faint  cloudy
tions of Comets. 8. Miscellaneous notices concerning re- speck by the naked eye.  (See page 63
markabl'e comets.  9. On the influence of comets. 10.   Immediately below Orion are the constellations
Losses to science, containing an acconnt of the'disasters         or the Hare, and Noa
whichlbefell Schroeter, Hevelius, &c. 1. Hints to amateur observer's. This volume contains 230 quarto pages, be- are very near the horizon.  South by east of Orion
side a great number of copious notes, and forty-six figures of is Canis Major, or the Greater Dog, which is disthe ditret Wappearances of comets. It indicate's a very ltiguished by its principal star Sirius, the brightest
great degree of labor and research, which the astronomer             i                                  ight
alone will be able fully to appreciate. The author appears fixed  star inn the avens.  It is nearly straight
to have consulted most of the works whichl have been pub- south of Alhena, in the feet of the Twins, at 350
ished'on the subject, in the English, Latin, French, and  distanlt, and south by east of Betelguese at the
German languages;  beside embodying a number of original distaace of 270..  A line drawn through the thrw
observations:and remarks. And what is not among  t        hen, and prolonged, meets
least important features of the work, the author takes every stars in the belt o-Orion, and prolonged, meets
proper opportunity of introducing'such moral reflection's as Sirius at the distance of 23~.  About 5"2  west
ie subject naturally'suggests, and of directing the contem., of Sirius is Mirzam, of the second magnitude, in
niverse. ofhe obs readers vatioim who stson te throne  f the the foot of the Dog.  Nearly due east from Orlonl
universe. The observations of Schrdeter contained in the
preceding pages, have been extracted from this volume. It but less elevated above the horizon, is Canis Minor,
is tube hoped that the worthy autllor, who is already known or the  Lesser Dog.  The center of this small
to a considerable portion of the scientific world by his com- constellation is situated  about 50 north of the,
murlications to periodicals and scientific associations, will
soon'receive encouragement to' lay this work before the' eqinocti, and  midwy  between  G ni   and
pblic.                                                 Canis Major.  It is distinguished  by the bright
(137)




138                                 SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
star nanmed Procyon, which signifies " before the  is Pegasus, or the Flying Horse, which is distinDog."  About 40 to the north-west is Gomelza, guished from  the other constellations by four
astar of the third magnitude. Procyon, atthe time  bright stars of the second magnitude. forming a
supposed, appears llearly due eastfrom Betelguese, square, which is generally termed the square of
at the distance of about 26~. Thehead of Hydra  Pegasus.  The northernmost star, which is the
lies immediately to the east of IProcyon; but Alph- brightest of three that form a kind of triangle, is
ard, or. COr Hydrw, the  principal star, of. this Scheat, whose N. declination is 26~o.  Markab
constellation, is not risen at the time supposed. is situated 130 south of Scheat, and at the time
A little to'the. north of the eastern point of the  supposed is nearly due west, and about 22~ above
compass, and at a very small elevation above the. the western point of the horizon. These two stars
horizon, is'Requlus, a star of the /first magnitude, form the western side of the square.  East from
in the constellation Leo, which is the fifth sign, Markab, at the distance of 16/0~, is Algenib, and
and the sixth constellation of the zodiac..       140 north of Algenib is Alpheratz; which two
/Turtning our faces to.ward the north-east, Ursa  stars form the eastern side of the square.  Scheat
Major, or the Great Bear, is the most striking  and Alpheratz form the northern, and Markab and
constelatfion that meets the eye. The two point- Algenib the southern sides of the square.  Alphee8rs, Dubihe; aid Merak, appear uppermost, and  ratz constitutes a part of the head of Andromeda,
point westward to the Pole-star; while the stars but it is also considered as connected with Pega.
forming  the tail seem  to: hang downward from  sus.  About 260 north of Andromeda is Cassiothe square of this coilstellation.  As the night peia, midway between it and the Pole-star.  It
advabces, this group of stars rises higher in the  passes the meridian nearly in the zenith about the
heavens, until, about three ill, the morning, they  22d of November.  At this time it is between
approach near the zenith.  Ursa Minor, or the 200 and 30~ west of the meridian.  (See pp. 16:LesserBear, is seen -below the pole, the square of  and 37.)  The star Caph, in this colstellation,
which being a little to. the eastward of the meri-  along with Alpheratz and Algenib, are situated on
dian.. Directly'below the Great Bear, at a very  the prime meridian which passes through the first
small elevation above the horizon, and in a direc- point of Aries, from which the right ascensions
tion N. E. by N., is Cor Caroli, a'star of the second  of all the heavenly bodies are measured. The
magnitude, in Chara, one of the Greyhounds. line connecting these stars forms an arc of the
North by east of Aldebaran, at the distance of  equinoctial colure, which passes through the vernal
309, is the bright star Capella in Auriga.        equinox, and across which the sun passes on the
Directing our view a little, to the west of the  21st of March.  When we say that the sun, or a
meridian, we perceive the constellation Aries, star, or a planet is in so many degrees of right
which is immediately to the, westward of the  ascension, we mean that it is situated, or has
Pleiades, and nearlyat the same altitude.  Above  moved eastward so many degrees from this great
2000 years ago, in the days of Hipparchus, this circle. North-west of Cassiopeia is Cepheus, at
constellation occupied the first sign in the zodiac, the distance of about 250~, the head of which is in
into which the sun entered about the 21st of  the Milky Way, and may be known by three
March, but, as in'consequence of the precession  stars of the fourth magnitude in the crown, formof'the equinoxes the constellations gain about 50" ing a small acute triangle about 90 from Alderaon the equinox every year, they have now ad- min, a star of the third magnitude in the left
vanced in'the ecliptic nearly 31 degrees beyond  shoulder.
it, or somewhat more than a whole sign; so that   Next to Cepheus, on the west, is Cygnus, or
the constellation Pisces inow occupies the same  the Swan; the principal stars of which are displace in the zodiac that Aries did 2000 years ago, tinguished as forming the figure of a large cross,
while the constellation Aries is now in the sign  the upright piece of which lies along the Milky
Taurus,,Taurus in Gemini, &c., so that Aries, Way.  The most brilliant star in this constellathough the first sign, is the second constellation  tion is Deneb Cygni, of the first magnitude, which.
of the Zodiac.  It is situated next east of 1'sces, is at this time in a direction nearly north-west,
and m-idway between the Triangles and Musca  and 25~ above the horizon.  West from Deneb, at
on the north, and GCtus, or the Whale on the  the distance of 10~ or 110, is Delta; and the line
south.. It is, distinguished by two bright stars in  prolonged about 150 farther leads to the bright
the head, distant from  each other about 40, the  star Vega, the principal star in Lyra, which is
brightest being a little to the east or north-east of  then about 60 above the horizon in a direction
the otherr, being about 25~ west of the Pleiades, north-west by north. North by east of Lyra is
and 19~ south of Almsack, in the foot of Andro- the head of Draco, distinguished by four stars
meda.  North by east from  Aries is Musca, or separated fromn each other by intervals of 30, 40,
the Fly, which. consists of four or five stars, and 50~.  The one to the south, or nearest Lyra,
chiefly of the third and fourth magnitudes, very  is Etanim, or k Draconis, which Dr. Bradley fixed
near to, each other.  It is situated between the' upon in his attempt to determine the annual
first star of Aries and the Pleiades, but a little  parallax.  At this time it is 160 above the horizon,
higher than either. North by east from tile Fly, in a direction N. N. W. About 40 to the north.
at the distance of about 150, and at 20. north by  of it is Rastaben, both of them stars of the second
west of the Pleiades, and at a'higher elevation, is magnitude.  Turning our eyes again toward the
the head..of Medusa, the principal star of which  southern part of the meridian, we behold the
is Algol, which regularly' varies in its luster. head. of Cetus, or the Whale, about 200 S. E. of
(See;p. 41.)  West by north from Medusa is An- Aries, and about 240 S. by W. of the Pleiades.  It
dromeda, one of the principal stars of which is is distinguished by five stars, 40 or 50 asunder,
Almaack, at the distance of 12~ west by north  which form a figure resembling a regular pentagon.
of Algol.  West of Almaack, at the distance of  The brightest of these stars, which is the eastern120, is Miirach, both of them  stars of the second  most, and of the second magnitude, is Menkar,
magnitude.  If the line connecting Almaack and  which makes an equilateral triangle with Arictis
Mirach be prolonged 8~ farther west or south- and the Pleiades, being distant from each about
west, it will reach Delta, a star of the third mag- 23120.'About 140 south-west of Menkar is Mira,
nitude, in the left breast.                       or the Wonderful Star, which is found to vary its
West from Anaromeda, and a little to the south, apparent size from a star of the second or third,




APPENDIX.                                          139
to one of the sixth or seventh magnitude.' (See or gBootes.'T his constellation is distinguished
p. 41.)  North-west of the head of Cetus, and  by six principal stars, which are so placed as to'
west of Aries, is the constellation Pisces, or the- form  a circular figure, somewhat resembling a
Fishes, one of the signs of the Zodiac, in which wreath or crown.
there are no remarkable stars, most of them being
of the third, fourth, and inferior magnitudes.   GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE HEAVENS ON THE 1ST
Such is the general outline of the heavens as                 OF MAY, AT 9, P. M.
they appear about tile beginning of January.
At this period several of the more splendid
ENERtAL APPEARANCE OF THE HEAVENS ON THE 1ST  constellatioss which adorn our nocturnal sky
F MARNCHE AT NINE SO'CLOCK  N. MTH.   s  during winter have disappeared.  Orion is nearly
hid beneath the western horizon, and only the
At this period of the year, at 9 P. M., several of bright star Betelguese can be faintly seen, as it is
the constellations which were seen in the begin- about to descend below the western point of the
ning-of January, have disappeared, such as Pega- horizon. Aries has completelydisappeared; Caput
sus, Pisces, and others. -Others, which are still Medusae, Taurus, the Pleiades, and Aldebaran, are
visible, -appear in other quartets of the heavens; just verging on the borders of the north-western
and some stars and constellations; which were then  horizon, and are scarcely visible; and the brilliant
below  the horizon have risen to a considerable star Sirius has completely disappeared from  the
elevation above it. Orion is now in -the south- nocturnal sky. The head of Hydra, with Alwest quarter of the heavens; the Pleiades, instead phard, its plrincipal star, are in a south-westerly
of being on the meridian, are'due west, at an direction; Canis Minor and Procyon are in a
elevation of 340 above the western point of the direction W. S. W., considerably to the west of
horizon; the bright star Sirius is to the west of Alphard, but nearly at the same altitude.  North
the' meridian, in a- direction S. S..;' Canis of Procyon, at a considerable distance, are Castor
Minor and Procyon are a few degrees to the west and Pollux, about midway betweeh -the zenith
of the meridian; Castor and Pollux, directly north  and the western point of the horizon.  At a conof Procyon, have likewise passed the meridian; siderable distance to the north-west of these is
Capella is seen at a high elevation, 300'west of Capella, considerably nearer the north-western
the zenith;' Menkar, in the head of the Whale, horizon than the zenith. Cassiopeia appears very
is within a few degrees  of the western horizon; low in altitude, near the northern quarter of the
Aries is likewise near the western horizon; and heavens, and the Great Bear appears near its most'Cassiopeia is in a north-westerly direction, and at elevated position, not far from the zenith, the two
alower altitude than in January; Deneb, in the Pointers pointing nearlydirectlydownwardtoward
Swan, is very near the horizon, a little. to the thePole-star, whileat the same hour inNovcmb er,m
west -of the north point; Vega, in the Lyre, is they point almost directly upward.  Regulus is
just rising at a short. distance to the east of it; about 22~ west of the meridian, at a considerable
the' head of Draco is in a N. N. E. direction, elevation; Denebola, in the same constellation (t.he
about 180 above the horizon; the Great Bear is at Lion), is just on the meridian, at a little higher
a higher elevation than in January, and the Point- altitude than Regulus. Arcturus is seen in a
ers in a direction N. N. E.; and Cor Caroli direction E. S. E., at a very considerable elevaappears in a direction east by north, about midway tion, and 260 north-west of it is Cor Caroli, not
between.the zenith and the horizon.              very far from  the zenith.   The stars in the.The following constellations, among  others, Northern Crown appear due east, midway between
now  appear, which were under the horizon in the zenith and the horizon. The brilliant star de
January:-lHydra, the largest star in which-is Lyre         s appears near the north-east, about 2320
Alphard, or Cor Hydrne.  It is at this time in a above the horizon. The Swan is near the N. N.
direction S. S. E., about 28~ above the horizon. E. quarter of the sky, and one of its principal
It may be distinguished from  this circumstance, stars, Deneb, is about 140 above the horizon. The
that there is no other considerable star near it. principal stars inDraco appear elevated 200 above
It is 230 S. S. W. of Regulus.  The constellation a Lyrae, and nearly in the same direction.
Leo, which was only partly visible' in January,   The principal collstellations which were fornow appearis in its splendor toward the eastern merly invisible are-the south-eastern portion of
part of the sky.  Regulus, one of its largest Virgoj   Libra, Taurus, Poniatowski, Serpelntarius,
stars, situated within half a degree of the ecliptic, and Hercules. These constellations appear near
is distinguished as being the largest and lowest the eastern and- south-eastern portions of the sky.
of a group of five or six stars which form a figure The bright star of the first magnitude, Spica Viror curve somewhat resembling a sickle.  East of ginis, which was below the horizon in March, is
Regulus, at the distance of 250, is Denebola, in now elevated 240, and may be seen in a direction
the. Lion's tail, which appears nearly in an eastern S. S. E.  It is 350 south-east of Denebola, and
direction 350 above the horizon. East from Leo about the same distance S. S. W. of Arcturus;
is the constellation Virgo; but all the stars con- three stars of the first magnitude, which form a
Ilected with it have not at, this time risen above large equilateral triangle, pointing to the south.
the horizon.  It is situatted midway between Coma A similar triangle, pointing to the north,is formed
Berenices, on the north, and Corvus on the south. by Arcturus, Denebola, and Cor Caroli.  The
Coma Berenices, which consists of a cluster of principal star in Hercules is Ras Algethi; and Ras
small stars, is in a direction nearly due east, and Alhague, 50 from  it, in the head of Ophiuchus,
about midway between the zenith and the horizon. may be seen nearly -due east, at a small elevation
East by'north:of this'cluster, at a low elevation, above the horizon, Ras Algethi being the brightis Bootes, the principal star of which is Arcturus, est and the highest. Libra is situated to the south
of the: first magnitude.  It is at this time in a of the Serpent, and to the east of Virgo. Its two'direction east by north, 14~ above the horizon. brightest stars are of the second magnitude; the
Farther to the north, and at a lower elevation, is one is named Zubeneschamali, 21o east of Spica
Corona Borealis,  ol-r the Northern Crown, the Virgillis, but at a much lower altitude; tie other
principal star in which is called Alphacca, of the is called Zubenelgemabi, about 9120 above the
third magnitude, and 110 east by;north of Mirac, other toward the north-east.  At this time they




140                                SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
appear in the south-east quarter -of the heavens, I an altitude of 46o,0 and Vega, or a Lyrm, is about
at no great elevation above ('the hoiizon. -The 16~ west of the meridian, in a direction north by
constellation Serpens lies betweel Corona Borealis west from Altair.  Ras Algethi and Ras Alhague
and Libra.  Its principal. star is -of,the.second are west from Altair, nearly midway between that
magnitude, and named Unuk, it may be known. star and the-south-western point of the horizon.
by being nearly in the m~iddle between two smaller To the north-west of Vega is tile head of Draco,
stars, tilhe lower one being 220i, and the upper at the distance of nearly 20o.  Arcturus is in a
5120 from  it. It is in a direction E. S. E.,;at position west by north, within 19o.of the horizon,
about 24~ above the horizon.: -  -               The Northern Crown is in a higher elevation than.,.:.-....    Arcturus, nearly due west, rather nearer the horiASPECT-. OF, THE,HEAVENS tON THE 1'STOF-JULY, AT zon than the zenitl.  Cor Caroli appears nearly
10, P.M.  N. W. by W. at 230 of altitude; and the Great
As the twilight at this season is too strong to Bear, in a north-westerly direction, and at a lower
admit of particular- observations ati 9 P. M., I have altitude than formerly. To the east of the merifixed the hour of ten as the most proper time for dian Capella is seen in a direction nearly N. N. E.,
perceiving the principal stars. - Most of the south- -at an altitude of 150., East of Capella, at a little
ern constellations whichwere visible in January, lower elevation, is Menkalina, or C Aurigm, a star
and which are the-most brilliant, have nowdisap- of the second magnitude.- Cassiopeia appears in
peared, anid those in the north are in positions the north-east, about midway between the zenith
ill the heavens very difFerent from those on which and the north-eastern horizon. The Square of
they appeared in winter. The Northern Crown, the Pegasus is in a direction east by south, and is in
Serpent, and Libra, are' now to- the west of the me- a much higher elevation than in July.  The Dolridian;, Arctuius'is now considerably to the west phin -is a few degrees east -of the meridian, and
ofrthemeridian,butatahigh'elevation; immediately  N.E. of Altair, at an altitude of above 5QO. Along
below which, at a considerable distance, is Spica the southern quarter of the heavens are the folVir'ginis, very nar theS.W.byW. point ofthelhorlowing constellations:-Aries, in a direction east
izon.- CorCaroli appears north by west of Arcturus, by north; Pisces, due east, and next to Alies on
at a considerable distance, and at a high altitude;im- the west; Aquarius, to thewest of Pisces, in a dimediately below which, at a considerable distance, rection S. S. E.; Capricornus, west from Aquarius,
and nearly due west, is Denebola.  The Great nearly in the south; Sagittarius and Sobieski's
Bear is now considerably west of the meridian, Shield, in a south-westerly direction, and Scorpio,
at a high altitude, the two pointers pointing east- which lies still farther to the west. Most of these
oward to the Pole-star., Castor and'Pollux'have constellations, except Aries and Pisces, are at a
just descended below the horizon near the north- low altitude.
west; and Capella, which never sets in this latitude, is very near the north point, only a few  APPEARANCE OF THE HEAVENS ON THE 1ST OF NO
degrees above tile horizon.  Cassiopeia is near- the           vEM-ER, AT 9, P..
north-eastern quarter, at no great elevation, and a
Lyrn  is at a very high altitude to the east of the    About this- time the winter constellations begin
meridian; east of which, at a lower altitude, is again to make their appearance in our hemisphere.
Deneb, one". of the principal stars in the Swan. The center of the Square of Pegasus is at- this
The four stars forming the square of Pegasus are season and hour nearly on the meridian; the stars
now seen a little to the north of the E. point, in Scheat and Markab, of which Scheat is the upper.
a position nearly opposite to that'in which they  most, appear oil the west of the meridian, and
appeared in January.. The star Antares, in Scor- Alpheratz and Algenib on the east.  Turning our
pio, of the first magnitude, is past the meridian, eyes to the western part of the -heavens, we see
at anl altitude of only about 110. Ras Algethi -the Southern Fish, a little to the west of the south,
aild Alhague are nearly on the meridian.         and its principal star, Fomalhaut, several degrees
The constellation of Aquila, or' the Eagle, which  to the west of the meridian, at a very low altiwas formerly invisible, now makes its appearance tude.  To the. west is Capricornus, and to the
in the south'east. Altair, its principal star, of  north-west Aquarius. Aquila, with its principal
between the first anidsi second magnitude, is dis- star Altair, is in a direction west by south, at
tinguished by being nearly in the middle between about 230 above the horizon.  Deneb Cygni is at
two stars of the third'magnitude, each of them 20 a very high elevation, about 300 degrees west from
distant from it in a line bearing S. E. and N. W. the zenith, and a Lyre 260 north-west of it, in a
Altair is at this time'about 370 above the south- direction W. N.IW., at a much lower elevation.
eastern horizon.  North-east of Aquila is the North by west of Lyra are the two stars in the
Dolphin, at the distance of 130 or 140. It is a head of Draco, Etanim  and Rastaben, about 40
beautiful little cluster of stars, consisting of about apart. Ras Algethi and Ras Alhague are nearly
18 in number, including -five of the third magni- dlue west, at a very small elevation above the horin
tude, but none larger, which are so arranged as to zon. The center of the Great Bear is nearly due
form the figure of a diamond, pointing N. E. and north, and at its lowest elevation, the stars in the
S. W. It is sometimes known by the name of  tail being to the west, and the two pointers a little
Job's Coffin.' North: and north-west of the Dol- to the east of the northern part of the meridian,
phin'are Sagitta, and ~ Vulpecula et Anser, or the pointing  upward. Turning our view to the eastFox and Goose; south of Aquila is Capricornus, ern quarter of the sky, we behold Aries in a
anid south-east of it,' Aquarius;- but, these last are south-easterly direction, next to Pegasus, and at
more distinctly seen in the month of September. a pretty high elevation.'South by east of the
Tilhe Milky Way runs. along with considerable first star in Aries is Menkar, in the head of the
brightnless ill the neighborhood' of Aquila, Vulpe- Whale, in a direction S. E. by E., about 260 above
cula, Delphinus,. and Cygnus.                   the horizon. North-west of the first star in Aries
is Mirach, and north by east Almaack, at a higher
ArEArtAN czs OF THE SIDEREALIHEAVENs  ON THE elevation, both of them in Andromeda. Near the
E 1ST OF SEPTEMBER,: AT.9S,  r.E. H -. - - northl quarter- is Capella, about midway between'"'...,.the zenith and the horizon. The..Pleiades are
At this time-Altair is nearl-y on the meridian at seen nearly due east, followed by the ruddy statr




APPENDIX.                                        141
Aloeoaran, at a lower elevation. Below Aldeba-    Castor and Pollux and'Procyon.  These three
ran, and to the south-east, the head and shoulders stars pass the meridian nearly at the, same time,
of Orion begin to make their appearance, Bellatrix  on the 24th of February.  Pollux and Procyon
being 40 or 50 above the- horizon, and Betelguese  culminate nearly at the same instant, and Castor
a little lower. Cassiopeia is- near the, zenith, a about 11 minutes before them, at which time Prolittle to the east of the meridian, and Castor and cyvon is 230 south of Pollux.  Orion is then in a
Pollux,:in Gemini, are in a direction - north-east, south-westerly direction; Aldebaran, midway bejust a little above the horizon. At: this time the tween the meridian and the western horizon;
equinoctial colure is only a few degrees to the east Menkar, W. by S., at a small elevation; Sirius,
of the meridian, and the three stars Caph in Cas- S. by W.; and Capella to the west of the zenith
siopeia, and Alpheratz' and Algenib, in, Pegasus, On the east of the meridian, Regulus is *S. E.;
which lie ill the line of its curve, may now be dis- Denebola, E.; Cor Caroli, E. N. E; immediately
tinctly perceived. Caph is at the highest altitude  below which, near the horizon, is Arcturus.
of the three, and its distance from Alpheratz is   Prcsepe, in Cancer, a small cluster of stars just
about double' the distance between Alpheratz and perceptible to the naked eye, like a nebula, apAlgenib. If a line connecting these three stars be preaches the meridian about the 3d of March, at
-produced northward, it will terminate in the pole. an altitude of about 60G. They are N. E. of
Procyon, and S. E. of Pollux.  (See pp. 63, 64.)
Regulus, in Leo, passes the meridian on the 6th
of April. At this time, Alphard, in Hydra, is
The above brief sketches may enable the young  past the meridian S. by E. from Regulus; Procyon,
observer to trace the principal stars and constella- S. W.; Sirius, S. W. near the horizon; Orion,
tions by a few observations at different seasons of very low in the west; Algenib, in Perseus, Algol,
the year. The altitudes here expressed are stated Capeila, &c., toward the N. W. On the east, Dein reference to places about 520 north latitude; nebola appears E. from Regulus; Spica Virginis,'but by marking certain allowances corresponding  S. E., at a low altitude; Cor Caroli, E., at a high
to the latitude of the observer, the relative posi- altitude; Corona Borealis, E. by N.; and Lyra, at
tions of the stars will appear nearly the same as a low altitude, N. E. by N. The Great Bear, at a
here represented, particularly if the difference of high altitude, approaching the zenith, and Cassiolatitude does not much exceed 10 degrees.  It peia, at a low altitude toward the north.
should be carefully remarked that the bearings of    Denebola, in Leo, culminates on the 3d of May,
one star from another, as here given, are strictly  at an altitude of 430. Regulus is 250 west of it,
true only when the star from which the bearings are and Phad, in the square of the Great Bear, is 390
given is on or near the meridian. (See note, p. 70.) N. of it. It forms with these two a large rightAs a further assistance to the astronomical tyro  angled triangle, the right angle being at Denebola
in distinguishing the stars, I have drawn up the It is nearly on the meridian with Phad. Other
following list of stars, chiefly of the first and  stara then visible are - Procyon, W. by S.; Casecond magnitudes, stating the periods of the year pella, N. W.; Arcturus, E.; Spica Virginis, S. S
when they come to the meridian, or due south, E.; Lyra, N. E., &c.
at nine o'clock in the evening.                   Coma Berenices, a beautiful cluster of small stars,
Caph, in Cassiopeia, and Alpheratz and Algenib, but scarcely distinguishable by moonlight, is on
in Pegasus, come to the meridian on the 10th of the meridian on the 13th of May.  (See p. 63.)
November, at nine o'clock in the evening.  Caph    Spica Virginis comes to the meridian on the
is near the zenith, and the other two at a consid- 23d of May. Stars visible on the west-Capella,
erably lower elevation.  At this time Capella ap- Castor and Pollux, and Procyon, near the western
pears toward the north-east; the Pleiades, Aldeba- point.  On the east-Lyra, Arcturus, Ras Algeran, and Orion, in the east; Deneb in Cygnus, in  thi, Ras Alhague, and Altair, near the eastern
the north-west; Lyra, west-north-west; and Al- horizon. Near the meridian, to'the west-Cor
tair, in Aquila, west by south.                 Caroli, Alioth and Mizar, in Ursa Major.
Arietis, or the first star of Aries, comes to the    Arcturus is on the meridian on the 23d of June.
meridian on the 5th of December. The same stars The principal stars in Libra culminate at a lower
-noticed in the preceding instance are still visible, altitude about the beginning of July.
but those on thie east of the meridian have risen    Corona Borealis is on the meridian about the 1st
to a higher altitude, and those on the west have  of July.  Its principal star is eleven degrees cast
descended to a lower elevation than on Nov. 10. of * Bootes.
Castor and Pollux are at this time seen toward the   Antares, in Scorpio, passes the meridian on the
north-east, and Procyon, a very little above the  10th of July, at a very low altitude.
eastern point of the horizon.                     Ras Algethi, in Ophiuchus, and Ras Alhague,
Menkar, in the head of the Whale, arrives at in Hercules, 50 apart, culminate about the 28th
the meridian on the 21st of December, and at the  of July, nearly at the same time as the head of
same time the variable star Algol, in Medusa's Dr'ico.
head, which is 370 due north of Menkar. Altair    Vega, or Ia Lyre, culminates on the 13th of
has now disappeared from the west, and Sirius is August.  To the west of it, at a great distance,
seen at a small elevation in the south-east.    is Arcturus, and to the north-west, Cor Caroli.
The Pleiades pass the meridian on the 1st of Capella is N. by E.. at a low altitude; Altair, S.
January, and Aldebaran on the IO0th. When Al- S. E.; and Deneb Cygni, E., at a high altitude.
debaran' is due south, Capella is north by east of    Altair, in Aquila, is at the meridian about the
it, near the zenith; Cor Caroli, at a low altitude  30th of August, at an altitude of about 46140/
near' the northi-east; Lyra, near the horizon, N.   Arided or Deneb Cygni, is on the meridian on
by W.; Regulus in the east; and the head of  the 16th of September, at an altitude of 82t.o/
H-ydra, east by south.                          At this time Arcturus is W. S. WV., near the hoBellatrix, in Orion, passes the mr1eridian on the rizon; Lyra and Etanim, in Draco, west from the?1st of January.  Nearly at the same time Ca- meridian, but in a high elevation; Cor Caroli, N.,ell:a.nd' Aurige- are on the meridian. These W., at no great elevation; Hercules, S. W., ruid2hree: stars are nearly equidistant in a line running  way between the meridian and the horizon; Alnorth and south.                                tair, a little distance west of the S.; and the iDol



142                                SIDEREAL HEAVEN$.
phin on the meridian; the square of Pegasus in a eye, or by means of a small opera-glass.  Its desouth-eastern direction, Aries in-the east, and Ca- clination being above nine degrees nortlh, and on
pella toward the north-east.                     the increase, it will be distinctly seen for about
All the stars specified above, at the periods of ten days-namely, from the 16th to the 26th of
the year stated, pass the, meridian (or culminate) March, a little to the north of the western point
at nine o'clock in the-evening. Therefore foreif at of the horizon, not far from the point at which
any one of the periods of the year here specified, the sun sets at that period.  On the 5thl of May,
or a few days before or after it, an observer, at it will again reach its greatest western elongationl,
nine o'clock, P. M., observe the principal star or when it will be seen in the morning before sunstars near the meridian, he can scarcely be at a rise. Its declination is then 4tY  degrees north,
loss to recognize them, as; well as soine of the and western elongation- from the sun, 260 18'. At
other principal stars and constellations on -the this period, about four o'clock in the morning, it
east and west of-the meridian, which are also speci- may be seen for more than three weeks —namely,
tied in the above descriptions. A person can' never from about the 20th of April to the 25th of May.
become familiar with the more prominent stars,  Its direction will be nearly- due east.  This would
the relative position of thediffereiltconstellations, formthe most favorable' opportunity of viewing
and the general aspect of the heavens, without ac- this planet, were it not that the strong twilight
tual observations. Evenl thee delineations on the' at this season has a tendency to overpower its
celestial globe-will not convey an accurate and  light.
impressive conception of the scenery of the hea-   In the month of July, if the long twilight de
veis, unless the stuidy of these delineations be not prevent, there will be another favorable opaccompanlied'with frequent- surveys of the hea- portunity of inspecting,this planet. During the
vens themselves.  It is hoped the preceding de- whole of this month, Mercury will be at a conscriptions will afford some assistance to those siderable distance from the sun; but the best time
young observers and others who wish to con- for observation will be from  the middle until the
template -the sublime objects of creation with their end of the month, as the twilight will then be less
own eyes.                                       intense.  It arrives at the point of its greatest
eastern elongation on the lbth, when it is nearly
N. B. In the above and the following descrip- 270 from the sun, and will be seen in the evening
tions of celestial phenomena, altitude signifies the a little to the north of the western point of the
hlight of the star or planet above thehorizon; S.S.'compass, about forty minutes after sunset, or
E., south-south-east; N. by E., north-by-east, &c. nearly nine o'clock, P. M. Its next greatest westDegreesare marked thus~,minutes', seconds": thus, ern elongation will be on' the 1st of September,
540 27' 35", expresses fifty-four degrees, twenty  when it is 180 5' west of the sun.  At this period,
seven minutes of a degree, and thirty-five seconds. it may be seen in the morning before five o'clock,
Every degree contains 60 minutes, every min- in a direction nearly east-by-north, from the 27th
ute 60 seconds, &c. When a heavenly body is of August to the 5th of September.  On the 12th
said to culminate, the meaning is, that it has ar- of November, it is at its next eastern elongation,
rived at the highest point'of its course, or its pas- when it will be seen after sunset near the southsage over the meridian.' Theterm'is derived from  western point of the horizon; but as its southern
the Latin word culmen, the top or summit.  An declination is at this time about 25 degrees, it will
occultation signifies the obscuration of a star or descend below the horizon nearly at the same time
planet by the interposition of the moon, or of with the sun. The next elongation is on the 21st
another planet. Gonjunction is when two or more of December, when it is 21~ 50' west of the sun,
stars or planets are in the same part'of the hea- and will be seen in the morning between seven
vens; and opposition, when they are 1800 asunder, and eight, near the south-east quarter of the hoor in opposite parts of the heavens.             rizon.
The periods most favorable for detecting this
planet in the evenings are, March 20th and July
18th; and in the mornings, May 5th and SeptemPHENOMENA  OF  THE  PLANETS  FOR  ber 1st. During the' interval of a week or ten
THE YEARS 1840 AND 1841.                 days, both before and after the time of its greatest
elongation, and sometimes for three or four weeks
I. POSITIONS, ETC. OF THE;PLANETS FOR  1840.   in succession, when in high north declination,
this planet may generally be seen in a clear sky
I. THE PLANET  MERCURY.                 When in such favorable positions as those now
stated.  In those regions of the globe which lie
This planet can be'distilnctly seen, by the na- south of the equator, the planet will be in the
ked eye only about the time of its greatest elon-  nost favorable position for observation when in
gation; and to those who reside in high northern  south declination.
latitudes it will scarcely be visible even at -such
periods, if it be near the utmost point of its            II. THE PLANET VENUS.
southern declination.'The followiilg  aie the periods of its greatest   This planet, like Mercury, is seen alternately,
elongation for 1840: On the 8th of January' it is in the evening toward the western quarter of the
at its western elongation, when it is 230 19' west heavens, and in tile morning toward the eastern
of -the sun, and will be seen in the morning near quarter.  In'its luster it exceeds all the other stars
the south-eastern part of the horizon;'but as it is and planets, and its brilliancy is such that it can
then 210 45' in southern declination, and this de- scarcely be mistaken by any'observer when its
clination every day on the increase, its position  position in the heavens is pointed out.
at that time will not be favorable for observation.   Venus will be seen only in the morning fiom
Its next greatest elongation is on the 20th'of the beginning of the year until the end of July.
March, when it will be 18t2 degrees east of the During the months of January, February, and
sBan, and be seen il the evening soon' after sunset. March, it will be seen before sun-rise, chiefly in
This will form one of the m6st' favorable oppor-  the soeuth-eastern quarterof the heavens. Throughtunities of: perceiving: this planet by the naked  out April, May, June, and July, it'will be seen in




APPENDIX.                                         14 3
t.he eastern and north-eastern parts of the heavens. i 29' south of the planet. On the 19th of July, at
During the whole of this period, it will: appear, six in the morning, it will be in conjunction with
when viewed with a telescope,- either as a half- 21 Librre, when the star, will be only one minute
moon or with a gibbous phase.  Its superior con- south of the planet, so that they will both appear
junction with tile sun happens on the morning in the same field of the telescope. On the'26th
of the 25th of July, after which it becomes an of August, at nineteen minutes past eight, A.-aM., it
evening star; but it will not be much noticed by will be in conjunction with, v Scorpio,.when the
common observers until about the beginning or star will be only 11' south of Vesta. On Septemmiddle of September, on account of its proximity ber 3d, at eight in the evening, it will be in con
to the sun. From this period it will continue to  junction with 4 Ophiuchi, the star 11' north of
be seen in the evening chiefly in the south-western i the planet. On the 2d of October, at half-past
part of the sky, at a low elevation, until the end one in the morning, it is in conjunction with
of the year.  )n the whole, this planet will not Saturn, being 1~ 2' south of that planet; and on
be very conspicuous during 1840, either to the the 6th of December, at ten minutes past one in
eye of a common observer or for telescopic obser- the, morning, it is in conjunction with Venus,
vation. From the beginning of September to the Vesta being only 11' north of Venus.
end of December, it will exhibit a gibbous phase,   Pallas will be in opposition to the sun on the
like the moon about three or four days before the 5th of July, at thirty minutes past nine in the
full.                                           evening. Right ascension, 18~ 44' 52"; north deVenus will be in conjunction with Saturn on clination, 220 11' 37". It will pass tlie meridian
the 22d of January, at 2h. 8', P. M., when it will be about midnight, at an altitude of about 60o   1 12'
57' north of Saturn. It will be in coljunction    Ceres will be in opposition July 17th, at six in
with Mars on the 16th of June, at sixteen min- the morning. Right ascension, 19~ 54'; south
utes past three in the morning, when Mars will declination, 30~ 8'. It will pass the meridian at
be 46' north of Venus; and it will be in conjunc- an elevation somewhat less than 8~.
tion with Jupiter on the 22d of October, at 8h.   Juno will not be in opposition to the sun during
34', P. M., when it will be 10 6' south of that planet. 1840.
That the best time for observing these bodies is
III. THE PL.ANET DMARDS.             at the period of their opposition will appear from
the following consideration:-that they are between
This planet will not be very conspicuous during two and three times nearer the earth at the time
this year on account of its great distance froin of opposition than when near the period of their
the earth, and its proximity to that part of the conjunction with the sun; for example, Vesta is
heavens in which the sun appears. It is in con- 225 millions of miles distant from the sun, and
junction with the sun on the 4th of May, after consequently only 130 millions distant from  the
which it will be a considerable time before it earth at the time of opposition; but at the conbecomes conspicuous to the unassisted eye. — junction, it is the whole diameter of the earth's
Throughout the months of August and September, orbit=190 millions of miles, farther distant,-that
and the latter part of July, it will be seen early is 320 millions of miles, which is a distance about
in the morning, before sun-rise, near the north- two and a half times greater than when it is in
eastern quarter of the heavens. From September opposition.
until the end of the year, it will appear somewhat
more conspicuous, but not exceeding in apparent          v. THE PLANET  JUPITER.
size a star of the third magnitude. On the 1st of
October it comes to the meridian at six minutes   During the months of January, February,March,
past nine in the morning, at an altitude of 5230 and April, this planet'will be seen chiefly in the
above the southern horizon. On the first of Nov- morning. About the beginning of February, it
ember, it passes the meridian at fourteen minutes will rise in a direction south-east by east, about
past eight in the morning, at an altitude of about half-past one in the morning, and will come to
460; and on the 1st of December, it transits the the meridian at a quarter past six in the morning,
meridian at nineteen minutes past seven in the at an elevation of about 220 above the southern
morning, at an altitude of 39230. At this time horizon. On the 1st of March, it will rise about
(1st of December), it rises nearly due east about eight minutes before midnight, and pass the merione in the morning, and will be pretty distinguish- dian about half-past four in the morning.  On
able on account of its ruddy aspect about an hour the 1st of April, it will rise at forty-three minutes
before suniiseI. past nine in the evening, and pass the meridian
at a quarter past two in the morning. It will be
IV. THE PLANETS VESTA, JUNO, CERES, AND PALLAS. in opposition to the sun, and consequently nearest
the earth, on the 4th of May, wheni it will rise
These planets are not perceptible-by the naked  between seven and eight in the evening. From
eye. The best time for observing them  with  this period until the middle of November, when it
telescopes is when they are at or near the period is nearly in conjunction with the suii, it will be
of opposition to the sun, when they are nearest visible as an evening star, when it will be seel at
the earth. Even then it will be sometimes diffi- different periods, chiefly in the south-eastern,.the
cult to detect them  without the assistance of southern, and south-western parts of the heavens,
transit or equatorial instruments.              at a comparatively low altitude; but it will not
Vesta will be in opposition on the 18th of May, be much noticed by the nalked eve after the end
when'it will -pass the meridian at midnight, at an of September on account of its southern declinaelevation above the horizon of 270 341'.  Its tion, which, for a considerable time, will be gradright ascension is then 15ht. 51'554", and its decli- ually increasing. Toward the end of December,
nation, 100 ~252' south. This planet will be in it will again be seen in the morning near the
conjunction with the star ~ Libre on the first of south-eastern quarter of the horizon.  The best
March, at twenty-seven  Minutes past'five iln the time for telescopic observations on this planet
morning, the star being 55' north of Vesta; it will will be from  the beginning of April until the'likewise be in conjunction with the same star on beginning of September
the 15th of May, at noon, whenthe star will be   Jupiter will be sn conjunction with the star




144                               SIDEREAL HEAVENS.:c2 Libre on the 15th of May, at forty-three min- whel the star v wil be about half a degree north of
utes past three in the morning, when the star will tiie planet.  It will likewise be in conjunctiun
appear one degree south of Jupiter; and on the with the samle star on the 27th of October, at 9h.
27th of August, at a quarter past two in the   6, P. in., when the star will be fifty-four minutes
morning, it will be in conjunction with the same of a degree north of the planet. During this year
star, when it will be 34' below Jupiter. On the  the rings of Saturn will appear to the greatest ad21st of November, at 4h. 34', r.ml., it is in conjunc- vantage, the openings of these rings being then
tion with the sun. On March 5th, at three in the at their utmost extent.  In the beginning of Ocmorning, all the satellites of Jupiter will be on tober, the proportion of the longer axis t(
the east of that planet, when viewed with a tele- the transverse axis of the rings is nearly as 35
scope having an erect eye-piece, and in the order to 16.
of their distances from Jupiter. The same phenomenon will happen ol the 8th of June, at thirty         Vi;. THE  PLANET  URANUS.
minutes past eleven in the evening; on the 1st of
August, at half-past eight in the evening; on the    This planet is for the most part invisible to the
27th of August, at the same hour, but on the west naked eye. The best time for detecting it by
of Jupiter; on the 20th of September, at seven, means of a telescope is when it is at or near tihe
P. M., on the east of Jupiter; and onl the 16th of  period of its opposition to the sun, which hap
October, at six, P. M., on the west of Jupiter.  pens this year on the morning of the 11th of Sep.
This planet can scarcely be mistaken, even by  tember.  At that time it passes the meridian
a common observer, when the quarter of the about midnight, at an elevation of about 3230o
heavens in which it is visible is known, as it is above the horizon.  On the 1st of August, it
next to Venus in apparent magnitude and splen- passes the meridian at forty minutes past two in
dor. It will appear most brilliant about the end  the morning; on the 1st of October, at thirty-two
of April and the beginning of May.              minutes past ten in the evening; on the 1st of
f -                                  November, at twenty-seven minutes past eight;
and on the 1st of December, at twenty-eight. THE  PLANT STURN.  minutes past six, in the evening.  Its right asThis planet was in conjunction with the sun  cension, or distance from the first point of Aries
on the 6th of December, 1839; and' therefore it at its opposition, September 11, is 23h. 18'; and
will not be before the month of February this its south declination 50 20' 26". It rises during
year that it will be in a favorable position for the year at points a little to the southward of the
telescopic observation.  During the months of  eastern point of the compass. It is in conjuncFebruary, March, and April, it will be seen only  tion with the moon on the 9th of January, at 2h.in the morning before sunrise, in the south-eastern  17', P. M., when it is 10~ 27' south of the moon. It
quarter of the heavens, at a comparatively low  is in conjunction with Mars on the 16th of Febaltitude. On the 1st of February, it rises at half- ruary, at 1 lh. 33', P. M., when Uranus is only nine
past four in the morning, and comes to the meri- minutes of a degree to the north of Mars; so that
dian about half-past eight, at an elevation of  the two planets would be seen at the same time
about 16~2Q.  On the first of March, it rises at in the field of the telescope, were not both these
forty minutes past two in the morning; on the  bodies rather too near the sun at that time fol
1st of April, at forty-two minutes past twelve, distinct observation.  It is in conjunction with
midnight; and on the first of May, it rises at the sun on the 6th of March, and with the moon
forty minutes past tell in the evening. It is in  on the 31st, when it is 2~ 1' south of the moon.
opposition to the sun on the 8th of June; after It is in conjunction with Venus on the 6th of
which it will be seen in the evening. During  April, at seven in the mornling, when it is 40'
the greater part of, the month of May, it will north of Venus.  On the 25th of May, at fortylikewise be seen between' ten in the evening and  five minutes past nine in the evening, it is in conmidnight, but at a low altitude.  It will continue  junction with the moon, when it is 20 39' south
to be visible until the month of December, but it of that luminary.  On the 15th of August, at
will be difficult to distinguish it after the month  3h. 15', P. M., it is again in conjunction with the
of October, on account of its low altitude and its moon, when it is 30 9' south of that luminary.
proximity to the sun. It arrives at the point of  On the 11th of September, at 8h. 42', P. M.; and
its conjunction with the sun on the 15th of De- on the 9th of October, at four in the morning, it
cember. The most favorable times and positions is in conjunction with the moon, and in both cases
for taking telescopic views of this planet will be it is then about 30 south of the moon.
during the months of May, June, July, August,
and September, especially when it is on or near   N. B. In the preceding statements, the observer
the meridian. During the latter part of August is supposed to be in 520 north latitude. In places
aid the months of October and November, about a few degrees to the north or south of this latian hour after sunset, it will be seen toward  tude, a certain allowance must be made for the
the south-western quarter of the heavens, at tinies of rising and the altitudes which are here
a comparatively small elevation above the ho- specified. To those who reside in lower latitudes
rizon.                                          than 52~ the altitudes of the different bodies will
This planet is not distinguished for its brilliancy  be higher, and to those in higher latitudes the alto the naked eye; but it exhibits a most striking  titudes will be lower than those which are here
and beautiful appearance through a good tele- specified. For example; when it is stated tllat
scope; more so than any other planet of our sys- Saturn comes to the meridian at an altitude of
tem. It appears of a dull leaden colorwhen viewed  16/20, this' planet will pass the meridian of a
by the naked eye, and is not easily distinguished  place in 420 N. latitude, at an altitude of 26}<,;o
from a fixed star except by the steadiness of its and the meridian of a place in 620 N. latitude, at
light, never presenting a twinkling   appearance an altitude of only 6120. There being 10C of
as the stars do; and from which circumstance it difference inl the latitude of the supposed places,
may be distinguished from neighboring stars. It the altitude of the heavenly body will be 100
will be in conjunction with the star Rho Ophiuchi higher in the one case, and 10~ lower in the
on the 5th of June, at 51 minutes past 8, r. M., other.




-APPENDIX.                                          14b
- XI OSlTl0NS- OF THE PLaSETS FORl 1841.     and brilliant appearance to common observers
than in 1840. It will be an evening star, first in
H:0 I. M  ER:CURY.          - the south-western, next in the western, and afterward in the north-western quarter of the heavens,
This planet is at its superior conjunction with  during the months of January, February, March,
the sun on the 5th of February, and at its great- April, and the beginning of May.  During the'et elongation on the -4th of March, when it is greater part of January, it will appear nearly inll a
18o 8' east of that luminary; it will therefore ap- south-westerly direction,and W. S. W. Th1roughpear as an evening star, in a direction nearly due out February, it- will appear nearly west, and
west, a little above the horizon, after sunset, be-;west-by-north.  Throughout March, April, and
tween six and seven in the evening.  It arrives at the beginning of May, it will be seen in a northits inferior conjunction with the sun on the. 20th' westerly direction, will be visible in a pretty high
March.  Its next greatest western elongation hap- elevation above the western horizon, andwill conpens on the 17th of April,when it is 270~ 21' west tinue for the most part nearly three hours above
of that luminary.  The planet willibe seen about the horizon after sunset.  Its'greatest brilliancy
ten or twelve days beforehand after this time in an is about the 8th of April, when it appears in a
easterly direction, between three and four in -the crescent form.  When viewed by the telescope
morning.  Its next superior conjunction is on the in January, it will present a gibbous phase, like
26th of May; and its next greatest eastern elon- the moon four or five days before or after the
gation, on the 30th June, when it is 250 49' east of full.  In February and March it will be in the
the sun, and consequently will be visible in the form of a half moon; in April and the beginning
evening, in a north-westerly direction, after sun- of May, it will assume the figure of a crescent;
set.- This would form one of the most favorable this crescent will appear more and more slender,
opportunities of seeing this planei, as it is then but more expansive, until within a few days of its
in a high north declination, were it not that the inferior co njunction with the sun, which takes
strong twilight at this season prevents small ob- place on the 15th of May, about one il the mornjects in the heavens from  being easily distin- ing. After this period, this planet will be seen
guished. Its next greatest elongation is on August by the naked eye only in the morning before sun15th, when it is 180 37' west of the sun, when it rise, in ail easterly and north-easterly direction,
will be seen in a north-easterly direction, about until the end of the year; but with an equatorial'four in the morning. It is again.at its greatest telescope it may be distinctly seen every clear day,
eastern elongation on the 25th of October,' when even at noon, during its whole course from  one
it is nearly 240 east of the sun. It will be near conjunction to another, with the exception of
the south-western part of the sky about sunset; only two or three weeks in the course of ninebut its great southern declination, at that period, teen months.  Its greatest brilliancy after passing
will prevent it from  being easily distinguishable. its inferior conjunction, is about the 20th of June;
On the 3d of December, it will reach the point previous to which it will appear as a crescent, and
of its greatest western elongation, when it is 20/.0 will afterward gradually assume a half moon and
west of the sun, when it may be seen for a week a gibbous phase.
before and after this time, about seven in the mor-   Venus, in its course throughout this year, will
nlng, in a direction a little to the north of the pass very near some of the other planets and some
south-east point of the compass, at low altitude.  of the fixed stars.  The following table exhibits
the times and circumstances of those conliuncI I. v E N U S.                 tions in which Venus makes the nearest approach
to some of these bodies.
Venus will this year exhibit a more frequent   In the following table, the firstcolumn states the
Time of conjunction.            Star in conjunction,     Relative position
h.-m.
1. Jan.    12.....  11 11 A.M. o Aquarii......              0~015'N.
2.         225            1 25 A.M. Uranus...... Ura.  0  4 N.
3. Feb.    18......  7 46 A.M.' sPiscium.......   *   0  3N.
4.  March  22......    0 11 A.M. s Arietis......   *    0  8 N.
5. April    7......    6 56 A.M. e Pleiadum......   *    0 51 S.
6. -        23......  6 31 P.M. The Moon..              Ven. 0 59 N
7. July    12.....   7 43 A.M. J1Tauri..... 0 11 S.
8.         -12..... 3 52 P.M. 4'2Tauri...0 20 S.
9.  -       13......    1  4 A.M. JfTauri                 *    0  6 N.'
10. -        2...    3 40 A.M.  n, Tauri.......   *     0 46 S.
11. -        31......  11 15 A..     Tauri......  0 57 N.
12. August 4               9 25 A.Mn.  XlOrionis            *    0 14 S.'
13. -         6...... 1 26 P.M. X50rionis......   *    0 30 S.
14. -        12...... 3 53 A.M. v Geminorum               *    0 35 S.
15. -        19......   7 12 P.M. ~ Geminorum...              0  4 S.
16. Sept.                  2 45 A.M. J'Cancri               *    0 38N.
17. --       12......   7 50 A.M. The Moon.. Ven. 0 21
18.  -       28... 0..      13 A.M. c Leonis......           0  5 -S.
19. Oct.    3......   7 35 A.M. J'Leonis...... *    0 43 S.
20. -        10            9  2 A.M.:   Leonis.....  *     0 15 N
21.     13...... 9 56 -P.M.   Leonis......               0 29 N.
22.  -+'26   9.....  9 42 P.M. J   Virginis....          *    0 14 S.
time of conjunction of the star or planet with the star is north of Venus; and S., that it is south
Venus; tile second column contains the same star A. M. denotes before twelve at noon; and P. M., af-rplanet; and the third, the distance and position ternoon. In those conjunctions marked Nos. 1,
of the star or planet from Venus...denotes that 2, 3, 4,-8, 9, 12, 15, 17, 18) 20, 22, the star and




146                                SIDEREAL HEAVENS.
the planet will be seen in the same field of view  with X Virginis on the 4th of April, at eight
of the telescope; and although the observation  o'clock in the morning when the star'l be 49'
should require to be made in the day-time, the star north of Mars. It will be in conjunction with
may probably be di~stinguished if the telescope at 2 Librae on the 10th of August, at nineteen
have a great magnifying power., The conjunc- minutes past two, P.., the star io 58' north. On
tion of Venus with Uranus on the 25h -of Jainu- the 16th of September, at fifty-three minutes past
ary, at twenty-five minutes past one in the morn- three in the morning, the star g Ophiuchi will beh
ing, will afford an opportunity to amateur observ- in conjunction, at the distance of only 1' to the
ers of observing this latter planet, which is invisi- south; so that the two bodies will seem almost to
ble to the naked eye. Although both these bodies touch each other. On the 27th of September,
will be set to the inhabitants of Britain before the about six o'clock in the evening, this planet will
conjunction takes place, yet they will be both seen be in, conjunction with Jupiter, when Mars will
in the same field of the telescope between six and appear 20 4' to the south of Jupiter.  On the 4th
eight o'clock oln the preceding evening, and they  of October, at thirty-five minutes past ten, P.
will not be far distant on theevening immediately  M., it will be in conjunction with 6 Ophiuchi,
succeeding the conjunction.  At New York,Phi- when the star will appear only 6' south of the
ladelphia, Boston,.,and other parts of the United planet. On December 18th, it will be in conjuncStates, these planets will be seen about an hour tion with i Capricorni, at 8h. 47', P. Ma., when the
or an  hour and a half before the time of con'unc- star will be only eight minutes of a degree  south
tion, Uranus appearing very near Venus, and up- of Mars.
permost, when viewed with a telescope having an, JUNO,                        AND;IV. VESTA JUNO, CERES, AND PALLAS.
erect eye-piece.
These planets will all be in opposition to the
N. B. All the above and the preceding and fol- sun this year.  Vesta will be in opposition on the
lowing statements are calculated for the meridian  22d of October, at.twenty-one minutes past three
of Greenwich, and are expressed, not in astrono- in the morning.  It will. transit the meridian
mical, but in Civil time.                       about midnight, at an altitude of 380 20'. Right
III. MARS.                     ascension, 2h. 2' 27"; north declination, 20' 23".
On the 20th of April, at lh. 25", r. M., it is in
During this year this planet will make a con- conjunction with the star p Piscium, the star 10
spicuous appearance, and be seen in its brightest 34' north of the planet. On the 22d of April, at
luster; but its declination being south throughout 10h. 56', A. M., it is in conjunction with r Piscium,
the year, it will not rise to- so high an altitude, the.star 10 11' south of'Vesta. On the 24th of
nor remain so long above the horizon, as in some August, at lb. 44', A. M., the star v Ceti will be in
former years. During the months of January, conjunction, the star 14' north of. Vesta; both
February, and March, it -will be seen only or these bodies will therefore be seen in the same
chiefly in the morning, in a south-easterly direc- field of a telescope.;
tion. In the beginning of January, it will appear - Juno will be in opposition on the 19th of March,
nearly in a direction east-by south, soon after the at 2h. 45', r. M., and will come to the meridian
time of its rising. On February the first, it comes about midnight, at an altitude of 410 3'. Right
to the meridian about five in the morning, at an ascension, 11h. 59' 55"; north declinatiqn, 30 3'
altitude of about 290 and on March the first, at 15".. Juno will be in conjunction with ) Virginis
thirty-seven minutes past three in the morning, on the 4th of March, at 3h. 24', P. mI., the star 28'
at an altitude of 270. About the middle of March, south of Juno.  On the 25th of April, at noon, it
it will rise about half-past nine in the evening, will be in conjunction with v Virginis, when the
and may be seen about an hour or two afterward  star will be only 7' north of the planet.  This
near the.south-west quarter of the heavens. From  conjunction will afford a favorable opportunity
this period, it will be seen in the evening, until for detecting Juno. On the 24th of May, at 7h.
the end of the year; but as-its distance. from  the 12', A. M., it will again be in conjunction with,
earth will rapidly increase after the months of Virginis, when the -star will:be 36' south of the
August and September, and as it is then in a high planet. On the 22d of June, at Sh. 36', A. MI., it
degree of south declination,'it will not be much  will be in conjunction with,r Virginis, the star
noticed by common observers during October, 45' north of the planet.
November, and December.  On the 18th of April,   Pallas is in opposition to the sun on the 4th of
about two in the morning, it arrives at the point September, at 5h. 34', P. M., wheni it will come to
of its opposition to the sun, when it is nearest the tha~meridian at an altitude of 400 41,X'. Right
earth, when it appears with a full enlightened ascension, 22h. 37'; north declination, 20 41' 20".
hemisphere,' and when it affords the best opportu- Pallas will be in conjunction with the star X
nities for telescopic observation.  It will be most Aquarii on the 20th of September, about one in
conspicuous this year in the evening,'during  the morning, when the star will be 22' south of
March, April, May, June, July, and August, and Pallas.
will be distinguished from surrounding stars by its   Ceres is in opposition  on October 13th, at
ruddy appearance. DOiring the months of July, twenty-two minutes past eleven, A. M., and comes
August, and, September, it will be seen chiefly'to the meridian at that time at an elevation above
near the south-western portion of the sky.  On the southern horizon of 320 452'.'-Right ascentlie 11th of March it is stationary; that is, appears sion, lh. 35' 20"; north declination, 50 14' 30
without any apparent motion; after which, its
motion is retrograde, or contrary to the. order of
the sigls of the Zodiac, and so continues until
the 29th of May, when it is again stationary; after   This planet passed its conjunction with the sunr
which its motion is direct or according to the on the 21st of November, 1840, and will appear
order of the signs.                             as a morning star during the months of January,
The planet Mars will be in conjunction with 6 February, March, and April.  On the 1st of
Virginis on the 1st of January, at thirty-two January, it will rise near the south, at thirty-foul
minutes past four,'. m., when the star will be 17" minutes past five in the morning, and will pass thn
south oi the planet. It will be ini conjunction  meridian at forty minutes past nine, at an altitude




APPENDIX                                          147
of, earlyt170. On the 1st of February, it will rise    -        vj*. vui  N os.
in the samle quarter, at fifty-six minutes past three,
and come to the meridian-about eight. On the 1st   Uranus will be -in opposltton to the sun on the
of March, it will rise at twenty-two minutes past 15th of September, at 10h. 17', A. M., when it will
two ill the morning, and pass tile meridian at twen- pass the meridian about midnight, at an altitude
ty —eight minutes past six. On lthe 1st of April, it of 340 15'.  Right ascension at this period, 23h.
rises at twenty-eight minutes past twelve, mid:  3312'; south declination, 30 45'. It is in conju'nenight; and on the l:st of May,-at thirty-two minutes tionl with Venus on the 25th of January, at twentypast ten in the evening; after which it will continue five minutes past one in the morning, and is disto be seen in the evening untilabout the middle of tant from Venus only four minutes of a degree.
November. It will be in conjunction with the sun Itfi is in conjunction with Vesta on the 9th of April,
on the niorning of the 2.3d of December, after which, at nine in the evening, being 30 54' to the north
- it will be a moring  star. i The declination of Ju- of Vesta.  On the 1st of September, it passes the
piter -on January 1st is 210 312' south, and on the meridian at fifty-one minutes past twelve, midIst of Decemnber, 23~: 131' south.:- On account, night; on the 1st of October, at forty-ninl  mitherefore, of its great southern declination, its alti- nutes past ten in the evening; on the 1st of Notude will be low, and its duration above the horizon vember, at forty-three minutes past eight; on the
comparatively short. Its altitude, when passing the ist of December, at forty-four minutes past six;
meridian about the -beginning of' December, is and on the 1st of January, 1842, at forty-four
only 14~ 46'. Its opposition to the sun happens minutes past four in the afternoon. The most
on the 5th of June, at 10h. 16', P. M. It will eligible periods for detecting this planet by means
appear chiefly in a southerly and south-westerly  of the telescope are the months of August, Sepdirection' ill the evenings of July, August and tember, October, and November.
September. The best time for telescopic observations on this planet, in'the evening,'will be from    Nt. B. The preceding  descriptions of planetary
April until the end of August.                  phenomena are chiefly intended' to inform  comOn the 20th of April, at a quarter-past three in mon observers as to the seasons of the year when
the morning all:the-. satellites'of.' Jupiter will' the different planets may be'seen, and the quarappear on the west:side of the' planet, when ters of the heavens to which theyd are to direct
viewed with a telescope having- ainerect eye-piece, their attention in order to distinguish them. It
and in the' order ofe their distances fron Jupiter. may be proper to observe, that the planets in
The same phenomenon will happen on the 8th general cannot be distinguished by the naked eye
of June, at' thirty minutes past eleven in the for about a'month before ald after their colnjunc
evening.  On the 5th and 18tIh of July (on the tions with the sun, except Venus, which may freeast of Jupiter), at forty-five minutes past nine quently be seen within a week before and after its
in the evening;  on tile 27th of September, at 7h. inferior conjunction; but this planet will soIne30', P. at.; and onl the 17th of November, at times be invisible to the na!ked eye for a month or
ph.j'. M.  two before and after its superior conjunllction  it
the sun.
v I. S A TURN.                    For a particular description of the motions, dl's
tances, magnitudes, and other phenomena in relaThis planet will be seen only in the morning tion to the primary planets and their satellites, the
from the beginning of January until the begin- reader is respectfully referred to the volume entiaing of May. On the 1st of February, it will tied "'CELESTIAL SCENERY; or the Wonders of the
rise at 5h. 8', A. M., in a direction nearly south-east, Planetary System Displayed," where all the most
and will come to the meridian at 9h. 8', A. M., at interesting facts connected with the'solar system,
an altitude of 150 35'; on the 1st of March, it and the scenery it displays, are particularly derises at twenty-eight minutes past three in the tailed.:
morning; on the  1st of April, at thirty-one
minutes past one; and on the 1st of.May, at
thirty-two minutes past eleven in the evening.
From January until May theplanet will be seen                  ECLIPSES IN 1840.
chiefly in a smouth-easterl.y direction in the, morn- There will be four eclipses tils year, two of the
ing, at a small elevation above the horizon. From  sun and two of the moon; but none of them will
July until October it will be seen -in the evening, be visible within the limits of the British isles,
chiefly ilina southerly and south-by-west direction. nor in'the United States of America, except a parIt is in opposition to the sun on the 21st of June, tial eclipse of the moon, August 13th, at 7h. 23',
when it rises about eight in the evening, and passes A. M., Greenwich time. This eclipse will be visithe meridian about midnight. It will be in con- ble at Philadelphia, New York, Boston, and most
junction with, the sun oh the 27th of December. parts of North America, but not in Britain.
Its right ascension on the Ist of January is 17h. On March 4th, there will be an annular eclipse of
43', and its south declination, 220 21'. On the the sun, the middle of which will happen at 7h.
31st of December, its- right ascension is 18h. 26', 23', A.-M. and on August 27th there will be a total
and south declination, 220 40'. On account of eclipse of the sun; middle of the eclipse about 7h.,
its great southern declination and its vicinity to A. M. These two interesting eclipses will be visithe sun, it will not be much- noticed during the ble chiefly in the eastern parts of the globe, in the
latter part of October and the months of Novem- eastern parts of Africa, the East Indies, the Inber and l)ecember.                              dian Ocean, Australia, &c. At the Cape of Good
During this year the ring of Saturn will be in Hope, there will be a partial eclipse of the sun
avery favorable position for-telescopic observa- on August 27th; but both eclipses will be invisition, the elliptical figure of the ring appearing ble both in Britain and America.
nearly at its utmost Wi'th, so tliat it will appear'
very nearly to encompass the planet.;The best                          i  1
periods'for telescopic (,bservations in t!-e evening             P S
will be from the -month of May, until the end of   This year there will be six eclipses, four of the
September.'                   -               sun and two of the moon, at the following tituer
VOL. II.- 29




.14~8                             SIDER:EAL HEAVENS.
Of the sun, January 22d, at 5h. 23', a partial which the following is a more particular detail in
eclipse, visible only in a small portion of the mean time at Greenwich:       -
southern ocean; of the ruaon, February 6th, at 2h.                                  h. m.
6', A. I., visible in, Great Britain;: of the sun, a First contact with-penumbra of the
partial eclipse, February -21st, at lh. 4',.. M.,   earth's shadow, Feb. 5..........1       
visible- chiefly in the North Atlantic Ocean, Ice- First contact with dark- shadow,
land, and East Greenland; of the sun, a partial   Feb. 6.......................   20 2. M
eclipse, July 18, at 2h. 24', P. M-, visible in: Baffin's First total immersion in dark shadow,
Bay, Iceland, Norway, Swdeln, Russia:in Europe,   Feb. 6.................           1 17  A. M
Prussia, Germany, Scotland, &c., but invisible at Middle of the eclipse, Feb. 6....... 2  6/~ A. M
Greenwich; of the moon, a total eclipse, August Last total immersion in dark shadow,
2d, at 10h. 1', A. M.;:of the suez, a, partial eclipse,   Feb. 6................  2 55A. 
August 16th, at 9i, 19', P. M., visible chiefly in the Last contact with  dark  shadow,
South -Pacific Ocean. The: times here specified    Feb. 6...............          3 52  A. M
denote the middle of the eclipse.               Last contact with penumbra, Feb. 6, 4 49  A. I
All the above eclipses are invi.ilble at Green-                  Digits eclipsed,    20})
wich, and in most parts of'Britain, except the total
eclijpse of the moon on February 5th and 6th, of    A large solar eclipse will be visible on Jul) 8,
P LATE IV.
THI SOUTH CIRCUMPOLAR STARS.
MR:
t842; and no eclipse of the sun will be visiblein hind the opposite limb of the moon at twentyBritain until that time.':That eclipse will be total three minutes past- 3, P. M.- Another occultation
in the southern parts of France, and large even of Venus will happen on the 12th of September,
in and near London. AtbGreenwich, it will be- 1841; immersion, thirty minutes past six in the
gin at 4h. 52/', A. i., and end at 6h. 43'. Digits morning; emersion, forty-two minutes past 7, A..
eclipsed 90 42,'. OOf course this eclipse will not In the occultation of March 26, Venus will be
be visible in the  United States,! nor throughout nearly in- the form of a half moon, and the moon
any part of America, as the sun will not at that in the form of a crescent. Venus will be immergtime be risen to those places.                  ed at the dark (or eastern) limb of the moon, and
will emerge from the enlightened crescent. They
OCCULTATIONS OF VENUS BY THE MOON IN 1841.   will be then nearly on the meridian, at an altitude
of about 600, and nearly three hours of right ascenOn the 26th of March, 1841, the planet Venus sion east of the sun.  A short time after sunset.
will suffer an occultation by the moon.  It will Venus will be seen a little west from  the lunar
begin to be immersed behind the moon at forty crescent, but very near it, shining with considerminutes past two o'clock in the afternoon, of able splendor.; Although this occultation Will
Greenwich mean time, and will emerge from be- happen while the sun is above the horizon, yet




APPENDIX        -                                149
boththe moon and Vonus'will be easily perceived 13-16; and PLATE III, wlAch represents the north:with a common telescope of very moderate mag- qircumpolar stars has been explained pp. 16-19.
nifying power. In the occultation which takes   PLATE IV represents some of the larger stars
place -on the morining of' Septemrber 12, Venus~ and principal constellations around the South Pole,
will, as in the former case, be nearly in the shape to the distance of 450 from  that pole. It also:of a half moon, aind the moon-a slender crescent, shows a portion of the Milky Way which trabeing only 2Y2 days from- the period of conjuncc- verses that region of the heavens, and which is
tion or new moon. In this case Venus will be said to appear therewith peculiar brilliancy. One
imrnmerged at the enlightened limb of the moon, of the principal constellations which is frequently
and emerge from the dark limb. -:Both bodies will noticed, and which appears peculiarly striking to
be then in an easterly or north.-easterly direction, sea-faring people and others, is called Crux, or the
and the immersion will take place a little after Cross, frpm the resemblance it bears to that figure
sunrise; about half an hour before which, Venus It consists of five stars, one of the first magniwill be seen a very-little to the east of the moon. tude, two of the second, one of the third, and one
of the fourth magnitude.  Four of these are in
the position of the cross; the northernmost and
EXPLANATIONS OF SOME OF THE EN- southernmost of which are always in a line with
GLRA'VINGS OF THE. STALRS.             the south pole, and therefore serve for a direction
in south latitude to discover that p ale, as the Two
PLATES I and II, which represent portions of Pointers in the Great Bear serve to direct the eye
the heavens as seen about the middle of January  to the North Polar-star. There is no large or proand the 1st of September, have been explained pp. minent star at or near the South Pole. This con-::
Fi  85.
atellation is represented near the line, or meridian, Still farther to the left, opposite February, Is
wh.1h poinits at XII, opposite to the month of Pisces Volans, the Flying Fish, which contains a
May. All its stars, except the lowermost, appear star of the first magnitude, named Canopus. This
within the limits of the Milky Way.'The stars star is marked near the left side of the map, oplmmed;ately below the Cross belong: to the Cen- posite the middle of February. To the right from
taur;, those on the left, opposite April, belong to the Cross are the two fore legs of the Centaur
Robur Carohl, or King Charles's Oak, which-:coil- distinguished by two stars of the first magnitude,
tains a star of the first magnitude. Farther to named Agena and Buingula, Agena being the one
the left, opposite March, is Argo Nayis or the Ship. next to the Cross. They are in the Milky Way,




:O0                               fSIDEREAL HEAVENS.
and appear opposite the month- of June.. Next to ican Goose; above:which, opposite November, is
the Cross and the Centaur, on  the right, are Cir- I the Phwanix; to the right of -which is the Crane,
cinus, or the Compasses; tlhe Southern Triangle,i which contains two stars of the second magniwhich contains three stars of the. second mnagni- tude; below which is Pave, or the Peacock, which
tude in the form  of a triangle; and Ara,vor the contains several stars of the second and third
Altar, which lies adjacenti to the right-hand side magnitudes; below Pavo, opposite to -August, is
of the imap, opposite the space between-July and Telescopium, or the Telescope, which contains no
August.                                          renmarkable stars.. Within eleven degrees of the
Directing our attention to the upper part of the South Pole, represented by the central point of. the
map, on the left, there is the constellation Equu- map, are two of those whitish or nebulous spaces
leus Pictoria', or the Painter'sEasel, which consists t  called the Magell1anic Clouds, which are found by
of a number of small stars.  Nextto this, and a the telescope to consist of small stars and nebulittle above it, is Dorado, or the Sword-Fish, which lous appearances.  The other Magellanic cloud,
contains- two or three stars of the-second and third which is the largest, is at a considerable distance
magnitudes. To the rihtf of Dorado is Hydrus,  from the South — Pole. In specifying the names of
or the Water -Snake; abovee which is Achernar, a some of the above stated constellations, the inconstar of the first magnitudes in Eridanus, which gruity of the animals and figures by which these
appears opposite -the 1st of December. Next to groups of stars are represented will at once be apAchernar on-the right is Toucana, or the Amer- parentIto the reader.
Fig. 86.        -
PLATE V. contains a condensed representation    Fig. 80 (p. 124) represents the comet of 1661,
of some, of the principal constellations in the as seenby Hevelius; the atmosphere, or nebllonorthern and southern hemispheres on Mercator's sity, surrounding the nucleus, when viewed at
Projection, chiefly for the purpose of exhibiting different times, varied in its extent, as likewise
THE COuaSE OE THE MILKY WAY, and the relative the tail in its length and breadth.
positions of the constellations.  Some of thelarger   Fig. 81 (p. 124) represents a class of comets
stars may  be here traced as M Lyrae, Capella, &c., which have their tails somewhat bent, which
but they are more easily distinguished in the other some suppose to be owing to the resistance of
maps.  (See the description given of the Milky the ethereal fluid through which they move.
Way p 57.)                                         Fig. 85 represents a telescopic view of the Pleia



APPENDIX.                                           151;des, —a group of stars in the constellation Taurus. right-to  left are portions of circles of declination
About forty stars are here represented, but with  which run parallel with the equinoctial, as the
powerful telescopes many more may be discover- parallels of latitude on the terrestrial globe do
ed. Rheitaaffirms thathe counted 200 stars with- with respect to the equator; and on these the de —
in this cluster, and yet telescopes, at the period  clination, or distance of the body from  the equiihen he lived, had not arrived at the point of per- noctial, is marked.  The other lines, from  top to
fection they have now attained. The..principal bottom, are portions of circles of right ascension
star in the Pleiades is: Alcione; of the third magni- corresponding with meridians on the terrestrial
tude, which is here represented near the center globe.  On these are marked the right ascensions
of the cluster.  The names of the others visible of the heavenly bodies or their distance, reckoned
to the naked eye are Merope, Maia, Electra, on the equinoctial from  the first point of Aries.
Tayeta, Sterope, and Celine. Merope is the one One of these lines, at the top and  bottom, is
which some suppose to have been lost.  In fabu- marked 540, showing that the stars in that line.ous, history, these stars were the seven daughters are 540 east from the first point of Aries; and the
of Atlas and the nymph Pleione, who were turned  number 23, marked at the right and left hand
into stars with their- sisters the Hyades, on account sides, shows that the star or stars in that line are
of their mutual affection and amiable virtues    230 north of the equinoctial.
"The other five stars, beside Alcione, are of the    Fig. 86 represents the tail of the splendid comet
fifth magnitude, as represented in the plate; and of 1744, which was divided into six branches, as
the rest are telescopic stars of the sixth, seventh, described p. 127. See also the description given
gihtk, and ninth magnitudes. The lines from  of this comet, pp. 122, 123.








THE
PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER,
COMPRBIBNO
ILLUSTRATIONS OF LIGHT AND COLORS-PRACTICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF ALL
KINDS OF TELESCOPES-TIlE USE OF THIE EQUATORIAL-TRANSITCIRCULAR, AND OTHIER ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS;
A PATICULAR ACCOUNT OF THE
EARL OF ROSSE'S LARGE TELESCOPES;
AND OTIIER TOPICS CONNECTED WITH ASTRONOY,








PREFACE.
THE following work was announced several years ago in the preface to the volume
on " The Sidereal Heavens," since which time numerous inquiries have been made
after it by correspondents in England, the West Indies, and America. It was nearly
ready for publication three years ago, but circumstances over which the author had
no control prevented its appearance at that period. This delay, however, has enabled
him to introduce descriptions of certain instruments and inventions which were partly
unknown at the time to which he refers.
The term "4 Practical Astronomer" has been fixed upon as the shortest that could
be selected, although the volume does not comprise a variety of topics and discussions
generally comprehended in this department of astronomy.  The work is intended for
the information of general readers, especially for those who have acquired a relish for
astronomical pursuits, and who wish to become acquainted with the instruments by
which celestial observations are made, and to apply their mechanical skill to the
*onstruction of some of those which they may wish to possess. With this view, the
author has entered into a variety, of minute details, in reference to the construction
and practical application of all kinds of telescopes, &c., which are not to be found in
general treatises on Optics and Astronomy.
As Light is the foundation of astronomical science, and of all the instruments used
for celestial observation, a brief description is given of the general properties of
light-of the laws by which it is refracted and reflected when passing through different
mediums, and of the effects it produces in the system of nature-in order to prepare
the way for a clear understanding of the principles on which optical instruments are
constructed, and the effects they produce.
As this, as Well as every other physical subject, forms a part of the arrangements
of the Creator throughout the material system, the author has occasionally taken an
opportunity of directing the attention of the reader to the Wisdom and Beneficence
of the Great First Cause, and of introducing those moral reflections which naturally
flow from the subject.
The present is the ninth volume which the author has presented to the public, and
he indulges the hope that it will meet with the same favorable reception which his
former publications have uniformly experienced.  It was originally intended to conelude the volume with a few remarks on the utility of astronomical studies, and their
moral and rel;gious tendency, but this has been prevented, for the present, in consequence of the work having swelled to a greater size than was anticipated.  Should he
again appear before the public as an author, the subject of discussion and illustration
will have a more direct bearing than the present on the great objects of religion and
a future world.
BROUGIITY FERRY, NEAR DUNDUI.
(Ii')








CONTENTS.
PART I.
ON LIGIIT.
INTRODUCTION.
Necessity of light to the knowledge and happiness of all Sentient Beings. Its beautiful and
enlivening effects. An emblem of the Deity. Provision made for its universal diffusion..     1
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LIGHT.
Interesting nature of this study. Different IIypotheses which have been formed respecting the
nature''of light. It radiates in straight lines-moves with amazing velocity-flows in all
directions from luminous bodies. Duration of its impressions on the eye. Supposed to have
a certain degree of force or momentum. Experiments in relation to this point. Its intensity
diminished in proportion to the square of the distance. Its reflection from opaque bodies
render's objects visible. Intensity of reflected light. Subject to the law of attraction. Forms
a constituent part of certain bodies. Solar Phosphori, and the phenomena they exhibit.
Produces certain effects on plants and flowers, exemplified in a variety of instances
Supposed to have an influence on the propagation of sound............................... 13
Reflections on the nature of light, and the multifarious effects it produces throughout the
universe. A representation of the Divinity. Wisdom and goodness of God displayed in its
formation........................................................................   19
CHAPTER II.
ON THE REFRACTION OF LIGHT.
Nature of refraction —llustrated by experiments. Angle of refraction. Familiar experiments
illustrative of refraction. Refraction explains the causes of many curious and interesting
phenomena. Its effect on the heavenly bodies-on the twilight. Illustrated by figures....  21
EXTRAORDINARY CASES OF REFRACTION IN RELATION TO TERRESTRIAL OBJECTS.
Extraordinary appearance of the Coast of France from Hastings. Appearance of a ship seen
by Captain Colby, beyond the Coast of Caithness. Scoresby's view of his father's ship when
beyond the horizon. Phenomenon near the Himalaya Mountains. Bell Rock Light-House.
Summary statement of the diversified effects of refraction. Reflections on the beneficent
and diversified effects produced by the law of refraction. It increases the length of the day,
particularly in the Polar regions-is the cause of that splendor which appears in the objects
around us. Quantity of refraction in respect to terrestrial objects, and its utility. Its effects
may be more diversified in other worlds..........................................  24
CHAPTER III.
ON THE REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH SPHERICAL TRANSPARENT SUBSTANCES, OR LENSES.
Refraction the foundation of optical instruments. Various forms of lenses. Parallel, converginq,
and diverging rays-illustrated by -diagrams.  Concave lenses-their effects, and how to find
their focal distances. Images formed by convex lenses-illustrated by experiments. Principles
in relation to images formed by lenses. Their magnifying powers, &c.....26............  2t
-v)




CONTENTS.
REFLECTIONS DEDUCED FROM THE PRECEDING SUBJECT.
Property of the rays of light in forming images of objects. Wonderful results and discoveries
which have flowed from this property in relation to our knowledge of the scenery of the
heavens and the minute parts of nature, and of our views of the attributes of Deity.......   29
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE REFLECTION OF LIGHT.
Nature of reflection.  Plane, convex, and concave speculums. Angle of reflection. Reflection
of objects from plane mirrors, illustrated by figures. Reflection by convex and concave mirrors,
Properties of convex mirrors, and the purposes to which they are applied.  Properties of
concave speculums, and their utility.  Of the images formed by concave speculumsillustrated by a variety of figures and experiments-their power of magnifying and burning.
Amusing deceptions produced by. Resemblance between the properties of convex lenses and
concave mirrors.  Quantity of light reflected by polished surfaces........................   31
UNCOMMfON APPEARANCES OF NATURE PRODUCED BY THE COMBINED INFLUENCE OF REFLECTION AND
REFRACTION.
Fata lMorgana.  The Mirage.  Inverted images of ships seen in the horizon. Appearance of
Dover Castle at Ramsgate. Specter of the Brocken.  Scenes in the Highlands of Scotland.
Large cross seen at Migne in France.  Dr. Wollaston's illustrations of such phenomena.
Utility of science in dissipating superstitious fears....................................  37
REMARKS AND REFLECTIONS IN REFERENCE TO THE PHENOMENA DESCRIBED ABOVE.
Light, the beauty of the universe, and a symbol of the divinity.  In other worlds it may produce
an infinite variety of sublime Scenery...............................................  40
CIIAPTER V.
SECTION  I.
ON THE COLORS OF LIGHT.
Colors, the beauty of nature. Opinions which were formerly entertained respecting their cause.
Sir I. Newton's experiments with the prism. Colors and phenomena produced by the prism.
Imperfection of optic lenses. Various illustrations.  Differently colored rays have not the
same illuminating power. Heating and chemical properties of some of the rays of the solar
spectrum.  Property of communicating the magnetic power.  Fraunhofer, and his discoveries
in reference to the spectrum.  Experiments on white and colored light.................  41
SECTION II.
ON THE COLORS OF NATURAL OBJECTS.
Colors not in the objects themselves, but in the light which falls upon them. Illustrations of
this position. Atmosphere the source of a variety of colors. Various natural phenomena, in
relation to color, explained....................................................... 44
SECTION III.
PHENOMENA OF THE RAINBOV.
Rainbow described: Experiments to illustrate its cause. Descriptions of its various phenomena,
and optical explanations of their causes.  Rainbows exhibiting complete circles.  Their
appearance in different countries.  Summary view of the principal facts respecting the
rainbow. Lunar rainbows. Scriptural allusions to the rainbow.  Whether there was any
rainbow before the Deluge.....................................        46
SECTION IV.
REFLECTIONS ON THE BEAUTY AND UTILITY OF COLORS.
Beauty and variety derived from  colors in the scenery of nature. Colors produced by the
atmosphere in different countries.  What would be the aspect of nature, in heaven and on
earth, were there only one color. How it would affect the common intercourse and erlployments of society.  Wisdom  and beneficence of the Creator displayed in the diversity of
colors. Throughout all the systems of the universe a diversity of colors prevails.  This
subject has a tendency to inspire us with gratitude.................................... 49




CONTENTS.                                       Pij
PART II.
ON TELESCOPES.
CHAPTER I.
HISTORY OF THE INVENTION OF TELESCOPES.
Thle telescope a noble instrument. Effects it produces. Whether known to the ancients. Friar
Bacon's ideas respecting telescopes. First constructed in Holland. The invention claimed by
different persons. Galileo's account of the construction of his telescope. Discoveries which
he made with this instrument. How his discoveries were received by the learned. Specimens
of learned nonsense brought forward by pretended philosophers. Supposed length of Galileo's
telescope. Various claimants to the invention of this instrument............................  52
C,HAPTER II.
ON THE CAMERA OBSCURA.
Appearance of objects in a camera obscura.  The dark chamber. This instrument serves to
explain the nature of a refracting telescope. Particulars to be attended to in exhibiting objects
with the camera. It illustrates the nature of vision. Revolving camera obscura. Portable
camera........................................................ 56
THE DAGUERREOTYPE.
An important discovery for fixing the images produced by the camera. Description of the
Daguerreotype process-preparation of the plate, fixing the impression, &c. Preparation of
photogenic paper. Beneficial effects which this art may produce. Representations of objects
in the heavens, &c.............................................................. 59
CHAPTER III.
ON THE OPTICAL ANGLE, AND THE APPARENT MAGNITUDE OF OWJECTS.
Various illustrations of the apparent magnitude of objects. Fallacies in relation to apparent
magnitudes. Apparent magnitudes in the heavens. Difference between absolute and apparent
magnitudes......................................................................  61
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF REFRACTING TELESCOPES
SECTION 1.
THE GALILEAN TELESCOPE.
C:onstruction and peculiar properties of this instrument.....................        63
SECTION II.
THE COMMON ASTRONOMICAL REFRACTING TELESCOPE.
Description of its nature and construction. How its magnifying power is determined. Table
of the linear aperture, magnifying powers, &c., of astronomical telescopes from 1 to 120 feet
In length. Summary view of the properties of this telesco'pe.................. 64
SECTION III.
THE AERIAL TELESCOPE.
This telescope is used without a tube.  Description of the apparatus connected with it,
illustrated with figures. Huygen's, Hartsocker's, and Cassini's large telescopes..........  66
SECTION IV.
THE COMMON REFRACTING TELESCOPE FOR TERRESTRIAL OBJECTS.
&rrangement of its lenses.  Magnifying power. Manner in which the rays of light are
refiacted through the telescope now described.................................. 67




AV;i                                    CONTENTS.
S ECTION V
TELESCOPE FORMED BY A SINGLE LENS.
Various experiments in relation to this point. Experiments with a lens 26-feet focal distance, ana
11% inches diameter.....................................'    68
SECTION   VI.
THE ACHROMATIC TELESCOPE.
Imperfections of common refracting telescopes.   Dollond's discovery.   Newton's error.
Explanation of the principle of achromatic telescopes.  Combination of lenses.  Difficulties
in the construction of such instruments. Difficulty in procuring large discs of flint glass.
Guinaud's experiments................................................        68
NOTICES OF SOME LARGE ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES ON THE CONTINENT, AND IN GREAT BRITAIN.
The Dorpat telescope-Sir J. South's telescope-Captain Smyth's-Rev. Dr. Pearson's-Mr.
Lawson's-Mr. Cooper's —Mr. Bridges', &c. Achromatics in Cambridgb and Paris Observatories..........2................................................................  72
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES OF A MODERATE SIZE, WITH THEIR PRICES, AS SOLD BY LONDON OPTICIANS.
The 2X'-feet achromatic-the 3X-feet. The powers applied to it, and the views it gives of the
heavenly bodies.  The 5-feet achromatic. Stands for telescopes, illustrated by engravings...  73
PROPORTIONS OF CURVATURE OF THE LENSES WHICH FORM AN ACHROMATIC OBJECT-GLASS.
Various tables and explanations........................................................  76
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES COMPOSED OF FLUID LENSES.
Blair's fluid telescope, with an account of its performance. Barlow's large refracting telescope,
with a fluid concave lens-its construction, and the effect it produces on double stars, &c.
Rodger's achromatic telescope on a new plan. Wilson's telescope, &c..................... 77
C 11APTER  V.
ON REFLECTING TELESCOPES.
SECTION I.
IIwTORY OF THE INVENTION, AND A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THIESE INSTRUMENTS.
Gregory's reflector-Newtonian reflector-Cassegrainlian reflector.  Magnifying powers of
reflectors. Short's reflectors-their powers and  prices.  General remarks on Gregorian
r'ftectors. Apertures and magnifying powers of Newtonian telescopes. Prices of reflecting
telescopes.....................................................................   1
SECTION II.
THE HERSCHELIAN TELESCOPE.
Description of Sir W. Herschel's 40-feet telescope, with its machinery, apparatus, and tie
discoveries made by it. Sir J. Herschel's 20-feet reflector...................................  86
SECTION III.
Ramage's large reflecting telescope................................................  88
SECTION IV.
THE AERIAL REFLECTOR-CONSTRUCTED BY THE AUTHOR.
Construction of this telescope, and the manner of using it-illustrated by figures-its proprieties
and advantages. Tube not necessary in reflecting telescopes. How a large reflector may be
constructed without a tube. How the form of a telescope may be used for viewing perspectives. 88
SEC TION V.
EARL OF ROSSE'S REFLECTING TELESCOPES.
His mode of forming a large speculum, &c. —see also Appendix..........................   92




CONTENTS.                                            i1
SECTION VI.
-REFLECTING TELESCOPES WITH GLASS SPECULA.
Various experiments on this subject, with their results................................ 93
SECTION VII.
A REFLECTING TELESCOPE WITH A SINGLE MIRROR AND NO EYEPIECE.
Exp6riments illustrative of this construction.,..................................  93
ON THE EYEPIECES OF TELESCOPES.  ASTRONOMICAL EYEPIECES.
Huygenian eyepieces-Ramsden's eyepiece.  Aberration of lenses. Celestial eyepieces without
variable powers. Diagonal eyepieces.  Various forms of them described. Various aspdcts in
which objects may be viewed by them..............................................  95
SECTION VIII.
TERRESTRI AL EYEPIECES.
Eyepieces with four lenses. Proportions of the focal lengths of these lenses. Dimensions and
powers of several eyepieces stated.,....................................... 8....  98
DESCRIPTION OF AN EYEPIECE, ETC., OF AN OLD DUTCH ACHROMATIC TELESCOPE.
This telescope supposed to have been invented in Holland before D llond's discovery was known.
Peculiarity ofUits eyepiece..-........,...........................................  99
SECTION IX.
Description of the Pancratic Eyetube.................................. 100
CHAPTER VI.
MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS IN RELATION TO TELESCOPES.. Adjustments requisite to be attended to in the use of telescopes.  II. State of the atmosphere
most proper for observing terrestrial and celestial objects. Average number of hours in the
year fit for celestial observations.  III. On'the magnifying powers requisite for observing (tho
phenomena of the different planets —-comets-double stars, &c)-illustrated at large from pp.
103-107. IV. Mode of exhibiting the solar spots. Eyepieces best adapted for this purpose.
How they may be exhibited to a large company. Mode in which their dimnensions may be
determined. V. On the space-penetrating9 power of telescopes.  Herschel's observations on
space-penetrating powers.  Comparison of Achromatic and Gregorian reflectors.  VI. On
choosing telescopes, and ascertaining their properties-various modes of ascertaining the
goodness of telescopes-general remarks and cautions on this point. A circumstance which
requires to be attended to in using achromatics.  VII. On the mode of determining the
magnifying power of telescopes. Various experiments in relation to this point. VIII. On
cleaning  the lenses of telescopes......................................................  101
ON MEGALASCOPES, OR:TELESCOPES FOR VIEWING VERY NEAR OBJECTS.
Mode of adapting a telescope for this purpose.  Objects to which they may be applied........ 1i2-.RF,FLECTIONS ON LIGHT AND VISION, AND ON THE NATURE AND UTILITY OF TELESCOPES.
Wonderful and mysterious nature of light.  The organ of vision, and its expansive range.
Wonderful nature of the telescope, and the objects it has disclosed to view.  No boundaries'should be set to the discoveries of Science and the improvement of art.  The, telescope is a
machine which virtually transports us to the distant regions of space. It enlarges our views
of the sublime scenes of creation. It has tended to amplify our conceptions of the empire
and the attributes of the Deity. Various uses of this instrument in relation to science and
common life.......................................................                13
CHAPTER: VII.
ON THE METHOD OF GRINDING AND POLISHING OPTICAL LENSES AND SPECULA.
1. Directions for grinding lenses for eyeglasses, microscopes, &c. II. Method of casting and
grinding the specula of reflecting telescopes.:Compositions for speculum metal.  To try the
figure of the metal.  To adjust the eyehole of Gregorian reflectors-to center the speculato center lenses..........................     119




Z-                                      CONTENTS.
PART  II-I.
ON VARIOUS: ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
CHAPTER I.
ON MICROMETERS.
Various descriptions of micrometers.  Cavallo's micrometer described.  To ascertain the value
of its divisions. -Practical uses of this micrometer. Problems which may be solved by it.
Tables for facilitating its use....;....... ~......................................*   129
CHA PTER II.
ON THE EQUATORIAL TELESCOPE, OR PORTABLE OBSERVATORY.
History of Equatorials. Description of- -one of the simplest construction of these instruments.
To adjust the equatorial for observation-to adjust the line of sight. Description of the
Nonius.  To find the meridian line by one observation.  Manner of observing stars and
planets in the day-time..1............................. -.-.........  124
OBSERVATIONS, BY THE AUTHOR, ON THE FIXED STARS AND PLANETS, MADE IN THE DAY-TIME, BY THE
EQUATORIAL.
Object of these observations. Stars of the first and second magnitudes.  General deductions
from these observations............................................................ 127
OBSERVATIONS ON THE PLANETS IN THE DAY-TIME.
Series of observations on Venus, when near the sun —seen at the time of her superior
conjunction in 1 843. Conclusions deduced from these observations. Phenomena observed
during these observations. Remarkable phenomena during an eclipse of the sun.......... 128
OBSERVATIONS ON JUPITER AND OTHER PLANETS.
General conclusions, &c......................................   131
Utility of celestial day observations.............................................. 132
On the astronomical quadrant....................................................... 134
The astronomical circle...............................................         135
The transit instrument.................................................. 136
CHAPTER  III.
ON OBSERVATORIES.
Leading features of a spot adapted for celestial observations. Public and private Observatories.
Greenwich Observatory. Instruments with which an Observatory -should be furnished.
The author's private Observatory.  Revolving domes for- Observatories.  Cautions to be
attended to in celestial observations............................................... 138:CH APTER  IV.
ON  ORRERIES  OR PLANETARIUMS.
History of such machines.  Sphere of Archimedes and Posidonius.  Dr. Long's Uracnium.
Wheel-work of the common planetarium.  Figure representing this machine. Problems
which may be performed by it.............................................  140I
DR. HENDERSON'S PLANETARIUM.
Section of its wheel-work.  Number of teeth in the wheels and pinions which move the
different planets. Extreme accuracy of these movements..............................143
ON, THE VARIOUS OPINIONS WHICH WERE ORIGINALLY FORMED OF SATURN'S RING, ILLUSTRATED WITH
THIRTEEN VIEWS.
When and by whom its true figure was discovered...............................  146
ON THE SUPPOSED DIVISION OF THE EXTERIOR RING OF SATURN.
Kater's, Short's, Quetelet's, and Decuppis's observations................................ 147
APPENDIX.
I. DESCRIPTION OF THE EARL OF ROSSE'S LARGEST TELESCOPE.
Composition of the speculum, and the process of casting it. Mode of grinding and polishing it.
Manner in which it is filled up. Expenses incurred in its construction. Results of observations which have been made with it. Two views representing this instrument and the buildings
connected with it. Sir J. South's remarks and anticipations............................ 148
II. HINTS TO AMATEURS IN ASTRONOMY RESPECTING THE CONSTRUCTION OF TELESCOPES.. 15t




P<RAC TICA L AS-TRONOMER.
PART I.
0 N L I GH T.
I NT RO 0 DU C T-I O N.
-LTGHr is that invisible ethereal matter which those who enjoy the use of their visual organs.
renders  objects perceptible by the visual organs. Were all theinhabitats of the world deprived of
It appears'to' be distributed thrughouto the im-. their eyesight, neither knowledge nor happiness,
mensity of the universe, anadis essentially requi- such as we now possess, could possibly be enjoyed.site to the enjoyment of every rank of perceptive   There is nothing Which so strikingly displays
existence. It is by the agency of this mysterious the beneficial and enlivening effects of light as
-substance that we become acquainted with the the dawn of a mild morning after a night of
beauties and sublimities of the universe, and the darkness and tempest.  All appears gloom  and
wonderful operations of the Almighty Creator. desolation in our terrestrial abode until a faint
Without its universal influence, an impenetrable light begins to whiten the eastern horizon. Every
vail would be thrown over the distant scenes of succeeding moment brings along with it somecreation; the sun, the moon, the planets, and the thing new and enlivening.  The crescent of light
starry orbs would be shrouded. in the deepest dark- toward the east now expands its dimensions, and
ness, and the variegated surface of the globe on rises upward toward the cope of heaven;'and
which we dwell would be almost unnoticed and objects, which a little before were immersed in
unknown. Creation would disappear, a mysterious the deepest gloom, begin to be clearly distiuglooms would surround the mind of every intelli- guished.  At length the sun arises, and all nature
gence, all around would appear a dismal waste is animated by his appearance; the magnificent
and an undistinguished  chaos.  To whatever scene of creation, which a little' before was inquarter we might turn, no form  nor comeliness volved in obscurity, opens gradually to view, and
Woould be seen, and scarcely a trace of the perfec- every object around excites sentiments of wonder,
tilons and agency of an All-wise and Alfnightv delight, and adoration. The radiance which emaBeing could be perceived throughout the univer- nates from  this luminary displays before us a
sal gloom. In short, without the influence of world strewed with blessings, and embellished
light, no world- could be inhabited, no animated with the most beautiful attire. It unvails the
being could subsist in the manner it now does, no lofty mountains and the forests with which they
knowledge could be acquired. of the works of are crowned; the fruitful fields, with the crops
God,'and happiness, even in the lowest -degree,: that cover them; the meadows, with the- rivers
could scarcely be enjoyed by any organized intel-which water and refresh them; the plains, adorned
ligence.                                        with verdure; the placid lake, and the expansive
T;We have. never yet known what it is to live in ocean. It removes the curtain of darkness' from
a world deprived of this delightful visitant; for in the abodes of men, and shows us the cities, towns,
the darkest night we enjoy a share of its beneficial and villages, the lofty domes, the glittering spires,
agency, and even in the deepest dungeon its influ- and the palaces and temples with which the landonce is not altogether unfelt.*; The blind, indeed, scape is adorned. The flowers expand their buds
do not directly enjoy the advantages of light, but and put forth their colors, the birds awake to
its influence is reflected upon them, and their melody, man goes forth to his labor, the sounds
~ nowledge is promoted through the medium  of of human voices are heard, and all appears life
and activity, as if a new world had emerged from
Those unfortunate individuals who have been confined the darkness of chaos.
in the darkest dungeonrs have declared, that though, o  The whole of this splendid scene, which light
-Aeir first entrance, no object could be perceived, perhaps produces, may, be considered  as a new  crea-,br a day or two,' yet, in the course of time, as the pupils of tion, no less grand and beneficent than the first.their eyes expanded, they could readily perceive mice, rats,'creation, when the command was issued, "Let
and other animals that infested their cells, and likewise the there be
walls of their apartments; which shows that, even in sucthere be light, and light was."  The aurora and
situations, light is preset, and produces a certain degree of the rising sun cause the earth, and all the objects
iafluence.                      -'            which adorn. its surface, to arise oat of that pro.
VOL. 11.-30                                                                   11 )




12                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
found darkness and apparent desolation which that arrangements have been made for its univerdeprived us of the view  of them  as if they had sal diffusion throughout all the worlds in the
been no more.  It may be affirmed, in full accor- universe.  The sun is one of the principal sources
dance with truth,'that the, efflux -of light in the of light to this earth on which we dwell, and to
dawn  of the morning, after a dark and cloudy  all the other planetary bodies; and, in order that
night, is even more magnificent and exhilarating  it may be equally distributed over every portion
than at the first moment of its creation. At that of the surfaces of these globes, to suit the exigenmoment there were no spectators on earth to cies of their inhabitants, they are endowed with
admire its'glorious effects; and no objects, such a motion of rotation, by which every part of their
as we now behold, to be embellished with its surfaces is alternately turned toward the source of
radiance.  The earth-wasa shapeless chaos, where light; and when one hemisphere is deprived of
no beauty or order could be- perceived; the moun- the direct influence of the solar rays, its inhabitails had not reared their heads; the -seas were tants derive a portion of light from  luminaries in
not collected intotheir channels; no rivers rolled more distant regions, and have their views directed
through  the'valleys; no verdure adorned the to other suns and systems, dispersed, in countless
plains; the atmosphere was not raised on high to numbers, throughout the remote spaces of the
reflect the radiance, and no animated beings ex- universe.  Around severalof the planets, satellites
isted to diversify and enliven the scene.  But or moons have been arranged for the purpose of
now, when the'dawning of the mrorning scatters throwing light on their surfaces in the absence of
the darkness of the night, it opens to view a scene the sun, while, at the same time, the primary
of beauty and magnificence.  The heavens are planets themselves reflect an effulgelnce of light,adorned with azure, the clouds are'tinged with upon their satellites.  All the stars which our
the most lively colors, the mountains and. plains unassisted vision can discern in the midnight sky,
are clothed with verdure, and the whole of this and the millions more which the telescope alone
lower creation stands fortharrayedwith.diversified  enables us to descry, must be considered as so
scenes of beneficence and grandeur, while the many fountains of light, not merely to illuminate
contemplative eye looks round and wonders.        the voids of immensity, but to irradiate with their
Such, then, are the important and beneficent beams surrounding worlds with which they are
effects of that light which every momeint diffuses more immediately connected, and to diffuse a
its blessings around us. JIt may justly be con- general luster throughout the amplitudes of infisidered as one of the most essential substances nite space; and, therefore, we have every reason
connected with the system  of the material uni- to believe that, could we fly, for thousands of
verse, and which gives efficiency to all the other years, with the swiftness of a seraph, through the
principles and arrangemenls of nature.. Hence spaces of immensity, we should never approach'we are informed, in the sacred history, that light a region of absolute darkness, but should find
was the.first production of the Almighty Creator, ourselves every Inoment encompassed with the
nlld the first-born of created beings; for without eranations of light, and cheered with its benign
it the universe would have presented nothing but influences. That Almighty Being who inhabiteth
an immense  blank to all sentient existences. immensity and "dwells in light inaccessible,"
I-Ience, likewise, the Divine Being is metaphori- evidently appears to have diffused light over the
cally represented under the idea of liyht, as being  remotest spaces of his creation, and to have thrown
the source of knowledge and felicity to all subor- a radiance upon all the provinces of his wide and
dinate intelligences: " God is light, and in Him is eternal empire, so that every intellectual being,
n'o darkness at all;" and he is exhibited as " dwel- wherever existing, may feel its beneficent effects,
ling in' light unapproachable and full of glory, and be enabled, through its agency, to trace his
iwhom no mall hath seen or can see."  In allusion  wonderful operations, and the glorious attributes
to thesecircumstances, Milton, in his Paradise Lost, with which he is invested.
introtiduces the following beautiful apostrophe;    As the science of astronomy depends solely on
the influence of light upon the organ of vision,' Hail holy light! offspring'of heaven first born,  which is the most noble and extensive of all our
Or of the eternal, coeternal beam!
lay I express thee unblamed? since God is light  senses; and as the construction  of telescopes
And never but in unapproached light            and other astronomical instruments is founded
Dwelt from eternity; dwelt then in thee,
Bright effluence of right essence increate.   upon our knowledge of the nature of light and
Bright effluene of bright essence increate.
-  Bebfore the sun,               the laws by which operates, it is essentially requiBefore the heavens thou wert, and- at the voice  site, before proceeding to a description of such
Of God, asawith a mantle, didst invest        instruments, to take a cursory view of its nature
rhie rising' world of vwaters darl and deef",. and properties, in so far as they have been ascerWon from the void and. formless infinit e."
tained, and the effects it produces when obstrucAs light is an element of so much importance  ted by certain bodies, or when passing through
and utility in the system  of nature, so we find different mediums




C GIRA PTE R I.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LIGHT.
i'r is not my- intention to''discuss the subject of  on all-sides, in consequence of the continued agilight in minute detail, a subject which is of con- tation it experiences.  This is the hypothesis of
siderable extent, and which would require a -sepa- the illustrious Newton, and has been most generrate treatise to illustrate it in all its aspects and ally adopted by British philosophers.
bearings.  All that I propose is to offer a few'il-  -To the first hypothesis it is objected that, if
lustrations of its gefieral properties, and the laws  true, "Jlight would not ionly spread itself in a di —
by which -it is refracted and reflected, so" as to' rect line, but its motion would' be transmitted in
prepare the way for explaining the nature- and every direction like that of sound, and would conconstruction of telescopes and other optical in- vey the impression of luminous bodies in the restruments..                             gionswof space beyond the obstacles that intervene
There is no branch of natural science more de- to stop its progress."  No wall or other opaque
serving of our- study and investigation'than that body could obstruct its course, if it undulated in
which relates to light, whether we consider'its every direction like sound; and it, would be a
beautiful and extensive effects, the magnificence- necessary- consequence, that we should have no
and grandeur of the objects it unfolds'to' view, night, nor any such phenomena as eclipses of the
the-numerous and- diversified phenomena it exhib- sun or moon, or the satellites  of Jupiter and
its, the optical instruments which a knowledge Saturn.  This objection  has never been very
of its properties has enabled us to construct, or satisfactorily answered.  On the other hand, Euthe daily advantages we derive, as social beings, ler brings forward the following objections against
from its universal diffusion.  If air,' which serves the -Newtonian doctrine of emanation.  1. That,
as the medium of sound and the vehticle of speech, were the sun emittiing continually, and in all dienables us to carry on an interchange of- thought rections,. such floods of luminous matter, with a
"and ^affection with our fellow-men, how much  velocity so prodigious, he must speedily be exmore extensively is that intercourse increased by  hausted, or at least some alteration must, after the
light, which presents the images of our friends lapse of so many ages, be perceptible. 2. That
and' other objects as it were immediately before the sun is not the only- body that emits rays, but
us, in all their interesting forms and aspects-the  that all the stars have the same quality; and as
speaking eye, the rosy cheeks, the benevolent everywhere the rays of the sun must be crossing
smile, andl the intellectual forehead. The eye, the rays of the stars, their collision must be viomore susceptible oi. multifarious impressions than  lent in the extreme, and that their direction must
the other senses, "takes in at once the landscape be changed by such a collision.*
of the world," and enables us to distinguish, in -a   To the first of these objections it is answered,
moment, the'shapes and forms of all its objects, that so vast is the tenuity of light, that it utterly
their relative positions, the colors that adorn them, exceeds tlhe power of conception; the most deli-'their diversified aspect, and the motions by which  cate instrument having never been certainly put
they are transported from one portion of space.to  in motion by the impulse of the accumulated
another. Liglit, through the medium of' the eye, sunbeams.  It has been calculated that in the
not only unfolds to us the presence of others, in  space of 385,130,000. Egyptian years (of 360
all'their minute modifications and peculiarities, days), the sun would lose only the 1-1,217,420th
but exhibits us to ourselves. -It presents to our of his bulk from the continual effiux of his light.
own- vision a faithful portrait of peculiar features And, therefore, if in 385 millions of' years the
behind reflecting substances, without which pro- sun's diminution would be so extremely small, it
perty we should- remain entirely ignorant of those  would be altogether insensible during the comtraits of countenance which characterize us in the  paratively short period of five or six thousand
eyes of others.                                   years.  To the second objection it is replied, that
*But what is the nature of this substance we  the particles of light are so extremely rare that
eall iyht which thus unfolds to us the scenes- of  their distance from one to another is incomparacreation?  On this subject two leading opinions  bly greater than their diameters; that all objechave prevailed in the philosophical world.  One  tions of this kind vanish when'we attend to the
of these opinions is, that the whole -sphere of the  continuation of the impression upon the retina,
universe is filled with a subtile.matter, which re- and to the small number' of luminous particles
ceives from luminous bodies an agitation which is which are oin that account necessary for producing
incessantly continued, and which. by its vibratory  constant vision.  For it appears, from  the accumotions, enables'us to perceive luminous bodies. rate experiments of M. D'Arcy, that the impresAccording to this opinion, light may-be considered  sion of light upon the retina continues eight-thirds,
as analogous,o sound, which is conveyed to the ear and as a particle of light would move through
by the vibratory motions of the air. This was the  26,000 miles in that time, constant vision would be
hypothesis of Descartes, which was adopted, with  maintained by a succession of luminous particles
some modifications, by the -celebrated Euler, Huy-  twenty-six thousand miles distant from each other.
grens, Franklin, alnd other phiilosophers, —and has   Without attempting to decide on the merits of
been.admitted by several scientifiC gentlemen of  these two hypotheses, I shall leave the reader to
the present day.  The otheropiion is, that' light adopt that opinion which he may judge to be atconsists- of the emission or-emanation of the par-' tended with the fewest difficulties, and proceed to
tileos of luminous bodies, thrown out incessantly    W Letters to a German Princess, vol. i., p. 68, &o.
(13)




14                            THE, PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
illustrate some of the properties- of light; and in celestial artillery, until our world were laid in ruthe discussion of this subject I shall generally ad- ins, and every living being destroyed. And herein
here to the terms employed by those who have are the wisdom  and benevolence of the Creator
adopted the hypothesis of the emanationi of light. displayed in making the particles of light so ex1.'Light emanates or radiates   from   lumitius  tremely small as to render them  in some degree
bodies in a straight line. This property is proved proportionate to the greatness of the force with
by the impossibility of seeing light through bent which they are impelled; otherwise, all nature
tubes, or small holes piercedt in metallic:plates would bave been thrown into ruin and confusion,
placed one behind another, except the holes be and the great globes of the' universe shattered to
placed in a straight line. If we endeavor t9 look atoms.
at the sun or a candle through the bore -of a: We have many proofs, beside the above, that
bended pipe, we cannot perceive the object, iior the particles of light are'next to infinitely small.
ally *light proceeding from -it, but through:a We find that they penetrate with- facility the hardstraight pipe the object miay be perceived. This est substances, such as crystal, glass, various kinds
is likewise evident from the' form of the- rays of of' precious stones, and even the diamond itself,
light-that penetrate a dark room, which proceed  though among the, hardest of, stones; for such
straight- forwardt in lines proceeding from the lu- bodies could not be transparent, unless light found
mineous body,; and from the. form  of the shadows an easy passage through' their pores.  When a
whicli bodies project that are bounded by right'candle is lighted in an elevated situation, in the
lines passing from the luminous body, and meet- space of a second -or two it -will fill a cubical
ing the lines  which' terminate  the interposing  space-(if there be no interruption) of two miles
body. This property may be demonstrated to the around it, in every direction, with luminous pareye by causing light to pass through small holes ticles, before the least sensible part of its substance
into-a dark'room filled with smoke or dust.  It is is lost by the candle: that is, it will in a short into be understood, -however, that in this case. the stant fill a sphere four miles in diameter, twelve
rays of light are considered as passing through the and a half miles in circumference, and containing
same medium;' for when they pass from  air into thirty-three and a half cubical miles, with partiwater, glass, or other media, they are'bent at the cles of light; for an eye:placed in any part of this
point where they enter a different medium, as we cubical space would perceive the light emitted by
shall afterward have occasion to explain.        the candle.  It has been calculated that the num2. Liyht moves with amazing velocity.  The an- ber of particles of light contained in such a space
cients believed that it was propagated from  the cannot be less than four hundred septillions - a
sun and other luminous bodies instantaneously; number which is six billions of times greater than
but the observations of modern astronomers have the number of grains of sand which could be
demonstrated that this is an erroneous hypothesis, contained in the whole earth considered as a solid
and that light, like other projectiles, occupies a globe, and supposing each cubic inch of it to concertain time in passing from one part of space to tain ten hundred thousand grains.  Such is the
another.  Its velocity, however; is prodigious, and  inconceivable tenuity of that substance which
exceeds that of any; other'body with which we emanates from  all luminous bodies, and which
are acquainted.  It fliesacrosstheearth's orbit, a gives beauty and  splendor to  the  universe 
space'of, 190 millions of miles in extent, in the This may also be evinced by the following expercourse/.of sixteen and a.half minutes, which is at iment: Make a s mall pin-hole in a piece of black
the rate of 192,000 miles-everysecond, and'more paper, and hold the paper upright facing a row
titanla~ million.of times swifter than a cannon ball of candles placed near each other, and- at a' litttli
flying with its greatest velocity.  It appears from  distance behind the black paper place a piece of
-the.discoveries of Dr. Bradley, respecting the ab- white pasteboard.  On this pasteboard the rays
erration of the stars, that light flies from  these which flow from all the candles through the small
bodies with- a- velocity similar, if not- exactly the, hole. in the black paper, will form as many specks
same; so-that the light of the sun, the planets, of light as there are candles, each speck being as
the stars,and every luminous body in the universe clear and distinct as if there were only one speck
is propagated with uniform velocity.*  But, if the from  a single, candle.  This experiment shows
velocity of light be so very great, it may be that the streams of light from  the different canasked, how does- it not strike against all objects dles pass through the small hole without confu-with a force:equal to-its velocity?  If the finest sion, and, consequently, that the particles of light
sand were thrown against our bodies with the are exceedingly small. For the same reason we
hundredth. part -of this'velocity, each grain would can easily see through a small hole not more than
Pierce us as certainly as.the sharpest and swiftest 1-100th of an; inch in diameter, the sky, the trees,
arrows from a bow.- -It is a principle in mechan-  houses, and nearly all the objects in an extensive
ics that the force with-which all bodies strike is in landscape, occupying nearly an entire hemisphere,
proportion to the-size- of these bodies, or the the-light of all which may pass through this small
quantity, -of matter they contain, multiplied by aperture.
the velocity. with which they move. Therefore,   3. Light is sent forth in all directions from e'kr?,
if' the particles of light were not almost infinitely visible point of luminous bodies.  If we hold a
small, they would, of necessity, prove destructive sheet of paper before a candle, or the sun, or any
in the highest degree.: If a particle of light were other source of light, we shall find that the papel
equal in size to the twelve hundred thousandth is illuminated in whatever position we hold it, pro'part of a-small grain..of sand-supposing light to vided the light is not obstructed by its edge or by
be material-we should be no- more able to with- any other body.  Hence, wherever a spectator is
stand its force than we should, that of sand Shot placed with regard to a luminous body, every
point, blank —from the mouth of a cannon.  Every point of that part of its surface which is toward
obje ct would. be. battered and'perforated- -by such him will be visible, when no intervening object
intercepts the passage of the light.  Hence, like-,The manner in which the mlotion of light was discov- Wise,.it, follows'that the sun illuminates not only
ered is ezplained in the anthor'S work, entitled,' " Celestil...
Scenery;" an d the eircumstahces W ehiehled tosthe-discovery an immense plane extending along the paths of
the -lanets, from, the one side of the orbit of Uraof the aberration of light are-stated and illustrated in his                de of theorbit of Uravolume on the "Sidereal Heavens."                nus to the other,'but the whole of that sphered




GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LIGHT.                                      15
or solid space, of whicn the distance of Uranus had lasted without sensible diminution for the
is the radius.  The diameter of this sphere is 246th part of a second, the teeth would have
three thousand six hundred millions of miles, and formed one unbroken line, because a new tooth
it consequently contains about 24,000,000,000,- would have continually arrived in the place of the
000,000,000,000,000,000, or twenty-four thousand anterior one before its image could have disapguartillions of cubical miles, every point of which peared.  If a live coal be whirled round, it is obimmense space is filled with the solar beams. Not served that the luminous circle is complete when
only so, but the whole cubical space which inter- the rotation is performed in the 81-60th part of
venes between the sun and the nearest fixed stars a second. In this instance we see that the inis more or less illuminated by his rays.  For, at pression was much more durable than the former.
the distance of Sirius, or any other of the nearest Lastly, if an observer sitting in a room, direct his
stars, the sun would be visible, though only as a sight, through a window, to any particular object
small, twinkling orb; and, consequently, his rays out of doors, for about half a minute, and then
must be diffused, however faint, throughout the shut his eyes and cover them with his hands, he
most distant spaces whence he is visible.  The will still continue to see the window, together
diameter of this immense sphere of light cannot with the outline of the terrestrial objects borderbe less than forty billions of miles, and its solid ing on the sky.  This appearance will remain for
contents 33,500,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,-  near a minute, though occasionally vanishing and
000,000,000,000, or thirty-three  thousand  five changing color in a manner that brevity forbids
hundred sextillions of cubical miles. All this im- our minutely describing.  From  these facts we
mense and incomprehensible space is filled with are authorized to conclude that all impressions of
the radiations of the solar orb; for were an eye light on the eye last a considerable time; that the
placed in any one point of it, where no extraneous brightest objects make the most lasting impresbody interposed, the sun would be visible either as sions; and that, if the object be very bright, or
a large luminous orb, or as a small twinkling star. the eye weak, the impression may remain for a
But he can be visible only by the rays he emits, time so strong as to mix with and confuse the
and which enter the organs of vision. How in- subsequent impressions made by other objects.
conceivably immense, then, must be the quantity  In the last case the eye is said to be dazzled by
of rays which are thrown off in all directions the light."'
from  that luminary which is the source of our   The following experiment has likewise been
day!  Every star must likewise be considered as suggested as a proof of the impression which
emitting innumerable streams of radiance over a light makes upon the eye: If a card, on both sides
space equally extensive; so that no point in the of which a figure is drawn, for example, a bird
universe can be conceived where absolute dark- and a cage, be made to revolve rapidly on the
ness prevails, unless in the interior regions of straight line which divides it symmetrically, the
planetary bodies.                                eye will perceive both figures at the same time,
4. The effect of light upon the eye is not instanta- provided they return successively at the same
neous, but continues for a short space of time. This place.  M. D'Arcy found by various experiments
may be proved and illustrated by the following that,lin general, the impression which light proaxamples: if a stick, or a ball connected with a duces on the eye lasts about the eighth of a second.
string, be whirled rotund in a circle, and a certain  M. Plateau, of Brussels, found that the impression
degree of velocity given it, the object will appear of different colors lasted the following periods,
to fill the whole circle it describes. If a lighted the numbers here stated being the decimal parts
firebrand be whirled round in the same rapid man- of a second: flame, 0.242, or nearly one-fourth
lier, a complete circle of light will be exhibited. of a second; burning coal, 0.229; white, 0.182,
This experiment obviously shows that the impres- or a little more than one-sixth of a second; blue,
sion made on the eye by the light from  the ball 0.186; yellow, 0.173; red, 0.184.
or the firebrand, when in any given point of the    5. Light, though extremely minut6, is supposed
circle, is sufficiently lasting to remain until it has to have a certain degree of force or momentum.  In
described the whole circle, and again renews its order to prove this, the late ingenious Mr. Mitchell
effect as often as the circular motion is continued. contrived the following experiment: He construec
The same is proved by the following considera- ted a small vane in the form of a common weathtions: we are continually shutting our eyes, or ercock, of a very thin plate of copper, about an
winking; and, during the time our eyes are shut inch square, and attached to one of the finest
on such occasions, we should lose the view  of harpsichord wires about ten inches long, and nicely
surrounding objects if the impression of light did  balanced at the other end of the wire by a grain
not continue a certain time while the eyelid cov- of very small shot.  The instrument had also
ers the pupil; but experience proves that during  fixed to it, in the middle, at right angles to the
such vibrations of the eyelids the light from sur- length of the wire, and in a horizontal direction,
rounding objects is not sensibly intercepted.  If a small bit of a very slender sewing needle, about
we look for some time steadily at the light of a half an inch long, which was made magnetical.
candle, and particularly if we look directly at the In this state the whole instrument might weigh
sun, without any interposing medium, or if we about ten grains.  The vane was supported in
look for any considerable time at this luminary  the manner of the needle in the mariner's comthrough a telescope with a colored glass interposed pass, so that it could turn with the greatest ease;
-in all these cases, if we shut our eyes immedi- and to prevent its being affected by the vibraately after viewing such objects, we shall still per- tions of the air, it was inclosed in a glass case or
ceive a faint image of the object by the impres- box.  The rays of the sun were then thrown upon
sion which its light has made upon our eyes.     the broad part of the vane, or copper plate, from
"With respect to the duration of the impres- a concave mirror of about two feet diameter,
sion of light, it has been observed that the teeth which, passing through the firont glass of the box,
of a cogwheel in a clock were still visible in suc- were collected into the focus of the mirror upon
session, when the velocity of rotation brought the copper plate.  In consequelce of this, theo
246 teeth through a given fixed point in a second. plate began to move with a slow motion of about
In this case it is clear that if the impression made
on the eye by the light reflected from  any tooth   * Nicholson's Introduction to Natural Philosophy, vol 1.




16                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
an inch in a second of time, until it Ihad'moved- would have at one foot; at three feet distance, the
through a space of about two inches and a half, ninth part; at four feet, the sixteenthpart; at five
when it struck against the'back of the box.' The feet; the twenty-fifth part; and so on for other
mirror being removed, the instrument returned to- distances. Hence the light receivedby the planets
its former situation, and the rays-of the sunbeing of0the solar system  decreases in -proportion to the
again- thrown upon:it, it again began to move, and squares of the distances of these bodies firom  the
struck against theback of the box as before.' This sun.  This may be illustrated by the following
was repeated three or four tilmes with the sanie figure:
rsccess.
On the above experiment the following calcula-                      Fig. 1.
tion has-been founded,: if we impute the motion
produced in this experiment to the'impulse of the
rays of light, and suppose that the instrument 
weighed ten grains, and acquired a:vlocity of one;
inch in a second; we shall: find'that -the quantity'!
of matter contained in the rays falling upon the...i}li
instrument in that time amounted to no more
than one twelve hundredth millionth part of a
grain, the velocity of light exceeding the velocity                        
of one inch-in a second ill the proportion of about
12,000,000,000 to 1. The light, in this experiment,   Suppose the light which flows from a point A,
was collected from a surface of about three square and passes through a square hole, B, is received
ifeet, which, reflecting only about half what falls upon a plane, C, parallel to the plane of the holeupon it, the quantityof matter contained in the or let the figure'  be considered as the shadow of
rays of the sun incident upon a foot and a half of the plane B.  When the distance of C is double
surface in one second of time, ought to be no more of B, the lengthl and hreadth of the shadow, C,
than the twelve hundredth-millionth  part of a will be each double of the length  and breadth of
grain. But the density of the rays of light at the the plane B, and treble when A D is treble of A
surface of the sun is greater than that at the B, and so on, which may be easily examined by
earth in the proportion of 45,000 to I; there the light of a candle placed at A. Therefore the
ought, therefore, to issue from one square foot of surface of the shadow  C,-at the distance A Cthe sun's surface in one second of time, in order double of A B, is divisible into four squares, and,
to supply the waste of light, -, — th part of a at a treble distance, into nine squares, severally
grain of matter, that is, a little more than twvo equal to the square B, as represented in the
grains a day, or about 4,752,000 grains, or 670 figure.  The light, then, which falls upon the
pounds avoirdupois, nearly, in 6,000 years; a plane B being suffered to pass to double that disquantity which would have shortened' the' sun's- tance, will be uniformly spread over four times
diameter no minre than about tell feet, if it were the space, and, consequently, wvill be fbur times
formed of the density of water only.             thinner in every part of that space. And, at a
If the above experiment be considered as having  treble distance, it will be nine times thinner, and,
been accurately performed, and if the calculations at a qutadiruple distance, sixteen times thinner than
founded upon it be correct, it appearr that there it was at first. Consequently, the quantities of
can be no grounds for apprehension that the sun  this rarefied light received upon a surface of any
canll ever be sensibly diminished by the immense given size and shape, when removed' successively
and incessantradiations proceeding from his body to their severali distances, will' be but one-fourth,
on the supposition that light is a material emana- one-ninth, one-sixteenth of the whole quantity
tiont.  For the diameter of the sun is no less than  received by it at the first distance, A B.,80,000 miles; and, before this diameter could be   In confbrmity with this law, tlie relative quatishortened, by the emission of light,- one English  titles of Iight on the surfacns of thle pl'aiets may
inile, it would require three millions one hundred be easily determined when their distances from
and sixty-eight thousand years, at the rate now  the sun are known. Thus, thle distance of Urarus
stated; and, before it could be shortened ten miles, from  the sun is I,800,000,000 miles, which is
it would require a period of above thirty-one mil- about nineteen times greater than the distance of
lions of years.  And althongh the sun were thus the earth from  the same luminary.  The square
actually diminished, it would produce no sensible of 19 is 361; consequently,'the earth enjoys 361
effect or derangement throughout the planetary  times the intensity of light, when compared wfth
system. We have no reason to believe that the that of Uranus; in other words, this diatnt planet
system, in its present state and arrangnenets, was enjoys only the.- part of the quantity of light
intended to endure forever; and before that lumi- whicli falls upon tile earth.  This quanitty, hownary could be so far reduced, during o,,e revolu- ever, is equivalent to the light we should enjoy
-tions of eternity, as to produce any Irregularities from the combined effulgence of 348 full moons;
in tilhe, system, new  arrangements and modifica- and if thile pupils of the eyes of the inihabitants
tions rmight be introduced by the hand of the All- of this planet be much larger than ours, and the
wise and Omnipotent Creator.  Beside, it is not retina of the eye be indued with a much greater
improbable that asystem of means is established degree of nervous sensibility, tlmye  may perceive
by which the sun and all the luminaries in the objects with as great a degree of splendor as we
universe receive back again a -portion  of the perceive on the objects which surround us in this
light which they are continually emitting, either world.  Foliowing  out the same principle, we
from  the planets from whose surfaces it is reflect- find that the quantity of light enjoyed by the
ed, or from the millions of stars whose rays are planet Mercury is nearly seven times greater than
continually traversing the immense spaces of cre- that of the Earth, and that of Venus nearly
ation, or from some other sources to usunknown. double of what we enjoy; that Mars has less than
6. The intensity of light is diminished in proper- the one-half; Jupiter the one-twenty-seventh part;
tion to the square of the distance from- the luminous and Saturn only the one-ninetieth part of the light
body. Thus, a personat two feet distance from a which falls upon the Earth.  That the light of
candle, has onily the fourth part of the light he these distant planets, however, is not'so weak so




GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LIGHT.                                         17
we might first imagine, appears from the brillian-. light as we enjoy in the day-time undera cloudy
cy they exhibit, when viewed. in our nocturnal sky.
sky, either with the telescope or with the unas-|. As the moon and the planets are rendered visisisted  eye; and likewise from  the circumstance ble to us only by light reflected from their surfaces,
that a very small portion of the Sun —such as the so it is in the same way that the images of most
one-fortieth or one-fiftieth part —diffuses'a quan- of the objects around us are conveyed to our or-,
tity of light sufficient for most of.the purposes of gans of vision. We behold all the objects which
life, as is found in the case of total eclipses of the compose an extensive landscape-the hills and
Sun, when his western limb begins to be- visible, vales, the woods and lawns, the lakes and rivers.
only like a fine luminous'thread, for his: light is and the habitations of man-in consequence of
tlhen sufficient to render distinctly visible all the the capacity with which they are-indued of send.parts of th.e surrounding landscape.              ing forth reflected rays to the eye, from  every
7. It is by light reflected from opaque bodies that point. of their surfaces and in all directions.  11l
most of the objects around us are rendered visible.- connection with the reflection of light, the foiWhen a lighted candle is.brought-into a dark lowing curious observation may be stated: Baron
room, notionly the' candle, but all other bodies in Fulk, visiting some silver mines in Sweden, obthe room become visible.. Rays of the sun,.pass- served, that, "in a clear day, it was as dark as
ing into a dark roomn,render luminous a sheet of pitch under ground in the eye of a pit, at sixty
paper oil which- they fall, and this sheet, in its' or seventy fathoms deep; whereas, in a cloudy or
turn, enlightens, to a certain extent; the whole rainy day, he could see to read even at 106 fathapartment, and renders objects inmit visible so long oms deep.  Inquiring. of the miners, he was in.
as'it receives the rays of the sun. In like manner, formed that this is always the case; and reflecting
the moon and. the planets are opaque,bodies, but upon it, he imagined it- arose from this circumthe light. of the sun- falling upon them, and being stance, that; when the atmosphere is full of clouds,
reflected from their surfaces, renders them visible. light is reflected from them  into the pit in all di-.Were no light, to fall on them  from  the sun, or rections, and that thereby a considerable propor.
were tliey not indued with a poWer of reflecting  tion of the rays are reflected perpendicularly upon
it, they would: be altogether invisible to our sight. the earth: whereas, when the atmosphere is clear,
W.henl the moon comes between us and the sun, there are no opaque bodies to reflect the light in
as in a total eclipse of that luminary, as no solar this manner, at least in a sufficient.quantity; and
light is reflected from  the surface next the' earth, rays from the sun himself can never fall perpeini
she is invisible, only the curve or, outline of her dicularly in that country."  The reason here asfiguree being distinguished by her shadow. In signed is, in all probability, the true cause of the.
this case, however, there is a certain portion of phenomenon now described.
reflected light on the lunar hemisphere next the    8. It is supposed by some philosophers that.
earth, though not distinguishable during a solar light is subject to the same laws of attraction that.
eclipse.  The earth is enlightened by the sun, and govern all other material substances, and that it is
a portion of the rays which fall,upon it is reflected imbibed and forms a constituent part of certain bodies.,
upon the dark hemisphere of the moon which is This has been inferred from the phenomena of thei.
then toward the earth. This reflected light fromrnBoloqnian stone, and what are generally called thethe earth is distinctly perceptible, when the moon solar phosphori.  The B.olognian stone was firsta
appears as a slender crescent, two or three days discovered about the year 1630, by Leascariolo, a.
after new moon-when the earth reflects its light shoemaker of Bologna. Having collected together
back on the moon, in the same manner as the full some stones of a shining appearance at the bottom.,
moon reflects her light on the earth.  Hence, even  of Monte Paterno, and being in quest of some alat, this period, of the moon, her whole. face be- chemical, secret,. he put them  into a crucible to,.
comes visible to us, but its light is not uniform or calcine them; that is, to reduce them  to the state
of equal intensity.  The thin crescent on which  of cinders.  Having taken them out of tile crucithe full blaze of the solar light falls, is very, bril- ble, and exposed them  to the light of the sun, he
liant and distinctly seen, while the other part, on afterward happened to carry them  into a dark,.
which falls only a comparatively feeble light from  place,. when, to his surprise, he observed that they.the earth, appears very faint, and is little more possessed a self-illuminating power, and continuedt
than visible to the naked eye, but with a telescope to emit faint rays of light for some hours afte.r
of moderate power-if the atmosphere be very  ward;. In consequence of this discovery, the Bo'clear-it appears beautifully distinct, so, that the lognian spar came into considerable demand among
relative positions of many of the lunar spots m.ay  natural philosophers, and the curious in general;,
be distinguished.                                 and the best way of preparing it seems to have
The intensity of reflected light is very small,, been hit upon by the family of Zagoni, who supwhen compared with that which proceeds directly plied all Europe with Bolognian phosphorus until
fromn luminous bodines. M. Bouguer, a French  the discovery of more powerful phosphoric subphilosopher,  whio made a variety of experinents stances put an end to their monopoly.  In the.to ascertain the proportion of light emitted by the year 1677, Baldwin, a native' of'Misnia, observed
heavenly bodies, con~'buded from  these  experi- that chalk, dissolved in aqutafortis,.exactly' resenments, that the light transmitted from  the sun to bled the Bolognian stone in its pro'perty of imbibthe earth is at least 300;000 times: as great as that ing light, and emitting it after it Was brought into
which descends, io us, from  the full moon, and  the dark; and hence it has obtained the name oP
that, of 300,000 rays which the moon receives,  Baldwin's phosphorus.
from 170,000 to 200,01) are absorbed.. Hence we    In 1730 M. Du Fay directed his attention to,
find that, however brilliant the moon may appear this -subject, and observed that all earthy substanat night, in the day-time she. appearsas obscure as ces susceptible of calcination, either by mere fire,
-a small portion of dusky cloud t, whi:ch she hap- or when assisted bythe previous action of nitrous
pens to, be adjacent, and refleets no more light acid, possessed the property of becoming more Cr
than a portion of Whitish cloud of the' same size. less luminous, when calcined and exposed for a
And as thefull moon fills only the ninety-thou- short time in the light; that the most pcrfect of:
sandtli part of the sky, it would require at least these phosphori wvere limestones, and other kinds.
ninety  thousand  moons. to produce'as, much  of carbonated lime, gypsum, and particularly the.




s18'THE -PRACTICAI; ASTRONOMER.
topaz, and that some diamdnds were  also observed    9. Light is fotnd to produce a remarkable ffect
to be luminous by simple exposure to the sun's  on plants. and fowers, and-other vegetable producrays.  Some time afterward Beccatia discovered  tions. -Of all the phenomena which living vegethat a great variety oft other bodies wer converti- tables exhibit, there are few that appear more exble into phosphori'by exposure -to the mere light traordinary than the energy-and constancy with
of -the sun, -such, as organic:anial fremains, most which their stems incline r eward the light. Mosti
compound salts, niter and'borax-all-the/ farina- of: the discous flowers follow the sun in his course.
~ceous and oily:seeds'  of vegetable substances, all TheyIattend him  to his evening retreat, and meet
the gums anid several' of the -'resins-the  white his rising   luster  in the morning with the same unwoods and vegetable -fiber, eitheFr in:the. form of erring law. They: unfold their flowers on the ap-.paper or linen;'also starch and loaf-su-gar aproved  proach of this luminary; they follow his course
to be' good phosphri:after beiing made tlihoroughly  by turning on their stems, and close them as soon
dry, andexposed to:the direct rays of the sun. as he disappears.  If a plant, also, is shut up in a
Certain a nimal Substanices, by ia.similar treatment, dark'room, and a small hole afterward opened.by
were also converted'int pihosspori;particularly  Which the'light  of the sun may eater, the plant
-bone, sinew,, glue, heir, airhonhoof, featbers,'and  will turn toward that hole, and: even alter its own
fish-shells. The same property was conimunica- shape in order to get near it;' so that though it
ted too rockcrystal  and'some'other of the gems, was straight before, it will in time become crooked,
by rubbing them against each other so as to rough-  that it may get near the light.  Vegetables placed
enthetir surfaces,    then  placi ng them'for some  inrooms where they receive light only' in one diminutes in the:focus of:a lens; by which the rays, rection, always extend themselves in that direction;,of light were concentrated upon them at the same'If they receive light in two directions, they direct.time that they'were'also moderately heated.       their course toward that which is strongest.  It is;In the year 1768, Mr. Canton contributed some  not the heat, but the light of the sun which the
important facts in relation to solar phosphori, and  plant thus covets; for, though a fire be kept in
communicated a method of preparing a very-pow- the- room, capable of giving a much stronger heat
erful one, which, after the inventor, is usually  than the sun, the plant will turn away from the
called Canton's phosphorus.  He affirms that his fire in order to enjoy the solar light.  Trees growphosphorus, inclosed in a glass flask, and hermeti- ingtin thick forests, where they only receive light
cally' sealed, retains its property of becoming lu, from  above, direct their shoots almost invariably
minous for at least four years, without any appar- upward, and therefore become much  taller and
ent decrease of activity.  It has also been found  less spreading than such as stand single.
that, if a common box smoothing-iron, heated in    The green color of plants is likewise found to
the usual manner, be placed for half a minute -on a depend on the sun's- light being allowed to shine
sheet of dry, white paper, and the paper be then ex- on them; for without the influence of the solar
posed to the light, and afterward examined in a dark  light they are always of a white color.  It is found
eloset, it will be found that the whole paper will by experiment that,- if a plant which has been
be luminous, that part, however; on which the iron  rearedin darkness be exposed to the light of day,
had. stood being much more shining than the rest. in two or three days it will acquire. a green color
From the above facts-it would seem that certain  perceptibly. similar to that of plants which have
bodies have the power of imbibing light and again  grown in open daylight.' If we expose to the light
emitting it, inicertain dircumstances, and that this one part of' the plant, whether leaf or branch, this
power may remain':for-fa considerable length' of part alone will become green.  If we cover any
time.  It is observed that the -light which such  part of a leaf with an opaque substance, this place
bodies iemit', b'ears an analogy to that which they  will remain white, while the- rest becomes green.
have imbibed.. In general, the illuminated phos- The whiteness of the inner leaves of cabbages is
phorus is reddish; but when a weak light only has a partial effect of the same cause, and many other
been:admitted to it,.or when it has been received  examples of the same kind might easily be prothrough pieces of white paper, the emittedlight is duced.  M. Decandolle, who seems to have paid
pale or whitish.  Mr. Morgan, in the'seventy-fifth
volume of the Philosophical Transactions, treats superstition, served to astonish' and affright the timorous.the subject of lighteat -eonsiderable length; and as We learn from Fabricius, an Italian, that three young men,.a foundation ifor his reasoning, he assumes the -residing at Padua, having bought a lamb, and eaten part of
it on Easter day, 1592, several pieces of the remainder,
following data: 1. That light is a body, and, like  which they kept until the following day, shone like so many
all others, subject to the laws,of attraction.  2. candles when they were casually viewed in the dark. The
That light is ax heterogeneous body, and that the  astonishment k)f the'whole city was excited by this phenosame attractive power- operates withi different de- menon, and a part of the flesh was sent to Fabricius, who
was.professor of anatomy, to be examined by him. Ie oh.
grees of -force on its -different parts.  To the prin- served that those parts which were soft to the touch and
aiple of attraction, likewise, Sir Isaac Newton has transparent in candle-light were the most resplendent; and
referred the most- extraordinary phenomena of also that some pieces'of kid's flesh which had happened to
have laid in contact with them were luminous, as well as:lightf, Refraction anode Inflections.':/-e has also en- the fingers and other parts of the bodies of those persons
deavored to show that light is not only subject to  who touched them. Bartholin gives an account of a' simi.
the law of attraction, but of repulsion also, sincelar phenomenon, which happened in Montpelier, in 141. —
it isrepe-lled or reflected from certain bodies.  If A poor woman had bought a piece of flesh in the market,
such princples boe admitted, thenicet so dighly  pro- s.intending to make use of it on the following day; but hap.
such princ ples be admitted,' hen~ it is lhighly pro, penlng not:to be able'to sleep well that night, and her bed
bable that the phosphorescent bodies to which we  and pantry being in the sam'e room, she observed so much
have adverted have a power of attracting or- im-. light come fiom the flesh-as to illuminate all the place where
bing  the substane  of light, and of retaining or it hung. We may judge of the terror and astonishment of
bilinghsbstneoi g h,a oretaining      the woman herself, when we find that a part of this lumin
giving it out.under certain circumstances, and  ous flesh was carried as a very extraordinary curiosity to
that the matter of light is incorporated, at least, Henry, duke of Conde, the-governor of the place, who viewed
with tiWe surface of -such bodies- but on this sub- it several hours with the greatest astonishment. The light
was as if gems had been scattered over the surface, and
ject, as on many others, there is a difference of continued until te flesh began to putrefy, when it vanished,
opinion among philosophers.*                        which it was believed to do in the form of a cross. Hence
________________ _;' _ __ _ __'the propriety of instructing the mass of the community in
the knowledge of the facts connected with the material sys.
Light of a phosphoric nature is frequently emitted from  tem, and the physical causes of the various phenomena of
various putrescent animal'substaiices, which, in the age%.'of nature.




GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LIGHT                                      19
particular. attention to this subject, has the follow- their light together, it could be observed at a coning remarks: " It is certain, that between the siderable distance. The phenomenon was zema.kwhite state of plants vegetating in darkness, and edO in the months of July and August at sunset,
*complete verdure, every possible intermediate de- and for half an hour when the atmosphere was
gree exists, determined by the intensity of the clear; but after a rainy day, or when the air was
light.  Of this any one may easily satisfy him- loaded with vapors, nothing of it was seen. The
self by attending to the color of a plant exposed following flowers ermitted flashes more or less
to the full daylight; it' exhibits  in.succession all vivid, in this order: 1. The Marigold. 2. Monk's
the degrees of verdure. - I had already seen the Hood. 3. The Orange Lily.  4. The Indian Pink.
same phenomenon, in a particular manner, by ex- As to the cause of this phenomenon, different
posing plants reared in darkness to the light of opinions may be entertained.  From  the rapidity
lamps.  In these experiments, I not only saw'the of the flash and other circumstances, it may be
color come on gradually, according to the con- conjectured that electricity is concerned inll protinuance of the exposure to light, but I satisfied ducing'this appearance. M. Haggern, after hayvmyself that a certain intensity of permanent light ing observed the flash from the orange lily, the
never gives to.a plant more than a certain degree antherme of which are at considerable distance
of color. The same fact readily shows itself in from  the petals, found that the light proceeded
nature, when we examine the plants that grow  from the petals only; whence he concludes that
under shelter or in forests, or when we examine this electrical light is caused by the pollen, which,
in succession the state of the leaves that form the in flying off, is scattered on.the petals. But, perheads of cabbages."*  haps, the true cause of it still remains to be ascerIt is likewisefound that the perspiration of vge- tained.
tables is increased or diminished, in a certain mea-   10. Light has been supposed to produce a certain
sure by the degree of light which falls upon them. degree of influence on the PROPAGATION OF SOUND.
The experiments of Mr. P. Miller, and others, prove M. Parolette, in a long paper in the," Journal de
that plants uniformly perspire most in the fore- Physique," vol. 68, which is copied into " Nichnoon, -though- the temperature of the air in which olson's Philosophical Journal," vol. 25, pp. 28-39,
they are placed should be unvaried   M. Guet- has offered a variety of remarks, and detailed a
tard likewise informs us that a plant exposed to number of experiments on this subject. The authe rays of the sun has its perspiration increased thor states the following circumstances as having
to a much greater degree than if it had been ex- suggested the connection between light and sound:
posed to the same heat under theshade.  Vegeta-," In 1803 I lived in Paris, and being accustomed
bles are'likewise found to be indebted to light for to rise before day to finish a work on which I had
their smell, taste, combustibility, maturity, and long been employed, I found myself frequently
the -resinous principle, which equally depend upon disturbed by the sound of carriages, -as my winthis fluid. The aromatic'substances, resins, and dows looked into one of the most frequented
volatile oils, are the productions of'-southern cli- streets in that city. This. circumstance, which
mates, where-the light is more pure, constant, and  disturbed me in my studies every morning, led
intense.  In fine, another remarkable property of me to remark that the appearance of daybreak
light on the vegetable kingdom is, that; when vege- peculiarly affected the propagation of the sound;
tables are exposed to open daylight, or to the sun's from  dull and deep, which it was before day, it
rays, they emit oxygen gas, or vital air. It has seemed to me to acquire a more sonorous sharpbeen proved that, in the production of this effect, ness in the period that succeeded the dissipation
the sun does not act as a body that heats. The of darkness. The rolling of the wheels seemed
emission of the gas is determined by the light: to announce the friction of some substances grown
pure air is therefore separated by the action of more elastic; and my ear,'on attending to it, perlight, and the operation is stronger as the light is ceived this difference diminish in proportion as
more vivid. By this continual emission of vital the sound of wheels was confounded with those
air, the Almighty incessantly purifies the atmo- excited by the tumult of objects quitting their
sphere, and repairs the loss of pure air occasioned  nocturnal silence. Struck with this observation,
by respiration,, combustion, fermentation, putre- I attempted to discover whether any particular
faction, and numerous other processes which have causes had deceived my ears.  I rose several times
a tendency to contaminate this fluid, so essential before day for this purpose alone, and was every
to the vigor and comfort of animal life; so that, time confirmed in my suspicion that light must
in this way, by the agency of light, a due equili- have a peculiar influence on the propagation of
orium is always maintained between the constitu- sound. This variation, however, in the manner
e.it parts of the atmosphere.'.      n which the air gave sounds, might be the effect
In connection with this subject the following of the agitation of the atmosphere produced by
curious phenomenon may be stated, as related by the rarefaction the presence of the sun occasioned;
M. Haggein, a lecturer on Natural History in but the situation of my windows, and the usual
Sweden.'One evening he perceived a faint flash direction of the morning breeze, militated against
of light repeatedly dart from a marigold. Sur-'this argument."
prised at such an uncommon appearance, he re-   The author then proceeds to give a description
solved to examine it with'attention; and, to be as- of a very delicate instrument, and -various appasured it was no deception of the eye, he placed a ratus for measuring the propagation and intensity
man. near him, with orders to make a signal at of sound, and the various experiments both in the
the moment when he observed the light. They  dark and in daylight, and likewise under different
both saw it: constantly at the same moment. The changes of the atmosphere, which were made
light was most brilliant on marigolds of an orange with his apparatus, all of which tended to prove
or flame color,' but scarcely visible on pale ones. that light had a sensible influence in the propagaThe flash was frequently seen on the:same flower tion of sound. But the detail of these experitwo or'three times in quick succession, but more ments, and their several results, would be too tedicommonly at intervals of several minutes;' and ous to be here transcribed.  The night has genewhen'several flowers in the same place emitted rally been considered as more favorable than the
day for the transmission of sound.  "That this
Memoires de la Soc'. d &oncil, vol. ii.  is the case," says Parolette, " with respect to our




20                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
ears cannot be doubted  but this argues nothing It descends to us from the solar orb. It wings its
against my opinion. We hear farther by: night way through the voids- of space, along a course
on account of the silence, and this always con- of ninety-five millions of'miles, until it arrives at
tributes to it, while the noise of a wind favorable the outskirts-of our globe;; it passes freely through
to the propagation of a sound may prevent  the the surrounding atmosphere; it strikes upon the
sound from  being heard"'-' In reference to the clouds, and is reflected by them; it irradiates the
cause which produces the effect now stated, he. mountains, the vales, the forests, the rivers, the
proposes the following queries: "Is the atmo- seas, and all the productions of the vegetable kingsplheric air more dense on the appearance of light' dom, and adorns them with a countless assemthan in darkness?  Is this greater density of the blage of colors.  It scatters and disperses its rays
air, or of the elastic fluid that is subservient to from one end of creation to another, diffusing itthe propagation of sound, the effect of aeriform  self throughout every sphere of the universe.  It
substances kept- in this state through the medium  flies without intermission from  star to star, and
of light?"' He is disposed,;,on the whole, to con- from  suns to planets, throughout the boundless
clude- that the effect in question is owing to the sphere of immensity, forming a connecting chain
action of light upon theoxygen of the atmosphere, -and a medium  of communication among all tlhe
since oxygen gas is found by'experiment to be worlds and beings within the wide empire of Omnbest adapted to the transmission of sound.       nipotence.
Our' author concludes his communication with    When Ithe sun is said "to rule over the day,"
the, ~following remarks: ", Light has a velocity  it is intimated that he acts as the vicegerent of
900,000 times-as rapid as that of sound. Whether the Almighty, who has invested him with a mfeit emanate from the sun and reach to our earth,'chanical power of giving light, life, and motion to
or act by means of vibrations agitating the parti-  all the beings susceptible of receiving impressions
cles of a fluid of a peculiar nature, the particles from his radiance. As the servant of his Creator,
of this fluid must be extremely light, elastic, and he distributes blessings without number'among
active. Nor does it appear to me unreasonable to all the tribes of sentient and intelligent existence.
ascribe to the mechanical action of these particles When his rays illumine the eastern sky in the
set iii motion by the sun, the effects its presence morning, all nature is enlivened with his presence.
occasions in the vibrations that proceed from sono- When he sinks beneath the western horizon, thei
roes bodios. The more deeply:we investigate the flowers droop, the birds retire to their nests, and a
theory of'light, the more we must perceive that mantle of darkness is spread over the landscape of
the powers by which the universe is moved reside the world. When he approaches the equinox in
in the imperceptible particles of bodies; and that spring, the animal and vegetable tribes revive and
the grand results of nature are but an assemblage nature puts on a new and a smiling aspect. When
of an order of actions that take place in its in- he declines toward the winter solstice, dreariness
finitely small- parts; consequently, we cannot in- and desolation ensue, and a temporary death takes
stitute a series of experiments more interesting place -among the tribes of the vegetable world.
than those which tend to develop the properties This splendid luminary, whose light embellishes
of light.  Our organs of sense. are so immediately  the whole of this lower creation, forms the most
connected with-the fluid that enlightens us, that'a lively representation of Him  who is the source
notion of having acquired an idea of the mode of and the center of all beauty and perfection. " God -
action of this fluid presents itself to our minds, is a sun," the sun of the moral and spiritual unias the hope of a striking advance in the know- verse, from whom  all the -emanations of knowledge of what composes the organic mechanism  ledge, love, and felicity descend.  " He covereth
of our life,:and of that of beings which closely himself with  light as with a garment," and
follow the rank assigned to the human species." " dwells in light inaccessible and full of glory."
Such is a brief description of some of the lead- The felicity and enjoyments of the future world
ing' properties of light. Of all the objects that are adumbrated under the ideas of light and qlory.
present themselves to the philosophic and contem- " The glory of God enlightens the celestial city;"
pilative mind, light. is one of the noblest and most its inhabitants are represented as " the saints in
interesting.  The action it exerts on all the com- light;" it is declared that " their sun shall no
binations of matter, its extreme divisibility, the more go down," and that "tihe Lord God is their
rapidity of its- propagation, the sublime wonders everlasting light."  So that light not only cheers
it reveals, and the office it performs in what con- and enlivens all beings throughout the material
stitutes the life of organic beings, lead us to con- creation, but is the emblem of the Eternal Mind,
sider it as a substance acting the first part in the,and of all that is delightful and transporting in
economy of nature.,The magic power which this the scenes of a blessed immortality.
emanation from the heavens exerts on our organs   In the formation of light, and the beneficent efOf vision, in exhibiting to our view the sublimle fects it produces, the wisdom and goodness of the
spectacle of the universe, cannot -be sufficiently Almighty are conspicuously displayed. Without'admlired.  Nor is its power confined tothe organs. the beams. of the sun and the influencd of' light,
of sight; all our senses, are, in a greater or. less what wereall the realms of this world but an undisdegree, subjected to the action of light, and all tinguished chaos and so many dungeons of darkthle objects in this lower creation-whether in the ness?  In vain should we roll our eyes around to
animal, the vegetable, or the mineral kilngdoms-  behold,amid the universal.'gloom, the floweryfields,
are, to a certain extent, susceptible of its influ- the verdant plains, the flowing streams, the expanence. Oqr globe appears to be little more than an sive ocean, the moon walking inbrightness, the paeaccumulation of terrestrial materials introduced nets in their courses, or the innumerable host of
into the boundless ocean of the solar light, as a stars.  All would be lost to the eye of man, and the
theater on which it may display its exhaustless "blackness of darkness" would surround him
power and energy, and give animation, beauty, forever.' And with how much wisdom has every-.
and sublimity to every surrounding scene, and to thing been arranged in relation to the motions and
regulate all the powers of natule, and render them. minuteness of light?  Were it capable of being
subservient to the purposes for which they were transformed into a solid substance, and retain its
ordained.  This elementary'substance appears to present velocity, it would form the most dreadful
be-universal in its movements and in its influence. and appalling element'in  nature, and produce




ON- TIHE REFRACTION OF LIGHT.                                      21
universa~l-i terror arnd -destruction -throughout. the -effects, as it is- now directed. by unerring wisuniverse. That this is not-impossibl, and coild dom~  and beneficence, it exhibits, itself as the
easily be effected by the band of Omnip'tence, most benign and delightful element- connected
~appears fro'm  such:substances. as,phospaorus, [with the constitution ot;the material system,
where light.is supposed to be concentrated' iln I diffusing splendor and felicity wherever its influa. solid state.   But'in. all its operations, and I ence extends.
C I.  A P T E R  V.
ON THE REFRACTION OF LIGHT.
REFRACTION  is the turning or bending of the  direction C E, which is cail.ed the refracted ray
rays.of light. outof their natural course.        Let the'line F G be. drawn perpendicular to the
Lightwhen proceeding from a luminous body —  surface of the water in C, then it is evident that the
without being reflected from any opaque substance  ray B C, in passing
or infleted. by passing near one-is invariabl  out of air, a   re                 Fig, 2.
found to proceed in straight lines without the least medium, into adenzse  L
deviation. -But: if it. happens'to pass obliquely  medium, as water, a. 
from one'medium to another, it always leaves the  is refracted into a
direction it had before-and assumes a new one. ray C E, which is
This change of direction, or bendingofthe rays nearer to the perof light ishat is called Rejraction —a term which  pendicular C G than A 
probably had its origin. from the broken appearance  the incident ray B
which a staff or a long pole exhibits when a por- C and, on the con-             -
tioh of ft isimmersed inr wate —the word, de- trary,n the ray E C,' __        -____=tha e
rived from  the Latinfranyo, literally signifying  passing  out of  a  I            G    E       ti
breaking lor bending.                            denser mediun into.
-When Jlight is thus refracted, or has taken a a rarer, will be refracted into CB, which is farther
new: direction, it then proceeds invariably in aj from the perpendicular.
straight line until it meets with a different me-'-  The same thing may be otherwise illustrated as
diumnr, when it is again turned out of its course. follaows: Suppose a hole madein one of the sides of
It nust  be observed, however, that though we  the vessel as at a, and a lighted candle placed witlin
may by this means  cause the rays of light to  two or three feet of it, when empty, so that its flame'make any -number of angles in their course, it is may be at L, a ray of light proceeding from  it
impossible for us to make them  describe a curve, will pass through:the hole, a, in a straight line, L
except in one single case, namely, where they  B C K, until it reach the bottom of the vessel at
pass-through a medium, the density of which  K, where it will form  a small circle of light.
either uniformly increases or diminishles.  This is Having put a mark at the point K, pour water
the case with the- light of the celestial bodies, into the vessel until it rise to the hight A D, and
which passes downward through our atmosphere, the round spot that was formerly at K will appear
and likewise.with that which is reflected upward  at E; that is, the ray which went straight forwald,
through.it by terrestrial objects.  In both these  when the vessel was empty, to K, has been bent
cases it describes a curve of the hyp'erbolic kind; at the point C, where it falls into the water, into
but at all other times it proceeds in straight lines, the line C B.   In this experiment it is necessary
or in what may be taken for straight lines without that the front of the vessel should be of glass, in
any sensible error.                               order that the course of the ray may be seein; and
-There:are two circumstances essentialto refrac- if a little -soap be mixed with the water so as to
tion. 1. That the rays of light shall pass out of give it a little mistiness, the ray C E- will be disone medium into another of a-different density, tinctly perceived. If, in place of fresh water, we
or of a greater or less degree of resistance.  2. pour in salt water, it will be found that the ray
That; they pass ill an oblique direction.  The  B C is more bent at C. In like manner, alcolhol
denser the refracting medium,'or that into which  will refract the ray B C more than salt water, and
the ray. enters, the greater will beits' refracting  oil more than alcohol. and a piece of solid glass,
power; and of two refracting mediums of the  of the shape of the water, would refract the light
same density, that-which is of an oily or inflam- still more than the oil.
-mable nature will have a greater refracting power    The angle of refraction depends on the oblithan the other.  The nature of, refraction may  quity of the rays falling on the refracting surface
be more -particularly explained and illustrated by  being always such, that the sine of the incident
the following figure and description:-           angle is to the sine of the refracted angle in a
~Let A' D H I,:fig. 2,-be a body of water, A D  given proportion.  The incident angle is the angle
its. surface, C a point in which a ray of light, B  made by a ray of light and a line drawn perpenC;-en'ters from the air into the water. This ray, dicular to the refracting surface, at the point where
by the greater density of the water, instead of the light enters the surface.  The r'efracted angle
passing straight forward in its' first direction to K,  is the angle made by the ray in the refracting meWill'be bent at the point C, and pass'along in the  dium with the same perpendicular produced. The
sine of the angle is a line which serves to measure
a ray of light moves, whether puire space, air, water, glass,om  a point in 
diamond, or any other-transparent substance through which perpendicular to the other.  The following figure
bhe rays of light can-pass in straight lines.     (fig. 3) will tend to illustrate these definitions.




22:-THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
In this figure, B C.is the incident ray, C E -the at the point; then let water be poured into t0le
refracted ray, D  G the perpendicular, A D the basin, and the shadow will then fall much nearer
sine of the angle.of incidence, A C D,'and H R  to the side next the candle. than before. This
the sine of. the angle of refraction G C E. - Now, experiment may likewise be performed by simply
observing the change produced on the shadow of
Fig. 3.                     the side of the basin itself. Again, put a long
stick obliquely into deep water,.and the stick will
seem to be broken at the point where it appears
at the surface of the water, the part which is
immersed in the water appearing to be bent upward.  Hence every one must have observed that
in rowing a boat the ends of the oars appear bent
N-.C -.,. lo or broken every time they are immersed in the
water, and their appearance at such tirr.s is a:-       -        -—. representation of the course of the refracted rays.
- Again, fill a pretty deep jar with water, and you
__-_______F                      -  ill observe the bottom  of the jar considerably
elevated, so that it appears much shallower than
it did before the water was poured in, in theipro-'~? --.E.  ~'         portion of nearly a third of its depth which is
-owing to the same cause as that which makes
it is a proposition, in optics, that the sine A D of the end of a stick immersed in water appeal' more
the angle of incidence B C D. is either accurately  elevated than it would do if there were no refr'acor very nearly in a given proportion to the sine H  tion. Another experiment may be just mentioned.
R of the angle of refraction G C E.  This ratio  Put a sixpence-in a wine-glass, and pour upon it
of the sines is as four to three, when the refiac- a little water.  When viewed in a certain position,
tion is made out of air into water, that is, A D is two sixpences will appear in the glass-one image
to H R as four to three. When the refraction is of the sixpence from below, which comes directly
out of air into glass, the proportion is about as to the eye, and another which appears considerably
thirty-one to twenty, or nearly as three to two. raised above the other, in consequence of the rays
If the refraction be out of air into diamond, it is of light rising through the water, and being reas five to two, that is A D: H R:: 5: 2. The fracted. In this experiment the wine-glass should
denser the medium  is, the less is the angle and  not be more than half filled with water.
sine of refraction.  If a ray of light, M C, were    The refraction of light explains the causes of
to pass from air into water, or from empty space many curious and interesting phenomena both in
into air, in the direction M  C, perpendicular to  the heavens and on the earth. When we stand on
the plane N O, which separates the two mediums, the banks of a river, and look obliquely through
it would suffer no refraction, because -one of the the waters to its bottom, we are apt to think it is
essentials to that effect is wanting, namely, the  much shallower than it really is. If it be eight
obliquity of the incidence.                      feet deep in reality, it will appear from  the bank
It may also be proper to remark that a ray of to be only six feet; if it be five feet and a half
light cannot pass out of a denser medium into a deep, it will appear only about four feet. This is
rarer, if the angle of incidence exceed a certain  owing to the effects of refraction, by which the
limit. Thus a ray of light will not pass out of bottom  of the river is apparently raised by the
*glass into air,, if the angle of incidence exceed  refraction of the light passing through the water
400 11'; or. out of glass'nto water, if the angle into air, so as to make the bottom  appear higher
of incidence exceed 590 20'. In such cases re-. than it really is, as in the experiment with the jar
fraction will be changed into reflection,        of water. This is a circumstance of- some imThe following common experiments, which are  portance to be known and attended to in order to
easily performed, will illustrate the doctrine of personal safety; for many school-boys. and other
refraction: Put a shilling, or any other small ob- young persons have lost their lives by attempting
ject which is easily distinguished, into a basin or to ford a river, the bottom  of which appeared to
any other similar vessel, and then retire to such a be within their reach when they viewed it from
distance as that the edge of the vessel shall just its banks; and even adult traveiers on horseback
hide it from, your sight. If then you cause an- have sometimes fallen victims to this optical deother person to fill the vessel with water, you will ception; and this is not the only case in which a
find that the shilling is rendered perfectly visible, knowledge of the laws of nature may be useful
although you. have- not' in the' slightest degree  in guarding us against dangers and fatal accidents.
changed your position. The reason of this is,   It is likewise owing to this refractive power in
that the rays of light, by which it is rendered  water that a skillful marksman, who wishes to
visible are bent out of their course. Thus, suppose  shoot fish under water, is obliged to take aim
the shilling to have been placed at' the bottom  of considerably below the fish as it appears, because
the basin at E (fig. 2), the ray of light B C which  it seems much nearer the top of the water than
passes obliquely from  the air into water at C, it really is. An acquaintance with this property
instead of continuing its course to K, takes the  of light is particularly useful to divers, for, in any
direction- of C E, and, consequently, an object at of their movements or operations, should they aim
-E would be rendered visible by rays proceeding  directly at the object, they would arrive at a point
in that direction, when they would not have  considerably beyond it; whereas, by having some
touched it had they proceeded in their direct idea of the depth of the water, and the angle
course.'                              which a line drawn from  the eye to the object
The same principle is illustrated by the follow- makes with its surface, the point at the bottom
ing experiment: - Place a basin or square box on a of the water, between the eye and the object at
table, and a' candle at a small distance from it; lay  which the aim  is to be taken, may be easily dea small rod or stick across the sides of the basin, termined. For the same reason, a person below
and mark the place where the extremity of the water does not see objects distinctly.  For, as the
shadow falls, by placing a shilling or other object aqueous humor of the.eye has the same refrac



ON THE'REFRACTION OF'LIGHT.                                         23
five p)wler as waterthe rays of light from' any a by the atmospherical refraction,- which circumobject under water'will undergo. no refraction, in stance forms a very; pleasing-and beneficial-arpassing through the cornea and aqueous humor', rangement' in'the system  of' nature; It'not..only,
and will therefore meetin a.point'far:beyond the- prolongs to us the influence of the solarlight, and
retina.' But if any person, accustomed. to, go; adds nearly two hours to the length of our day,
below'water, should use a pair of Spectacles, con- but prevents us from being:transported all at once
sisting of two convex lenses, the radius of who6se from the darkness of midnight to the splendor of
surface is three-tenths of an inchi —which is nearly  noonday, and from the effulgence of day to the
the radius of the convexity of the cornea —he will gloom and horrors of the night, which would besee objects as distinctly below water as above it.   wilder the traveler and navigator in their journeys
It is owing to refraction that we cannot judge by sea or land, and strike the living world with
so accurately of magnitudes and distarces in terror and amazement.
twater as ill air.' A fish looks considerably larger   The following figure will illustrate the position
in water than when taken out: of  it. An object now stated, and the manner in which the refracplunged ver-tically into water always appears:con- tion of the atmosphere produces these effects:
tracted, and the more so as its upper extremity  Let A a C, fig. 4,' represent one-half of our globe,
approaches nearer the surface of the water. Every- and the dark space between that curve and B r D,
thing remaining in the same situation, if we take the atmosphere. A person standing on the earth's
the object gradually out:of the water, and it be of surface at a would see the sun rise at b, when
a slender form, we shall see it become larger and  that luminary was in reality. only at c, more than
larger, by a rapid development, as it were, of all half a degree below the horizon. When!  the rays
its parts. The distortion of objects, seen through
a crooked pane of glass- in a window., likewise                       Fig. 4.
arises from its'unequal refraction of the rays that
pass through it. It has been calculated that, in
looking through the common glass of a window,..,
objects appear about. the one-thirtieth of an inch.
ot of' thieir real place, by means of the:refraction...b''   "r
Refraction likewise produces an effect'upon the
heavenly bodies, so, that their apparent positions, 
are generally different from  their real.. By.the
refractive  power of the  atmosphere the isun
is:seen before he comes to the horizon in the
mornillg, and after he sinks beneath it in the 
svening; and hence this luminary is never seen        B  A                         C  D
in the place in which it really is, except' when it
passes the' zenith at noon, to places within the of the sun, after having proceeded in a straight
torrid zone. The sun is visible when actually line"'through empty space, strike the upper part
thirty-two minutes of a degree below the horizon, of the atmosphere at the point d, they are bent out
and-when the opaque rotundity of the earth is of their right-lined course bythe refraction of the
interposed between our eye and that orb, just on atmosphere, into the direction d a. so that the
the same principle as, in the experiment with the body of the sun, though actually intercepted by
shilling and basin of water, the shilling was seen the curve of the earth's Convexity, consisting of
when the edge of the basin interposed between it a dense mass of-land or water, is actually beheld
and the sight. The -refractive power of the atmo- by the spectator at a. The refractive power of
sphere has been found to be much, greater in cer- the atmosphere gradually  diminishes from  the
taili cases, than what has been now stated. In the horizon to the zenith, and increases - from  the.
year'1595, a company of Dutch sailors having zenith to the horizon, in proportion to the density
be'en'wrecked on the shores of Nova Zembla, and of its different strata, being densest at its lower
having been obliged to remain in that desolate extremity next the earth, and more rare toward
region during a night of more than three months, its higher regions.  If a person at a had the sun,
beheld the sun make his appearance in the horizon e, in his zenith, he would see him where he really
about sixteen days before the time in which he' is; forhis rays coming perpendicularly-'through
should have risen according to calculation, and the atmosphere, would be equally' attracted in all
when his body was actually more than four de- directions, and would, therefore, suffer no inflecgrees below the. horizon; which circumstance has tion. But, about two in the afternoon, he would
been -attributed to the great refractive power of the see the' sun at i, though, in reality, he was at k,
atmosphere in those intensely cold regions. This thirty-three seconds lower thean his appareunt siturefraction of the atmosphere, which renders the ap- ation. At about-four in the afternoon he would
parent iising and setting of the sun both earlier and  see him  at m, when he is at n, one minute and
later than:th e real, produces, at least,one impiortant thirty-ei'ght seconds from  his, apparent situation.
beneficial effect. It procures for us the benefit of a But at six o'clock, when we shall suppose he sets,
niuch longer day, at all seasons of the year, than he will be seen at o, though he; is at' that time at
we should enjoy did'not this property of the at- p, more than thirty-two minutes' below the horimo'sphere produceths e.ffect. It: is owing to the zon. These phenomena arise from the different
same'cause that the discs of the'sun and moon refractive powers of the atmosphere at different
appear elliptical ori oval when seen in the horizon, elevations, and from the obliquity with which the
their horizontal' diameters appearing longer tha-ni rays of light fall upon it; for we see every object
their  ertical, which is caused'by the greater re- along that line in which thei rays from itare directfraction of the rayscooming.from the lower limb, ed by the last medium through which they passed.
which is:immer'sed iii the densest part of,the at-   The same phenomena happen in -relation to the
mosphere.                                         moon, the planets, the comets, the stars, and every
The illumination of the heavens which precedes other celestial- body, all of which appear more
thet rising'of the sun, and continues some time'elevated,  especially when near the horizon, than
after he is' set, or what is commonly called the  their true places.  The variable and increasing
morning and evening twilight, is likewiseproduced refraction from  -the zenith to the horizon is a




24                          THE:'PRACTICAL. ASTRONOMER.
source' o considerable  trouble and difficulty: in Dieppe, which could not be much less than eighty
making astionomical observations,-and in nauiti- or ninety miles. -By the telescope the French
cal calculations;!. for, in order'to- idtermine the fishing-boats were plainlv seen'at anchor, and the
real altitudes of the" heavenly bodies, the exaict different colors of the land on the hights, with the
degree; of refraction at- the -observed elevation buildings, were perfectly discernible.
must be taken into- account. To <-the same cause   This singular phenomenon was doubtless occawe, are to ascribe a phenomenon:that has some- sioned by an'extraordinary'refraction, produced
times occurred, namely, thatt the.moon has been by an unusual expansion or condensation of the
seen rising totally eclipsed, white the sun was lower strata- of the atmosphere, arising from  cirstill visible in the opposie qlarer of: the horizon. cumstancesconnected with the extreme heat of the
At -the middle' of a toitl eclipse of the moon, the season. The objects seem to halve been apparentsun and. moon are in;opposition, or 180 degrees ly raised far above their natural positions; for,
asunder' and, therefore,-:w ere no atmosphere suri   from tlbe beach at Hastings, a straight line drawn
rounding the earth, these tuminarie's in such a across toward the French coast, would have been
position,.couldinever be seeii above the horizon at intercepte.d by'the curve of the waters.  They
the same time.  But, by'tlie refraction of the seem, also, to have been magnified by the refracatniosphere' near the horizon, the'bodies of the tion, and brought, apparently, four or five times
sun and moon are raised:more' than 32 iminutes nearer theee, than: in the ordinary state of the
above their: true places, which is equal, and some- atmosphere.
times -more than equal,'to: the apparent. diameters   The following are likewise instances of unusual
of these bodies.                                refraction: When Captain Colby was ranging
ExTRAORDINARY CASES OF REF~RACI'ION IN RELATION  over the coast of Caithness, with the telescope of, TO TERRESTRIAL. OBJEcrTS.N.RELAT- N his great Theodolite, oil the 21st of June, 1819, at
TO TERRESTRIAL -OBJECTS.
8 o'clock, P. M., fromn Corryhabbie Hill, near MortIn consequence of'the accidental condensation  lich, in BanfTshire, he observed  a blig over the
of certain strata of the atmosphere, sorne very  land of Caithness, sailing to the westward in the
singular effects have been produced in the appa- Pentland Frith, between the Dunnet and Dunrent elevation of terrestrial objects to a position  cansby heads. HIavilg satisfied himself as to the
much- beyond that in which they usually appear. fact, he requested his assistants, Lieutenants Rlobe
The  followingI instance is- worthy of notice. It and Dawson, to look  through  the  telescope,
is taken from the Philosophical Transactions of which they immediately did, and observed the
London for 1798, and was communicated by W. brig likewise.  It was very distinctly visible for
Latham, Esq., F. R. S., who observed tile pieno-  several minutes, while the party continued to
menon from Hastings, on the south coast of Eng- look at it, and to satisfy themselves as to its posiland: " On July'26, 1797, about five o'clock in tion. The brig could not have been less than
the afternoon, as I was sitting in my dining-room  from ninety to one hundred miles distant; and,
ill this place, which is situated upon the Parade, as the station on Corryhabbie is not above 850
close to the- seashore, nearly fronting the south, yards above the sea, the phenomenon is interest.
my attention was excited by a nu~mber of people ing. The thermometer was at 440. The night
running-down to the seaside. Upon inquiring and day preceding the sight of the brig had been
the reason, I was inforlmed that the coast of colntinually rainy and misty, and it was not until
France was: plainly- to be distinguished by the seven o'clock of the evening of the 21st that the
naked eye. I immediately went down to the clouds cleared off the hill.*
shore, and was surprised to find that, even with-   Captain Scoresby relates a singular phenome.
out the assistance of a telescope, I could very non of this kind, xyhicht occurred while he was
plainly see the cliffs on the opposite coast, which, traversing the Polar seas. His ship had been
at. the: nearest part, are between forty and fifty separated by the ice from  that of his father for a
miles distant, and are not to be discerned from that considerable time, and he was looking out for her
low-situation by theaid of the best glasses.  They every -day with great anxiety.  At length, one
appeared to- be: only a few miles off, and seemed evening, to his utter astonishment, he saw  her
to extend for some leagues along the coast.  I suspended in the air, in an inverted position,
pursued my walk along tte shore eastward, close traced on the horizon in the clearest colors, and
to the water's edg, conversing- with the sailors with the most distinct and perfect representation.
and fishermen; upon the subject.  They at first He sailed in the direction in which he saw  this
would not belpersuaded of the reality of the ap- visionary phenomenon, and actually found his
pearance; but they soon became so thoroughly father's vessel by its indication.  He was divided
convinced by the cliffs- gradually appearing more from him by immense masses of icebergs, and at
elevated, and approaching nearer, as it were, that such a distance that it was quite impossible to
they pointed out and named to me the different have seen the ship in her actual situation, or to
places they had been accustomed to visit, such, as have seen her at all, if her spectrum had not been
the Bay, the Old Head, or Man, the Windmill, thus raised several degrees above the horizon into
&c., at Bologne,-St. Vallery, and other places on the sky by this extraordinary refraction. She
the coast Of -Picardy, which they afterward icon- w reconed to be seventeen miles beyond the
firmed, when they viewed them through their visible horizon, and thirty miles distant.
teiescopes.: X Their observations were, that the    Mrs. Somerville states that a friend of hers,
places appeared as near as if they were sailing, at while standing on the plains of Hindostan, saw
a small distance,'into the harbors.  The day on the whole upper chain of the Himalaya Moun-.
which this phenomenon was seen was extremely tains start into view, from a sudden change in the
hot; it was high.water at- Hastings about two density of the air, occasioned by a heavy shower,
o'clock, r. M'., and not a breath of wind was -stir- after a'long course of dry and hot weather.  In
ring theo-whole day." -From` the summit of an looking at distant objects through a telescope,
adjacent hill, a most' beautiful scene is said to over the top of a ridge of hills, about two miles
have presented itself  At btone glance the specta-  distant, I have several times observed that some
tors could see Dungeness, Dover Cliffs, and the        -.       - -       -
French coast, all: along from Calais to St. Vallery,   * Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for October 1819
and, as some affirmed, as far to the westward as p. 411.




ON THE REFRACTION OF: LIGHT.                                      25
of the more distant objects which are sometimes ants. When a ray of light enters obliquely into
hid by the interposition of a ridge of hills, are at the atmosphere, instead of passing directly through
other times distinctly visible above them.  I have it bends a little downward, so that the greater
sometimes observed that objects near the middle portion of the rays which thus enter the atmoof the field of view of a telescope, which'was in spheric mass descend by inflection to the earth.
a. fixed position>, have suddenly' appeared to de- We then enjoy the benefits of that light which
seeid to the lower part, or ascend to the upper would otherwise have been totally lost.  We perpart of the field, while the' telescope remained  ceive the light of day an hour before the solar
inal'tered.  I have likewise seen, with a powerful orbF makes its appearance, and a portion of its
telescope, the Bell Rock Lighthouse, at the dis- light is still retained when it has descended nearly
tance of about twenty miles,- to appear as if coil- eighteen degrees below our horizon.  We thus
tracted to less than two-thirds' of its usual appa — enjoy, throughout the year, seven hundred and
rent hight, While every part of it was quite dis- thirty hours of: light which would have been lost
tinct and well-defined, and inh the course of an had it not been refracted down upon us from the
hour, or less, appeared to shoot up to its usual upper regions of the atmosphere.  To the inhabiapparent elevation - all which phenomena are tants of the polar regions this effect is still more
evidently produced by the same cause to which interesting and beneficial.  Were it not for their
we' have been adverting.                         twilight, they would be involved, for a much:Such are some of the striking effects produced longer period than they now are, in perpetual
by the refraction of' light. It enables us to see darkness; but by the powerful refraction of light
objects in a direction where they are not; it raises, which takes place in the frigid zones, the day
apparently, -the bottoms of lakes and rivers; it sooner makes its appearance toward spring, and
magnifies objects wheii their light passes through  their long winter nights are, in certain cases,
dense mediums; itmakesthe sun appear above the shortened by the period of thirty days.  Under
horizon when ihe is actually below it, and thus in- the poles, where the darkness of night would concreases the length of our day; it produces theAuro- tinue six months without intermission, if there
ra and the evening twilight, which forms, in many were no refraction, total darkness does not prevail
instances, the most delightful part of a summer day; during the one-half of this period. When the
it prevents us from being involved in total darkness, sun sets, at the north pole, about the 23d of Septhe moment after the sun has descended beneath tember, the inhabitants (if any) enjoy a perpetual
the horizon; it modifies the appearances of the ce- aurora until he has descended eighteen degrees'estidal bodies, and the directions in which they are below  the horizon.  In his-course through the
beheld; it tinges the sun, moon, and stars, as well ecliptic the sun is two months before he can reach
as the clouds, with a ruddy hue when near the this point, during which time there is a perpetual
horizon; it elevates the appearance of terrestrial twilight.  In two months more he arrives again
objects, and, in certain extraordinary cases, brings at the same point, namely, eighteen degrees bethem nearer to our view, and enables us to behold low the horizon, when a new twilight commences,
them when beyond the line of our visible horizon. which is continually increasing in brilliancy for
In combination with the power of reflection, it other two months, at the end of which the body
creates visionary landscapes, and a variety of gro- of this luminary is seen rising in all its glory.
tesque and extraordinary appearances, which de- So that, in this region, the light of day is enjoyed
light and astonish, and sometimes appall the be- in a greater or less degree, for ten months without
tholders.' In short, as we shall afterward see more interruption by the effects of atmospheric refracparticularly, the refraction of light through glasses tion; and, during the two months'when the inof different figures forms the principle on which fluence of the solar light is entirely withdrawn,
telescopes and microscopes are constructed, by the moon is shining above the horizon for two
which both the remote and the minute wonders -half months without intermission; and thus it
of creation have been disclosed to view. So that, happens that no more than two separate forthad there been no bodies capable of refracting the nights are passed in absolute darkness; and this
rays of light, we should have remained forever ig- darkness is alleviated by the light of the stars and
norant of many sublime and august objects in the frequent coruscations of the Aurora Borealis.
the remote regions of the universe, and of the Hence it appears that there are no portions of our
admirable mechanism  and the countless variety globe that enjoy, throughout the year, so large a
of minute objects which lie beyond the range of portion of the solar light as these northern regions,
the unassisted eye in our lower creation, all of which is chiefly owing to the refraction of the
which are calculated to direct our views, and to atmosphere.
enlarge our conceptions of the Almighty Creator.   The refraction of light by the atmosphere, comIn the operation of the law  of refraction in bined with its power of reflecting it, is likewise
these and numerous other instances, we have a the cause of that universal light and splendor
specimen of the diversified and beneficent effects which appears on all the objects around us. Were
which the Almighty can produce by the agency the earth disrobed of its atmosphere, and exposed
of a single principle in nature. By the influence naked to the solar beams, in this case we might
of the simple law of gravitation the planets are see the sun without having day, strictly so called.
retained in their orbits, the moon directed in her His rising would not be preceded by any twilight
course around the earth, and -the whole of the'as it now is. The most intense darkness would
bodies connected with the sun preserved in one cover us until the very moment of hisrising; ihe
harmonious system.  By the same law the moun- would then suddenly break out from  under the
tains  of our globe rest on a solid basis, the rivers horizon with the same splendor he would exhibit
flow through the plains toward the seas, the ocean at the highest part of his course, and would not
is confined to its prescribed boundaries, and the change his brightness until the very moment of
inhabitants  of the earth are retained to its surface, his setting, when, in an instant, all would be black
and prevented from  flying upward through the as the darkest night.' At noonday we should see
voids of space.  In like manner, the- law  by the sun like an intensely-brilliant globe shiling
which light  is' refracted produces a variety of in a sky as black as ebony, like a clear fire in the
beneficial effects essential to the present constitu- night seen in the midst of an extensive field, and
tion of our world and the comfort of its inhabit- his rays would show us the adjacent objects




26;'THE;E PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
immediately around us: but the rays:which fallon as soon as they are within  the reach of his eye
the objects remote:from us woud. be forever lost Now, by means., of refraction, the tops of hills
in the  expanse of- thei-leavens.  Insteadof the and the   elevated parts.of coasts are apparently
beautiful azuref ofthe:sky,a-,nd. the, colors -wwhich raised into the air, so that they may be discovered
distinguish thelfa'e. of  ature byday, we should several leagues farther off on the sea- than they
see nothing.. hut an abyss of darkiess, and the stars would.be.did no such refractive: lpower exist. This
shining from aovaukt as dark achaos. Thus there circumstahce: is therefore a considerable benefit to
would be no day-, such us we now. enjoy<, without the mscienc  of navigaon     nabinthe athe atmiosphere since it,-is by- therefraction and riner to steer his course  aright, and to, give
reflections connectetd'twith Ithis aerial fluid that hi  the most early warning  of- the track he ought
lighitis so.modified and diie:ted as.:to.:,:roduce all to take, or of the dangers to which he may be
that beauty, spl'endor-, and harmony which appear dexposed...
on the concave: of the  ky, and,:-onthe:' objects:  In short, the effects produced by the refraction
which diversify our terrestrialabode..        and reflection of light on the scenery connected....ThIe effect of refraction, in l re espect:to terrestrial with our globe teach us that these principles, in
objects, is likewise of a ben.eficial, nature.   The the handof the Almighty, might be so modifie
quantity of this refraction: is estimated by D; and directed as to produce the most picturesque,
/-askelyne  at one:tenthh'of the:' distance ofthe t he most glorious, and wonderful phenomena,
objec'tiobservedexpresed in degrees of a great such as mortal eyes have never yet seen, and of
circle. Hefice, if the distance be 10,000.fathoms, which' human imagination can form  no concepits:tenth part:1000 fathoms, is the sixtieth:part of tion; and in other worlds, more resplendent and
a degree,. or one  minute, which is the: refraction magnificent than ours, such  scenes may be fully
in altitude; "Le Gendre estimates it, at one-four- realized, in combination.with the operation of
teenth, De Lambre'at one-eleventh, and others at physical principles and agents with which we are
a'twelfth of:the distance;'b  t it must be supposed at present unacquainted.  From what' we already'to vary at.different times and places according to know, of the effects of the reflection and the rethe varying state of the atmosphere. This refrac- fraction of light, it is-not beyond the bounds of
tion,'as it makes objects appear to be raised higher probabilitt to suppose' that, in certain regions of
than they really'are, enlarges the extent of our the universe, light may be. reflected and refracted
landscapes, and enables us to perceive distant ob- through different mediums, in such a manner as
jects which- would otherwise have been invisible. to present to the view  of their inhabitants the
It is particularly useful' to the' navigator at sea. prominent scenes connected with distant systems
It is one important object of'the mariner, when and worlds, and to an extent as shall infinitely
traversing his course, to look^ out for capes and surpass the effects produced by our most powerful
headlands, rocks and:'islands, so as to descry them  telescopes.; I A P T ER  III.
ON THE REFRACTION OF: LIGHT THROUGH SPHERICAL TRANSPARENT SUBSTANCES, OR LENSES.
IT is to the. refraction of light that we are  in- abstract mathematical demonstrations, but shall
*debted for the- use Of jleises or artificial glasses to simply offer a few explanations of general prilciaid the powers of the vision.  It lays the founda- pies, and several experimental illustrations, which'
tion of telescopes,microscopes, camera obscuras, may enable the general reader to understand the
phantasmnagoriasand other optical instruments, by construction of the optical instruments to be afterwhich' so many beautiful, useful, and wonderful ward described.
effects have been produced.: In order, therefore, to   A lens is a transparent substance of a different
density from the surrbounding medium, and termiFig...;.i~  5. Eo *..... nating in two surfaces, either both spherical, or one
- AP:.P    lano-ceonvex.                spherical and the other plain.  It is usually made.: X.:    0          - -       -of glass, but may also be formed of any other,: Blll ptalllmlll~lW  P -concavae.; - - -transparent substance, as ice, crystal, diamonds,
pebbles, or fluids of.different densities and refractive powers, inclosed between concave glasses.
~C~~Do     ubleX  CGonvex.             Lenses are ground into various forms, according
to the purpose they are intended to serve.  They
oube  oncve.be generally. distinguished as being either
convex or concave. A convex glass is thickest in
the middle, and thinner toward the extremities.
Of. these there arevarious forms, which are repre-"enius.  sented in fig. 5. A is 4 plano-convex lens, which
E:.' ~ I      i'  Con~cave~-convex,,  - -has one side plane, and the other spherical or
convex.  B is a plano-concave, which is plane on.illustrate the principles on whichsuch instruments the'one side and concave on the other.  C is a
-are constructed'.it is necessary to explain the man-  double-convex, or one which is spherical on both
ner in which the. rays of light are refracted:and sides.  D, a double-concave, or concave on both
modified when passing'.through:,spherical'rediums' sides.'E is called a meniscus, which is'convex on
of.different forms.'I do not intend, however, to one side and concave on'the other.  F is, a conenter into the'minutime of this subjct, n0rinto any cavo-convex, the convex side of which is of a




ON THE REFRACTION OF LIGHT.-                                            27
smaller sphere than the concave.  In regard to
the degree of convexity or concavity in lenses, it
is evident that there may-be almost an infinite  Fig. 6.  
variety.  For every convex surface is. to be sconsidered as the segment of a circle, the diameter         H ___
and the radius of which may vary to almost any
extent.  Hence lenses have been formed by op- g. 7. G
ticians, varying from  one fiftieth of an inch in         I
radius to two hundred feet.  When we speak of                                               B
the length of the radius of a lens, as, for instance
when we say that a lens is two inches or forty  Fig. 8.                 _'
inches radius, we mean that the convex surface Of        A
the glass is the part of a circle, the radius of
which, or half the diameter, is two inches or forty                                       C
inches; or, in other words, were the portion of focus, and passing-on toward a point of converthe sphere on which, it is ground formed into a gence, were intercepted by  the
globe of corresponding convexity, itwould befour point D is the place where the rays would have
inches or.eighty inches in diameter.              converged to a focus, had they not been thus
The axis of a lens is a straight line drawn  intercepted.  Fig. 11 represents the course of dithrough the center of its spherical surface; and, verging rays wlen- falling on a double convex
as the spherical sides of every lens are arches of glass.  In this case, the rays D B, D A, &c., after
circles, the axis of the lens would pass through  passing through the lens, converge to a focus at a
the center of that circle of which its sides are point considerably farther from  the lens than its
segments.  Rays are those emanations of light center, as at F. Such rays must be considered as
which.proceed from a luminous body, or from a
body that is illuminated.  The Radiant is that           Fig. 11.     Fig.9.       Fig.10.
body or object which emits the rays of light,                          K  D  L,            D
whether it be a self-luminous body, or one that
only reflects the rays of light.  Rays may proceed
from a Radiant in different directions.  They may                                       I!
be either parallel, converging, or diverging.  Pa-  
rallel rays are those which proceed equally distant
from  each other through  their whole course.
Rays proceeding from  the sun, the. planets, the
stars, and distant terrestrial objects are considerdd  o01VE
as parallel, as in fig. 6.  Converging rays are such
as, proceeding from a body, approach nearer and                    illll 
nearer in their progress, tending to a certain point             B.
where they all unite.  Thus the rays proceeding
trom the object A B (fig. 7) to the point F, are said  colvEI 
to converge toward that point.  Allconvex glasses                      1  t
cause parallel rays which fall upon them  to con-                                  p CINTE
verge in a greater or less degree; and they render
converging rays still more convergent.  If A B,                     i,         Is
fig. 7, represent a convex lens, and H-G I parallel
rays falling upon it, they will be refracted, and             /
converge toward the point F, which is called the           FocUs                   DY
focus or burning point; because when the sun's proceeding from- near objects, and the fart may'imb
rays are thus converged to a point by a large lens, illustrated by the following experiment: Take a,
they set on fire combustible substances.  In this common readi;ng glass, and hold it in the rays- of,
point the rays meet and intersect each other. the sun, opposite a sheet of writilg paper or a,
Diierging rays are those which, proceeding from  white wall, and observe at what distance from  the.l
ally point, as A,fig. 8,continually recede from each  glass the rays on the paper converge to a small;..
other as they pass along in their course toward B  distinct white spot. This distance gives the focal';
C. All the rays which proceed from near objects, length of the lens by parallel rays.  If now we.
as a window in a room, or an adjacent house or, hold the glass within a few feet of a willdow, or a,
garden, are more or less divergent.  The following burning candle, and receive its image onil tile paper,.
igures show the effects of parallel, converging, the focal distance of the image froml the glass-wilij
and diverging rays, in passing through a double be found to be longer.  If, in the formier case?.
convex lens:                                      the focal distance was twelve inches, in the latter
Fig. 9 shows the effects of parallel rays, K A, case it will be thirteen, fifteen, or sixteen inchles..
D E, L B, falling an a convex glass, A B.  The according to the distance of the window or tlie
rays which fall near the extremities at'A and B  candle from the glass.
are bent or refracted toward C F, the focusr and    If the lens A B, fig. 9, on which parallel rave
center of convexity. Itwill be observed that they  are represented as falling, were a plano-convex., as
are less refracted as they approach the center of represented at A, fig. 5, the rays would converge,
the lens, and the central ray D  E  C, which is to a point P, at double the radius, or the whole
called the axis of the lens, and which passes diameter of the sphere of wichli it is a segmentl.
through its' center, suffers no refraction,. Fig. 10 If the thickness, of a piano convex be considered,
exhibits the course of onver'gi'ng rays when pass- and if it be exposed oi its convex side to paraltlel
ing through a smrilar lens. An this case the rays rays as those of the sun, the focus will be at the
converge to a: focus nerwer'to the lens than the distance of twice the radius, wanting two-thidWvs, of
center; for a convex lens uni;formly increases the the thickness of thelens. But if the same lens be exr
convergence of converging rays. The converging posed with its plane side to parallel rays, the' focus
rays here represented may be conceived as having will then be precisely at the distance of twice thebeen refracted by another convex lens of a longer radius from the glass.
YOL. II.-31




28                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
The effects of concave lenses are directly oppo- common and well known, that when the rays of
site to those of convex. Parallel'rays, striking  light from any object are refracted through a convex
one of those glasses, instead of converging toward lens, they paint a distinct and accurate picture of
a point, are  made to diverge. Rays already di- the object before it, in all its colors, shades, and provergent are rendered more so, and co0nvergent rays portions. Previous to experience, we could have had
are made less convergent. Hence objects seen  no conception that light, when passing through
through concave glasses appear considerably small- such substances, and converging to a point, could
er and more distant than they really. are. The have produced so admirable an effect-an effect
following diagram, fig. 12, represents the course on which the construction and utility of all our
of parallel rays.'through a double concave lens, optical instruments depend.  The following figure
where the parallel rays T A, DAE,, B, &c. when will illustratethis position:
passing through the concave glass A B, diverge
into the rays:; L, E C, H P, &c., as if'they pro-                   Fig. 13,
ceeded from I, a point before the lens, which is                                         o
Rr    TA
I
ImAm~i~     I... Let L N represent a double convex ellens, A, C, a
_~":............~ ~its axis, and O B an object perpendicular to it.
The principal focal distance, E F, is the same A ray passing from the extremity of the object at
as in convex lenses.  Concave glasses are used to  0, after being refracted by the lens at F, will pass
correct the imperfect vision of short-sighted per- on in the direction  l, and form an image of that
sons.  As the form of the eye of such persons is part of the object at I.  This ray will be the axis
too convex, the rays are made to converge before of all the rays which fall on the lens from  the
thev reach the optic nerve; and therefore a con- point 0, and I will be the focus where they will
all. be    th           e mannere            they
cave glass, causing a little divergency, assists this   collected.  In like manner, B C M  is the
defect of vision, by diminishing the effect pro- axis of that parcel of rays which proceed fromn
duced by the too great convexit of the eye and the extremity of the object B, and their focus
lengthening; its focus.  These glasses are seldom  will be at M; and since all the points in the obused, in modern times, in the construction of op- ject between O and B must necessarily have their
tical instruments, except as eye-glasses for small foci between I aid M a complete picture of the
pocket perspectives, and opera-glasses'.          points from  which they come will be depicted,
To find the focal distance of a concave glass.-  and consequently an image of the whole object
Take a piece of pasteboard or card paper, and cut O B.
a round hole in it, not larger than the diameter of   It is obvious, from  the figure, that the image
the lens; and on another piece of pasteboard de- of the object is formed in the focus of the lens in
scribe a circle whose diameter is just double the an inverted position. It must necessarily he in
diameter of the hole.   Then apply the piece with  this position, as the rays cross at C, the center of
then hole iln it lo the tlens, and hold them  in the tthe lenis; and as it is impossible that the rays from
sunbeams, with the other piece at such a distance the upper part of the object, 0, call be carried by
behind that the light proceeding from  the hole refraction to the upper oend of the image at M
may spread or diverge so as precisely to fill the This is a universal principle in relation to conver
circle.; then the distance of the circle from  the lenses of every description, and requires to be atlens is equal to its virtual focus, or to its radius, tended to in the construction and use of all kinds
if it — be a double concave, and to its diameter, if of telescopes and microscopes.  It is easily illusa plano-concave.  Let d,e (fig. 12) represent the trated by experiment.  Take a convex lens of
diameter of the hole, and g, i, the diameter of the eight, twelve, or fifteen inches focal distance, such
circle, then the distance C, I, is the virtual focus as a reading glass, or the glass belonging to a pair
of' the en~s.*                                    of spectacles, and holding it, at its focal distance
h'lie mneniscus, represented at E, fig. 5, is like from a white wall, in a line with a burning canthle crystal of a common watch, and, as the con- die, the flame of the candle will be seen depicted
vexity is the same as the concavity, it neither on the wall inan  inverted position, or turned upmagnifies nor diminishes.  Sometimes, however, side down.  The same experiment may be perit is made in the form of a crescent, as at F, fig. formed witt a window-sash, or aly other bright
5,~ and is caled a concavo-convex lens; aid, when object. But the most beautiful exhibition of the
the convexity is greater than  the concavity, or images of objects formed by convex lenses is made
when it-is thickest in the middle, it acts nearly ill by darkening a room, aid placing a convex lens
the same way as a double or pian~o-convex lens of of a long focal distance in a hole cut out of the
the same focal distance.                          window-shutter; when a beautiful inverted landscape or picture of all the objects before the winOF lTHE IMAGES FORMED BY CONVEX LENSES.    dow, will be painted on a white paper or screen
It is a remarkable circumstance, and which  placed in the focus of the glass. The image teus
would naturally excite admiration, were it not so formed exhibits not only the proportions and colors, but also the motions of all the objects oppoThis mode of findisg the focus' of a concave lens may site the lens, forming, as it were, a living lalltie varied as follows: Let the lens be covered with paper,
having two small circullr holes; and, on the paper for re- scape.  This property of lenses lays the foundacelving the light, desoribe also two small circles, but with tion of the camera obscura, an instrument to'be
their centers at twice the distance from each other of the afterward described.
centers of the circles.' Then move the paper to and from, following principles in relation to images
nitil the middle'of the'sun's light,'coming through the holes,
falls exactly on the middle of the circles; nhat distance of formed   by convex lenses, may be stated: 1. That
the paper from the lens will be the focal length required.   the image subtends the same angle at the center of




ON THE REFRACTION OF LIGHT.                                        29
the glass as the object itself does. Were an eye nifying power, -as, for example, that a lens one
placed- at C, the center of the lens L N, fig. 13, it inch focal distance magnifies objects eight times,
would wee the object O B and the image I M  un- it is to be understood of the lineal dimensions of
der the same optical angle, or, in other words, the object. But as every object at which we look
they would appear equally large; for, whenever has breadth as well as length, the surface of the
right lines intersect each other, as O I and B M, object is in reality magnified sixty-four times, or
the opposite angles are always equal, that is, the the square of its lineal dimensions; and for the
angle, J1 C I is equal to the angle O C B. 2. The same reason a lens half an inch focal distance
length of the image formed by a convex lens is, to magnifies the surfaces of objects 256 times.
the length of the object, as the distance of the image
is to the distance of the object from the lens; that is, REFLEcTIONS DEDUCED FOM  THE PRECEDING SIB2 I is to 0 B:: as C A to CA.  Suppose the distance of the object C A from the lens to be fortyeight:inches, the length of the object O B == six-   Such are some of the leading principles which
teen inches, and the distance of the image from  require to be recognized in the construction of
the lens six inches, then the length of the image refracting telescopes, microscopes, and other diopwill be found by the following proportion, 48: tric instruments whose performance chiefly de16:: 6: 2, that is, the length of the image, in pends on the refraction of light. It is worthy of
such a case, is two inches. 3. If the object be at particular notice, that all the phenomena of optian infinite distance, the image will be formed exactly cal lenses now described depend upon that pecuin the focus.  4. If theobject be atthesamedistance liar property which the Creator has impressed
from the lens as its focus, the image is removed to an upon the rays of light, that, when they are refractinfinite distance on the opposite side; in other words, ed to a focus by a convex transparent substance, they
the rays will proceed in a parallel direction.  On depict an accurate image of the objects whence they
this principle, lamps on the streets are sometimes proceed. This, however common, and however
directed to throw a bright light along a footpath  much overlooked by the bulk of mankind, is, inwhere it is wanted, when a large convex glass is deed, a very wonderful property with which light
placed at its focal distance from the burner; and  has been indued.   Previous to experience, we
on the same principle, light is thrown to a great could have had no conception that such an effect
distance from  lighthouses, either by a very large would be produced; and, in the first instance, we
convex lens of a short focal distance, or by a con- could not possibly have traced it to all its consecave reflector. 5. If the object be at double the dis- quences. All the objects in creation might have
tance of thefbcusfrom the glass, the image will also been illuminated as they now are, for aught we
be at double the distance of the focus from the glass. know, without sending forth either direct or reThus, if -a lens of six inches focal distance be held flected rays with the property of forming exact repat twelve inches' distance from a candle, the image resentations of the objects whence they proceed.  But
of the candle will be formed at twelve inches fiom  this we find to be a universal law in regard to
the glass on the other side.  6. If the object be a light of every description, whether as emanating
littlefarther from the lens than its focal distance, an  directly from  the sun, or as reflected from, the
image will be formed at a distance from  the object, objects he illuminates, or as proceeding from
which will be greater or smaller in proportion to the bodies artificially enlightened.  It is a law or a
distance  For example, if a lens five inches focus property of light not only in our own system, but
be held at a little more than five inches from  a throughout all the systems of the universe to
candle, and a wall or screen at five feet six inches' which mortal eyes have yet penetrated.  The rays
distance receive the image, a large and inverted  from the most distant star which astronomers have
image of the candle will be depicted, which will described are indued with this property, otherbe magnified in proportion as the distance of the wise they could never have been perceived by
wall fiom the candle exceeds the distance of the means of our optical instruments; for it is by
elns from the candle.  Suppose the distance of the pictures or images formed in these instruthe lens to be five and a half inches, then the dis- ments that such distant objects are brought to
fance of the wall where the image is formed, be- view. Without this property of light, therefore,
lug twelve times greater, the image of the candle we should have had no telescopes, and, consewill be magnified twelve times.  If MI (fig. 13) quently, we could not have surveyed, as we call
be considered as the object, then O B will repre- now do, the hills and vales, the deep caverns, the
sent the magnified image on the wall. On this extensive plains, the circular ranges of mountains,
principle, the image of the object is formed by the and many other novel scenes which diversify the
small object-glass of a compound microscope. On surface of our moon. We should have known
the same principle, the large pictures are formed  nothing of the stupendous spots which appear on
by the Magic Lantern and the Phantasmagoria; the surface of the sun-of the phases of Venusand in the same way small objects are represented  of the satellites and belts of Jupiter-of the majesin a magnified form on a sheet or wall by the So- tic rings of Saturn-of the existence of Uranus,lar microscope. 7. All convex lenses magnify the and his six moons, or of the planets Vesta, Juno,
objects seen through them, in a greater or less degree. Ceres, and Pallas, nor could the exact bulks of any
The shorter the focal distance of the lens, the of these bodies have been accurately determined.
greater is the magnifying power. A  lens four But, above all, we should have been entirely ignoinches focal distance will magnify objects placed rant of the wonderful nhrnllntella of double stars
in the focus two times in length and breadth; a -which demonstrate that suns revolve around
lens two inches focus will magnify four times; a suns —of the thousands and millions of stars which
lens one inch focus, eight times; a lens half an crowd the profundities of the MilkyWayand other
Inch focus, sixteen times, &c., supposing eight regions of the heavens-of the thousands of nebuinches to be the least distance at which we see lee or starry systems which are dispersed throughnear objects distinctly.  In viewing objects with out the immensity of the firmament, and many
small lenses, the object to be magnified should be other objects of sublimity and grandeur, which
placed exactly at the focal distance of the lens, fill the contemplative mind with admiration and
and the eye at about the same distance on the awe, and raise its faculties to higher conceptions
other side of the lens.  When we speak of mag- than it could otherwise have formed of the om



TH0 PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
nipotence and grandeur of the Almighty Crea- nor a moss, nor the most insignificant vegetable,
tor.                                           which does not show a multiplicity of vessels disW ithout this: property of the rays of light, we posed- in the most curious manner for the circulashould, likewise, have wainted the- use of the mi- tion of sap for its nourishment, and which is not
croscope, an instrument which has disclosed a adorned with innumerable graces for- its embelworld invisible to cbmmoni eyes, and bhas opened lishmnent. All these and ten thousands of other
to our view the most astonishing exhibitions of Wonders which lie beyond the limits of natural
Divine mechanismi and of the wisdom and intel- vision, in this new and unexplored region of the
ligence of the Eternal Mind. We should have universe, would have'been forever concealed from
been ignorant of those tribes of living beings, in- our view had not the Creator indued tile rays of
visible to the unassisted e —ye, which_ are found in  lightwith the power of depictinytheimages of objects,
water, vinegar, and.many other fluids, many of when refracted by convex transparent'su bstances.
which are twenty thousand times smaller than the    In this instance, as well as in many others, we
least visible point, anid-yet display the same admi- behold a specimen of the admirable and diversified
rable skill and contrivance in theiri eonstruc-tion  effects which the Creator call produce from the
as are manifested in the formation of the larger agency of a single principle in nature. By means
animals.  We should never have beheld the pur'- of optical instruments, we are now enabled to
pie tide of life, and,:even the globules of the blood  take a more minute and expansive view of the
rolling with swiftness through veins and arteries amazing operations of nature, both in heaven and
smaller than the finest ha:ir;. or had the least con- on earth, than former generations could have surception that numberless specie's of animated be- mised. These views tend to raise our conceptions
ings, so minute that a million, of them are less of the attributes of that Almighty Being who prethan a'grain of sand, could'have been rendered  sides over all the arrangements of the material
visible to human eyes, or that such a number of system, and to present them to our contemplation
vessels, fluids, movements, diversified organs of in a new, a more elevated,' and expansive point
sensation, and such a profusion of the richest or- of view; There is, therefore, a connection which
arnaments and the gayest colors could have been  may be traced between the apparently accidental
concentrated in a single point.  We should never principle of the rays of light forming images of
have conceived that even the atmosphere is re- objects and the comprehensive views we are now
plenished with invisible animation, that the waters enabled to take of the character and perfections
abound with countless myriads of sensitive exist- of the Divinity. Without the existence of the law
ence, that the whole earth is full of life, and: that or principle alluded to, we could not, in the prethere is scarcely a tree, plant, or flower but affords sent state, have formed precisely the same confood and shelter to a species of inhabitants pecu- ceptions either of the Omnipotence, or of the
liar to itself, which enjoy the pleasures of exist- wisdom and intelligence of the Almighty. Had
ence and share'in the bounty of the Creator. no microscope ever been invented, the idea never
Wecould have formed no conception of the beau- could have entered into the mind of man that
ties and the varieties of mechianism which are dis- worlds of living beings exist beyond the range of
played in the scenery of that invisible world to  natural vision, that organized beings, possessed
which the microscope introduces us-beauties and of animation, exist, whose whole bulk is less than
varieties, in point of ornament and delicate con- the ten hundred thousandth part of the smallest
trivance, which even surpass what is beheld in grain of sand; that, descending'from  a visible
the visible -operations and aspect of nature around  point to thousands of degrees beyond it, an invisius. We find joints, muscles, a heart, stomach, ble world exists, peopled with tribes of every formt
entrails, veins, arteries, a variety of motions, a and size, the extent of which, and how far it
diversity of forms, and a multiplicity of parts and verges toward infinity downward, mortals have
functions in breathing atoms. We behold in a never yet explored, and perhaps will never be
small fiber of a peacock's feather, not more than  able to comprehend.  This circumstance alone
one-eighth of an inch in length, a profusion of presents before us the perfections of the Divinity
beauties no less admirable than is presented by in a new aspect, and plainly intimates that it is
the whole feather to the naked eye, a stem send- the will and the intention of the Deity that we
ing out multitudes of lateral branches, each of should explore his works, and investigate the
which emits numbers of little sprigs, which con- laws by which the material world is regulated,
sist of a multitude of bright shining globular that we mayacquire more expansive views of his
parts,-adorned with a rich variety of colors. In  character and operations.  The inventions of
the sections of plants, we see thousands and ten  man, in relation to art and science, are not, therethousands of tubes and pores, and other vessels fore, to be considered as mere accidental occurfor the conveyance of air and juices for the sus- rences, but as special arrangements in the Divine
fenance of the plant, in some instances, more government, for the purpose of carrying forward
than ten hundred thousand of these being corm- the human mind to moreclear and ample views
pressed within -the space of a quarter of an inch  of the scenes of the universe, and of the attribules
in diameter, and presenting to the eye the most and the agency of Him "who is a onderful in
beautiful configurations. There is not a weed, counsel and excellent in working"




CHAPTER IV,.
ON THE REFLECTION OF LIGHT.
TmC reflection of the rays of light is that' pro- The incident ray of light may be considered as
perty by which, after.approaching the surfaces rebounding from  the mirror, like a tennis ball
of bodies, they are thrown back, or' repelled.  It from a marble pavement, or the wall of a court.
is in consequence of this property that all the
objects around us, and all the diversified land-                      Fig. 14.
scapes on our globe are rendered visible. It is by
light reflected from  their surfaces that we per-                        C
ceive the planetary bodies and their satellites, the
belts of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, the various        E                             F
objects which diversify the surface of the Moon,
and all the bodies in the universe which have nolight of their own. When the rays of light fall
upon rough and uneven surfaces, they are reflected very irregularly, and scattered in all directions,
in consequence of which thousands! of eyes, at            A
the same time, may perceive the same objects,
in all their peculiar colors, aspects and relations.
But when they fall upon certain smooth and   In viewing objects by reflection, we see them
polished surfaces, they are reflected with regular- in a different direction from  that in which they
ity, and according to certain laws. Such sur' really are, namely, along the line in which the
faces, when highly polished, are called Mirrors or rays come to us last. Thus, if A B  (fig. 15)
Speculums; and it -is to- the reflection of light represent a plane mirror, the image of an object,
~from such surfaces, and the effects it produces, C, appears to the eye at E, behind the mirror, in
that I am  now  to direct the attention of the the direction E G, and always in the intersection
reader.
Mirrors, or specula, may be distinguished into                      Fig. 15.
three kinds, plane, concave, and convex, according                        A
as they are bounded by plane or spherical surfaces  These are made either of metal or of glass,
and'have Ieir surfaces highly polished for the
purpose of reflecting the greatest number of rays.
Those made of glass are foliated or quicksilvered
on one side; and the metallic specula are generally formed of a composition of different metallic
substances, which, when accurately polished, is
found to reflect the greatest quantity of light.I shall, in the first place, illustrate the phenomena    i
of:reflection, produced by plane mirrors.
-W'hen light impinges, or falls, upon a polished  G of the perpendicular C G, and'the reflected
flat surface, rather more than the half of it is re- ray E G; and, consequently, at G as far behind
fleeted, or thrown back in a direction similar to the mirror as the object C is before it.  We therethat of its approach; that is to say, if it fall per- fore see the image in the line E G, the direction
pendicularly on the polished surface, it will' be in which the reflected rays proceed.  A  plane
perpendicularly reflected, but if it fall obliquely, it mirror does not alter the figure or size of obJects;
will be reflected with the same obliquity. -Hence, but the whole image is equal and similar' to the
the following fundamental law regarding the re- whole object, and has a like situation with respect
flection of light has been deduced both from  ex- to one side of the plane, that the object has
periment and mathematical demonstration, namely, with respect to the other.
that the angle'of reflection is, in all cases, exactly    Mr. Walker illustrates the manner in which
equal to the, angle of incidence.  This is a law  we see our faces in a mirror by the following figwhich is universal in all cases b'of reflection,  ure (16) A B represents a mirror, and o c a person
whether it be from plane or spherical surfaces, or looking into it. If we conceive a ray proceeding
whether these surfaces be concave or convex, and from the forehead c i:, it will be sent to the eye at
which requires to be recognized in the construc- o, agreeably to the angle of incidence and reflection of all instruments which depend on the re- tion. But the mind puts c E o into one line, and
flection of the rays of light. The following figure the forehead is seen at H, as if the lines c E o had
(fig. 14) will illustrate the position now stated:   turned on a hinge at:. It seems a wonderful
Let A B  represent a plane mirror, and C D  faculty of the mind to put the two oblique lines
a line or ray of light perpendicular to it. Let c E and o E into one straight'line o H, yet it is
F D represent the incident ray from aly object, seen every time we look at a mirror.  For the ray
then D E will be the reflected ray, thrown back has really travelled from c to E, and from E to o,
in the direction from D  to E, and it will make, and it is that journey which determines the diswith the perpendicular CD, the same angle which tance of the object; and hence we see ourselves
the incident ray F D did with the same perpen- as far beyond the mirror as we stand from it.dicular; that is, the angle F D  C will be equal Though a ray is here taken only from  one part
to the angle E D  C, in all cases of obliquity. of the face, it may be easily conceived that rays
(31)




32                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
from every part of the face must produce a simi- to the mirror joining the object and the -image, anlt
lar effect.                                     that the image is as much on one side the mirror as
In every plane mirror the image is always the object is on the other.
equal to the object, at what distance soever it may
REFLECTION BY CONVEX AND CONCAVE MIRRORS.
Fig. 16.
Both convex and concave mirrors are formed
of portions of a sphere. A  convex speculum is
a\0'        an U A  _ I  aground  and polished in a concave dish or tool
which is a portion of a sphere, and a concave
~  speculum is ground upon a convex tool.  The
~~l~~~~5k2~. inner surface of a sphere brings  parallel rays to a
focus at one-fourth of its diameter, as represented
in the following figure, where C is the center of
the sphere on which-the concave speculum A  B
is formed, and F the focus where parallel rays
firom a distant object would be: united after reflecSB?             j tion, that is, at one-half the radius, or one-fourth: Fig. 18.
be placed; and, as the mirror is only at half the     A
distance of the image from the eye, it will completely receive all image of twice its own length.
Hence, a mail six feet high may view himself
completely in a looking-glass of three feet in                          c
lengthand half his own breadth; and this will be
the.case at wnatever distance he may stand from
the glass. Thus, the man A C (fig. 17) will see
Fig. 17.
A
of the diameter from the surface of the speculum
Were a speculum of this kind presented to the
sun, F  would be the point where the reflected
D           rays would be converged to a focus, and set fire
to combustible substances if the sueculum be of a
the whole of his own image in the glass A B, large diameter, and of a short focal distance.which is but one half as large as himself. The Were a candle placed in that focus, its light would
rays frpom the head pass to the mirror in the line be reflected parallel, as represented in the figure.
A A, perpendicular to the mirror, and are return- These are properties of concave specula which reed:to th:- eye in the same line; consequently, quire to be particularly attendedto in the construchaving traveled: twice' the length A  A, the man tion of reflecting telescopes. It follows, from what
must see his head at B. From  his feet, C, rays has been now stated, that if we intend to form  a
will be sent to the bottom  of the mirror, at B; speculum of a certain focal distance, for example,
these will be reflected at an equal angle to the two feet, it is necessary that it should' be ground
eye in the direction B A, as if they had proceeded upon a tool whose radius is double that distance,
in the direction D B A, so that the man will see or four feet.
his foot at D, and, consequently, his whole figure
at B D.                                                  PROPERTIES OF CONVEX MIRRORS.
A  person,.when looking into a mirror, will
always see his own image as far beyond the mir-   From a convex surface,;parallel rays, when reror as he is before it; and as he moves to or from  flected, are made to diverge: convergent rays are
it, the image will, at the same time move toward reflected less convergent; and divergent rays are
or from  him  on the other side, but apparently  rendered more divergent.  It is the nature of all
with a double velocity, because the two motions convex mirrors and surfaces to scatter or disperse
are equal and contrary.. In like manner, if, while the rays of light, and in every instance to impede
the spectator is at rest, an object be in motion, its their convergence.  The following figure shows
image behind the mirror will be, seen to move at the course of parallel rays as reflected from  a
the same time. And if the spectator moves, the convex mirror. A E B is the convex surface ot
images obf' objects that are at rest will appear to the mirror, and K A,-I E, L B parallel rays falling
approach or{ recede from. him, after the same upon it. These rays, when they strike the mirror.
manner as when he moves toward'real objects; are made to diverge int the direction A G,.B H,
plane mirrors reflecting not only the object, but &c., and both the parallel and divergent ravs are
the distance also, and that exactly. in its natural'-here represented as they appear in a dark chamb6r
dimensions.  The following principle is sufficient when a convex mirror:is presented to the solar
for explaining most of the -phenomena seen in a rays.  The dotted lines denote only the course or
plane mirror, namely: That the image of an object tendency of the reflected rays, toward the virtual
seen in a jaclne mirror is' always in a perpendicular focus F, were they not intercepted by the mirror




ON THE REFLECTION OF LIGHT.                                         33
Tlhis virtual focus is just equal. to half the radius'true-focus of the mirror; and, since the- sunbeanm
C E.       -                       -::      are parallel among themselves, if they are received
The following are some of the properties of on a concave mirror, they will be reflected to that
convex mirrors: 1. The image appears always point, and there burn in proportion to the quantity
erect, and behind the reflecting surface. 2. The
image is smaller than the object, and the diminution                  Fig. 20..
is greater in proportion as the object; is farther  
from the mirror; but if the object touch the mirFig. 19.._ -..
3~C           o,. <~/  PARALLEL RAY
a,_:     wr-                                               P ARALLEL RAYS&
L                                A
of rays collected by the mirror. Fig.21 shows
the direction of diverging rays, or those which
proceed from a near object.  These rays proceedror,.h iaahpncnaiofhing from an object farther from  the mirror than
same size as t e object. 3. The-image does not <.  
same size as the object. 3. The image does not the true focal point, as frorm D to A and to B, are
appear so far behind the reflecting surface as-in a
plane Imirror.  4. The image of a straight object,
placed either parallel or oblique to the mirror, is
seen -curved in the mirror, because the different
points of the object are not all at an equal dis-.
tance from the surface of the mirror. 5. Concave
mirrors have' a real focus where an image is.
actually.formed; but convex specula have only a.......
uirtual focus, and this focus is behind the mirror,
no image of any object being formed before it.       -....
The following are some of the purposes to which.-.-~Pi
convex mirrors are applied: They are frequently
employed by painters for reducing the proportions of.-" H'/'"
the objects they wish to represent, as the images
of objects diminish in proportion to the smallness
of the radius of convexity, and to the distances reflected converging, and meet at a point F, farof objects from the surface of the mirror.  They  ther from the mirror than the focal point of parallel
form  a fashionable part of modern furniture, as rays.  If the distance of the radiant, or object D,
they exhibit a large company assembled inll a room, be equal to the radius C E, then will the, focal
with all the furniture it contains, in a very small distance be likewise equal to the radius; that is, if
compass, so that' a large hall, with all its objects, an object be placed in the center of a concave
and even an extensive landscape, being reduced speculum, the image will be reflected upon the
in size, may be seen from one point of view. They  object, or they will seem to meet and embrace each
are.likewise used as the small specula of those other in the center.  If the distance of the radiant
reflecting telescopes which are fitted up on the be equal to half the radius, its image will be reCassegrainian plan, and in the construction of flected to an infinite distance, for the rays will
Smith'sReflectingMicroscope. But, on the whole, then be parallel.  If, therefore, a luminous body
-they are very little used in the construction' -of be placed at half the radius from a concave specuoptical instruments.                              um, it will enlighten places directly before it at.great distances.  Hence their use when placed bePROPERTIES OF CONCAVE sPECULUMS.           hind a candle in a common lantern; hence their
utility in throwing light upon objects in the Magic
Concave specula have properties very different Lantern and Phantasmagoria; and hence the vast
from those which are convex; ~ they are of more importance of very large mirrors of this descripimportance in the construction of reflecting tele- tion, as now used in most of our lighthouses,or
scopes and' other optical instruments, and there- throwing a brilliant light to great distances at sea,
fore require more minute description and.illustra- to guide the mariner when directing his course
tion.  Concave mirrors cause parallel rays to under the cloud of night
converge;, they increase the convergence of rays    When converging  rays fall upon a concavo
that are already converging; they diminish the mirror, they are reflected more converging, and.divergencem of, diverging rays, and in some cases unite at a point between the focus of parallel rays
render them parallel,,and even convergent; which and the mirror; that is, nearer the mirror than on
effects are all in proportion to the concavity of the half the radius; and their precise degree of conmirror.  The following figures show the course vergey will be greater tha that werein they
of diverging and. parallel rays as reflected from  vergency will be  reater than that wherein they
ncaveig. 20 repesents he course of parallel rays,   OF THE IMAES FORMED BY CONCAVE MIRRORS.
and A B the concave~ mirror on which they fall.
In this case they- are reflected so as to unite at F,   If rays proceeding from  a distant object fall
which point is distant from  its: surface one-fourth upon a concave speculum, they will paint an image
of the diameter of the sphere of the mirror.  This or representation of the object on its focus before
point is- called the focus of parallel rays, or the the mirror. This image will be inverted, because




34                         THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
the rays cross at the points where the image is the focal distance of a concave mirror to be twelve
formed.  We have already seen that a convex  inches, and its diameter or breadth twelve inches.
glass forms an image of an object behind it; the  When the sun's rays fall on such a mirror, they
rays of light from objects pass through the glass, form an image of the sun at the focal point, whose
and the picture is formed on the side farthest from  diameter is found to be about one-tenth of an
the object. But in concave mirrors the images of inch. All the rays which fall upon the mirror are
distant objects-and of all objects that are farther converged into this small point, and, consequently,
from  its surface  than its principal focus-are  their intensity is in proportion as the square of
formed before the mirror, or on the same side as the surface of the mirror is to the square of the
the object.  In almost every other respect,how-  image.  The squares of these diameters are as
ever, the effect of a concave mirror is the same as 14,400 to 1, and, consequently, the density of the
that of a convex lens, in regard to the formation  sun's rays, in the focus, is to their density on the
of images, and the course pursued by the rays of surface of the mirror as 14,400 to 1. That is, the
light, except that the effect is produced in the one  heat of the solar rays in the focus of such a mircase by refraction, and in the other by reflection. ror will be fourteen thousand four hundred times
The following figure represents the manner in  greater than before: a heat which is capable of
producing very powerful effects in melting and
Fig. 22.                     setting fire to substances of almost every descripO       tion.
Were we desirous of forming an image by a;.5                           concave speculum which shall be exactly equal to
AW                   a                   ===/<the object, the object must be placed exactly in
S- Bthe center; and, by an experiment of this kind,
the center of the concavity of a mirror may be
found.
In the cases now stated, the images of objects
are all formed in the front of the mirror, or between it and the object.  But there is a case in
which the image is formed behind the mirror.
This happens when the object is placed between
the mirror and the focus of parallel rays, and then. the image is larger than the object.  In fig. 23,
B       G F is a concave mirror, whose focus of parallel
rays is at E.  If an object O B be placed a little
which images are formed by concave mirrors; within this focus, as at A, a large image, IM, will
G F represents the reflecting surface of the mirror; 0 A B, the object; and I A M  the image                           Fig. 23.
formed by the mirror.  The rays proceeding from                x...
O will be carried to the mirror in the direction
o G, and, according to the law that the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, will:-"             -.. 
be reflected to I in the direction G I.  In like                                     o:
manner, the rays from B will be reflected from F
to M1, the rays from  A will be reflected to A, and                                       }A.i
so of all the interniediate rays, so that all inverted
image of the object O B will be formed at I M.          \r
If the rays proceeded from objects at avery great.  
distance, the image would be formed in the real
focus of the mirror, or at one-fourth the diameter             M.
of the sphere from its surface; but nearer objects,
which send forth diverging rays, will have their be seen behind the mirror, somewhat curved and
images formed a little farther from the surface of erect, which will be seen by an eve looking directly
the mirror.                                       into the front of the mirror. Here the image apIf we suppose a real object placed at I M, then
OB will represent its magnified image, which                          Fig. 24.
will be larger than the object in proportion to its
distance from the mirror. This may be experi-'mentally illustrated by a concave mirror and a               A'
candle.  Suppose a concave mirror whose focal                     A
distance is five inches, and that a candle is placed.             
before it at a little beyond its focus (as at I M),
suppose at five and a half inches, and that a wall
or white screen receives the image, at the distance              M
of five feet six inches from the mirror, an image.. \                                xx 
of the candle will be formed on the wall which
will be twelve times longer and broader than the
candle itself.  In this way concave nlirrors may
be made to magnify the images of objects to an
indefinite extent.  This experiment is an exact pears at a greater distance behind the mirror than
counterpart of what is effected in similar circum-  the object is before it, and the object appears mnagstances by a convex lens, as described p. 29; the  nified in proportion to its distance from the  Coeus
mirror performing the same thing by reflection as and the mirror.  If the mirror be one inch focal
the lens did by refraction.                       distance, and the object be placed eight-tenths of
From what has been stated in relation to con- an inch from its surface, the image would be five
cave mirrors, it will be easily understood how they  times as large as the object in length and breadth,
make such powerful burning-glasses.  Suppose  and, consequently, twenty-five times larger in




ON THE REFLECTION OF LIGHT.                                          35
turface.  In this way small objects may be mag- appearance of images in the air, suspended benified by reflection, as such objects are magnified  tween the mirror and the object, have sometimes
by refraction, in the case of deep convex lenses. been displayed with such dexterity, and an air of
When such mirrors are large, for example six mystery, as to have struck  with astonishment
inches diameter, and eight or ten inches focal dis- those who were ignorant of the cause.  In this
tance, they exhibit the human face as of an enor- way birds, flying angels, specters, and other obumous bulk.  This is illustrated by the foregoing jects have been exhibited; and when the hand atfigure: Let c N, fig. 24, represent the surface of tempts to lay hold on them, it finds them to be
a concave mirror, and A, a human face looking  nothing, and they seem  to vanish into air.  An
into it, the face will appear magnified as repre- apple or a beautiful flower is presented, and when
sented by the image behind the mirror, D. Q. Sup- a spectator attempts to touch it, it instantly vanpose a ray, A c, proceeding from the forehead, and  ishes, and a death's head irnnediately appears, and
another, M N, from the chin; these rays are reflected to the person's eye at o, which, consequently,                       Fig. 25.
sees the image of the lines of reflection o Dn, o Q, 
and in the angle D o a, and, consequently, mag-            A
nified much beyond the natural size, and at a
small distance behind the mirror.
If we suppose the side T U to represent a convex                           I
mirror, and the figure D Q a head of an ordinary
size, then the figure A will represent the dimrninished appearance which a person's face exhibits
when viewed ill such a mirror. It will not only
appear reduced, but somewhat distorted; because,             B
firom the form of the mirror, one part of the object is nearer to it than another, and, consequent- seems to snap his fingers.  A person with a drawn
ly, will be reflected under a different angle.     sword appears before him, in an attitude as if
The effect we have now mentioned as produced  about to run him through, or one terrific phantom
by concave mirrors will only take place when the starts up after another, or sometimes the resemeye is nearer the mirror than its principal focus. blances of deceased persons are made'to appear,
If the spectator retire beyond this focus-suppose  as if, by the art of conjuration, they had been
to the distance of five or six feet-he will not see forced to return from the world of spirits.  In all
the image behind the mirror, but he will see his such exhibitions a very large concave mirror is
image in a diminished form, hanging upside down, requisite, a brilliant light must be thrown upon
and suspended in the air, in a line between his eye the objects, and every arrangement is made, by
and the niirror.  In this case, his image is formed  means of partitions, &c., to prevent either tihe
before the mirror, as represented at I M, fig. 22. light, the nQirror, or the object firom being seen by
In this situation, if you hold out your hand to- the spectators.  The following representation (fig.
ward the mirror, the hand of fhe image will come 26) shows one of the methods by which this is
out toward your hand, and, when at the center effected: A is a large concave mirror, either of
of concavity, it will be of an equal size with it, metal or of glass, placed on the back part of a
and you may shake hands with this aerial image. dark box; D is the performer, concealed from the
If you move your hand farther, you will find the spectators by the cross partition c; E is a strong
hand of the image pass by your hand, and come light, which is likewise concealed by the partition
between  it and your body.  If you move your I, which is thrown upon the actor D or upon anyhand toward either side, the hand of the image will thing he may hold in his hand.  If he hold a book,
move toward the other side; the image moving as represented in the figure, the light reflected
always ill a contrary direction to the object.  All from it will pass between the partitions c and I to
this while the bystanders, if any, see nothing of the mirror, and will be reflected from thence to z,
the image, because none of the reflected rays that where the image of the book will appear so disform  it can enter their eyes.  The following fig- tinct and tangible, that a spectator looking through
ure represents a phenomenon produced in the same the opening at x will imagine that it is in his
manne'r.  A B is a concave mirror of a large size; power to take hold of it.  In like manner, the
c represents a hand presented before the mirror,
at a point farther distant than its focus. In this case                  Fig 26.
an inverted image of the hand is formed, which
is seen hanging down in the air at lM. The rays
c and D go diverging from the two opposite points
of the object, and, by the action of the mirror,
they are again made to converge to points at o,
and s, where they cross, form an image, and again
proceed divergent to the eye.-*
In consequence of the properties of concave              A
mirrors now described, many curious experiments
and optical deceptions have been exhibited.  The
Small glass mirrors for performing some of the experimeats, and illustrating some of the principles above alluded
to, may be made of the flattest kind of common watch glass.
es, by foliating or covering with tin leaf and quicksilver the.
convex surfaces of such glasses. Their focal distances will
generally be from one to two inches. Such mirrors afford a
very large and beautiful view of the eye, when held within
their focal distance of that organ. Such mirrors will also person situated at D may exhibit his own head or
serve the purpose of reflecting light on the objects viewed body, a po it, a painting, a specter, a landpe
by microscopes. Larger mirrors, of from four to eight inches
diameter, may be had of the optician at different prices, va- or any object or device which he can strongly
rj ing fiom five to ten or fifteen shillings.      illuminate.




36                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
There is another experiment, made with a con- a very fine large star, or, rather, planet, upon tie
cave mirror, which has somewhat puzzled philo- table, as bright as Venus or Jupiter.  And if a
sophers to account for the phenomena. Take a small wax taper-whose flame is much less than
glass bottle, A C (fig. 27), and fill it with water the flame of the candle-be placed near tle canto the point B; leave the upper part, B C, empty, die, a satellite to the planet will appear on the
and cork it in the common manner. Place this table; and if the taper be moved round the candle,
the satellite will go round the planet."
Fig. 27.                      SMany other illustrations of the effects of collcave specula might have been given, but I shall
conclude this department by briefly stating some
*:                  Ad of the general properties of speculumns.
1. There is a great resemblance between the
-f   - B                               properties of convex lenses and concave mirrors.
They both form an inverted focal image of any
remote object, by the convergence ofe the pencil
of rays. In those instruments whose performbottle opposite a concave mirror, and beyond its ances are the effects of reflection, as reflecting
focus, that it may appear reversed, and before the telescopes, the concave mirror is substituted in
mirror place yourself still farther distant from  the place of the convex lens. The whole effect
the bottle, and it will appear in the situation A B of these instruments, in bringing to view remote
c.  Now it is remarkable, in this apparent bottle, objects in heaven and on earth, entirely depends
that the water, which, according to the laws of on the property of a concave mirror in forming
catoptrics, should appear at A B, appears, onl the images of objects in its focus. 2. The image of
contrary, at B C, and, consequently, the part A B an object placed beyond the center is less than the
appears empty.  if the bottle be inverted and object; if the object be placed between the prinplaced before the mirror, its image will appear in cipal focus and the center, the image is greater
its natural erect position, and the water, which is than the object. In both cases the image is inin reality at B C (fig. 28), is seen at A B. If, while verted.  3. When the object is placed between
the focus and the mirror, the image situated beFig. 28.                    hind the mirror is greater than the object, and it
has the same direction; in proportion as the object
approaches the focus, the image becomes larger
and more distant. These and similar results are
proved by placing a lighted candle at different
distances from a concave mirror. 4. Al eye cannot see an image in the air except it be placed in
the diverging rays; but if the image be received
on a piece of white paper, it may be seen in any
the bottle is inverted, it be uncorked, and the wa- position of the eye, as the rays are then reflected
ter run gently out, it will appear that, while the in every direction.  5. If a picture, drawn accorpart, B C is emptying, that of A B in the image is ding to the rules of perspective, be placed before
filling, and, what is remarkable, as soon as the a large concave speculum, a little nearer than its
bottle is empty the illusion ceases, the image also principal focus, the image of the picture will apappearing entirely empty.  The remarkable cir- pear extremely natural, and very nearly like the
cumstances in this experiment are, first, not only  real objects whence it was taken.  Not only are
to see the object where it is not, but also where the objects considerably magnified, so as to apits image is not; and, secondly, that of two objects proach to their natural size, but they have also
which are really in the same place, as the surface different apparent distances, as in nature, so that
of the bottle and the water it contains, the one is the view of the inside of a church appears very
seen at one place, and the other at another; and like what it is in reality, and representations of
to see the bottle in the place of its image, and the landscapes appear very nearly as they do from the
water where neither it nor its image is.        spot whence they were taken. In this respect a
The following experiments are stated by Mr. large concave speculum  may be made to serve
Ferguson, in his "Lectures on Select Subjects,"  nearly the same purpose as the Optical Diagonal
&c.: " If a fire be made in a large room, and a Machine in viewing perspective prints.  6. The
smooth mahogany table be placed at a good dis- concave speculum  is that alone which is used as
tance near the wall, before a large concave mirror, the great mirror which forms the first image in
so placed that the light of the fire may be reflec- reflecting telescopes; and it is likewise the only
ted from the mirror to its focus upon the table; kind of speculum  used as the small mirror, in
if a person stand by the table, hewill see nothing that construction of the instrument called the
upon it but a longish beam of light: but if he stand  Gregorian Reflector.
at a distance toward the fire, not directly between
the fire and mirror, he will see an image of the fire QUANTITY OF LIGHT REFLECTED BY POLISHED SURupon the table, large and erect. And if another                      FACES.
person, who knows nothing of the matter beforehand, should chance to come into the room, and   As this is a circumstance connected with the
should look  from  the fire toward the table, he construction of reflecting telescopes, it may not
would be startled at the appearance, for the table be improper, in this place, to state some of the
would seem to be on fire, and by being near the results of the accurate experiments of Al Bouwainscot, to endanger the whole house. In this guer on this subject. This philosopher ascertained
experiment there should be no light in the room  that of the light reflected from mercury, or quickbut what proceeds from the fire, and the mirror silver, more than one-fourth is lost, though it is
ought to be at least fifteen inches in diameter. If probable that no substance reflects more light than
the fire be darkened by a screen, and a large can- this.  The rays were received at an angle of
die be placed at the back of the screen, a person eleven and a half degrees of incidence, measured
staading by the candle will see the appearance of from the surface of the -eflecting body, and not




ON THE REFLECTION OF LIGHT.                                          37
from  the perpendicular.  The reflection from  and his face to the sea; on a sudden there appear
water was found to be almost as great as that of on the water, as in a catoptric theater, various
qaicksilver; so that in very small angles it re- multiplied objects, that is to say, numberless series
fleets nearly three-fourths of the direct light. of pilasters, arches, castles well delineated, regular
This is the reason why so strong a reflection an- columns, lofty towers, superb palaces, with balcopears on the water, when one walks, in still nies and windows, extended alleys of trees, deweather, on the brink of a lake opposite to tue lightful plains with herds and flocks, armies of
sun.  The direct light of the sun diminislies men on foot and horseback, and many other strange
gradually as it approaches the horizon, while tue images, in their natural colors and proper actions,
reflected light at the same time grows stronger; I passing rapidly in succession along the surface of
so that there is a certain elevation of the sun in  the sea, during the whole of the short period of
which the united force of the direct and reflected  time, while the above-mentioned causes remain.
light will be the greatest possible, and this is when But if, in addition to the circumstances now
he is twelve or thirteen degrees in altitude.  On described, the atmosphere be highly imnpregnated
the other hand, light reflected from water atgreatI with vapor and dense exhalations, not previously
angles of incidence is extremely small.  When  dispersed by the winds or the sun, it then happens
the light was perpendicular, it reflected no more that, in this vapor, as in a curtain extended along
than the thirty-seventh part which mercury does the channel at the hight of about thirty palms,
in the same circumstances, and only the fifty-fifth  and nearly down to the sea, the observer will bepart of what fell upon it in this case.           hold the scene of the same objects, not only
Using a smooth piece of glass, one line in thick- reflected from the surface of the sea, but likewise
ness, he found that, when it was placed at an an- in the air, though not so distant orwell-defined as
gle of fifteen degrees with the incident rays, it the former objects from the sea. Lastly, if the air
reflected 628 parts of 1000 which fell upon it; at be slightly hazy or opaque, and, at the same time,
the same time, a metallic mirror, which he tried dewy and adapted to form the iris, the then abovein the same circumstances, reflecting only 561 of mentioned objects will appear only at the surface
them.  At a less angle of incidence much more of the sea, as in the first case, but all vividly
light was reflected; so that at an angle of three colored or fringed with red, green, blue, and other
degrees the glass reflected 700 parts, and the metal prismatic colors."*
something less, as in the former case.  The most   It is somewhat difficult to account for all the
striking observations made by this experimenter appearances here described, but, in all probability,
relate to the very great difference in the quantity  they are produced by a calm sea, and one or more
of light reflected at different angles of incidence. strata of superincumbent air, differing in refracHe found that for 1000 incident rays, the reflected  tive, and, consequently, in reflective power.  At
rays at different angles of incidence, were as fol- any rate, reflection and refraction are some of the
lows:                                             essential causes which operate in the production
of the phenomena.
Angles of   Rays reflected    Rays reflected     The Mirage, seen in the deserts of Africa, is a
incidence.    by water.        by g.ass.      phenomenon, in all probability, produced by a
50           501            549            similar cause.  M. Monge, who accompanied the
10            333            412            French army to Egypt, relates that, when ill the
15            211            299            desert between Alexandria and Cairo, the mirage
30              65           112            of the blue sky was inverted, and so mingled with
50              22             34           the sand below as to give to time desolate and arid
70              18             25           wilderness an appearance of the most rich and
90              18            25            beautiful country.  They saw, in all directions,
green islands, surrounded with extensive lakes of
With regard to such mirrors as the specula of pure, transparent water.  Nothing could be conreflecting telescopes, it will be found in general, ceived more lovely and picturesque than the landthat they reflect little more than the one-half of scape.  In the tranquil surface of the lakes, the
the rays which fall upon them.                     trees and houses with which the islands were
covered were strongly reflected with vivid and
varied hues, and the party hastened forward to enUN COMMON APPEARANCES IN NATURE PRODUCED BY  joy the cool refreshments of shade and stream
THE COMBINED INFLUENCES    OF REELECTION AND  Which these populous villages proffered to them.
nEFRAcTION.                                     When they arrived, the lake on whose bosom they
floated, the trees amonig whose foliage they were
The reflection and refraction of the rays of embowered, and the people who stood ol the shore
light frequently produce phenomena which as- inviting their approach, had all vanished, and notonlish the beholders, and which have been regarded  thing remained but a uniform and irksome desert
by the ignorant and the superstiti'ocs as the effects of sand and sky, with a few naked huts and ragof supernatural agency.  Of these phenomena I ged Arabs.  Had they not been undeceived by
shall state a few examples.                        their nearer approach, there was not a man in the
One of the most striking appearances of this French army who would not have sworn that the
kind is what has been termed the Fata Mlorgana, visionary trees and lakes had a real existence iln
or optical appearances of figures in the sea and  the midlst of the desert.
the air, as seen in the Faro of Messina   The    Dr. Clark observed precisely the same appearfollowing account is translated from  a work of ance at Rosetta.  The city seemed surrounded
Minasi, who witnessed the phenomenon, and wrote  with a beautiful sheet of water; and so certain
a dissertation on the subject: "When the rising  was his Greek interpreter-who was unacquainted
sun shines from  that point whenice its incident with the country-of this fact, that he was quite
ray forms an angle of about forty-five degrees to  indignant at an Arab who attempted to explain to
the sea of Riggio, and the brignt surface of the  him that itwas amore optical delusion.  At length
water in the bay is not disturbed either by the
wind or tne current, the spectator being placed oIL   * Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy, &e., 4te
an emnlnelice ol the city, with h.a back to the sun  series, p. 45.




38                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
they reached Rosetta in about two hours, without tor thought it an illusion; but at last by accurate
meeting with any water; and on looking back on observation, was convinced that it was an actuat
the sand they had just image of the castle. He, with another individual,
Fig. 29.        crossed, it seemed to them  observed it attentively for twenty minutes, but were
__,,      as if they  had  waded prevented byrrain from  making further observathrough a vast blue lake. tions. Between the observers and the land frot;
On the 1st of August, which the hill rises there were about six miles of
1798, Dr. Vince observed sea, and from thence to the top of the hill there
at Ramsgate a ship which  was about the same distance; their own hight
appeared as at A (fig. 29), above the surface of the water was about seventy
the topmast being the on- feet. The cause of this phenomenon was un- N  ly part of it that was seen doubtedly unequal refraction. The air being more
above the horizon.  Anl dense near the ground and above the sea than at
inverted image of it was greater hights, reached the eye of the observer.
/  1. X Zvseen at B, immediately  not in straight but in curvilinear lines.  If the
above the real ship A, and rays of the castle had in their path struck an eye
an erect image at c, both at a much greater distance than Ramsgate, the
of them  being complete probability is that the image of the castle would
and well-defined. The sea have been inverted in the air; but, in the present
was distinctly seen be- case, the rays from the turret and the base of the
tween them, as at v w. castle had not crossed each other.
As the ship rose to the    To similar causes as those now alluded to are to
A             horizon, the image c gra- be attributed such pheornomena as the following:
dually disappeared, and,    The specter of the Brocken.  This is wonderful.
while this was going on, and, at first sight, a terrific phenomenon, which is. —~-==-~-   the image a descended, sometimes seen from  the summit of the Hartz
but the mainmast of B did not meet the mainmast Mountains in Hanover, which is about 3300 feet
of A. Thle two images, B c, were perfectly visible above the level of the sea, and overlooks all the
when the whole ship was actually below the hori- country fifteen miles round.  From this mountain
zou. Dr. Vince then directed his telescope to the most gigantic anud terrific specters have been
anollier slhip whose lhull was just in the horizon, seen, which have terrified the credulous and grati-.
and lie observed a coInl)lete inverted image of it, fied the curious, in a very high degree.  M. Hawe,
the maihmast of wh}iclh just touched the main- who witnessed this phenomenon, says the sun rose
mast of the ship itself.  He saw at the same time about four o'clock, after lie had ascended to the
several other ships whose images appeared in summit, in a serene sky, free of clouds; and, about
nearly a similar mauiier, in one of which the two a quarter past five, when looking round to see if
images were visible wien the whole ship was be- the sky continued clear, he suddenly beheld at a
neatli the horizon.  These phenomena must have little distance, a human figure of a monstrous size
been produced by tile same cause which operated  turned toward him, and glaring at him.  While
in the case formerly mnentioned, in relation to gazing on this gigantic specter, with a mixture of
Capt. Scoresby, when lie saw the figure of his awe and apprehension, a sudden gust of wind
father's ship inverted in the distant horizon. Such  nearly carried off his hat, and he clapped his hand
cases are, perhaps, not uncommon, especially in to his head to detain it, when to his great delight,
calm and sultry weather, but they are seldom  ob- the colossal specter did the same.  He changed
served, except when a person's attention is acci- his body into a variety of attitudes, all which the
dentally directed to the phenomenon, and, unless specter exactly imitated, and then suddenly vanishhe uses a telescope, it will not be so distinctly per- ed without any apparent cause, and in a short
ceived.                                           time as suddenly appeared.  Being joined by
The following phenomenon, of a description another spectator, after the first visions had disnearly related to the above, has been supposed to appeared, they kept steadily looking for the aeria'
be chiefly owing to reflection:  On the 18th of specters, when two gigantic monsters suddenly
November, 1804, Dr. Buchan, when watching the appeared.  These specters had been long conrising sun, about a mile to the east of Brighton, sidered as preternatural by the inhabitants of the
just as the solar disc emerged from the surface of adjacent districts, and the whole country had been
the water, saw the face of the cliff on which he filled with awe and terror. Some of the lakes of
was standing, a windmill, his own figure, and the Ireland are found to be susceptible of producing
figure of his friend, distinctly represented, pre- illusions, particularly the Lake of Killarney. This
cisely opposite, at some distance from  the ocean. romantic sheet of water is bounded on one side
This appearance lasted about ten minutes, until the by a semicircle of rugged mountains, and on the
sun had risen nearly his own diameter above the other by a flat morass; and the vapors generated
sea. The whole then seemed to be elevated into the in the marsh, and broken by the mountains, conair, and successively disappeared.  The surface of tinually represent the most fantastic objects.  Frethe sun was covered with a dense fog of many quently men riding along the shore are seen as if
yards in hight, which gradually receded from the they were moving across the lake, which is suprays of the sun as he ascended from the horizon.  posed to have given rise to the legend of O'Do!
The following appearance, most probably, arose nougho, a magician, who is said to be visible on:
chiefly from the reflection of the atmosphere: It the lake every May morning.
was beheld at Ramsgate by Dr. Vince, of Cam-   There can be little doubt that most of those
bridge, and another gentleman.  It is well known visionary appearances which have been frequently
that the four turrets of Dover Castle are seen at seen in the sky and in mountainous regions, are
Ramsgate, over a hill which intervenes between phantoms produced by the cause to which I arcr
a full prospect of the whole. On the 2d of August, adverting, such as armies of footmen and horse1806, not only were the four turrets visible, but the men, which some have asserted to have been seen
castle itself appeared as though situated on that in the air near the horizon.  A well-authenticaside of the hill nearest Ramsgate, and so striking ted instance of this kind occurred in the highlands
was the appearance that for a long time the doe- of Scotland: Mr. Wren, of Wetton Hall, and




ON THE REFLECTION OF LIGHT.                                          39
D. Stricket, his servant, in the year 1744, were sit- counted for on physical principles.  The large
ting at the door of the house ill a summer evening, cross of wood painted red was doubtless the real
when they were surprised to see opposite to thelm, object which produced the magnified image. The
on the side of Sonterfell hill-a place so extreme- state of the atmosphere, according to the descriply steep that scarce a horse could walk slowly  tions given in the memorial, must have been
along it-the figure of a mall with a dog pursuing  favorable for the production of such images.several horses, all running at a most rapid pace. The spectrum  of the wooden cross must have
Onward they passed, until at last they disappeared  been cast on the concave surface of somre atmoat the lower end of the Fell.  In expectation of  spheric mirror, and so reflected back to the eyes
finding the. man dashed to pieces by so tremendous  of the spectators from an opposite place, retainilng
a fall, they went early next morning and made a  exactly the same shape and proportions, bht dilasearch, but no trace of man or horse, or the prints  ted in size; and, what is worthy of attention, it
of their feet on the turf could be found. Some  was tinged with red, the very color of the object
time afterward, about seven in the evening, on the  of which it was the reflected image.
same spot, they beheld a troop of horsemen ad-    Such phenomena as we have now described, and
vancing in close ranks and at a brisk pace.  The  the causes of them  which science is able to uninmates of every cottage for a mile round beheld  fold, are worthy of consideration, in order to
the wondrous scene, though they had formerly  divest the mind of superstitious terrors, and enaridiculed the story told by Mr. Wren and his ser-  ble it clearly to perceive the laws by which the
vant, and were struck with surprise and fear. Almighty directs the movements of the material
The figures were seen for upward of two hours, system.  When any appearance in nature, exactly
until the approach of darkness rendered them in-  the reverse of everything we could have previousvisible.  The  various evolutions and  changes ly conceived, presents itself to view, and when
through which the troops passed were distinctly  we know of no material cause by whichl it could
visible, and were marked by all the observers.  It be produced, the mind must feel a certain degree
is not improbable that these aerial troopers were  of awe and terror, and will naturally resort to
produced by the same cause which made the cas- supernatural agency as acting either in opposition
tie of Dover to appear on the side of the hill next to the established laws of the universe, or beyond
to Ramsgate, and it is supposed that they were  the range to which  they are confined.  Beside
images of a body of rebels, oi the other side of  the fears and apprehensions to which such errothe hill, exercising themselves previous to the  neous conceptions give rise, they tend to convey
rebellion ill 1745.*                               false and distorted impressions of' the attributes
I shall mention only another instance of this de- of the Deity, and of His moral governmenlt. —
scription which lately occurred in France, and for Science, therefore, performls an invaluable sera time caused apowerful sensation among all ranks. vice to man, by removing the cause of superstiOn Sunday, the 17th of December, 1826, the  tious alarms, by investigating the laws and princlergy in the parish of Migne, in the viciniity of ciples which operate in the physical system, and
Poictiers, were engaged in tile exercises of the  by assigning reasons for those occasional phenoJubilee which preceded the festival of Christmas, mena which at first sight appeared beyond the
and a number of persons, to the amount of 3,000  range of the operation of natural causes.
souls assisted in the service.  They had planted,    The late ingenious Dr. Wollaston illustrated
as part of the ceremony, a large cross, twenty-  the causes of some of the phenomena we have
five feet high, and painted red, in the open air described, inl the following manner: lie looked
beside the church. While one of the preachers, along the side of a red-hot poker at a word or
about five in the evening, was addressing the  object ten or twelve feet distant; and at a distance
multitude, he reminded them  of the miraculous less than three-eighths of an inch from  the line
cross which appeared in the sky to Constantine  of the poker, an inverted image was seen, and:Ard his army, and the effect it produced, when  within and without that image, an erect inmage, in
suddenly a similar celestial cross appeared in the  consequence of the change produced, by the heat
heavens just before the porch of the church, of the poker, in the density of the air. Ile also
about 200 feet above the horizon, and 140 feet in  suggested the following experiment as another
length, and its breadth from three to four feet, of  illustration of the same principle, namely, on
a bright silver color, tinged with  red. The curate  viewing an object through a stratum of spirit of
and congregation fixed their wondering gaze upon
this extraordinary phenomenon, and the effect. 30.
produced on the minids of the assembly was strong
and solemn; they spontaneously threw  themselves on their knees; and many, who had been
remiss in their religious duties, humbly confessed their sins, and made vows of penance and
reformation.  A  commission was appointed  to
investigate the truth of this extraordinary appearance, and a memorial stating the above and other
facts, was subscribed by more than forty persons                ii
of rank and intelligence, so that no doubt was
entertained as to the reality of the phenomenon.
By many it was considered as strictly miraculous,
as having happened at the time and in the circumstances mentioned. But it is evident, from.
what we have already stated, that it may be acSThere can be little doubt that some of the facts ascribed,
in the western highlands of Scotland, to second sight, have
seen owing to the unusual reftaction of the atmosphere in
as one of the peculiarities attributed to those who possessed
this faculty was, that they were enabled to descry boats and laid above one of situp.  He poured into a square
ships be fore they appeared in the horizon.        vial a small quantity of clear sirup, and above




40                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
this he poured an equal quantity of water, which, appear within two or three miles of the towr
gradually combined with the sirup, as seen at A, of Hastings, as formerly described (see p. 24).fig. 30.  The word " sirup," on a card held  Many other phenomena which we have nevel
behind the bottle appeared erect when seen through  witnessed, and of which we can form  no conthe pure spirit, but inverted when seen through  ception, may  be produced  by the same cause
the mixture of water and sirup.  IIe afterward  operating in al infinity of modes.
put nearly the same quantity of rectified spirits    The facts we have stated above, and the variety
of wine above the water, as seen at B, and he  of modes by which light may be refracted and resaw  the  appearance  as represented, namely, flected by different substances in nature, lead us
the  true place of the word "Spirit," and the  to form  some conception of the magnificent and
inverted and erect images below.  These sub- diversified scenes which light may produce in
stances, by their gradual incorporation, produce  other systems and worlds under the arrangements
refracting power, dininishing from  the spirit of  of the all-wise and beneficent Creator.  Light,:n
wine to tile water, or from the sirup to the water; all its modifications and varieties of color and reso that, by looking through the mixed stratum, an  flection, may be considered as the beauty and
inverted image of any object is seen behind the  glory of the universe, and the source of unnumbottle.  These experiments show that the  mirage bered enjoyments to all its inhabitants., It is a
and several other atmospherical phenomena may  symbol of the Divinity himself; for "GOD rs
be produced by variations in the refractive power LIGHT, and in Him  is no darkness at all."  It is
of different strata of the atmosphere.            a representative of Him who is exhibited in the
It is not unlikely that phenomena of a new and  sacred oracles as "The SUN of Righteousness,"
different description from  any we have hitherto  and "the LIGHT of the world."  It is an emblem
observed, may be produced from  the same causes of the glories and felicities of that future world
to which we have adverted.  A  certain optical where knowledge shall be perfected and happiness
writer remarks: "If the variation of the refrac- complete; for its inhabitants are designated "the
tive power of the air takes place in a horizontal saints in light;" and it is declared in sacred history
line perpendicular to the line of vision, that is, to have been the first-born of created beings.  In
from  right to left, then we may have a lateral our lower world, its effects on the objects which
mirage, that is, an image of a ship may be seen  surround us, and its influences upon all sensitive
on the right or left hand of the real ship, or on  beings, are multifarious and highly admirable.
both, if tihe variation of refractive power is tile Whie passing from  infinitude to infinitude, it
same on each side of the line of vision, and a reveals the depth and immensity of the heavens,
fact of this kind was once observed on the Lake  tile'glory of the sun, the beauty of the stars, the
of Geneva.  If there should happen at the same  arrallgements of the planets, the rainbow encomtime both a vertical and a lateral variation of re- passing the sky with its glorious circle, the emfractive power in the air, and if the variation  broidery of flowers, the rich clothing of the meashould be such as to expand or elongate the object dows, the valleys standing thick with:orn, "the
in both directions, then the object wouldhbe mag-  cattle on a thousand hills," the rivers rolling
rified as if seen through a telescope, and might through the plains, and thie wide expanse of the
be seen and recognized at a distance at which it ocean. But in other worlds the scenes it creates
would otherwise havebeen invisible. If therefract-  may be far more resplendent and magnificent.
iiig power, on the contrary, varied so as to con- This may depend upon the refractive and reflecstruct the object in both directions, the image of  tive powers with which the Creator has endowed
it would be diminished as if seen through a con- the atmospheres of other planets, and the pecucave lens."                                      liar constitution of the various objects with which
they are connected.  It is evident, from what we
REMARKS AND REFLECTIONS IN REFERENCE TO TI-IE  already know of the reflection of light, that very
PHENOMIENA DESCRIBED ABOVE.            slight modifications of certain physical principles,
and very slight additions to the arrangements of
Such, thell, are some of the striking and interest-  our terrestrial system, might produce scenes of
ingeffectsprodtuced by tdierefraction and the reflec- beauty, magnificence, and splendor, of which at
tion of the rays of light.  As the formation of the  present we can form  no conception.  And it is
images of objects by convex lenses lays the founda- not unlikely that by such diversities of' arrangetion of the construction of refractingtelescopes and  nent in other worlds an infinite variety of natumicroscopes, and of all the discoveries they have  ral scenery is produced  throughout the  unibrought to light, so the property of concave specula, verse.
in forming similar imarges, is that on which the con-    In the arrangements connected with the planet
struction of reflecting telescopes entirely depends. Saturn, and the immense rings with which it is
To this circumstance Herschel was indebted for encompassed, and in the various positions which
the powerful telescopes he was enabled to con- its satellites daily assume with regard to one allstruct-which were all formed on the principle  other, to the planet itself, and to these rings, there
of reflection-and for all the discoveries they en- is, in all probability, a combination of refractions,
abled him  to make in the planetary system, and  reflections, light, and shadows, which produce
in the sidereal heavens.  The same principles scenes wonderfully dliversified, and surpassing in
which operate in optical instruments, under the  grandeur what we can now distinctly conceive.
agency of man, we have reason to believe, fre-  In the remote regions of the heavens there ar3
quently act on a more expansive scale in various aertain bodies composed of immense masses of luparts of the system of nature.  The magnificent minous matter, not yet formed into ally regular
cross which astonished the preacher and the im- systeum, and which are known by the name of
mense congregation assembled at Migne, was, in  nebula.  What should hinder us front supposing
all probability, caused by a vast atmospherical that certain exterior portions of those masses form
speculum  formed by the hand of nature, and re- speculums of enormous size, as some parts of our
presenting its objects on a scale far superior to  atmosphere are sometimes found to do?  Such
that of human art; and probably to the same  specula may be conceived to be hundreds and
cause is to be attributed the singular phenomenon  even thousands of miles in diameter, and that
of the coast of France having been made to  they may form images of the most distant objects




ON THE COLORS OF LIGHT.                                        41
in the heavens, on a scale of immense magnitude  have hitherto acquired respecting the operation of
and extent, and which may be reflected, in all light, and the splendid effects it is capable of protheir grandeur, to the eyes of intelligences at a  ducing, is small indeed, and limited to a narroxw
vast distance.  And, if the organs of vision of  circle, compared with the immrnensity of its rang,,
such beings be far superior to ours in acuteness the infinite modifications it may undergo, and thl
and penetrating power, they may thus be enabled  wondrous scenes it may create in regions of creato take a survey of an immense sphere of vision, tion to which human eyes have never -yet peneand to descry magnificent objects at distances the  trated, and which may present to view objects of
most remote from the sphere they occupy. What-  brilliancy and magnificence such as " Eye hath
ever grounds there may be for such suppositions,  not yet seen, nor ear heard, nor hath it entered
it must be admitted that all the knowledge we  into the heart of man to conceive."
CHAPTER V.
S E C T IO N  I.                I at different angles with respect to the optic axis;
and Dr. Hook conceived that color is caused by
the sensation of the oblique or uneven pulse of
WE have hitherto considered light chiefly as a light; and this being capable of no more taian two
simple homogeneous substance, as if all its rays varieties, he concluded that there could be no
were white, and as if they were all refracted in  more than two primary colors.  Such were some
the same manner by the different lenses on which  of the crude opinions which prevailed before the
they fall.  Investigations, however, into the na- era of the illustrious Newton, by whose enlightenture of this wonderful fluid have demonstrated  ed investigations the true theory of colors was at
that this is not the case, and that it is possessed of last discovered.  In the year 1666 this philosopher
certain additional properties of the utmost impor- began to investigate the subject, and finding the
tance in the system of nature.  Had every ray of colored image of the sun, formed by a glass prism,
light been a pure white, and incapable of being  to be of an oblong, and not of a circular form, as,
separated into any other colors, the scene of the  according to the laws of refraction, it ought to be,
universe would have exhibited a very different he was surprised at the great disproportion beaspect from what we now behold.  One uniform  tween its length and breadth, the former being
hue would have appeared over the whole face of five times the length of the latter; and he began
nature, and one object could scarcely have been  to conjecture that light is not homogeneal, but that
distinguished from another.  The different shades it consists of rays, some of which are much more
of verdure which now diversify every landscape, refrangible than others.  Prior to this period, phithe brilliant coloring of the flowery fields, and al- losophers supposed that all light, in passing out of
most all the beauties and sublimities which adorn  one medium into another of different density, was
this lower creation would have been withdrawn. equally refracted in the same or like circumBut it is now ascertained that every ray of white  stances; but Newton discovered that this is not
light is composed of an assemblage of colors, the fact; but that there are different species of
whence proceed that infinite variety of shade and  light, and that each species is disposed both to
color with which the whole of our terrestrial suffer a different degree of refrangibility in passhabitation is arrayed.  Those colors are found  ing out of one medium into another, and to excite
not to be in the objects themselves,. but in the  in us the idea of a different color from  the rest;
rays of light which fall upon them, without which  and that bodies appear of that color which arises
they would either be invisible or wear a uniform  from the peculiar rays they are disposed to reaspect.  In reference to this point, Goldsmith has fleet.  It is now, therefore, universally acknowwell observed: " Tho blushing beauties of the ledged that the light of the sun, which to us seems
rose, the modest blue of the violet, are not in the  perfectly homogeneal and white, is composed of
flowers themselves, but in the light that adorns no fewer than seven different colors, namely, Red,
them.  Odor, softness and beauty of figure are  Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, and Violet.
their own; but it is light alone that dresses them  A body which appears of a red color has the proup in those robes which shame the monarch's perty of reflecting the red rays more powerfully
glory."                                          than any of the others; a body of a green color
Many strange opinions and hypotheses were  reflects the green rays more copiously than rays
entertained respecting colors by the ancients, and  of any other color, and so of the orange, yellow,
even by many modern writers, prior to the time  blue, purple, and violet.  A body which is of a
of Sir Isaac Newton.  The Pythagoreans called  black color, instead of reflecting, absorbs all, or
color the superficies of bodies; Plato said that it the greater part of the rays that fall upon it; and,
was a flame issuing from them.  According to  on the contrary, a body that appears owhite reflects
Zeno, it is the first configuration of matter; and the greater part of the rays indiscriminately, withaccording to Aristotle, it is that which moves bo- out separating the one from the other.
dies actually transparent.  Among the moderns,   Before proceeding to describe the experiments
Des Cartes imagined that the difference of color by which the above results were obtained, it imay
proceeds firor  the prevalence of the direct or ro- be proper to give some idea of the form and effects
atory motion of the particles of light.  Grimaldi, of the prism by which such experiments are made.
LDechales, and others, thought the differences of  This instrument is triangular and straight, and
color depended upon the quick or slow vibrations  generally about three or four inches long.  It is
of a certain elastic medium filling the whole uni- commonly made of white glass, as free as possible
verse. Rohault imagined that the different colors from veins and bubbles, and other similar defects,
were made by the rays of light entering the eye  and is solid throughout.  Its lateral faces, or sides,




42                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
should be perfectly plane, and of a fine polish. dence in glass be divided into 50 equal parts, the
The angle formed by the two faces, one receiving sine of refraction into air of the least refrangible,
the ray of light that is refracted in the instru- and the most refrangible rays will contain respeeinent, and the other affording it an issue on its re- tively 77 and 78 such parts.  The sines of refracturning into the air, is called tle refracting angle tion of all the degrees of red will have the interof the prism, as A C B (fig. 31).  The manner in mediate degrees of magnitude, friom  77 to 77 onewhich Newton  performed his experiments, and  eighth; Oranye,from 77 one-eighth to 7 one-fifth;
established the discovery to which we have alluded, Yellow, from  77 one-fifth to 77 one-third; Green,
is as follows:                                     from 77 one-third to 77 one-half; Blue, from  77
one-half to 77 two-thirds; Indigo, from 77 twoE                                          thirds to 77 seven-ninths; and Violet, from  77
l _             seven-ninths to 78.
A                  =' L E  ~l|    From wthat has been now stated, it is evident
-K        s a.,27, ~,                      that, in proportion as any portion of an  optic,mWI7oT-.... glass bears a resemblance to tlhe form of a prism,
C  p            the component rays that pass through it must be
necessarily separated, and will consequently paint
or tinge the object with colors.  The edges of
In the window-shutter, E G (fig. 31,) of a dark  every convex lens approach to this forn, and it is
room, a hole, F, was made, of about one-third of on this account that the extremities of objects,
an inch diameter, and behind it was placed a glass when viewed through thern, are found to be tiinged
prisrn, A C B, so that the beam of light, S F, pro- with the prismatic colors.  In such a glass, tller-eceeding directly from  the sun, was made to pass fore, those different colored rays will have dif'erthrough the prism.  Before the interposition of entJoci, and will form  their respective irnages at
tile prism, the beam proceeded in a straight line different distances frorn the lens.  Thus, suppose
toward T, whllere it formed a round, white spot; L N (fig. 32) to represent a double convex lens,
but, being now  bent out of its course by the                           F     32
prism, it formed an oblong image, O P, upolln the
white pasteboard, or screen, L M, containing lhe                            h
seven colors marked in the figure, the red being
the least, and the i the violet the most refracted from the  o
original direction of the solar beam, S T.  This          I      _                            R
oblong image is called the prismatic spectrum.  If
the refracting aiigle of the prism, A C B, be 64
degrees, and tile distance of the pasteboard from         B
the prism about 18 feet, the length of the image,                                                  If
O P, will be about ten inches, amid the. breadth 2 and O B, an object at some distance from  it.  If
inches.  Tlhe sides of the spectrum are right lines the object O B was of a pule red color, tle rays
distinctly boundea, and the ends are semicircular. proceedllg fron it womld forn i red ilage at   a;
From this circumstance, it is evident that it is still if the object was of a violet color, an image of
the, image of the suIm, but elongated by the refrac- that color would be formed at Vv, nearer the lens;
tive power of the prism.  It is evident from  the and if the object was white, or anyv other combifigure that, since some part of the beam, R O0 is nation of the color-making rays, those rays would
refracted rmruch 1rther oult of its natural course  have their respective foci at different distances
W'T than some other part of the beam, as W  p', from  the lens, and form  a succession of irnages,
the trays  toward R O have  a much greater dispo- inl the order of the prismatic colors, between the
sition to be refrtacted than those toward WP; and space R R and bVv.
that this disposition arises from the niaturally diif-  Tehis Tay be illustrlted in the following manferent qualites of those rays, is evident from this Aer: T'ke a card or slip of white pasteboard, as
consideration, that the refractiing angle or power A B B F (fig. 33), and paint one-half,   B C D,
of the prism is the same in regard to the superior                      Fig. 33.
part of the beam as to the inferior.
By making a hole in the screen, L 1M, opposite.                          ~any one of the colors of the spectrum, so as to
allow that color alone to pass —and by lettinig the        _..
color thus sepiarated fall upon a second prismn-               EaL
Newton found that the light of each of the colors       F  
was alike refrangible, because the second prism  red, the other half, C F, violet or indigo, and, tying
could not separate them into an oblonig image, or black thretadls across st, set it near the flame of a
into any other color.  Hence hle called all the candle, G; then take a lens, H I, and, holding a
seven colors simrple or horimogeneous, in oppositioni  sheet of white paper bahind it, move Rt backward
to white light, which he cailed comspound. or hetero- and forward upon the edge of a graduated ruler
geneous.  With the prism'whlich this philosopher until you see the black threads most distisnctly. 
used, he found the lengths of tile colors and spaces the iuavge, and you will find the focus of the vioof the spectrum to be as follows: Red, 45; Orange, let rF  much nearer than thiat of the red A c, which
27; Yellow,41); Green, 60; Blue, 60; Indigo. 48; plainly shows that bodies of different colors can
Violet, 80; or 363 in all.  But these spaces vary inever be depicted by colnlvex lenses without some
a little with prisms formed of different substances, degree of confusion.
and, as they are not separated by distinct limits,   The quantity of dispersion of the colored rays
it is difficult to obtain anything like an accurate  in convex lenses depends upon the focal length of
measure of their relative extents.  Newton'ex- the glass, the space which the colored images ocamined the ratio between the sines of incidence  cupy beinag about the twenty-eighth part.  Thus,
and refraction of these decompounded rays (see if the lens be twenty-eight inches focal distance,
p. 18), and found that each of the seven primary  the space between R R and Vv (fig. 32) will be
color-making rays had certain limits within which  about one inch; if it be twenty-eight feet focus,
they were confined.  Thus, let the sine of inei- the same space will be about one foot, and so ct




ON THE COLORS OF LIGHT.                                             4:3
hiI proportion   Now, when such a succession of ther the power of heating nor illuminating bod;es.
images, formed  by the different colored rays, is Muriate of silver, exposed to the action of tih
viewed through an eye-glass, it will seem to form  red rays, becomes blackish; a greater effect is probut one image, and, consequently, very indistinct, duced by the yellow; a still greater by the violet,
and tinged with various colors; and as the red  and the greatest of all by the invisible rayr Beyond
figure, R a, is largest, or seen under the greatest the violet.  When phosphorus is exposed to thle
angle, the extrelne parts of this confused image  action  of the invisible rays beyond the red, i~
will be red, and a succession of the prismatic  emits white fumes, but the invisible rays beyond
colors will be formed within this red fringe, as is the violet extinguish them.  The influence of
generally found in common refracting telescopes, these rays is daily seen in the change produced.
constructed with a single object-glass.  It is owing  upon vegetable colors, which lade when frequently
to this circuLmstance that the common refracting  exposed to the direct influence of the sun. What
telescope cannot be much improved without hav- ever object they are destined to accomplish in thlt
ing recourse to lenses of a very long focal distance; general economy of nature is not yet distinctly
and hence, about 150 years ago, such telescopes known; we cannot, however, doubt that they are
were constructed of 80, and 100, and 120 feet in  essentially requisite to various processes going
length.  But still, the inlage was not formed so  forward in the material system.  And we know
disti;ctly as was desired, and the aperture of the  that not only the comfort of all the tribes of the
object-glass was obliged to be limited.  This is a living world, but the very existence of the animal
defect which was long regarded as without a reme- and vegetable creation depends upon the unredy, and even  Newton himself despaired of dis- mitting agency of the calor-fic rays.
coveritln  arqy means by which the defects of re-    It has likewise been lately discovered that cerfraiting telescopes might be removed, and their tain rays of the spectrum, particularly the violet,
irmprovement effected.  This, however, was ac- possess the property of communicating the magnetie
complishled by Dollond to an extent far surpassing power.  Mr. Morichini, of Rome, appears to have
what could have beer. expected, of which a par-  been the first who found that the violet rays of
ticular account will be given in the sequel.          the spectrum  had this property.  The result of
It was originally remarked by Newton, and the  his experiments, however, was involved in doubt
fact has since been confirmed by the experiments until it was established by a series of experiments
of Sir W. Herschel, that the different colored rays instituted by Mrs. Somerville, whose name is so
hare not the same illuminatingq ower.  The violet well known in the scientific world.  This lady
rays appear to have the least illuminating effect; having covered half a sewing-needle,'about an
the indigo more, and the effect increases in the  inch long, with paper, she exposed the other half
order of the colors, the green being very great; for two hours to the violet rays.  The needle had
between the green and the yellow the greatest of then  acquired north po!arity.  The indigo rays
all; the yellow the same as the green; but the red  produced nearly the same effect; and the blue and
less than the yellow.  Herschel also endeavored to  green rays produced it in a still less degree.  Is
determine whether the power of the differently- the yellow, orange, red, and  invisible rays  net
colored rays to heat bodies varied with their power magnetic influence was exhibited, even thou,1ha
to illuminate theml.  IHe introduced  a beam  of the experiment was continued for three suacessivor
light into a dark room, which was decomposed by  days.  The same effects were produced by in-i
a prism, and then exposed a very sensible ther- closing the needle in blue or green gloss,.'r wrap-_
mometer to all the rays in succession, and  ob- ping it in blue or green ribbon,, or ha-lf of the:
served the hights to which it rose in a given time. needle being always covered with paper.
He found that their heatingl power increased from       One of the most curious discoveries of moder-aD
thle violet to the red.  The mercury in the ther- times, in reference to the solar spectrum, is that,
mometer rose higher when its bulb was placed in  of Fraunhofer, of Munich,one of the most dis —
the indigo than when it was placed in the violet, tinguished artists and& opticians on the Continent.45
still higher in blue, and  highest of all at red. He discovered that the spectrum  is covered with.
Upon placirig the bu-lb of the thermometer below  dark and colored lines, parallel to one another,.
the red, qlite~ out of the spectrum, he was sur- and perpendicular to the length of the spectrum::
prised to -find that the mercury rose highest of all,
and  concluded  that rays proceed from  the sun,
which. have tihe po wer of' HEATING but not of illumi-   * Fraunhofer was, in the highest sense of the word, aso
nating bodies.  These rays have been called invisi- optician, an original discoverer in the most abstrulse and deLicate departments of this science, a competent mathemati:.
ble solar rays; they' were about half an inch from  cian, an admnirable. mechanist, and a nan. af a trully philthse ctoinmeaseet- i't::.n red rays; at a greater sophical tul-a of min-d. By his extraordin.ai-y talents, he wasditaa —uee trorn trls  )oint the heat began to dimin- soon raised from the lowest station in a manufactrainrg esi, bu  was vey perceptible, even at a distan    tablishment to the direction of the optical department of thei
isl!, buit -was svey pereptible, eaven act a distance  business, in which tie originally labored as an ordlinary work.
of 1x itlca.  He determined  that the heatirgg  man. He tlen applied the wliole powel of llis milal to the
power of, thle red to that of the qreen rays was: perfection of the achromatic telescope, the defbects of which,.
4 to 1', and 3/ to 1, in red to  iolet.  He after- in re e to te optical properties of the materials used,.
ward Irl made expe~irtnenlts to collect t~ho>, SInvis~bl- he attempted to remedy; and, by a series of admirable experiments, succeeded in giving to optical determinations the
Caloric rays, a nd carused them  to act independently  precision of astronomical observations, surpassing in this re..
1at thle liglit, frorti whlich he conciuded that they  spect ll who had gone before him, except, perhaps, the illus-.
are sUfficieilt to accourat for all the effects pro- trious Newton. It was in the course of thlese researchles
that Ice was led to the important discovery of the dark lines.
duced by the solar rays in excitinug heat; that they  which occur in the solar spectrum. His achiromatic teleare clpable of passilng through glass;  and of be- scopes are scattered over Eulope, and are the largest aunl
ing refracted and reflected, after they have been  best that have hitherto been constructedl. le die(s at Mu;a
finally aletaehe~d frlon:   t floe fsolar beam.      nich, at a prematutre age, in 1826; his death, it is said,. being;
accelerated by the unwholesome nature of the processes eM.
M5. Ritter, of Jena, Wollaston, Beckman, and ployel in his glass-house; leaving behind him a reputatiomn
others, have found' that tile rays of the spectrum  rarely attained by one so young. His memoirp " 0-n the re.are possessed of certain ch-emteal properties; that fractive and dlispersive Power of the different Species of
beyond the least brilfliant extremity, namely, a Glass, in reference to the Improvement of Achroamatic Telo-..beyond th.        least b r ibiant  extremity, namely,  a scopes, and an Account of the Lines of the Spectrum," witll
little bey-ond the violet ray, tliere are invisible  be found in the "Etldinburgh Philosophical Jonrnal1?v'rl.iXf
rays, whichl act elemically, while they have nei- p, 288 —299; and vol. x, p. 26-40, fbr 1823,'4.
VOL. I. -32




44                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
and he counted no less than 590 of these lines. indigo near C; C B indigo, inclining to violet near
In order to observe these lines, it is necessary to B; and B A violet, inclining to a soft red near A.
use prisms of the most perfect construction, of This done, paint all that part of the board black
very pure glass, free of veins, to exclude all extra- which lies within the inner circle; and, putting
neous light, and even to stop those rays which  an axis through the center of the board, let it be
form the colored spaces which we are not exam- turned swiftly round that axis, so that the rays
ining.  It is necessary, also, to use a magnifying proceeding from  the above colors may be ail
instrument, and the light must enter and emerge blended and mixed together in coming to the eye
from the prism at equal angles.  One of the im- Then the whole colored part will appear like a
portant practical results of this discovery is, that white ring a little grayish-not perfectly white,
those lines are fisxed points in the spectrum, or because no art can prepare or lay on perfeet corather, that they have always the same position  lors, in all their delicate shades, as found in the
in the colored spaces in which they are found. real spectrum.
Fraunhofer likewise discovered, in the spectrum     That all the colors of light, when blended toproduced by the light of Venus, the same streaks gether in their proper proportions, produce a pure
as in the solar spectrum; in the spectrum  of the white, is rendered certain by the following experilight of Sirius he perceived three large streaks, ment: Take a large convex glass, and place it in
which, according to appearance, had no resem- the room of the paper or screen on which the solar
blance to those of the light of the sun; one of spectrum was depicted (L. M. fig. 31); the glass
them was in the green, two in the blue. The stars will unite all the rays that come from the prism,
appear to differ from one another in their streaks. if a paper is placed to receive them, and you will
The electric light differs very much from the light see a circular spot of pure lively white.  The
of the sun and that of a lamp in regard to the rays will cross each other in the focus of the glass,
streaks of the spectrum.  " This experiment may and, if the paper be removed a little farther from
also be made, though in an imperfect manner, by that point, you will see the prismatic colors again
viewing a narrow slit between two nearly closed displayed, but in an inverted order, owing to the
window-shutters through a very excellent glass crossing of the rays.
prism, held close to the eye, with the refracting
angle parallel to the line of light.  When the
spectrum is formed by the sun's rays, either direct
or indirect, as from  the sky, clouds, rainbow,                  S E C T ION   1.
moon, or planets, the black bands are always
found to be in the same parts of the spectrum,         ON THE COLORS OF NATURAL OBJECTS.
and under all circumstances to maintain the same
relative position, breadth, and intensities."       FROM what has been stated above we may learn
From what has been stated in reference to the  the true cause of those diversified ]hues exhibited
solar spectrum, it will evidently appear that white by natural and artificial objects, and the variega.
light is nothing else than a compound of all the ted coloring which appears on the face of nature.
prismatic colors; and this may be still further il- It is owing to the surfaces of bodies being dislustratedby showing that the seven primary colors, posed to reflect one color rather than another.
when again put together, recompose white light. When this disposition is such that the body reflects
This may be rudely proved, for the purpose of every kind of ray, in the mixed state in which it
illustration, by mixing together seven different receives them, that body appears white  to us,
powders, having the colors and proportion of the which, properly speaking, is no color, but rather
spectrum; but the best mode, on the whole, is the the assemblage of all colors.  If the body has a
following: Let two circles be drawn on a smooth  fitness to reflect one sort of rays more abundantly
round board, covered with white paper, as in fig- than others, by absorbing all the others, it will
ure 34; let the outermost be divided into 360 appear of the color belonging to that species of
rays. Thus, the grass is green, because it absorbs
Fig. 34.                     all the rays except the green.  It is these green
rays only, which the grass, the trees, the shrubs,
A                         and all the other verdant parts of the landscape
reflect to our sight, and which make them  appear green.  In the same manner, the different'O~iQl',/', ~'.i'flowers reflect their respective colors; the rose,
the red rays; the violet, the blue; the jonquil,
the yellow; the marigold, the orange; and every
object, whether natural or artificial, appears of
that color which its peculiar texture is fitted to
reflect. A great number of bodies are fitted to
reflect at once several kinds of rays, and of con-!~-JG~~~~ ll"~''/sequence, they appear under mixed colors. It
may even happen that of two bodies which should
be green, for example, one may reflect the pure
D                          green of light, and the other, the mixture of yellow and blue.  This quality, which varies to inequal parts; then draw seven right lines, as A, B, finity, occasions the different kinds of rays to
C, 4c., from the center to the outermost circle, unite in every possible manner, and every possible
making the lines A and B include 80 degrees of proportion; and hence the inexhaustible variety
that circle. The lines B and C, 40 degrees; C and  of shades and hues which nature has diffused over
D, 60; D and E, 60; E and F, 48; F and G, 27; the landscape of the world. When a body abG and A, 45.  Then between these two circles sorbs nearly all the light which reaches it, that
paint the space A G red, inclining to orange near body appears black; it transumits to the eye so few
G; G F orange, inclining to yellow near F; F  reflected rays that it is scarcely perceptible in
E yellow, inclining to green near E; E D green, itself, and its presence and form m-.nake no impresinclining to blue near D; D  C blue, inclining to sion upon us unless as it interrupts the brighltnese




ON THE COLORS OF NATURAL OBJECTS.                                       45
of the surrounding space. Black is, therefore, or water-colored paintings on the wall. The party
the absence of all the colored rays.              which is to witness the experiment should be dressIt is evident, then, that all the various assem- ed in a diversity of the gayest colors, and the
blages of colors which we see in the objects brightest colored flowers and highly colored draw
around us are not in the bodies themselves, but in  ings should be placed on the tables.  The room
the light which falls upon them.  There is no co- being at first lighted with ordinary lights, the
lor inherent in the grass, the trees, the fruits, and bright and gay colors of everything that it conthe flowers, nor even in the most splendid and tains will be finely displayed.  If the white lights
variegated dress that adorns a lady.  All such ob- are now suddenly extinguished, and the yellow
jects are as destitute of color, in themselves, as lamps lighted, the most appalling metamorphosis
bodies which are placed in the center of the earth, will be exhibited. The astonished individuals will
or as the chaotic materials out of which our globe no longer be able to recognize each other. All
was formed before light was created; for, where the furniture of the room, and all the objects it
there is no light, there is no color.  Every object contains, will exhibit only one color.  The flowis black, or without color, in the dark, and it only ers will lose their hues; the paintings and drawappears colored as soon as light renders it visible. ings will appear as if they were executed in China
This is further evident from the following experi- ink, and the gayest dresses, the brightest scariets,
ment: If we place a colored body in one of the the purest lilacs, the richest blues, and the most
colors of the spectrum  which is formed by the vivid greens, will all be converted into one moplrism, it appears of the color of the rays in which  notonous yellow.  The complexions of the parit is placed.  Take, for example, a red rose, and  ties, too, will suffer a corresponding change.  One
expose it first to the red rays, and it will appear of pallid death-like yellow,
a more brilliant ruddy hue; hold it in the blue
rays, and it appears no longer red, but of a dingy               Like the unnatural hue
blue color, and in like manner its color will ap-       Which autumn paints upon the perished leaf,
pear different when placed in all the other differently-colored rays.  This is the reason why the will envelop the young and the old, and the salcolors of objects are essentially altered by the na- low face will alone escape from the metamorphosis.
ture of the light in which they are seen.  The Each individual derives merriment from the cadacolors of ribbons, and various pieces of silk or verous appearance of his neighbor, without being
woolen stuff, are not the same when viewed by  sensible that he is one of the ghastly assemblage."
candlelight as in the day-time.  In the light of a    From such experiments as these we might concandle or a lamp, blue often appears green, and  elude that, were the solar rays of a very different
yellow objects assume a whitish aspect. The rea- description from what they are now found to be,
son is, that the light of a candle is not so pure a the colors which embellish the face of nature, and
white as that of the sun, but has a yellowish  the whole scene of our sublunary creation,would
tinge, and therefore, when refracted by the prism, assume a new  aspect, and appear very different
the yellowish rays are found to predominate, and from what we aow  behold around us i  every
the superabundance of yellow rays gives to blue landscape.  We find that the stars display great
objects a greenish hue.                           diversity of color, which is doubtless owing to
The doctrine we are now illustrating is one which  the different kinds of light which are emitted fromt
a great many persons, especially among the fair those bodies; and hence we may conclude that
sex, find it difficult to admit.  They cannot con- the coloring thrown upon the various objects of
ceive it possible that there is no color really inhe- the universe is different in every different systeni,
rent in their splendid attire, and no tints of beauty  and that thus, along with other arrangements aet
in their countenances.  "6 What," said a certain  infinite variety of coloring and of scenery is dislady, "are there no colors in my shawl, and in the tributed throughout the immensity of creation.
ribbons that adorn my headdress, and are we all   The atmosphere, in consequence of its diftfrent
as black as negroes in the dark?  I should almost refractive and reflective powers, is the source o.' a
shudder to think of it."  Such persons, however, variety of colors which frequently embellish and
need be in no alarm at the idea, but may console diversify the aspect of our sky.  The air refiecti
themselves with the reflection that, when they  the blue rays most plentifully, and must therefore
are stripped of all their colored ornaments in the transmit the red, orange, and yellow more copious-.
dark, they are certain that they will never be seen ly than the other rays.  When the sun and other
by any one in that state; and therefore there is no heavenly bodies are at a high elevation, their light
reason to regret the temporary loss of those beau- is transmitted without any perceptible change;
ties which light creates, when they themselves, but when. they are near the horizon, their light
and all surrounding objects, are invisible.  But, to must pass through a long and dense track of air,
give a still more palpable proof of this position, and must therefore be considerably modified be-.
the following popular experiments may be stated: fore it reach the eye of the observer.  The meTake a pint of commosn spirit and pour it into  mentum of the red rays being greater than that
Et soup dish, and then set it on fire; as it begins to of the violet, will force their way through  the
blaze, throw a handful of salt into the burning  resisting medium, while the violet rays will be
spirit, and keep stirring it with a spoon. Several either reflected or absorbed.  If the light of the
handfuls may thus be successively thrown in, and setting sun, by thus passing through a long track
then the spectators, standing around the flame, of air, be divested of the green, blue, indigo, ai'd
will see each other frightfully changed, their co- violet rays, the remaining rays which are translors being altered into a ghastly blackness, in con- mitted through the atmosphere will illuminate
sequence of the nature of the light which falls the western clouds, first, with an orange color,
upon them, which produces colors very different and then, as the sun gradually sinks into the horifrom  those of the solar light.  The following ex- zon, the track through which the rays must nass
periment, as described by Sir D. Brewster, illus- becoming longer, tile yellow and orange are re.
trates the same principle: " Having obtained the fleeted, and the clouds grow more deeply red, until
means of illuminating any apartment with yellow  at length the disappearance of the sun leaves
light, let the exhibition be made in a room with  them  of a leaden hue, by the reflection of the
furniture of various bright colors, and with oil blue light through the air.  Similar changes of




46                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
color are sometimes seen on the eastern and west- merable bright starry orbs which are spread ovex
ern fronts of white buildings.  St. Paul's Church, it, sometimes, in a dark and cloudy sky, exhibits
in London, Is frequently seen, at sunset, tinged  an ornament which, by its pomp, splendor, and
with a very considerable degree of redness, and  variety of colors, attracts the attention of every
thile same cause occasions the moon to assume a eye that hasan opportunityof beholding it. At cer.
ruddy color, by the light transmitted through the  tain times, when there is a shower either around
atmosphere.  From  such atmospherical refrac- us, or at a distance fiom us in an opposite quartel
tions and reflections are produced those rich and  to that of the sun, a species of arch or bow is seei
beautiful hues with which our'sky is gilded by  in the sky, adorned wilh all the seven primary cothe setting sun, and the glowing red which tinges lors of light.  This phenomenon, which is onJe of
the morning and evening clouds, until their ruddy  the most beautiful meteors in nature, has obtained
glare is tempered by the purple of twilight, and  the name of the RAINBow.  The rainbow was, fot
the reflected azure of the sky.                    ages, considered as an inexplicable mystery, and
When a direct spectrum  is thrown on colors  by some nations it was adored as a deity.  Even
darker than itself, it mixes with them, as the yel- after the dawn of true philosophy, it was a conlow spectrum  of the setting sun, thrown on the  siderable time before any discovery of importance
green grass, becomes a greener yellow.  But was made as to the true causes which operate inl
when a direct spectrum  is thrown on colors the production of this phenomenon.  About the
brighter than itself, it becomes instantly changed  year 1571, M. Fletcher, of Breslau, made a cerinto the reverse spectrum, which mixes with those  tain approximation to the discovery of the true
brighter colors.  Thus the yellow  spectrum  of  cause, by endeavoring to account for the colors
the setting sun, thrown on thle lumilous sky, be-  of the rainbow by means of a double refraction
comes blue, and changes with the color or bright-  and one reflection. A nearer approximation was
ness of the clouds on which it appears.  The red  made by Antonio de Dominis, bishop of Spalatro,
part of light being capable of struggling through  about 1601.  lie maintained that the double rethick and resisting mediums which intercept all fraction of Fletchler, with an intervening reflection,
other colors, is likewise the cause why the sun  was sufficient to produce thle colors of the bow.
appears red when seeni through a fog; why distant and also to bring tile rays that formed them  tc.ight, though transmitted through blue or green  the eye of the spectator, without any subsequent
glass, appears red; why lamps at a distance, seen  reflection.  To verify this hypothlesis, he prothrough the smoke of a long street, are red, whlile  cured a small globe of solid glass, and viewing il
those that are near are white. To the same cause  when it was exposed to tile rays of the sun, with
it is owing that a diver at the bottom  of the sea  his back to that luminary, in the same manner as
is surrounded with the red light wmiich has pierced  he had supposed the drops of rain were situated
through the superincumbent fluid, and that the  with respect to them, he observed the same colors
blue rays are reflected from  the selrface of the  which he had seen in the rainbow, and in tile
ocean.  Hence Dr. Halley informs us that, when  same order. But he could give no good reason
he was in a diving-bell at the bottom  of the sea, whly the bow should be colored, and, much less,
Ilis han(l always appeared red in the water.       any satisfactory account of the order in which
The blue rays, as already noticed, being unable  the colors appear.  It was not until Sir I. Newton
to resist the obstructions they meet with in their discovered the different refrangibility of the rays
course through the atmosphere, are either reflect-  of light that a complete and satisfactory explanaed or absorbed in their passage.  It is to this tion could be given of all the circumstances concause that most philosophers ascribe the bltme color iiected with this phlenomenon.
of the sky, the failntness and obscurity of distant    As the full elucidation of this subject involves
objects, and the bright azure which tinges the  a variety of optical and mathematical investiganouIntains of a distant landscape.                 tions, I shall do little more than explain the general principle on whlich the promineiit phienonmeia
of the rainbow may be accounted for, and some
S AE C T I ON N~  I II I.             of the facts and results which theory and observatioI have deduced.
PHENOMENA oF THE: RAINBow.                 We 1have just now alluded to an experiment
with a glass globe: If, then, we take either a
SINCE the rays of light are found to be decom-  solid glass globe, or a hollow  globe filled with
posed by refracting surfaces, and reflected ill an  water, and suspend it so high in tle solar rays
infinite variety of modes and shades of color, we  above the eye that the spectator, with his back to
need not be surprised at the changes produced in  the sun, can see the globe red; if it be lowered
anlly scene or object by the intervention of another, slowly, he will see it orange, then yellow, thern
and by the numerous modifications of which tile  green, then blue, then indigo, and then violet; so
primary colors of nature are susceptible.  The  that the drop, at different Ilights, shall present to
vivid colors which gild the rising and the setting  the eye the seven primitive colors in succession.
sun  must necessarily differ from  those which  In this case, the globe, fiom  its form, will act in
adorn its noonday splendor. Variety of atmo-  some measure like a prism, and the ray will be
spheric scenery will thus necessarily be produced, separated into its component parts. The followgreater than the most lively fancy can well ima-  ing figure will more particularly illustrate this
ginue.  The clouds will sometimes assuine the  point.  Suppose A (fig. 35) to represent a drop
most fantastic forms, and at other times will be  of rain —which tmay be considered as a globe of
irradiated with beams of light, or, covered with  glass in miniature, and will produce the samel
the. darkest hues. will assume a lowering aspect, effect on the rays of light-aand let S D represent
prognostic of the thunder's roar and the light-  a ray from the sun falling upon the upper part of
ning's flash, all in accordance with the different the drop at a.  At the point of enteri)g the drop
rays that are reflected to our eyes, or the quantity  it will suffer a refraction, and, instead of going
absorbed by the vapors which float in the atmo- forward to c, it will be bent to N. From N a part
sphere.                                            of the light will be reflected to Q-some part of it
Light, which embellishes with so much magni-  will, of course pass through the drop.  By the
ficence a pure and serene sky, by means of innu- obliquity with which it falls on the side of the




ON THE COLORS OF NATURAL OBJECTS.                                        47
drop at Q, that part becomes a kind of prism, and  may introduce the following section of a bow
separates the ray into its primitive colors.  It is (fig. 36), and, in order to prevent confusion in atFig. 35.                                          Fig. 36.
T
J/.
VIDLE                                   C                                       UN
found by computation, that after a ray has suffered two refractions and one reflection, as here rep-,
resented, the least refrangible part of it, namely,
the red ray, will make an angle with the incidlent tempting to represent all the different colors, let
solar ray of 42~ 2', as S F Q; and the violet, or us suppose only three drops of rain, and three
greatest refrangible ray, will make, with the solar different colors, as shown in the figure.  The
ray, an angle of 400 17', as S c Q; and thus all spectator, 0, being in the center of the two bows
the particles of water within the difference of here represented-the planes of which must be
those two angles, namely, 10 45' (supposing the considered  as perpendicular to his view-the
ray to proceed merely from the center of the sun), drops A, B, and C produce part of the interior
will exhibit severally the colors of the prism, and bow  by two refractions and one reflection, as
constitute the interior bow of the cloud.  This stated before, and the drops D, E, F will produce
holds good at whatever hight the sun may chance  the exterior bow by two refractions and two reto be in a shower of rain.  If he be at a high alti- flections, the sun's rays being represented by 3, 3.
tude, the rainbow will be low; if he be at a low  It is evident that the angle C O Pis less than the
elevation, the rainbow  must be high; and if a angle B O P, and that the angle A  0 P is the
shower happen in a vale, when the spectator is greatest of the three.  The largest angle. then, is
on a mountain, he will sometimes see the bow in  formed by the red rays, the middle one consists
the formn of a complete circle below him. We have of the green, and the smallest the purple or violet.
at present described the phenomena only of a single  All the drops of rain, therefore, that happen to be
drop; but it is to be considered that in a shower in a certain position with respect to the spectaof rain there are drops at all hights and at all tor's eye, will reflect the red rays, and form a band
distances, and therefore the eye situated at G will or semicircle of red, and so of the other colors
see all the different colors.  All those drops that from  drops in other positions.  If the spectator
are in a certain position with respect to the spec- alters Iis station, he will see a bow, but not the
tator will reflect the red rays, all those in the next same as before; and if there be many spectators,
station the orange, those in the next the green, they will each see a different bow, though it apand so on with regard to all the other colors.     pears to be the same.
It appears, then, that the first or primary bow    The rainbow assumes a semicircular appearance,
is formed by two refractions and one reflection; because it is only at certain angles that the rebut there is frequently a second bow on the out- fracted rays are visible to our eyes, as is evident
side of the other, which is considerably fainter. from the experiment of the glass globe formerly
This is produced by drops of rain above the drop  alluded to, which will refract the rays only in a
we have supposed at A.  If B (fig. 35) represent certain position.  We have already stated that the
one of these drops, the ray to be sent to the eye red rays make an angle of 420 2', and the violet
enters the drop near the bottom, and suffers two an angle of 400 17'.  Now, if a line be drawn
refractions and two reflections, by which means horizontally from  the spectator's eye, it is evithe colors become reversed, that is, the violet is dent that angles formed with  this line, of a
lowest in the exterior bow, and the red is lowest in  certain dimension, in every direction, will prothe interior one, and the other colors are reversed  duce a circle, as will appear by attaching a cord
accordingly.  The ray T is refracted at R: a part of a given length to a certain point, round which
of it is reflected from s to Tr, and at T it suffers an- it may turn as round its axis; and, in every point,
other reflection from T to u. At the points s and  will describe an angle wvith the horizontal line of a
T part of the ray passes through the drop, on ac- certain and determinate extent.
count of its transparency, toward w and x, and    Sometimes it happens that three or more bows
therefore we say that part only of the ray is re- are visible, though with different degrees of disflected.  By these losses and reflections the exte- tinctness;   I have more than once observed this
rior bow becomes faint and ill-defined in compari- phenomenon, particularly in Edinburgh, in the
son of the interior or primary bow.  In this case month  of August, 1825, when three rainbows
the upper part of the secondary bow xwill not be were distinctly seen in the same quarter of the
seen when the sun is above 540 10' above the sky, and, if I recollect right, a fragment of the
horizon, and the lower part of the bow will not be fourth made its appearance.  This happens when
seen when the sun is 600 58' above the horizon. the rays suffer a third or fourth reflection; but on
For the farther illustrations of this subject, we account of the light lost by so many reflections,




b48                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
such bows are, for the most part, altogether im- bows is 80 55'. But since the body of the sun
perceptible.                                      subtends an angle of about half a degree, by so
If there were no ground to intercept the rain  much will each bow be increased, and their disand the view of the observer, the rainbow would tance diminished; and therefore the breadth of the
form a complete circle, the center of which is did- interior bow will be 20 15', and that of the exterior
metrically opposite to the sun. Such circles are 30 42', and their distance 80 25'. The greatest
sometimes seen in the spray of the sea or of a semidiameter of the interior bow, on the same
cascade, or from  the tops of lofty mountains, grounds, will be 420 17', and the least of the exwhen the showers happen in the vales below.- terior bow 500 43'. 5. When the sun is in the
Rainbows of various descriptions are frequently  horizon, either in the morning  or evening, the
observed rising amid the spray and exhalations of bows will appear complete selnicircles.  On the
waterfalls, and among the waves of the sea, whose other hand, when the sun's altitude is equal to
tops are blown by the wind into small drops. — 420 2', or to 540 10', the summits of the bows
There is one regularly seen when the sun is shi- will be depressed below the horizon.  Hence,-dusing, and the spectator in a proper position, at ring the days of summer, within a certain interthe fall of Staubback, in the bosom  of the Alps; val each day, no visible rainbows can be formed,
one near Schaffhausen; one at the cascade of on account of the sun's high altitude above the
Lauffen, and one at the cataract of Niagara in horizon.  6. The altitude of the bows above the
North America.  A  still more beautiful one is horizon or surface of the earth varies according
saidl to be seen at Terni, where the whole current to the elevation of the sun.  The altitude, at any
of the River Velino, rushing from a steep preci- time, may be taken by a common quadrant, or any
pice of nearly 200 feet high, presents to the spec- other angular instrument; but if the sun's altitude
tator below a variegated circle, overarching the at any particular time be known, the hight of the
fall, and two other bows suddenly reflected on the summit of any of the bows may be found by
right and left.  Don Ulloa, in the account of his subtracting the sun's altitude from 420 2' for tile
journeys in South America, relates that circular inher bow, and from 540 10' for the outer. Thus,
rainbows are frequently seen on the montains if the sun's altitude be 260, the hight of the priabove Quito in Peru. It is said that a rainbow  mary bow would be 160 2', and of the secondary,
swas once seen near London, caused by the exha- 28~10'. It follows that the hight and the size of the
lations of that city, after the sun had been below  bows diminish as the altitude of the sun increases,
the horizon more than twenty minutes.-    A na- 7. If the sun's altitude is more than 420, and less
val friend, says Mr. Bucke, informed me that, as than 54~0, the exterior bow may be seen, though
he was one day watching the sun's effect upon tile interior bow is invisible.  S. Sometimes only
the exhalations near Juan Fernandez, he saw  a portion of an arch will be visible, while all thile
upward of five-and-twenty ires marince animate other parts of the bow are invisible.  This hapthe sea at the same time.  In these marine bows pens when the rain does not occupy a space of
the concave sides were turned upward, the drops sufficient extent to complete the bow; and the
of water rising from below, and not falling from  appearance of this position, and even of the bow
above, as in the instances of the aerial arches.- itself, will be various, according to the nature
Rainbows are also occasionally seen on the grass of the situation, and the space occupied by the
in the morning dew, and likewise when the hoar- rain.
frost is descending.  Dr. Langwith once saw  a   The appearance of the rainbow may be probow  lying on the ground, the colors of which  duced  by  artificial means at any time, when
were almost as lively as those of a common rain- the sun is shining, and not too highly elevated
bow.  It was not round, but oblong, and was above the horizon.  This is effected by means of
extended several hundred yards.  The colors took  artificial fountains, or jet d'eaus, which are inup less space, and were much more lively in tended to throw  up streams of water to a great
those parts of the bow which were near him than  hight.  These streams, when they spread very
in those which were at a distance.  When  a. wide, and blend together in their upper parts,
Labillardiere was on Mount Teneriffe, he saw the form, when falling, a shower of artificial rain.contour of his body traced on the clouds beneath  If, then, when the fountain is playing, vwe move
hiim in all the colors of the solar bow.  He had  between it and the sun, at a proper distance from
previously witnessed this phenomenon on the the fountain, until our shadow  point directly
Kesrouan, in  Asia Minor.  Time rainbows of toward it, and look at the shower, we shall
Greenland are said to be frequently of a pale observe the colors of the rainbow  strong and
white, fringed with a brownish yellow  arising vivid; and, what is particularly worthy of notice,
froin the rays of the sun being reflected from  a the bow appears, notwithstanding the nlarness of
frozen cloud.                                     the shower, to be as large and as far off as the
The following is a summary view of the prin- rainbow which we see in a natural shower of
cipal facts which have been ascertained respecting I rain.  The same experiment may be made by
the rainbow:  1. The rainbow can only be seen  candle-light, and with any instrument that will
when it rains, and in that point of the heavens form an artificial shower.
which is opposite to the sun. 2. Both the prima-   Lunzar Rainbows. —A lunar bow is sometimes
ry and secondary bows are variegated with all the formed at night, by the rays of the moon striking
prismatic colors-the red being the highest color on a rain-cloud, especially when she is about tile
in the primary, or brightest bow, and the violet full. But such a phenomenon is very rare.  Arithe highest in the exterior.  3. The primary  stotle is said to have considered himself the first
rainbow can never be a greater are than a semi- who had seen a lunar rainbow.  For more than a
circle; and, when the sun is set, no bow, in ordi- hundred years prior to the middle of the last eennary circumstances, can be seen. 4. The breadth  tury, we. find only two or three instances recordo(f the inner or primary bow-supposing the sun  ed in which such phenomena are described with
but a point —is 10 45', and the breadth  of the ex- accuracy.  In the Philosophical Transactions fob
terior bow 30 12', which is nearly twice as great 1783, however, we have an account of three
as that of the ether; and the distance between the having been seen in one year, and all in the same
place, but they are by no means common phenoPhilosophical Transact'ons, vol. 1, p. 294.  mena. I have had an opportunity within the last




PHENOMENA OF THE RAINBOW.                                              49
twenty years of witnessing two phenomena of Divine benignity.  When, therefore, we at any
this description, one of which was seen at Perth, time behold "the bow in the cloud," we have not
on a Sabbath evening, in the autumn  of 1825, only a beautiful and sublime phenomenon preand the other at Edinburgh, on Wednesday, the  sented to the eye of sense, but also a mernurial
9th of September, 1840, about eight o'clock in  exhibited to the mental eye, assuring  us that,
the evening, of both which I gave a detailed de- "V While the earth remaineth, seed-time and harscription in some of the public journals.  The  vest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter,
moon, in both cases, was within a day or two of  and day and night, shall not cease."*
the full; the arches were seen in  the northern
quarter of the heavens, and extended nearly from," On the broad sky is seen
east to west, the moon being not far from  the           A dewy cloud, and in the cloud a bow
southern meridian.. The bows appeared distinct           Conspicuous, with seven listed colors gay,
so er er.  e  ows appeaed    stnc etokening peace with God and covenant new.
and well defined, but no distinct traces of the          He gives a promise never to destroy
prismatic colors could  be perceived on any of           The earth again by flood, nor let tie sea
them.  That which appealed  in 1825 wass his bounds, nor rain to drown the world."
most distinctly formed, and continued visible for                             MILTON, Par. Lost, Book XI.
more than an hour.  The other was much fainter,
and lasted little more than half an hour, dark
clouds having obscured the face of the moon.-                        SECT  O0N  IV.
These bows bore a certain resemblance to some
of the luminous arches which sometimes accom-    REFLECTIONS ON THE BEAUTY AND UTILITY OF
palny the Aurora Borealis, and this latter phenomenon has not unfrequently been mistaken for a
lunar rainbow; but they may be always distin-    COLOR is one of the properties of light which
guished by attending to the phases and position  constitutes chiefly the beauty and sublimity of the
of the moon.  If the moon be not visible above  universe.  It is color, in all its diversified shades,
the horizon, if she be in her first or last quarter, which presents to our view that almost infinite
or if any observed phenomenon be not in a direc- variety of aspect which appears on the scene of
tion opposite to the moon, we may conclude with  nature, which gives delight to the eye and the
certainty that, whatever appearance is presented, imagination, and which adds a fresh pleasure to
there is no lunar rainbow.                            every new  landscape we behold.  Every flower
The rainbow  is an object which has engaged  which decks our fields and gardens is compounded
universal attention, and its beautiful colors and  of different hues: every plain  is covered with
form  have excited  universal admiration.  The  shrubs and trees of different degrees of verdure;
poets have embellished their writillgs with many  and almost every mountain is clothed with herbs
beautiful allusions to this splendid meteor; and  and grass of different shade from those which apthe playful schoolboy, while viewing the " bright pear on tho hills and landscape with which it i'
enchantment," has frequently ruIn s to catch the  surrounded.  In the country, during summer, isafalling glory."  When its arch rests on the opIo-  ture is every day, and almost every hour, varying
site sides of a narrow  valley, or on the suIlnmlits  her appearance by the multitude and variety of her
of two adjacent mountains, its appearance is both  hues and decorations, so that the eye wanders with
beautiful and grand.  In all probability, its figure  pleasure over objects continually diversified, and
first suggested the idea of arches, which are now  extending as far as the sight call reach.  In the
found of so much utility in forming aqueducts flowers with which every landscape is adorned,
and bridges, and for adorning the architecture of  what a lovely assemblage of colors, and what a wonpalaces and temples.  It is scarcely possible seri- derful art in the disposition of their shades! Here a
ously  to contemplate this splendid phetnomenon  light pencil seems to have laid on the delicate thits.
without feeling admiration and gratitude toward  there they are blended according to the nicest.that wise and beneficent Being whose hands have  rules of art.  Although green is the general color
bent it into so graceful andi majestic a form, and  which prevails over tihe scene of sublunary nature,
declked it with all the pride of colors.  " Look  yet it is diversified by a thousand different shades,
upon the rainbow," says the son of Siraceh, "and  so that every species of tree, shrub, and herb is
praise Him that made it: very beautiful it is in
thle brightness thereof.  It compasseth the leaven
te brightIess thereof.  It compasseth the heaven  t is a question which has been frequently started,
about with a glorious circle, and the hands of the  whether there was any rainbow before the flood? Some
Most High have bended it."  To this grand ethe- F have conceived that thle rainbow was something ofa miracreal bow the inspired writers frequently allude as' tlatLus production, and that it was never seen before the flood.
one of the emrrbl~ems of the asajes~ty and splendor hi ilTe equivocal sense of the word " set," in our translation,
f  has occasioned a mistaken impression of this kind. The
of the Almighty. In the prophesies of Ezekiel, the  Hebrew word, thus translated, signifies more properly "cI do
throne of Deity is represented as adorned with a  give," or "1 appoint."  The whole passage in reference to
brighltn;ess " like the appearance of the bow that!this circumstance, literally translated, runs thus: "I up.
pis in the cloud in the day of rain-the appearance   oint my bow which is in the cloud, that it may be for a
sign or token of a covenant between me and the earth; and
of the likeness of the glory of Jehovah."  And, it shall come to pass, when I bring a cloud over the earth,
in the visions recorded in the Book of the Revela- and the bow shall be seen in the cloud, that I will remember
tions, where the Most High is represented as sit- l my covenant that is between me and you," &c. As the
~"ting  upon a throne, 1there was a rainbow round  rainbow is produced by the immutable laws of refraction and
reflection, as applied to the rays of the sun striking on drops
about the throne, in sight like unto an emerald,"  of falling rain, the phenomenon must have been occasionally
as an emblem of his propitious character, and of  exhibited from the beginning of the world;unless we suppose
his faithfulness and mercy.  After the deluge, that there was no rain before the flood, and that the constitution of things in the physical system was very different from
this how was appointed as a sign and memorial what it is now. The passage affirms no more than that the
of the covenant which God made with Noah and  rainbow was thea appointed to be a symbol of the covenant
his sons, that a flood of waters should never again  between God and man; and although it may have been frebe permitted to deluge the earth and its inhabit- quently seen before, it would serve the purpose of a sign
equally well as if it had been miraculously formed for this
ants, and as a pledge of inviolable fidelity and  purpose, and even better, as its frequent appearance, as
cording to natural laws, is a perpetual memorial to man of
*Ecclesiasticus, xliii, 11, 12.         the Divine faithfulness and mercy.




50                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
clothed with its own peculiar verdure.  The dark  briqhtness than it now exhibits, and our eyes might,
green of the forests is thus easily distinguished  after some time, be enabled freely to expatiate over
from the lighter shades of cornfields and the ver- the surrounding landscape; but everything, though
dure of the lawns.  The system  of animated  enlightened, would appear confused, and particnnature likewise displays a diversified assemblage lar objects would scarcely be distinguishable.  A
of beautiful colors.  The plumage of birds, the tree, a house, or a church near at hand might
brilliant feathers of the peacock, the ruby and eme- possibly be distinguished, on account of its elevarald hues which adorn the little humming-bird, tion above the general surface of the ground, and
and the various embellishments of many species the bed of a river by reason of its being depressed
of the insect tribe, present to the eye in every re- below  it. But we should be obliged rather to
glen of the globe, a scene of diversified beauty  guess, and to form a conjecture as to the particuland enibellishment.  Nor is the mineral kingdom  lar object we wished to distinguish, than to arrivn
destitute of such embellishments; for some of at any certain conclusion respecting it; and if it
the darkest and most unshapely stones and pebbles, lay at a considerable distance, it would be impossiwhen polished by the hand of art, display a mix- ble, with any degree of probability, to discriminate
ture of the most delicate and variegated colors. any one object from  another. Notwithstanding
All which beauties and varieties in the scene  the universal brightness of the scene, the uniforaround us are entirely owing to that property, in mity of color thrown on every object would most
every ray of light, by which it is capable of be- certainly prevent us from distinguishing a church
ing separated into the primitive colors.         fiom a palace, a cottage from a knoll or heap of
To the same cause, likewise, are to be ascribed  rubbish, a splendid mansion from rugged rocks)
those beautiful and diversified appearances which  the trees from  the hills on which they grow, or c
frequently adorn the face of the sky-the yellow, barren desert fiom rich and fertile plains. In- such
orange, and ruby hues which embellish the firma- a case human beings would be confounded,and even
ment at the rising of the sun, and when he is friends and neighlbors be at a loss to recognize one
about to descend below  the western horizon; another.
and those aerial landscapes, so frequently beheld    The vault of heaven, too, would wear a uniform
in tropical climes, where rivers, castles, and moun- aspect. Neither planets nor cornets would be vitains are depicted rolling over each other along the sible to any eye, nor those millions of stars which
circle of the horizon.  The clouds, especially in  now shine forth with so much brilliancy, and disome countries, reflect almost every color in na- versify the nocturnal sky; for it is by the contrast
ture.  Somretirnes they wear the modest blush of produced by the deep azure of the heavens and
the rose; sometimes they appear like stripes of the white radiance of the stars that those bodies
deep vermillion, and sometimes as large, brilliant are rendered visible. Were they depicted on a
masses tinged with various hues; now they are pure white ground "'-ey would not be distinguishwhite as ivory, and now as yellow as native gold. In  ed from  that ground, and would, consequently,
scme tropical countries, according to St. Pierre, be invisible, unless any of them  occasionally asthe clouds roll themselves up into enormous masses sumed a different color.  Of course, all that beauas white as snow, and are piled upon each other, tiful variety of aspect which now appears on the
like the Cordilleras of Peru, and are molded into  face of sublunary nature-the rich verdure of the
the shape of mountains, of caverns, and of rocks. fields, the stately port of the forest, the rivers meWhen the sun sets behind this magnificent aerial andering through the valleys, the splendid hues
net-work, a multitude of luminous rays are trans- that diversify and adorn our gardens and meadows,
rmitted through each particular interstice, which  the gay coloring of the morning and evening
produce such an effect that the two sides of the clouds, and all that variety which distinguishes the
lozenge illuminated by them have the appearance different seasons, would entirely disappear. As
of being begirt with a fillet of gold; and the other every landscape would exhibit nearly the sarme
two, which are in the shade, seem tinged with a aspect, there would be no inducement to the poet
superb ruddy orange. Four or five divergent streams and the philosopher to visit distant countries to
of light, emanating from the setting sun up to the investigate the- scenes of nature, and journeyzenith, clothe with fringes of gold the undetermi- ings from one region to another would scarcely
nate summits of this celestial barrier, and proceed be productive of enjoyment.  Were any other
to strike with the reflexes of their fires the pyra- single color to prevail, nearly the same results
mids of the collateral aerial mountains, which  would ensue.  Were a deep ruddy hue to be unithen appear to consist of silver and vermilion. formrly spread over the scene of creation, it would
In short, color diversifies every sublunary scene, not only be offensive to the eye, but would likewise
whether on the earth or in the atmosphere; it im- prevent all distinction of objects. Were a dark
parts a beauty to the phenomena of falling stars, blue or a deep violet to prevail, it would produce
of luminous arches, and the coruscations of the a similar effect, and, at the same time, present
Aurora Borealis, and gives asplendorandsublimity  the scene of nature as covered with a dismal
to the spacious vault of heaven.                 gloom.  Even if creation were arrayed in a robe
Let us now consider for a moment what would  of green which is a more pleasant color to the
be the aspect of nature if, instead of the beauti- eye, were it not diversified with the different shades
ful variety of embellishments which now appear it now exhibits, every object would be equally unon every landscape, and on the concave of the distinguishable.
sky, one uniform color had been thrown over the    Such would have been the aspect of creation,
scenery of the universe.  Let us conceive the and the inconveniences to which we should have
whole of terrestrial neture to be covered with  been subjected, had the Creator afforded us light
snow, so that not an ol sect on earth should ap- without that intermixture of colors which now
pear with any other hue, and that the vast expanse appears over all nature, and which serves to disof the firmament presented precisely the same cririnate one object from another.  Even our
uniform aspect. What would be the consequence? very apartments would have been tame and insipid,
The light of the sun would be strongly reflected incapable of the least degree of ornament, and
from all the objects within the bounds of our ho- the articles with which they are furnished almost
rizon, and would produce a luster which would  undistinguishable, so that, in discriminating one
dazzle every eye. The day would acquire a greater object from another, we should have been as much




UTILITY AND BEAUTY OF COLORS.                                      51
indebted to the sense of touch as to the sense of man of taste, and almost to every human being,
vision. Our friends and fellow-men would have the combination of colors in flowers, the delicate
presented no objects of interest in our daily asso- tints with which they are painted, the diversified
ciations. Tihe sparkling eye, the benignant smile, shades of green with which tilhe hills and dales,
the modest blush, the blended hues of white and the mountains and the vales are arrayed(, and that
vermilion in the human face, and tile beauty of beautiful variety which appears in a )bright sumthe female countenance, would all have vanished, mel day on all the objects of this lower creation,
and we should have appeared to one another as are sources of the purest enjoyment and delight.
so many moving marble statues, cast nearly in the It is color, too, as well as magnitude, that adds to
same mold. But what would have been worst the sublli'nity of objects. Were. the canopy of
of all, the numerous delays, uncertainties, and Iheaven of one uniform lhue, it would fail in properplexities to which we should have been sub- ducing those lofty conceptions, and those delightjected, had we been under the necessity every ful and transporting emotions, whichl a contellmoment of distinguishing objects by trains of plation of its august scenery is calculated  to
reasoning, and by circumstances of time, place, inspire. Colors are likewise of considerable utility
and relative position?  Al artist, when cornmen- in the intercourse of general society.  They serve
cing his work in the morning, with a hundred both for ornaments, and for distinguishing the
tools of nearly the same size and shape around  different ranks and conditions of the commui- snity;
him, would have spent a considerable portion of they add to the beauty and gracefulness of our
his time before he could have selected those pro- furniture and clothing.  At a glanlce, the(y enable
per for his purpose, or the objects to which they  Lus at once to distinguish the noble from the ignowere to be applied; and in every department of ble, the prince from his subjects, the master from
society, and in all our excursions from one place his servant, and the widow, clothed with sable
to another, similar difficulties anid perplexities weeds, from  the bride adorned with her nuptial
would have occurred. The one-half of our time ornaments.
must thus have been employed in uncertain guesses   Since colors, then, are of so much value and
and perplexing reasonings respecting  the real importance, they may be reckoned as holding a
nature and individuality of objects, rather than inl rank among the noblest natural gifts of tile Crea regular train of thinking and of employment; ator.  As they are of such essential service to the
anid, after all our perplexities and conjectures, we inhabitants of our globe, there can be rno doubt
must have remained in the utmost uncertainty as that they serve similar or analogous purposes
to the thousands of scenes and objects which are throughout all the worlds in the universe.  The
now obvious to us, through the inrstrurneitality  colors displayed in the solar beams are common to
of colors, as soon as we open our eyes.         all the globes which com)pose the planetary sysIn short, without color we could have had no tem, and must necessarily be reflected, in all their
books nor writings: we could neither have corres- diversified hues, from  objects on their surfaces.
ponded with our frienlds by letters, nor have known The light which radiates from the fixed stars disanything with certainty of the events which hap- plays a similar diversity of colors. Some of the
pened in former ages. No written revelation of double stars are found to emit light of diffelreit
the will of God, and of hIis character, such as we hues; the larger star exhibiting light of a ruddy
now enjoy, could have been handed down to us or orange hue, and the smaller one a radiance
from remote periods and generations.  Tile dis- which approaches to blue or green.  There is,
coveries of science and the improvements of art therefore, reason to conclude that tihe objects conwould have remained unrecorded. Universal ig- nected with the planets which revolve round such
norance would have prevailed thlroughout the stars-being occasionally enlightened by suns of
world, and the human mind have remnained in a different hues —will display a more variegated and
state of demoralization and debasement. All these, splendid scenery of colorinrg than is ever beheld
and many other inconveniences and evils would in the world on which we dwell; and that one of
have inevitably followed, had not God painted the the distinguishing  characteristics  of  different
rays of light with a diversity of colors. And worlds, in regard to their embellishments, may
hence we may learn that the most important consist in the splendor and variety of colors with
scenes and events in the universe may depend which the objects on their surfaces are adorned
upon the existence of a single principle in nature, In the metaphorical description of the glories of
and even upon the most minute circumstances, the New Jerusalem, recorded in the Book of Rewhich we may be apt to overlook, in the arrange- velation, one of the chief characteristics of that
mients of the material world.                   city is said to consist in the splendor and diversity
In the existing state of things in the visible of hues with which it is adorned.  It is represencreation, we cannot but admire the wisdom  and  ted as " coming down from heaven, prepared as a
beneficence of the Deity in thus enabling us to bride adorned for her husband," and as reflectinig
distinguish objects by so easy and expeditious a all the beautiful and variegated colors which the
mode as that of color, wiicnh in a moment discrimi- finest gems on earth can exhibit; evidently indinates every object and its several relations. We eating that splendor and variety of coloring are
rise in the morning to our respective employments, some of the grandest features of celestial scenery.
and our food, our drink, our tools, our books, and   On the whole, the subject of colors, when seriwhatever is requisite for our comfort, are at once ously considered, is calculated to excite us to the
discriminated.   Without the least hesitation or adoration of the goodness and intelligence of that
uncertainty, and without ally perplexing process Almighty Being whose wisdom  planned all tihe
iof reasoning, we can lay our hands on whatever arrangements of the universe, and to inspire us
articles we require. Color clothes every object with gratitude for the numerous conveniences
with its peculiar livery, and infallibly directs the and pleasures we derive from those properties and
hand in its movements, and the eye in its surveys laws he has impressed on the material system.
and contemplations. But this is not the only end He might have afforded us light, and even splennwhich the Divine Being had in view in impressing did illumination, without the pleasures and adon the rays of light a diversity of colors. It is vantages which diversified colors now produce,
evident that he likewise intended to minister to and mall and other animated beings might have
our pleasures as well as to our wants. To every existed in such a state. But what avery different




b2                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
scene would the world have presented from what hues spread over the face of creation, we have as
it now exhibits!  Of how many thousands of real a display of the Divine presence as Moses enpleasures should we have been deprived! and to joyed at the burning bush. The only difference
what numerous inconveniences and perplexities is, that the one was out of the common order of
should we have been subjected! The sublimity Divine procedure, and the other in accordance
and glories of the firmament, and the endless with those permanent laws which regulate the
beauties and varieties which now embellish our economy of the universe. In every color, then,
terrestrial system, would have been forever un- which we contemplate, we have a sensible memoknown, and man could have had little or no in- rial of the presence of that Being " whose Spirit
citement to study and investigate the works of his garnished the heavens and laid the foundations of
Creator. In this, as well as in many other ar- the earth," and whose "merciful visitation" susrangements in nature, we have a sensible proof tains us every moment in existence. But the reof the presence and agency of that Almighty In- velation of God to our senses, through tile various
telligence " in whom we live, and move, and have objects of the material world, has become so faour being."  None but an infinitely Wise and miliar, that we are apt to forget the Author of all
Beneficent Being, intimately present in all places, our enjoyments, even at the moment when we
could thus so regularly create in us, by means of are investigating his works and participating of
color, those exquisite sensations which afford so his benefits. "0  that men would praise Joh(,vah
much delight, and which unite us, as it were, for his goodness, and for his wonderful works bowith everything around us.  In the diversity of ward the children of men."
PART III
ON TELESCOPES.
CHAPTER I.
HISTORY OF THE INVENTION OF TELESCOPES.
TiE telescope is an optical instrument for view-   The persons who constructed the first teleing objects at a distance. Its name is compound- copes, and the exact period when they were first
ed of two Greek words, vrxAe, which signifies at -a invented, are involved in some degree of obscurity.
distance or far off, and sXozeav, to view or to conten- It does not certainly appear that such instruments
plate. By means of telescopes, remote objects are were known to the ancients, although we ought
represented as if they were near, small apparent not to be perfectly decisive on this point. The
magnitudes are enlarged, confused objects are ren- cabinets of the curious contain some very ancient
dered distinct, and the invisible and obscure parts gems of admirable workmanship, the figures on
of very distant scenes are rendered perceptible and which are so small that they appear beautiful
clear to the organ of vision. The telescope is through a magnifying glass, but altogether conjustly considered as a grand and noble instrument. fused and indistinct to the naked eye; and thereIt is not a little surprising that it should be in the fore it may be asked, If they cannot be viewed,
power of man to invent and construct an instru- how could they be wrought, without the assistance
ment by which objects, too remote for the unas- of glasses? And as some crf the ancients have
sisted eye to distinguish, should be brought within declared that the moon has a form like that of the
the range of distinct vision, as if they were only earth, and has plains, hills, and valleys in it, how
a few yards from our eye, and that thousands of could they know this, unless by mere conjecture,
august objects in the heavens, which had been without the use of a telescope? And how could
concealed from mortals for numerous ages, should they have known that the Milky Way is formed by
be brought within the limits of our contempla- the combined rays of an infinite number of stars?
tion, and be as distinctly perceived as if we had For Ovid states, in reference to this zone, "its
been transported many millions of miles from the groundwork is of stars."  But, whatever knowspace we occupy through the celestial regions. ledge the ancients may have possessed of the teleThe celebrated Huygens remarks, in reference to scope or other optical glasses, it is quite evident
this instrument, that, in his opinion, "the wit that they never had telescopes of such size and
and industry of man has not produced anything power as those which we now possess, and that
so noble and so worthy of his faculties as this no discoveries in the heavens, such as are now
sort of knowledge (namely, of the telescope); in- brought to light, were made by any of the ancient
somuch that if any particular person had been so astronomers, otherwise some allusions to them
diligent and sagacious as to invent this instrument must have been found in their writings.
from the principles of nature and geometry, for   Among the moderns, the illustrious Friar Bamy part, I should have thought his abilities were con appears to have acquired some rude ideas remore than human; but the case is so far from  specting the construction of telescopes. "Lense1s
this, that the most learned men have not yet been and specula," says he, " may be so figured that
able sufficiently to explain the reason of the effects one object may be multiplied into many, that those
of this casual invention."                     which are situated at a great distance may be




THE INVENTION OF TELESCOPEF.                                        53
made to appear very near, that those which are for the destruction of manklnd. But the telesmall may be made to appear very large, and those scope was soon destined to more noble and honorwhich are obscure, very plain; and we can make able achievements.  Jansen, it is said, directed his
stars to appear wherever we will."  From  these instrument toward celestial objects, and distinctly
expressions, it appears highly probable that this saw the spots on the surface of the moon, and disphilosopher was acquainted with the general prin- covered many new stars, particularly several pretty
ciple both of telescopes and microscopes, and that considerable ones in the Great Bear. His son Johe may have constructed telescopes of small mag- annes is said to have noticed the lucid circle near
nifying power for his own observation and amuse- the lower limb of the moon, now named Tycho,
ment, although they never came into general use. from whence several bright rays seemed to dart in
He was a man of extensive learning, and made so different directions.  In viewing Jupiter, he perrapid a progress in the sciences, when attending ceived two, sometimes three, and, at the most,
the University of Paris, that he was esteemed the four small stars, a little above or below him, and
glory of that seat of learning.  He prosecuted  thought that they performed revolutions around
his favorite study of experimental philosophy with  him.  This was probably the first observation of
unremitting ardor, and in this pursuit, in the the satellites of Jupiter, though the person who
course of twenty years, he expended no less than made it was not aware of the importance of his
~2000 in experiments, instruments, and in pro- discovery.*
curing scarce books.  In consequence of such ex-   It is not improbable that different persons about
traordinary talents and such astonishing progress Middleburg hit upon the invention, in different
in the sciences in that ignorant age, he was repre- modes, about the same time. Lippersheim seems to
sented, by the envy of his illiterate fraternity, as have made his first rude telescope by adjusting two
having dealings with the devil; and, under this glasses on a board, and supporting them on brass
pretense, he was restrained from reading lectures, circles.t Other workmen, particularly Metius and
and at length, in 1278, when sixty-four years of Jansen, in emulation of each other, seem to have
age, he want imprisoned in his cell, where he re- made use of that discovery, and by the new form
mained in eonfinement for ten years.  He shone they gave it, made all the honor of it their own.
like a single bright star in a dark hemisphere-the  One of them, considering the effects of light as
glory of our Country-and died at Oxford, in the injurious to distinctness, placed the glasses in a
year 1294, in the eightieth year of his age. " Friar tube blackened within.  The other, still more cauBacon," says the Rev. Mr. Jones, "may be con- tious, placed the same glasses within tubes capasidered as the first of English philosophers; his ble of sliding one in another, both to vary the
profound,kill in mechanics, optics, astronomy, prospects, by lengthening the instrument, accordand chemistry would make an honorable figure ing to the pleasure of the observer, and to render
in the present age. But he is entitled to further it portable and commodious.  Thus it is probable
praise, as he made all his studies subservient to that different persons had a share in the inventheology, and directed all his writings, as much as tion, and jointly contributed to its improvement.
could be, to the glory of God. He had the high- At any rate, it is undoubtedly to the Dutch that
est regard for the sacred Scriptures, and was per- we owe the original invention.  The first telesuaded they contain the principles of all true scope made by Jansen did not exceed fifteen or
science."                                         sixteen inches in length, and therefore its magniThe next person who is supposed to have ac- fying power could not have been very great.
quired a knowledge of telescopes was Joannes   The famous Galileo has frequently been supBaptista Porta, of Naples, who flourished in the posed to have been the inventor of the telescope,
sixteenth century. He discovered the Camera Ob- but he acknowledges that he had not the honor
scura, the knowledge of which might naturally  of being the original inventor, having first learnhave led to the invention of the telescope; but it ed fiom a German that such an instrument had
does not appear that he ever constructed such an already been made; although, from  his own acinstrument.  Des Cartes considers James Metius, count, it appears that he had actually reinvented
a Dutchman, as the first constructor of a telescope, this instrument.  The following is the account,
and says that, " as he was amusing himself with in his own words, of the circumstances which led
making mirrors and burning-glasses, he casually him to construct a telescope: " Nearly ten months
thought of looking through two of his lenses at ago (namely, in April or May, i609), it was rea time, and found that distant objects appeared ported that a certain Dutchman had made a pervery large and distinct."  Others say that this spective through which many distant objects apgreat discovery was first made by John Lipper- peared as distinct as if they were near.  Several
sheim, a maker of spectacles at Middleburg, or, effects of this wonderful instrument were reportrather, by his children, who were diverting them- ed, which some believed and others denied; but,
selves with looking through two glasses at a time, having it confirmed to me a few days after by a
and placing them at different distances from each letter from  the noble John Badoverie, at Paris, 1
other. But Borellus, who wrote a book "on the applied myself to consider the reason of it, and
invention of the telescope," gives this honor to by what means I might contrive a similar instrnZacharias Jansen, another spectacle maker in the ment, which I afterward attained to by the doesame town, who, he says, made the first telescope trine of refractions.  And, first, I prepared a
in 1590. Jansen was a diligent inquirer into na- leaden tube, to whose extremities I fitted two
ture, and, being engaged in such pursuits, he was spectacle glasses, both of them  plane on one side,
trying what use could be made of lenses for those and on the other side one of them was spherically
purposes, when he fortunately hit upon the con- convex, and the other concave.  Then applying
struction. Having found the arrangement of glasses
which produced the effect desired, he inclosed
them  in a tube, and ran with his instrument to   * Though Borellus mentions this circumstance, yet there
Prince Maurice, who, immediately conceiving that is some reason to doubt the accuracy of this statement, as
it might be of use to him in his wars, desired the young Jansen appears to have been at that period not more
than six years old; so that it is more probable that Galileo
author to keep it a secret. Such are the rude was the first discoverer of Jupiter's satellites.
conceptions and selfish views of princely warriors,   t The reader may see an engraving of this instrument in
who w ould apply every invention in their power the author's work entitled " Thse Improvement of Societ2l."




554                         THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER
my eye to the concave, I saw objects appear pretty    The results of Galileo's obsewvations were given
large and pretty near me.  They appeared three to the world in a small work, entitled " NAuncius
times nearer and nine times larger in surface than Sidereus," or, " News from the Starry Regions,"
to the naked eye; and soon after I made another, which produced an extraordinary sensation amlong
which represented objects about sixty times larger, the  learned.  These  discoveries  soon  spread
and eight times nearer; and at last, having spared  throughout Europe, and were incessantly talked
no labor or expense, I made an instrument so ex- of, and were the cause of much speculation and
cellent as to show things almost a thousand times debate among the circles of philosophers.  Niany
larger, and above thirty times nearer, than to the doubted; many positively refused to believe so
naked eye."  In another part of his writings, novel and unlooked-for announcements, because
Galileo informs us that "he was at Venice when they ran counter to the philosophy of Aristotle
he heard of Prince Maurice's instrument, but and all the preconceived notions which then prenothing of its construction; that the first night vailed in the learned world.  It is curious, ana
after he returned to Padua he solved the problem, may be instructive, to consider to what a lengtl
and made his instrument the next day, and soon of absurdity ignorance and prejudice carried mIaafter presented it to the doge at Venice, who, to ny of those who made pretensions to learning and
do him honor for his grand invention, gave him  science.  Some tried to reason against the fact,
the ducal letters which settled him for life in his alleged to be discovered; others contented themnlectureship at Padua; and the Republic, onl the25th selves, and endeavored to satisfy others with the
of August, in the same year (1610), more than simple assertion that such things were not, and
tripled his salary as professor."                could not possibly be; and the manner in which
The following is the account which this philo- they supported themselves in their incredulity
sopher gives of the process ef reasoning which was truly ridiculous.  " 0 my dear Kepler," says
led him  to the construction of a telescope: "I Galileo, in a letter to that astronomer, "  how I
argued in the following manner: The contrivance wish we could have one hearty laugh together.
consists either of one glass or more: one is not Here at Padua is the principal professor of philosufficient, since it must be either convex, concave, sophy, whom  I have repeatedly and urgently reor plane; the last does not produce any sensible quested to look at the moon and planets through
alteration in objects, the concave diminishes them; my glass, which he pertinaciously r'f/ses to do,
it is true that the convex magnifies, but it renders lest his opinions should be owiruruerned.  Why are
them  confused and indistinct, consequently, one you not here? what shouts of laugliter we should
glass is insufficient to produce the desired effect. have at this glorious folly! and to hear the profesProceeding to consider two glasses, anl bearing in sor of philosophy at Pisa laboring with the Grandmind that the plane  glass causes no change, I de- duke with logical argumlents, as if with magical
termined that the instrument could not consist incantations to charm the new planets out of the
of the combination of a plane glass with either of sky."  Another opponent of Galileo, one Christthe other two.  I therefore applied myself to mann, says, in a book he published, "We are not
make experiments on combinations of the two to think that Jupiter has four satellites given him
other kIinds, and lthus obtained that of which I was by nature, in order, by revolving round him, to
in search."  If the true inventor is the person immortalize the Medici who first had notice of the
who makes the discovery by reasoning and re- observation.  These are the dreamss of idle!new,
flection, by tracing facts and principles to their who love ludicrous ideas better than our laborious
consequences, and by applying his invention to and industrious correction of the heavens.  Naimportant purposes, then Galileo may be consi- ture abhors so horrible a chaos, end to the truly
dered as the real inventor of the telescope.  No wise such vanity is detestable."  One Martin
sooner had he constructed this instrument-before Horky, a would-be philosopher, declared to Kephe had seen any similar one-than he directed his ler, "I will never concede his four new planets
tube to the celestial regions, and his unwearied  to that Italian from Padua, though I should die for
diligence and ardor were soon rewarded by a it;" and he followed up this declaration by pubseries of new and splendid discoveries.  He de- lishing a book against Galileo, in which he examscried the four satellites of Jupiter, and marked ines four principal questions respecting the alleged
the periods of their revolutions; he discovered the planets: 1. Whether they exist?'2. What they
phases of Venus, and thus was enabled to adduce are? 3. What they are like? 4. Why they are?
a new proof of the Corpernican system, and to The first question is soon disposed of by declaring
remove an objection that had been brought against positively that he has examined the heavens with
it. He traced on the lunar orb a resemblance to Galileo's own glass, and that no such thing as a
the structure of the earth, and plainly perceived satellite about Jupiter exists. To the second, he
the outlines of mountains and vales, casting their declares solemnly that he does not more surely
shadows over different parts of its surface. He ki nqw that he has a soul in his body than that reobserved that, when Mars was in quadrature, his fleeted rays are the sole cause of Galileo's erro.
figure varied slightly from  a perfect circle, and neous observations.  In regard to the third questhat Saturn consisted of a triple body, having a tion, he says that these planets are like the smallsmall globe on each side, which deception was est fly compared to an elephant; and finally conowing to the imperfect power of his telescope, eludes, on the fourth, that the only use of them
which was insufficient to show him that the phe- is to gratify Galileo's " thirst of gold,' and to
nomenon was in reality a ring.  In viewing the afford himself a subject of discussion. Kepler,
sun, he discovered large dark spots on the surface in a letter to Galileo, when alluding to Horky,
of that luminary, by which he ascertained that says, "He begged so hard to be forgiven, that I
that mighty orb performed a revolution round its have taken him  again into favor upon this preaxis. He brought to view  multitudes of stars liminary condition, that I am to show him Jupiimperceptible to the naked eye, and ascertained ter's satellites, AND HE IS TO SEE THEM, and own
that those nebulous appearances in the heavens that they are there."
which constitute the Milky Way consist of a vast   The following is a specimen of the reasoning
collection of minute stars too closely compacted of certain pretended philosophers of that age
together to produce an impression on our unas- against the discoveries of Galileo: Sizzi, a Florensisted vision.                                    tine astronomer reasons in this strain'  "There




THE INVENTION OF TELESCOPES.                                        55
are seven windows given to animals in the domi- i tance of the concave eyeglass.  If the eyeglass
cil of the head, through which the air is admitted  was two inches focus, the length of the instruto the rest of the tabernacle of the body, to en- ment would be five feet four inches; if it was
lighten. to warm, and to nourish it; two nostrils, only one inch, the length would be two feet eight
two eyes, two ears, and a mouth; so in the heav- inches, which is the least we can allow to it —the
ens, or tile great world, there are two favdrable object-glass being thirty-three inches focus, and
stars, two unpropitious, two luminaries, ald Mer- the eyeglass placed an inch within this focus
cury alone undecided and  indifferent.  From  With this telescope Galileo discovered the satelwhich, and many other similar phenomena in na- lites of Jupiter, the crescent of Venus, and the
ture, such as the seven metals, &c., we gather other celestial objects to which we have alluded.
that thle number of planets is necessarily seven. The telescopes made in Holland are supposed to
Moreover, the satellites are invisible to the naked  have been constructed solely of convex glasses, on
eye, and therefore can exert no influence on the the principle of the astronomical telescope; and
earth, and therefore would be useless, and therefore if so, Galileo's telescope was in reality a new indo not exist.  Beside, as well the Jews as other vention.
ancient nations have adopted the division of the    Certain other claimants of the invention of the
week into seven days, and have named them from  telescope have appeared, beside those already menthe seven planets.  Now, if we increase the num- tioned.  Francis Fontana, in his "Celestial Obher of the planets, this whole system  falls to the servations," says that he was assured by a Mr.
ground."  The opinions which then prevailed in Hardy, advocate of the Parliament of Paris, a
regard to Galileo's observations on the moon were person of great learning and undoubted integrity,
such as the following: Some thought that the that, on the death of his father, there was found
dark shades on the moon's surface arose from the among his things an old tube by which distant
interposition of opaque bodies floating between  objects were distinctly seen, and that it was of a
her and the sun, which prevent his light fron  date lomlg prior to the telescope lately invented,
reaching those parts; others imagined that, on ac- and had been kept by him as a secret.  Mr. Leoncount of her vicinity to the earth, she was partly  ard Digges, a gentleman who lived near Bristol in
tainted with the imperfections of our terrestrial the seventeenth century, and was possessed of
and elementary iatture, and was not of that en-  great and various knowledge, positively asserts in
tirely pure and refined substance of which the his " Stratoticos," and in another work, thiat his
more remote heavens consist; and a third party  father, a military gentleman, had an instrullent
looked on her as a vast mirror, and maintained  which lie used in the field, by which he could
that the dark parts of her surface were the reflected  bring distant objects near, and could know  a
images of our earthly forests and mountains.      man at tihe distance of three miles. Mr. T'homas
Such learned nonsense is a disgrace to our spe- Digges, in the preface to his s" Pantometria," pubcies, and to the rational faculties with which man  lished in 1591, declares, " My father, by his conis endowed, and exhibits, in a most ludicrous mail- tinual painful practices, assisted by demonstrations
ner, the imbecility and prejudice of those who  mathematical, was able, and sundry times hath,
made bold pretensions to erudition and philoso- by proportional glasses, duly situate in convenient
phy.  The statement of such facts, however, may  angles, not only discovered things far off, read
be instructive, if they tend to guard Lis against letters, numbered pieces of money, with the very
those prejudices and preconceived opinions which  coin and superscription thereof, cast by some* of
prevent the mind from  the cordial reception of his friends of purpose, upon downs in olpen fields,
truth, and from  the admission of improvements but also, seven miles off, declared what Jhath been
in society which run counter to long-established  done that instant in private places.  He hath also,
custorms. For the same principles and prejudices, sundry times, by the sunbeams, fired powder and
though in a different form, still operate in society, discharged ordnance half a mile and more disand retard the improvement of the social state, taut, and many other matters far more strange
tile march of science, and the progress of Chris- and rare, of which there are yet living divers wittianity.  Hlow ridiculous is it for a man calling  nesses."
himself a philosopher to be afraid to look through    It is by no means unlikely that persons aCCusa glass to an existing object in the heavens, lest it tomed to reflection, and irombued witth a certain
should endanger his previous opinions! And how  degree of curiosity, when handling spectacle glasses,
foolish is it to resist any improvement or reforma- and amusing themselves with their magnifying
tion in society because it does not exactly accord  powers and other properties, might sometimes hit
with existing opinions and with " the wisdom of  upon the construction of a telescope, as it only reour ancestors!"                                   quires two lenses of different focal distances to be
It is not a little surprising that Galileo should fheld at a certain distance from each other, in orhave first hit on that construction of a telescope  der to show distant objects magnified.  Nay, even
which goes by his name, and which was formed  one lens, of a long focal distance, is sufficient to
with a concave glass next the eye.  This construe- constitute a telescope of a moderate magnifying
tion of a telescope is more difficult to be under- power, as I shall show in the sequel. But such
stood in theory than one which is composed solely instruments, when they happen to be constructed
of convex glasses; and its field of view is compa- accidentally, appear to have been kept as secrets,
ratively very small, so that it is almost useless and confinerd to the cabinets of the curious, so
when altenmpted to be made of a great length. In that they lever came into general use; and as
the present day, we cannot help wondering that their magnifying power would probably be comGalileo and other astronomers should have made paratively small, the appearance of the heavenly
such discoveries as they did with such an instru- bodies would not be much enlarged by such inment, tihe use of which must have required a great strv-rnnts, nor is it likely that they would be often
degree of patience and address.  Galileo's best d:crected to the heavens.  On the whole, therefore,
telescope, which he constructed " with great trou-  ve may conclude that the period whln instruble and expense," magnified the diameters of ob- ments of this description came into general use,
jects only thirty-three times; but its length is not and were applied to useful purposes, was whoe
stated, which would depend upon the focal dis- Galileo constructed his first telescopes.




CHAPTER II.
OF THE CAMERA OBSCURA.
BEFORE proceeding to a particular description  and the shadowing of the Venetians, are but coarse
of the different kinds of telescopes, I shall first and sorry daubing, when set in competition with
give a brief description of the camera obscura, as what nature can exhibit by the rays of light passthe phenomena exhibited by this instrument tend  ing through a single lens.  The camera obscura
to illustrate the principle of a refracting telescope. is at the same time the painter's assistant and the
Thie term  camerea obscure literally signifies a painter's reproach.  From the picture it forms he
darkeined vault or roof, and hence it came to de- receives his best instructions, and he is shown
Pote a chamber, or box, or any other place made  what he should endeavor to attain;'and hence,
dark for the purpose of optical experiments. The  too, he learns the imperfections of his art, and
camera obscura, though a simple, is yet a very  what it is imposible for him  to imitate.  As a
curious and noble contrivance, as it naturally and  proof of this, the picture formed in the dark
clearly explains the manner in which vision is chamber will bear to be magnified to a great experformed, and the principle of the telescope, and  tent, without defacing its beauty or injuring the
entertains the spectator with a most exquisite pic- fineness of its parts; but the finest painted landture of surrounding objects, painted in the most scape, if viewed through a high magnifier, will
accurate proportions and colors by the hand of appear only as a coarse daubing.
nature.  The manner of exhibiting the pictures    The following scheme will illustrate what has
of objects in a dark room  is as follows: In one  beenl now stated respecting the dark chamber:
of the window-shutters of a room  which corn-      F' represents a darkened room, in the side of
nlands a good prospect of objects not very dis- which, IK, is made the circular hole V, in which,
tant, a circular hole should be cut of four or five  on the inside, is fixed the scioptric ball. At some
inches diameter.  In this hole an instrument considerable distance from this hole is exhibited a
should be placed called a scioptric ball, which has landscape  of houses, trees, and  other objects,
three lparts, a frame, a ball, and a lens.  The ball
has a circular hole cut through the middle, in                        Fig. 37.
which the lels is fixed, and its use is to turn every
way, so as to take in a view of objects on every                       =_i
side.  The chamber should be lmade perfectly          --...
dark, and a white screen, or a large sheet of ele-             K             _
phant paper, should be placed opposite to the lens,._.
and in its focus, to receive the image.  If, then,      i         __.     _     __
~.In objects without be strongly enlightened by the      
sun, Lthcre will be a beautiful living picture of the
scene delineated on the white screen where every                                            G
object is beheld in its proportions, and with its
colors even more vivid than life. Green objects
tights and shadows are not only perfectly just, A B CD, which are opposite to the window. The
butt also greatiy nightened; and5, what is peculiar  rays which flow freom  the different objects which
o tppis delineation, and which no other picture or compose this lantendscape to the lens at, and hich
paintingy ca  exhibie, the  tions of all the objects  pass through it, are convelged to their respective
mre exactly expessed ill the  picture; the boigls  foci on the opposite wall of the chamber,    G  or
of the trees wave, the leaves quiver, the smoke  on a white movable screen placed in the focus of
as.eignds in a waving form, t onlye people ctalk the the lens, where they all combine to pathe wint  lively
children at teighr sports leap and  run, the hoise  ular       picth f url e of the range of objects whiand cart move along, thande ships sail, the clouds rectly opposite, and onsc   eac to  side, so far as the
oaintin ad shift their aspects, and all as naturale objects alens can througke in. are converged to their respecti
iarn the rexactl objects;  the  otions being smewhat    Thogh  I have  said that a scioptric  ball an, or
quicker, as they are perforaves qued  in a more con- socket ae expediet  to be used in the above extracted scenes. periment, yet, where such an instrunmellt is not att
Tasese are the inimitle perfections of a picture  halnd, the ens may  e placed in a short tuba lively
dra en by the  irays o light asnd run, the  only  encil i  made  of pasteboard or an  other material, and
natures  hand, and shich  are fisished  in al mo-  fixed in the hole made in the  indow-shtter.
minnt;  for no sensible interval elapses before the  The  only imperfection atten sin  this method is
qainting is copleted, when the gpround on which  that the lens can exhibit those objects only whicxit is pailtee is prepared and adjusted.  In  coem- lie directly opposite the window.
paisonimitable perfections of such a picture, the finest productions Some say be disposed to consider it as ahort im
parf the most celebrated artists, the proportions of  perfection  n this picture, that all these abjects
Raphael, the natural tints and coloring of Titian, appear in an inverted position; as they must no(56)




OF THE CAMERA OBSCURA.                                         57
vessarlly do, according to what we formerly stated  termined by dividing the focal distance of the ohrespecting the properties of convex lenses (p. 28). ject-glass by the focal distance of the eyeglass, and
There are, however, different modes of viewing  the quotient expresses the number of times the
the picture as if it were erect; for if we stand  object is magnified in length and breadth.  This
before the picture, and hold a common mirror and various other particulars will be more fully
against our breast at all acute angle with the pic- illustrated in the sequel.
ture, an.d look down upon it, we shall see all the    In performing experiments with the camera obimages of the objects as if restored to their erect scura in a darkened chamber, it is requisite that
position; and by the reflection of the mirror, the the following particulars be attended to: 1. That
picture will receive such a luster as will make it the lens be well figured, and free from any veins
still more delightful.  Or, if a large concave mir- or blemishes that might distort the picture.  2.
ror were placed before the picture at such a dis- That it be placed directly against the object whose
tance that its image may appear before the mirror, image we wish to see distinctly delineated.  3.
it will then appear erect and pendulous in the air The lens should be of a proper size, both as to its
in the front of the mirror.  Or, if the image be breadth and focal distance.  It should not be less
received on a frame of paper, we may stand be- than three or four feet focal distance, otherwise
hind the frame, with our face toward the window, the picture will be too small, and the parts of oband look down upon the objects, when they will jects too minute to be distinctly perceived; nor
appear as if erect.                               should it exceed fifteen or eighteen feet, as in this
The experiment of the camera obscura may  casee the picture will be faint, and of course not
serve to explain and illustrate the nature of a com- so pleasing.  The best medium as to focal distance
mon refracting telescope.  Let us suppose that is fioro  five to eight or ten feet.  The aperture,
the lens in the window-shutter represents the oh- too, or breadth of the glass, should not be too
ject-glass of a refracting telescope.  This glass sImall, otherwise the image will be obscure, and
forms an image in its focus, which is in every re- tle minute parts invisible for want of a sufficient
spect ain exact picture or represerntation of the quantity of light.  A lens of six feet focal disobjects before it; and consequently the same idea tance, for example, will require an aperture of at
is formed in the mind of the nature, form, rnag- least two inches.  Lenses of a shorter focal disnitude, and color of the object, whethler the eye tailce require less apertures, and those of a longer
at the center of the glass views the object itself, focal distance larger. But if the aperture be too
or the image formed in its focus; for, as formerly large, the image will be confused and indistinct,
stated, the object and its image are both seen un- by the admission of too much light. 4. We should
der the same angles by the eye placed at the cen- never attempt to exhibit the images of objects,
ter of the lens.  Without such an image as is unless when the sun is shining and strongly illuformed in the camera obscura-depicted either minating the objects, except in the case of very
rn the tube of a telescope or in the eye itself-no  near objects placed in a good light.  As one of
selescope could possibly be formed.  If we now  the greatest beauties in the phlenomena of the dark
suppose that, behind the image formed in the chamber consists in the exquisite appearance and
dark chamber, we apply a convex lens of a short contrast of light and shadows, nothing of this
focal distance to view that image, then the image kind can be perceived but from  objects directly
will be seen distinctly, in the same manner as we illuminated  by the sun.  5. A  south window
view common objects, such as a leaf or a flower, should never be used in the forenoon, as the sun
with a magnifying glass; consequently, the ob- cannot then enlighten the north side of an object;
ject itself will be seen distinct and magnified; and  and, beside, his rays would be apt to shine upon
as the same image is nearer to one lens than the the lens, which would make the picture appear
other, it will subtend a larger angle at the nearest with a confused luster.  An east window is best
lens, and, of course, will appear larger than  in the afternoon, and a western in the morning;
through the other, and consequently the object but a north window is in most cases to be preferwill be seen magnified in proportion.  For exam- red, especially in the forenoon, when the sun is
ple, let us suppose the lens in the camera obscura, shining with his greatest strength and splerdlor.
or the object lens of a telescope, to be five feet, In general, that window ought to be used which
or sixty inches focal distance: at this distance looks to the quarter opposite to that in which the
from the glass an image of the distant objects op- sun is shining.
posite to it will be formed.  If, now, we place a    The picture should be received upon a very
small lens two inches focal distance beyond this white surface, as the finest and whitest paper, or
point, or five feet two inches from the object-glass, a painted cloth, bordered with  black; as white
the objects, when viewed through the small lens, bodies reflect most copiously the incumbent rays,
will appear considerably magnified, and apparently  while black surfaces absorb them.  If the screen
much nearer than to the naked eye.  The degree could be bent into the concave segment of a
of magnifying power is in proportion to the focal sphere, of which the focal distance of the double
distances of the two glasses; that is, in the pres- convex lens which is used is the radius, the parts
ent case, in the proportion of two inches, the fo- of the picture adjacent to the extremities would
cus of the small lens, to sixty inches, the focus appear most distinct.  Sir D. Brewster informs
of the object lens. Divide sixty by two, the quo- us that, having tried a number of white substantient is thirty, which gives the magnifying power ces of different degrees of smoothness, and several
of such a telescope; that is, it represents objects metallic surfaces on which to receive the image,
thirty times nearer, or under an angle thirty times he happened to receive the picture on the silvered
larger than to the naked eye.  If the eyeglass, in- back of a looking-glass, and was surprised at the
stead of being two inches, were only one and a brilliancy and distinctness with which external
half inch focus, the magnifying power would be objects were represented.  To remove the spheriin the proportion of one and a half to sixty, or cal protuberances of the tin foil, he ground the
forty times.  If the eyeglass were three inches surface very carefully with a bed of Ihones which
focus, the magnifying power would be twenty  he had used for working the plane specula of
times; and so on with regard to other proportions. Newtonian telescopes.  By this operation, which
In all cases, where a telescope is composed of only may be performed without injuring the otter side
two convex lenses, the magnifying power is de- of the mirror, he  obtained  a surface finely




58                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
adapted for the reception of images. The minute I scene.  But as the image here is received on a flat
parts of the landscape were formed with so much  surface, the rays, f 7o, e n, will have to (iverage
precision, and the brilliancy of coloring was so further than the central rays, d c; and }s.C'.'l..
uncommonly fine. as to equal, if not exceed, the  representationi of the object near the sjLt s i% v. -
irmages thlat are formed in the air by means of somewhat distorted; to remedy which, t! s'l'A  r
collcave specula.
The following additional circumstances may                            Fig. 38.
be stated respecting the phenomena exhibited in
the dark chamber: A  lnore critical idea may be                    L          __
formed of any 7novelment in the picture here pre-                    il  -;
sented than frorl observing the motion of the
object itself.  For instance, a ilman walling in a
picture appears to have an ulndulating motion, or
to rise up and down every step he takes, and the
hands seem to move almost exactly like a pendulum; whereas scarcely anything   of this kind is
observed in the man hinm-self, as viewed by the naked eve.  Again, if an object be placed just twice                  /
the focal distance from the lens without the room,
the image will be formed at the same distance               "from the lens within the room, and, consequently,
will be equal inl magnitude to the object itself.
lhe recognition of this principle may be of use
to those  concerned in drawing, and who may
wish at any timne to form  a picture of tle exact              P                   
size of the object.  If the object be placed farther
from the lens than twice its focal length, the image will be less than the object.  tf it be placed  should be received o0n a concave surface, as a b or
nearer, the image will be greater than the life. P S.  T'lis is the general plan of those caltera
IIn regard to immovable objects, such as houses, obScuras fitted up in largq wooden tents, wllich
gardens, trees, &c., we may form  the images of are fiequenltty exhibited in our large cities, and
so malyv diffeorent sizes by means of different  erneoveyd occasionally from  one town to another.
lenses, tle shorter focus making lhe lesser picture, AWere ain instrnuent of thlis kind fitted tip on a
and thle longer focail distance the largest.       snoall dcale,  a hole miglht be made mu one of the
The experiments vwith the camera obscurs   may  sides, as at E, where tile eye  omild be applied to
likewise serve to illustrate t.'e nature of vision view  the picture.  Th'e focal distances of tiue
and the funetiois of the human eye.  The fraline lenses used in large inlstruments of this kind are
or socket of the scioptric tall may represent the. generally fhuom  eight to twelve feet, in which
orbit of the natural eye.  T'he ball, which tturns case the'y produce a telescopic effect upon distant
every way, resemblthes the globe of the eye, ilova- obljects, so as to make theml  appear nearer than
ble inl its orbit.  The hole in the ball rmay repre- when viewed with the naked eye.
sent the pupil of the eye; the convex leins cor-    The caomera obscura is frequently coIstructed
responds to tile crystalline hunotr, which is shaped  in a portable Jbftrm, so as to be carried about fo.m
like a lesns, an7d contrimbutes to form the imnages of the purpose of delineating landscapes.  The folobjects on the inmer part of thle eye.'Ti1e dark  lowing is a blief description of the instrumnent t in
chamber itself is somiewllat simniiar to the i'nternal this forin; A  C is a conlvex lens, placed near lhi
part of the eye, whichl is linled all arounid, and under the retina, with a imembrane, over whi.ch is                        Fig. 39.
spread a mucus of a very iblack color.  The white
wall or frame of white paper to receive tlihe pie- l-,
ture of objects is a fair representation of tile retin       d.- 
of the eye, on which all he images of external                            -        4 —/a.
objects are depicted.  Such are some of the gent-'I  
oral points of resemblane  between the apparatus...;,5
conniected wxith the dark chalnber and the orga        nL {  -—.                   
of vision; but the human eye is aln rgai  of such         B                 C                 I
exquisite constructionl,  and composed- of such a
tnmber and variety of delicate parts, that it can- end of a titbe or draxser, which is moovablte in the
not be adequately represented by any artificial side of a square  box, withinm   which is'a plane
contrivance.                                       mirror, D E, reclining backward in an anu-le  of
The darkened chamber is frequently exhibited  forty-five degrees fr omn the perpendlicular,  p  I. —
in a manner somewhat dilfferesnt from  what we I The pencils of rays flowing from the object O B,
have above described, as in the following scheme atnd passing through the convex lens, insteadi of
(fig. 38), which is teriamed the revolvinyq caimera. proceeding forward anId formingl  tile isn.sle H  I,
obscure.  Ill this construction, K  H  represents a are reflected upward by the mirror, caud  teeat in
plane mirror or metallic reflector, placed at half a poinits, as F' G, at thie sirme distance at Wvilichl
right angle to the convex lens H1 I, by which rays they would have met at H and I, if they lsad niot
proceeding from  objects situated in tle direction  been illtercepted  by the mirror.  At P  G, the
O are reflected to the lents, which forms nit image irnage of the object O B, is received eithler on a
of the objects ont a round white table at T', around  piece of oiled paper, or more frequently on a
which several spectators may stand and view the plane unpolished glass, placed in the htorlzontal
picture as delineated on a horizontal plane.  The situation F  C, which receives the images of atml
reflector, along with its case, is capable of being objects opposite to the laens, and ont whiich, or on
turned round by means of a simple apparatus an oiled paper placed upon it, their outtlines miay
connected with it, so as to take in, in successiomn, be traced  by a pencil.  Thle movable tube on
all isle objects which compose the surrounding  which the leas is fixed serves to adjust the focus




THE DAGUERREOTYPE.                                         59
for near and distant objects, until their images writing by the sun; all which a[pellatives are doappear distinctly painted on the horizontal glass rived firom the Greek, and are expressive, in somne
at F  G. The following is the most common  degree, of the nature of the process. We shall,
form of the box of this kind of camera obscura. however, make use of the term  Daguerreotype,
A is the position of the lens, B C the position of derived from the name of the inventor.
the mirror, D the plane unpolished glass on which    As it does not fall within our plan to give any
the images are depicted, G H a movable top or minute descriptions of the Daguerreotype process,
screen to prevent the light frotn injuring the pie- we shall just give a few general hints ill reference
ture, and E F the movable tube.                  to it, referring those who wish for particular deThe Daguerreotype.-An important and some- tails to the separate treatises which have been
what surprising discovery has lately been made published respecting it.  The first thing necessain relation to the picture formed by the camera  ry to be attended to in this art is the preparation
obscura. It is found that the images formed by of the plate on which the drawing is to be made.
this instrument are capable of being indelibly fixed The plate consists of a thin leaf of copper, plated
on certain surfaces previously prepared for the with silver, both metals together not being thicker
purpose, so that the picture is rendered perma- than a card. The object of the copper is sinmply
nent. When a cainera is presented to ally object to support the silver, which must be the purest
that can be procured. But, though the copper
Fig. 40.                    should be no thicker than to serve the purpose of
support, it is necessary that it should be so thick
as to prevent the plate fronm being warped, which
would produce a distortion of the images traced
upon it. This plate must be polished; and for
_____ —-— IA-         this purpose the following articles are required:
6q. iW!   ~ a vial of olive oil; some very fine cotton; pumioepowder ground, until it is almost impalpable, and
tied up in a piece of fine muslin, thin enough to
},.I,;~    let the powder pass through without touching the
tII!,I  i    plate when the bag is shaken; a little nitric acid,
diluted with sixteen times, by measure, its own
C              F           quantity of water; a frame of wire on which to
place the plate when being heated; a spirit lamp
or landscape strongly illuminated by the sun, and  to make the plate hot; a small box, with inclined
the prepared ground for receiving the image is sides within, and having a lid to shut it up close;
adjusted, and a certain time allowed to elapse until and a square board large enough to hold the drawthe rays of light produce their due effect, in a few  ing, and having catches at the side to keep it
minutes, or even seconds, a picture of the objects steady.
opposite to the lens is indelibly impressed upon    To the above prerequisites, a good camera osthe prepared plate, in all the accurate proportions scura is, of course, essentially necessary.  Thiss
and perspective which distinguish the  images instrument should be large enough to admit the
formed in a dark chamber, which representations plate of the largest drawing intended to be taken.
may b. hung up in apartments, along with other The lens which forms the image of the object
paintings and engravings, and will likely retain  should, if possible, be, achromatic, and of a considtheir beauty and luster for many years.  These erable diameter.  In an excellent instrument of
are pictures of nature's own workmanship, fin- this description now before me, the lens is an
ished in an extremely short space of time, and achromatic about three -inches diameter, but cawith the most exquisite delicacy and accuracy. —  pable of being contracted to a smaller aperture.The effect is evidently owing to certain chemical Its focal distance is about 17 inches;'and the box,
properties in the rays of light, and opens a new  exclusive of the tube which contains the lens, is
field for experiment and investigation to the phi- 15 inches long, 13/, inches broad, and 11 inches
losopher. The only defect in the picture is, that deep. It forms a beautiful and well-defined pieit is not colored; but, in the progress of experi- ture of every well enlightened object to which it
ments, on this subject, it is not unlikely that even is directed.
this object may be accomplished, in which case   Before the plate is placed in the camera, there
we should be able to obtain the most accurate are certain operations to be performed. 1. The
landscapes and representationsof all objects which surface of the plate should be made perfectly
can possibly be formed. This art or discovery smooth or highly polished.  For this purpose it
goes by the name of the Daguerreotype, from M. must be laid flat, with the silver side upward,
Daguerre, a Frenchman, who is supposed to have upon several folds of paper for a bedding; and
been the first discoverer, and who received a large having been well polished in the usual way, the,remium from the French government for disclo- surface must be powdered equally and carefully
sing the process, and malting the discovery pub- with fine pumice inclosed in the muslin bag.lie. Several improvements and modifications, in Then taking a little cotton wool, dipped in olive
reference to the preparation of the plates, have oil, it must be rubbed over the plate with roundbeen made since the discovery was first announced, ing strokes, and then crossing them  by others
about the beginning of 1839; and the pictures which commence at right angles with the first.formed oni this principle are frequently distin- This process must be repeated frequently, changguished by the name of Photogenic drawings, and ing the cotton, and renewing the pumice-powder
are now exhibited at most of our public scientific every time.  A small portion of cotton must now
institutions.                                    be moistened with the diluted nitric acid, and
This new science or art has been distinguished applied equally to the whole surface. Tile next
by different names. It was first called Phlotogra- thing to be done is to make the plate thoroughly
phity, from. two Greek words, signifying writing by and equally hot, by holding the plate with a pair
tiqht: it was afterward called the art of Photogenic of pinchers by the corner over a charcoal fire, and
Drawing, or irawing produced by light.  M. when the plate is sufficiently hot, a white coating
Daguerre gave it the name of Heliography, or will be observed on the silver, which indicates that
VOL. I. —33




60                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
that part of the operation is finished.  An even    The paper is to be dipped into a solution of
cold surface is next wanted, such as a metallic  salt in water, in the proportion of half an ounce
plate cooled almost to the freezing  point by  of salt to half a pint of water. Let the superflumuriate of soda, and to this the heated plate must ous moisture drain off, and then laying the paper
be suddenly transferred.                        upon a clean cloth, dab it gently with a napkin,
2. The next operation is to give the plate a coat- so as to prevent the salt collecting in olne spot
ing of iodine. This is accomplished by fixing the more than in another.  The paper is then to be
plate upon a board, and then putting it into a box pinned down, by two of its corners, on a drawing
containing a little dish with iodine divided into  board, by means of common pins, and one sib(e
small pieces, with its face downward, and sup- washed or wetted with the photogenic fluidl, using
ported with small brackets at the corners. In  the brush prepared for that purpose, and taking
this position the plate must remain until it assume care to distribute it equally. Next, dry the pa)el
a full gold color, through the condensation of the as rapidly as you can at the fire, and it will be fit
iodine on its surface, which process should be con- for use for most purposes.  If, when the paper is
ducted in a darkened apartment.  The requisite  exposed to the sun's rays, it should assume an irtime for the condensation of the iodine varies from  regular tint, a very thin extra wash of the fluid
five minutes to half an hour. When this process will render the color uniform, and at the saine
is satisfactorily accomplishled, the plate should be time, somewhat darker. Should it be required to
immediately fixed in a frame with catches and make a more sensitive description of paper, after
bands, and placed in the camera; and the trans- the first application of the fluid the solution of
ference from one receptacle to another should be salt should be applied, and the paper dried at the
made as quickly as possible, and with only so fire. Apply a second wash of the fluid, and dry
much light as will enable the operator to see what it at the fire again: employ the salt a third time,
he is doing.                                    dry it, and one application more of the fluid will,
3. The next operation is to obtain the drawing. when dried, have made the paper extremely sensiHaving placed the camera in front of the scene tive. When slips of such papers, differently preto be represented, and the lens being adjusted to pared, are exposed to the action of daylight, those
the proper focus, the ground glass of the camera is which are soonest affected by the light, by becomnwithdrawn, and the prepared plate is substituted ing dark, are the best prepared.
for it, and the whole is left until the natural   Wlen photogenic drawings are finished in a
images are drawn by the natural light from the perfect way, the designs then taken on the plate
object. The time necessary to leave the plate for or paper are exceedingly beautiful and correct,
a complete delineation of the objects depends upon. and will bear to be inspected with a considerable
the intensity of the light. Objects in the shade magnifying power, so that the most minute porwill require more time for their delineation than  tioes of the objects delineated may be distinctly
those in the broad light. The full, clear light of perceived. We have seen portraits finished in thlis
the south of Europe, Spain, Italy, and particularly  way by a London artist with an accuracy which
the more glowing brilliancy of tropical countries, the best miniature painter could never attempt.
will effect the object much more speedily than the every feature being so distinct as to bear being
duller luminosity of a northern clime.  Some viewed with a deep magnifier. And in landscapes
hours of tLe day are likewise more favorable than and buildings, such is the delicacy and accuracy
others. Daouerre states that "the most favorable of such representations, that the marks of the
is from 7, A. M., to 3 o'clock, P. M., and that a draw- chisel and the crevices in the stones may freing could be effected in Paris in three or four mi- quently be seen by applying a magnifying lens to
nutes in June and July, which would require five the picture; so that we may justly exclaimrn, in the
or six in May and August, and seven or eight in  words of the poet, " Who can paint like Nature!"
April and September."  In the progress of this That LIGHT-which is the first-born of Deity,
art, at the, present time, portraits and other objects which pervades all space, and illuminates all worlds
are frequently delineated in the course of a few  — in the twinkling of an eye, and with an accuseconds. 4. Immediately after removing the plate  racy which no art can imitate, depicts every
from the camera, it is next placed over the vapor object in its exact form and proportions, superior
of mercury, which is placed in a cup at the bot- to everything that human genius can produce.
tom of a box, and a spirit lamp applied to its bottom    The photogenic art, in its progress, will doubtless
until the temperature rise to 1400 of Fahrenheit. be productive of many highly interestingand belleThis process is intended to bring out the image, ficial effects.  It affords us the power of reprewhich is not visible when withdrawn from the senting, by an accurate and rapid process, all the
camera; but in the course of a few minutes, a grand and beautiful objects connected with out
taint tracery will begin to appear, and in a very  globe, the, landscapes peculiar to every country,
Fhort time the figure will be clearly developed.    the lofty ranges of mountains which distinguish
5. The next operation is to fix the impression. Alpine regions, the noble edifices which art has
In order to this, the coating on which the design  reared, the monumental remains of antiquity, and
was impressed must be removed, to preserve it every other object which it would be interesting
from being decomposed by the rays of light. For for human beings to contemplate; so that, in the
this purpose, the plate is placed in a trough con- course of time, the general scenery of our world,
taining common water, plunging and withdrawing  in its prominent parts, might be exhibited to alit immediately, and then plunging it into a solu- most every eye. The commission of the French
tion of salt and water until the yellow coating has Chambers, when referring to this art, lhas the foldisappeared.                                    lowing remark: "To copy the millions upon
Such is a very brief sketch of the photogenic millions of hieroglyphics which cover eve n the
processes of Daguerre.  Other substances, how- exterior of the great monuments of Thebes and
ever, more easily prepared, have been recommend- Memphis, of Carnac, &c., would require scores of
ed by Mr. Talbot, F.R.S., who appears, about the years and legions of designers. By the assistance
same time to have invented a process, somewhat of the Daguerreotype, a single man could finish
simnilar to that of Daguerre. The following are that immense work." This instrument lavs down
his directions for the preparation of photogenic objects which the visual organs of man would
paper:                                          overlook, or might be unable to perceive, with the




THE OPTICAL ANGLE.                                       61
same minuteness and nicety that it delineates the considered as beyond the bounds of probability to
most prominent features of a landscape.  The expect that evenldistant nebulce might thus be fixed,
time-stained excrescences on a tree, the blades of and a delineation of their objects produced which
grass, the leaf of a rose, the neglected weed, the shall be capable of being magnified by micromoss on the summit of a lofty tower, and similar scopes; but we ought to consider that the art is
objects, are traced with the same accuracy as the yet only in its infancy, that plates of a more dehbrger objects in the sl'rrounlding scene.     licate nature than those hitherto used may yet be
It is not improbable. likewise, that this art (still prepared, and that other properties of light may
a its infancy), when it approximates to perfection, yet be discovered which shall facilitate such demay enable us to take representations of the sub- signs. For we ought now to set no boundaries to
lime objects in the heavens. The sun affords suf- the discoveries of science, and to the practical apficient light for this purpose; and there appears plications of scientific discovery which genius and
no insurmountable obstacle inl taking, in this way, art may accomplish.
a highly magnified picture of that luminary,   In short, this invention leads to the conclusion
whicli shall be capable of being again magnified  that we have not yet discovered all the wonderful
by a powerful microscope  It is by no means im- properties of that luminous agent which pervades
probable, from  experiments that have hitherto  the universe, and which unvails to us its beauties
been made, that we may obtain an accurate deli- and sublimities; and that thousands of admirable
neation of the lunar world from the moon herself. objects and agencies may yet be disclosed to our
The plated discs prepared by Daguerre receive view through the medium of light, as philosophiimpressions from the action of the lunar rays to cal investigators advance in their researches and
such an extent as permits the hope that photo- discoveries.  In the present instance, as well as ill
graphic charts of the moon may soon be obtained; many others, it evidently appears that the Creator
and, if so, they will excel in accuracy all the de- intends, in the course of his providence, by means
lineations of this orb that have hitherto been of scientific researches, gradually to open to the
obtained; and if they should bear a microscopic view of the inhabitants of our world the wonders,
power, objects may be perceived on the lunar sur- the beauties, and the sublimities of his vast creaface which have hitherto been invisible.  Nor is tion; to manifest his infinite wisdom and his suit impossible that the planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter, perabundant goodness, and to raise our souls to the
and Saturn may be delineated in this way, and contemplation and the love of him who is the
objects discovered which cannot be descried by original source of all that is glorious and benefimeans of the telescope.  It might, perhaps, be cent in the scene of nature.
CHAPTER III.
ON THE OPTICAL ANGLE, AND THE APPARENT MAGNITUDE OF OBJECTS.
IN order to understand the principle on which at about 120 yards from  the eye, it is just pertelescopes represent distant objects as magnified, ceptible as a visible point, and its apparent magniit may be expedient to explain what is meant by tude, or the angle under which it is seen, is very
-the angle of vision, and the apparent magnitudes small. At the distance of thirty or forty yards,
under which different objects appear, and the its bulk appears sensibly increased, and we persame object, when placed at different distances.   ceive it to be a round body; at the distance of six
The optical angle is the angle contained under or eight yards we can see the king or queen's
two right lines drawn from the extreme points of head engraved upon it; and at the distance of
an object to the eye. Thus A E B or C E D  eight or tell inches from the eye it will appear so
(fig. 40X) is the optical or visual angle, or the large that it will seem to cover a large building
placed within the distance of a quarter of a mile;
Fig. 40*                   in other words, the apparent magnitude of the
F      half crown, held at such a distance, will more
v              than equal that of such a building in the picture on the retina, owing to the increase of
the optical angle. If we suppose A  (fig. 41)
G                          Fig. 41.
angle under which the object A B or C D appears
to the eye at E. These two objects, being at dif-          -
ferent distances, are seen under the same angle,
although C D is evidently larger than A B.  On    E:::i:
the retina of the eye, their images are exactly of                  ----._].Ithe same size, and so is the still larger object F G.
The apparent magnitude of objects denotes their                    L
magnitude as they appear to us, in contradistinction from their real or true magnitude, and it is to represent the apparent size of the half crown
measured by the visual angle; for, whatever ob- at nine yards' distance, then we say it is seen unjects are seen under the same, or equal angles, der the small angle F E D. B will represent its
appear equal, however different their real magni- apparent magnitude at 412 yards distant under
tudes. If a half crown or half dollar be placed  the angle H E G, and the circle C, its apparent




62                         THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
magnitude at 3 yards distant, under the large an- picture on the retina of the eye. When I stand
gle K E I.                                      at the distance of a foot from  my window  and
This may be otherwise illustrated by the fol- look through one of the panes to a village less
lowing figure: Let A B  (fig. 42) be an object than a quarter of a mile distant, I see, through
that pane, nearly the whole extent of the village,
Fig. 42.                     comprehending two or three hundred houses; consequently the apparent magnitude of the pane i3
equal to nearly the extent of the village, and all;'c-   C ~  X1 the buildings it contailns do not appear lalrger than
o)                   A               \A  if the pane of glass in the window, otherwise the,!7      -,,',,,.. - ~. -  K      houses and other objects which compose the vilage could not be seen through that single pane.
For, if we suppose a line drawn from otne end of
-.~.           the village, passing through the one side of the
v  pne, and another line drawn from the other end,
and passing through the other side of the pane to
viewed directly by the eye Q R. From each ex. the eye, these lines would form  the optical angloe
tremity A and B draw the lines A N, B M, inter- under which the pane of glass and the village upsecting each other in the crystalline humor in I: pears.  If the pane of glass be fourteen inches
then is A I B the optical angle which is the mea- broad, and the length of the village 2640 yards, or
sure of the apparent magnitude or length of the half a mile, this last lineal extent is 6788 times
object A B. From  an inspection of this figure, greater than the other, and yet they have the same
it will evidently appear that the apparen't magni- apparent magnitude in the case supposed.
tudes of objects will vary according to their dis-   Hence we may learn the absurdity and futility
tances. Thus A B, C D, E F, the real magni- of attempting to describe the extent of spaces in
tudes of which are unequal, may be situated at the heavens, by saying that a certain phelnomnenon
such distances from the eye as to have their appa- was two or three feet or yards distant from anrent magnitudes all equal, and occupying the other, or that the tail of a cornet appeared several
same space on the retina, MN, as here represent- yards in length.  Such representations can coned. In like manner, objects of equal magnitude, vey no definite ideas in relation to such magniplaced at unequal distances, will appear unequal. tudes, unless it be specified at what distance from
The objects A B and G H, which are equal, be- the eye the foot or yard is supposed to be placed.
ing situated at different distances from  the eye, If a rod, a yard in length, be held at nine inches
G H will appear under the large angle T I V, or from the eye, it will subtend an angle, or cover a
as large as an object T V, situated at the same space in the heavens, equal to more than oneplace as the object A B, while A B appears under fourth of the circumference of the sky, or about
the smaller angle A IB. Therefore the object GiH  one hundred degrees. If it be eighteen inches from
is apparently greater than the object A B, though it the eye, it will cover a space equal to fifty degrees;
is only equal to it. Hence it appears that we have if at three feet., twenty-five degrees, and so on
no certain standard of the true magnitude of ob- in proportion to the distance from  the eye; so
jects by our visual perception abstractly con- that we can form  no correct conceptions of apsidered, but only of the proportions of magnitude. parent spaces or distances in the heavens, when
In reference to apparent magnitudes, we scarce- we are merely told that two stars, for example,
ly ever judge any object to be so great or so small appear to be three yards distant from  each other.
as it appears to be, or that there is so great a dis- The only definite measure we can use in such a
parity in the visible magnitude of two equal bo- case is that of degrees. The sun and moon are
dies at different distances from  the eye. Thus, about half a degree in apparent diameter, and the
for example, suppose two men, each six feet three distance between the extreme stars in Orion's belt
inches high, to stand directly before us, one at the three degrees, which measures, being made famidistance of a pole, or 5} yards, and the other at. liar to the eye, may be applied to other spaces of
the distance of 100 poles, or 550 yards: we should the heavens, and an approximate idea conveyed
observe a considerable difference in their apparent of the relative distances of objects in the sky.
size, but we should scarcely suppose, at first sight,   From what has been stated above, it is evident
that the one nearest the eye appeared a hun- that the magnitude of objects may be considered
dred times greater than the other, or that, while in different points of view. The trule dimensions
the nearest one appeared six feet three inches of an object, considered in itself, give what is
high, the remote one appeared only about three- called its real or absolute magnitude; and the openfourths of an inch. Yet such is in reality the ing of the visual angle determines the apparent
case; and lnot only so, but the visible bulk or area magnitude.  The real magnitude, therefore, is a
of the one is to that of the other as the square of constant quantity; but the apparent magnitude
these numbers, namely, as 10,000 to 1; the mall varies continually with the distance, real or imanearest us presenting to the eye a magnitude or ginary; andl, therefore, if we always judged of
surface tell thousand times greater than that of thle dimensions of an object from  its apparent
the other. Again, suppose two chairs standing magnitude, everything around us would, in this
in a large room, the one twenty-one feet distance respect, be undergoing very sensible variations,
from us, and the other three feet; the one nearest us which might lead us into strange and serious miswill appear seven times larger, both in length and takes. A fly, near enough to the eye, might apbreadth, than the more distant one, and, conse- pear under an angle as great as an elephant at
quently, its visible area forty-nine times greater. the distance of twenty feet, and the one be misIf I hold up my finger at nine inches distance taken for the other. A giant eight feet high, seen
from my eye, it seems to cover a large town a at the distance of twenty-four feet, would not apmile and a half in extent, situated at three miles pear taller than a child two feet in hight at the
distance; consequently, the apparent magnitude distance of six feet; for both would be seen nearof my finger, at nine inches distance from the or- ly under the same angle. But our experience
gan of vision, is greater than that of the large generally prevents us from being deceived bysuch
town at three miles distance, and forms a larger illusions. By the help of touch, and by making




THE GALILEAN TELESCOPE.                                          63
allowance for the different distances at which we  vening space were unoc(upied.  It is generally
see particular objects, we learn to correct the ideas estimated that no terrestrial object call be distinctwe might otherwise form  from  attending to the  ly perceived if the visual angle it subtends be less
optical angle alone, especially in the case of ob- than one minute of a degree, and that most objects
jects that are near us.  By the sense of touch we  become indistinct when the angle they subtend
acquire an impression of the distance of an ob- at the pupil of the eye is less than six miuutes.
ject; this impression combines itself with that of    We have deemed it expedient to introduce the
the apparent magnitude, so that the impression  above remarks on the apparent magnitude of ohwhich represents to us the real magnitude is the  jects, because the principal use of a telescope is
prod uct of these two elements. When the objects, to increase the angole of vision, or to represent obhowever, are at a great distance, it is more diffi-  jects under a larger angle than that under whichl
cult to form a correct estimate of their true mag- they appear to the naked eye, so as to render the
nitudes.  The visual angles are so small that they  view of distant objects more distinct, and to exprevent comparison; and the estimated bulks of  hibit to the organ of vision those objects which
the objects depend, in a great measure, upon the  would otherwise be invisible.  A telescope may
apparent magnitudes; and thus an object situated  be said to enlarge an object just as many times as
at a great distance appears to us much smaller the angle under which the instrument represents
than it is in reality.  We also estimate objects to  it is greater than that under which it appears to
be nearer or farther distant according as they are  the unassisted eye.  Thus the moon appears to
more or less clear, and our perception of them  the naked eye under an angle of about half a demore or less distinct and well-defined; and like- glee; consequently, a telescope magnifie's 60 times
wise when several objects intervene between us if it represents that orb under an angle of 30 deand the object we are particularly observing. We  grees; and if it magnified 180 times, it would exmake a sort of addition of all the estimated dis- hibit the moon under an angle of 90 degrees,
tances of intermediate objects, ill order to form a  which would make her appear to fill hall of the
total distance of the remote object, which, in this visible heavens, or the space which intervenes
case, appears to be farther off thlan if the inter-  from rthe horizon to the zenith.
CHAPTE Rl IV.
ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF REFRACTING TELESCOPES.
THERE are two kinds of telescopes, correspond-  other in the focus F, where an inverted image of
Ing to two modes of vision, namely, those which  the object would be formed. But the concave lens
perform  their office by refraction through lensels, K, the virtual focus of which is at F, being ilnterand those which magnify distant objects by re- posed, the rays are not suffered to converge to
flection from  mirrors.  The telescope which is that point, but are made less convergent,? anld
constructed with lenses produces its effects solely  enter the pupil almost parallel, as G H, oand are
by refracted light, and is called a Dioptric, or re- converged by the humors of the eye to their profractisng telescope.  The other kind of telescope  per foci on the retina.  The object, through this
produces its effects partly by reflection, and part- telescope, is seen upright, or ii, its natural posily by refraction, and is composed both of mirrors  tion, because the rays are not suffered to come to
and lenses; but the mirrors form  the principal a focus, so as to form  an inverted picture.  The
part of the telescope, and therefore such instru- concave eyeglass is placed as far within the focus
merts are denominated rcflccting telescopes.  In  of the object-glass as is equal to its own virtual
this chapter I shall describe the various kinds of  focus; and the magnifying power is as the focal
refracting telescopes.                             length of the object-glass to that of tile eyeglass,
that is, as C F to B F.  Thus, suppose the focus
of the object-glass to be ten inches, and the focus
SECTION  I.                        of the eyeglass to be one inch, the magnifying
power will be ten times, which is always found
THE GALILEAN TELESCOPE.                 by dividing the focal length of the object-glass by
THis telescope is named after the celebrated  that of tie eyeglass.  The interval between the
Galileo, who first constructed, and probably in-  two glasses, ill this case, will be nine inches,
r~ented it ii tihe year 1609.  It consists of only  which is the length of the telescope, and the obtwo glasses, a convex glass next the object, and a  jects seen through it will appear uler an angle
concave next tihe eye.  The convex is called the  ten times greater than they do to tile naked eye.
object-qlass, and the cocave, to which the eye is These propositions might be proved mathematipplied, is called the eyeglass   Let C (fig. 43) cally; but the process is somewhat tedious and
represent the convex objecty-glass  presented to  intricate, and might not fully be understood by
represent the convex object-glass, presented tgeneralreaders.  I shall therefore  only meltion
general readers. I shall therefore only mention
Fig. 43.                      some of the general properties of this telescope,
-ig. 43.               which is now seldom used, except for tile purpose
of opera-glasses.. n  t-                    F          1. The focal distance of the object-glass must
be greater than that of the eyeglass, otherwise it
would not magnify an object; if the focal distance of the eyeglass were greater than that of
any object in the direction D  E  I, so that the
rays fall parallel upon it; if these rays, after pass-' It is one of the properties of concave lenses to render
convergent rays less convergend, arnl when placed as here
ing, through it, were not intercepted by the con-  supposed, to render them  parallel; and it is parallel rays
cave lens K, they would pass on, and cross erch  that produce distinct vision.




64                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
the object-glass, it would diminish objects instead  thus enabled to contemplate the object as if it were
of magnifying them.  2 The visible area of the  brought much nearer than it is in reality; for the
object is greater, the nearer the eye is to the glass; rays, which, after crossing, proceed in a divergent
and it depends on the diameter of the pupil of the  state, fall upon the lens E Y as if they proceeded
eye, and on the breadth of the object-glass; con-  from  a real object situated at F.  All that is efsequently, the field of view in this telescope is fected, therefore, by such a telescope is to form an
very small.  3. The distinctness of vision in this  image of a distant object by means of the objectconstruction of a telescope exceeds that of almost lens, and then to give the eye such assistance as is
any other.  This arises from the rays of light pro-  necessary for viewing that image as near as possiceeding from the object directly through the lenses, ble, so that the angle it shall subtend at the eye shall
without crossing or intersecting each other; where- be very large compared with the angle which the
as, in the combination of convex lenses, they in-  object itself would subtend in the same situation.
tersect one another to form an image in the focus    Here it may be expedient to explain, 1. flow
of the object-glass, and this image is magnified by  this arrangement of glasses shows distant objects
the eyeglass with all its imperfections and distor-  dislinctly; and 2. The reason why objects appear
tions.  The thinness of the center of the concave   magnified when seen through it. As to the first
lens also contributes to distinctness. 4. Although  particular, it may be proved as follows: The rays
the field of view in this telescope is very small,  O A and B D, which are parallel before they fall
yet, where no other telescope can be procured, it upon the object-glass, are by this glass refracted
might be made of such a length as to show the  and united at its focus.  In order, then, to distinct
spots on the sun, the crescent of Venus, the satel-  vision, the eyeglass must re-establish the parallellites of Jupiter, and the ring of Saturn; and, re-  isrn of the rays, which is effected by placing the
quirig only two glasses, it is the cheapest of all eyeglass so that its focus may be at F, and, contelescopes.  It has been found that an object-lens  sequently, the rays will proceed from  it parallel
five feet focal distance will bear a concave eyeglass  to each other, and fall upon the eye in that direcof only one inch focal distance, and will conse-  tion; for distinct vision is produced by parallel
quently magnify the diameters of the planets sixty  rays.  2. The reason why the object appears magtimes, and their surfaces 3600 times, which is  nified will appear, if we consider that, if the eye
sufficient to show  tile phenornena now  stated. viewed the object from  the center of the object
And, although only a small portion of the sun and  glass, it would see it under the angle 0 C B; let
moon canl be seen at once, yet Jupiter and all his  O C and B C then be produced to the focus of the
satellites may sometimes be seen at one view; but glass, they will then limit the image, I M, formed
there is some difficulty in finding objects with  int the focus.  If, then, two parallel rays are supsuch telescopes.  5. Opera-glasses, which are al-  posed to proceed to the eyeglass E Y, they will
ways of this construction, have the object-lens  be converged to its focus H, anid the eye will see
generally about six inches focus and one inch di- tile image under the angle E H  Y. The apparent
ameter, with a concave eyeglass of about two  magnitude of the object, therefore, as seen by tihe
inches focus.  These glasses magnify about three  naked eye, is to the magnitude of the image as
times in diameter, have a pretty large field, and  seen through the telescope, as O C B to E H  Y,
produce very distinct vision. When adjusted to  or as the distance C F to the distance F G;  in
the eye they are about four inches in length.  To  other words, as the focal length of tie object-glass
the object-end of an opera-glass there is some- to that of the eyeglass.
times attached a plane mirror, placed at an angle    It is obvious from the figure, that, through this
of forty-five degrees, for the purpose of viewing  telescope, all objects will appear inverted; since
objects on either side of us. By this means, in a  the object O B is depicted by the object-glass in
theater or assembly, we can take a view of any  anl inverted position at I 1, and in this position
person without his having the least suspicion of it, is viewed by the eyeglass E  Y; and, therefore,
as the glass is directed in quite a different direc- this kind of telescope is not well adapted for viewtion.  The instrument with this appendage is ing terrestrial objects, since it exhibits the tops
sometimes called a Polemoscopc.                    of trees, houses, and other objects as undermost,
and the heads of people as pointing downward.
But this circumstance is of no consequence with
respect to the heavenly bodies, since they are
S   C TION   II.                    round, and it can make little difference to an observer which side of a globular body appears upTHE COMMON ASTRONOMICAL REFRACTING TELE-   permost or undermost.  All astronomical refractSCOPE.                      ing telescopes invert objects; but they are preferred to any other telescopes, because they hlave
THE astronomical telescope is the most simple  few glasses, and, consequently, more light.  Tiis
construc,tion of a telescope, composed of convex  telescope, however, can be, transformed into a
lenses only, of which there are but two essentially  common day telescope for land objects by the adnecessary, though a third is sometimes added to  dition of two other eyeglasses, as we shall afterthe eyepiece for the purpose of enlarging the field  ward explain; but in this case a quantity of light
of view.  Its construction will be easily under-  is lost by refraction  at each lens, for there is
stood from a description of the following figure: scarcely any transparent substance that transmits
Its two essential parts are an object-glass, A D, all the rays of light that fall upon it.
and an eyeglass E Y, so combined in a tube that    The magqnsfyifiq power of this telescope is found
the focus F of the object-glass is exactly coinci- by dividing the focal distance of the object-glass by
d!ent with the focus of the eyeglass.  Let 0 B  the focal distance of the eyeglass; the quotient
(fig. 44) represent a distinct object, from  which
rays nearly parallel proceed to the object-lens                         Fig. 44.
A D.  The rays passing through this lens  0                       A
will cross at F, and forum an image of the       -                      -
object at 1 M. This image forms, as it..:::were, an object to the eyeglass E Y, which                -....
is of a short focal distance, and the eye is




REFRACTING TELESCOPE.                                           65
gives the magnifying power, or the number of  upon the breadth or aperture of the object-glass.
times that the object seen through the telescope  If it be too small, there will not be sufficient light
appears larger or nearer than to the naked eye. to illuminate the object; and if it be too large,
Thus, for example, if the focal distance of the ob- the redundance of light will produce confusion) in
ject-glass be 28 inches, and the focal distance of  the image.
the eyeglass i inch, the magnifying power will   The foregoing table, constructed originally by
be 28 tines.  If we would enlarge the telescope, Huygens, and which I have recalculated and cor.
and select an object-glass 10 feet, or 120 inches rected, shows the linear aperture, the focal disfocus, an eyeglass of 2 inches focal length might tance of the eyeglasa, and the magnifying power
be applied, alld then the diameter of objects would  of astronomical telescopes of difierent lengths,
be imagnlified 60 times, and their surfaces 3600(  which may serve as a guide to those who wish to
times.  If we would use an object-glass of 100  construct telescopes of this description.
feet, it would be necessary to select an eyeglass   In the above table the first column expresses
about 6 incihes focus, and the magnifying power the focal length of the olbject-glass in feet, the
would be 200 times, equal to 1200 inches divided  second column the diameter of the aperture* of
by 6. Since, then, the power of magnifying  g de- the object-glass, the third column the focal dispends on the proportion of the focal length of tance of the eyeglass, and the fourth the magnithe object and eyeglasses, and this proportion may  fying power, which is found by reducing the feet
be varied to any degree, it may seem  strange to  in the first column to inches, and dividing by the
some that a short telescope of this kind will not numbers in the third column.  From  this table
answer that purpose as well as a long one.  For it appears that, in order to obtain a magnifying
instance, it may be asked why an object glass of power of 168 times by this kind of telescope, it
10 feet focus may not be made to magnify asmuch is requisite to have an object-glass of 70 feet focal
as one of 100 feet focal length, by using an eye- distance, and an eyeglass five inches focus, and
glass of half an inch focus, in which case the that the aperture of the object-glass ought not to
magnifying power would be 240 times?  But it is be more than about 4%' inches diameter.  To ohto be considered that, if the power of magnifying  tain a power of 220 times requires a length of
be increased while the length of the telescope re- 120 feet.
mains the same, it is necessary to diminish the    The following is a summary view  of the profocal length of the eyeglass in the same propor- perties of this telescope: 1. The object is always
tion, and this cannot )be done, on account of the inverted. 2. The magnifying power is always in
great distortion and coloring which would then  the proportion of the focal distance. of the objectappear in the image, arising both from the deep  glass to the eyeglass.  3. As the rays emerging
convexity of the lens and the different refrangi- from the eyeglass should be rendered parallel for
b)ility of the rays of light.  It is found that the every eye, there is a small sliding tube next tlhe
length of common refracting telescopes must be eye, which should be pushed out or in until the
increased in proportion to the square of the in- object appears distinct.  When objects are pretty
crease of their magnifying power; so that, in or- near, this tube requires to be pulled out a little.
der to magnify twice as much as before with the These circumstances require to be attended to in
samne light and distinctness, the telescope must be all telescopes. 4. The apparent magnitude of an
lengthened  four times; to magnify 3 times as object is the same wherever the eye be placed, but
much, 9 times; and to magnify 4 times as much, the visible area, or field of view, is the greatest
16 times; that is-suppose a telescope of 3 feet when the eye is nearly at the focal distance of the
to magnify 33 times-in order to procure a power eyeglass.  5. The visual angle depends on the
four timles as great, or 132 times, we must extend  breadth of the eyeglass, for it is equal to the angle which the eyeglass subtends at the objecttaneal     tre ofLte  tance otcal di M if         glass; but the breadth of the eyeglass cannot be
tane of the tlure ofth   e of the    por         increased beyond a certain limit without produobject-glass. object-glass.  eyeglass.  po er.col rin  ad d rtioi.
-.Feet.   -________    ______           ducing coloring and distortion.
Feet.    Inc. Dec.  Inc. Dec.                      If the general principles on which this tele1        0. 545    0.  60         20          scope is constructed be thoroughly understood, it
2        0.   76    0.  84        28.5        will be quite easy for the reader to understand
3        0.   94    1. 04         34.6        the construction of all the other kinds of tele4        1    08    1.  18        40          scopes, whether refracting or reflecting.  A small
5        1    21    1.  33        45          astronomical telescope can be constructed in a
6       1    32    1.  45         50          few moments, provided one has at hand the fol7       1    43    1.  58         53          lowing lenses: 1. A common reading-glass, eight
8        I I    53    1.  69      56.8        or tell inches focal distance: 2. A common mag9       1    62    1.  78         60.6        nifying lens, such as watchmakers or botanists
10        1    71    1.  88         63.8       use, of about 1l2 or 2 inches focus.  Hold the
15        2.   10    2.  30        78          reading-glass-suppose  of ten inches focus-in
20        2.   43    2.  68         89.5       the left hand opposite any object, and the magni30        3.   00(   3.  28       109          fying lens of two inches focus in the right hand
40        3.   43    3.  76       127          near the eye, at twelve inches distance from the
50        3.   84    4.  20       142          other in a direct line, and a telescope is formed
60)       4.   20    4.  60       156          which magnifies five times.  I have frequently
70        4.   55    5.  00       168          used this plan, when traveling, when no other tel
80        4.   83    5. 35        179          escope was at hand.
90        5.   15    5.  65       190
100        5.   40    5.  95       200
120        5.   90    6.  52       s20              The word apcrtutre, as applied to object-glasses, signi__________________. 90______6_______52__  fies the opening to let in the light, or that part of the object.
glass which is left uncovered. An object-glass may be 3
the telescope to the length of 48 feet, or 16 times inches in diameter, but if one inch of this diameter  e cowv
the length of the other.  Much, likewise, depends ered, its aperture is said to be only 2 inches.




66                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
S E C T I O N  I I I.               to keep it steady, there is a weight, n, suspended
THE  AERIAL TELESCOPE.                  by a wire; I is a short wire to which tile thread
r 1 is tied; o is the tube which holds the eyeglass;
Tim aerial is a refracting telescope of the kind q the stick fixed to this tube, s a leaden bullet, and
we have now described, intended to be used with- t a spool to wind the thread on; u is pins for the
out a tube in a dark night; for the use of a tube thread to pass through; x the rest for the observer
is not only to direct the glasses, but to make the to lean upon, and y the lantern.  Fig. 46 is an
place dark where the images are formed. It ap- apparatus contrived by M. de la Hire for managing
pears, from  the preceding table, that we cannot the object-glass, but which it would be too tedious
obtain a high magnifying power with the com- particularly to describe.  To keep off the dew
mon astronomical telescope without maling it of from the object-glass, it was sometimes included
an extreme length, in which case the glasses are in a pasteboard tube, made of spongy paper, to
inot manageable in tubes-which are either too absorb the humidity of the air. And, to find an
slight and apt to bend, or too heavy and unwieldy  object more readily, a broad annulus of white
if made of wood, iron, or other strong materials. pasteboard was put over the tube that carried the
The astronomers of the  seventeenth century, eyeglass, upon which the irnmage of the object befeeling some inconveniences in making celestial ing painted, an assistant who perceived it might
observations with long tubes, contrived a method direct the tube of the eyeglass into its place.
of using the glasses without tubes. Hartsocker, an    Such was the construction  of the telescopes
eminent optician, contrived to fix them at thle top Mwith which Hevelius, HIuygens, Cassini, and other
of a tree, a high wall, or the roof of a house; but eminent astronomers of the seventeenth century
the celebrated Hoygens, who was not only an made their principal discoveries.  With such teleastronomer, but also an excellent mechanic, made scopes Hnygens discovered the fourth satellite of
considerable improvements in the method of using Saturn, and determined that this planet was suran object-glass without a tube.  IHe placed it at rounded with a ring; and with the same kind of
the top of a very long pole, having previously in- instrument Cassini detected tile first, second, third,
closed it in a short tube, wllich was made to turn and fifth satellites of Saturn, and made his other
in all directions by means of a ball and socket.-  discoveries.  When the night was very dark, they
The axis of this tube he could command with a were obliged to make the object-glass visible by
fine silken string, so as to bring it into a line with means of a lantern so constructed as to throw
the axis of another short tube which he held in I the rays of light up to it in a'parallel lirection.
his hand, and which coIltained the eyeglass.- — In  making  such  observations they  must
ZFig. 45.                           have taken  incredible  oains, endured
much cold and fatigue  and subjected,a -$'                 themselves to very great labor and expense-which almost makles us wonder
at the discoveries they were instrumen)ll} ~ 8g?   b ~~~tal in bringing to  light-ald  should
make modern philosophers sensible of
f    r:      iZ                                        the obligations they are unIder to such
1  e\.men as Newton and Dollond, through
h|                                     ~~~~~I \~~~~   whose inventions such unwieldy instruments are no longer necessary.  Telescopes of the description  niow  stated
were made of all sizes, from 30 to above
120 feet in length. Divini at Rome, and
h    1!1                tyx       \                       Campani at Bologna, were famed as makers of the object-glasses of the long
focal distance to which we hIave alluded,
ail     q,~ i, I, e 1 1111            who sold them for a great price, and took'1!,Xx~ I tl Ievery method to keep the art of making
lt}ll, f) I} tthem  a secret.  It was with telescopes
/~[111!{(I~   ~S              made by Campani that Cassini made his
I] i!gT'~:              t   "      discoveries.  They were made by the ex.
-7-~'% I                     9......,ji  press order of Louis XIV, and were of
86, 100, and 136 Paris feet in  focal
length.  M. Azout made one objectIImqi jI~jiV H   1 Iglass of 600 feet focus; but lie was never
liii) ib  l i  IIII il.:able to manage it so as to make any
practical observations with it.  Hartb                  -, a                     P  t  socker is said to have made some of a
still greater focal length.  T'he fatmous
aerial telescope of Huygens was 123
feet in focal length, with six inchles of
The following is a more particular description of  aperture.  At his death he bequeathed it to the
one of these telescopes:  On the top of a long  Royal Society of London, in whose possession it
pole or mast a b (fig. 45), is fixed a board mova- still remains.  It required a pole of more than a
ble up and down in the channel c d; e is a per- hundred feet high on which to pl;ce the objectpendicular arm  fixed to it, and ffisatransverse  glass for general observations.  It was with this
board that supports the object-glass inclosed in  glass that Dr. Derlham  made the observations to
the tube i, which is raised or lowered by means  which hlie alludes in his preface to his " Astroof the silk cord r 1; l    g is an endless rope with a  Theology."  When this glass was in the possesweight h, by which the apparatus of the object-  sion of Mr. Cavendish, it was compared with one
glass is counterpoised; k 1 is a stick fastened to  of Mr. Dollond's forty-six inch treble object-glass
the tube i; m the ball and socket, by means of  achromatics, aiid the gentlemen who were present
which the object-glass is movable every way; and, at the trial, said that " tihe Dwarf was fairly a




REFRACTING TELESCOPE.                                           67
inatch for the Giant."  It magnified 218 times, manner in which the rays of light are refracted
and the trouble of managing it was said to be ex- through the glasses of the telescopes we have now
tremely tiresome and laborious.                     described.  Fig. 48 represents the ravw  of light as
they pass from the object to the eye in the Galilean telescope.  After passing in a parallel direction to the object-glass, they are refr-acted by tlhat
SECTION  IV.                        glass, and undergo a slight con vergence in ipassling
toward the concave eyeglass, w here they enter the,
TriE  COMMON REFRACTING TELESCOPE FOR TER-  eye in a parallel direction, but noiimage is formned
RESTRIAL OEJECTS.                  previous to their entering the eye until tiey arrive at the retina.  Fig. 49 represents the rays as
THis telescope is constructed on the same prin- they pass through the glasses of the astronociple as tle astronomical telescope already de- mical telescope.  The rays, after entering the ohscribed, with the addition of two or three glasses. ject-glass, proceed in a converging direction until
In fig. 47, O B represents a distant object, L N  they arrive at its focus about A, wihere an image
the object.glass, which  forms the image I 3I of the object is formed; they then proceed divergin its focus, which is, of course, in an
inverted position, and, if the eye were ap-                          Fig. 47.
plied to the lens E  E, the object would
appear exactly as through the astronomi- G          F      E                 L                      O
cal telescope, every object being apparently......- --.....  
turned upside down. To rernedy this illConl-              -'-; —-i -----
venience, t}here are added two other glasses,.....'.'-...i."'-' - -'"''
F F and G G, by which a second image is G           F      E                 N                      B
formed from the first, in the same position
as the object.  In order to effect this, the first of ing to the eyeglass, where they are rendered parthese two glasses, namely, F F, is placed at twice allel, and enter the eye in that direction.  Fig. 5th
its focal distance from the former glass, E E, and  represents the rays as they converge and diverge
the other lens, G G, next the eye, is placed at the in passing through the four glasses of the comsame distance from F F; for all the three glasses mon day telescope, described above.  After passare supposed to be of the same focal distance.-  ing  through  the  object-glass, they  converge
Now the lens F F, beinig placed at twice the focal
distcance for parallel rays from  E E, receives the        Fig 48.    Fig. 49.    Fig. 50.
pencils of parallel rays after they have crossed
each other at X, and forms an image at i ms similar to that at I M,   and equal to it, but contrary
in position, and consequently erect; which last
image is viewed by thle lens      CG, in jhe same
manner as tihe first image, I iM, would be viewed
by the lens E BE.  In this ease the imtage  I M is
considered as an object to the lens F F, of which
it forms a picture in its focus, in a reverse position from that of the first image, and, of course,
in the same position as the object.
The maguifying power of this telescope is determined precisely in the same way as that of the                       -.
astronomical telescope.  Suppose the object-glass
to be thirty inches focal distance, and each of the
eye-glasses 1   inch focal distance, the magnifying power is in the proportion of 30 to 112, or 20 
times, and the instrument is, of course, considerably longer than an astronormical telescope of the 
same power. The sdistance, in this case, betweeen
the object-glass and the first eyeglass, E  E, is:311.2 inchles; Ihe distance between E E and the
second glass, 1 F, is 3 inches, and the distance
between F F  mnd the glass G C, next the eye, 3
inches; in all, 37Yt  inchels, the whole length of
the telescope.  Althouglh it is usual to make use
of three ey!tl-:scses in thiis telescope, yet two will
cause the colje ct to appear erect, and of the same 
magnitude.  For, suppose the middle lens, F F,
taken away, if the first lens, E E, be placed at X,
which is double its focal distanLce from the image,
I M, it will, at the same distance, X  nz, on the
other side, form  a secondary image, i m, equal to
the primary inmage I 1l!, and also in a contrary  toward B, where the first image is formed. They
position.  But such a combnination of eyeglasses then diverge toward the first eyeglass, where they
produces a great degree of coloring in the iniage, are rendered parallel, aiid, passing through the
and therefore is seldom  used.  Even the com- second eyeglass, they again converge and form  a
bination now described, consisting of three lenses second image at C, from which point they aga'in
of equal focal distances, is n-ow  almost obsolete, diverge, and, passing through the first  eyeglass.
and has givei place to a inuch better arrangement, enter the eye in a parallel direction    If the
consisting offour glasses of different focal dis- glasses of these telescopes were fixed on long
tanu.es, which shall be. afterward described.      pieces of wood, at their proper distances fromn
The followilg figures, 48, 49, 50, represent the each other, and placed in a darkened room, when




68                         THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
the sun is shining, the beam  of the sun's light these experiments, must be placed at least its focal
would pass through them in the same manner as distance within the focus of the lens with which
here represented.                                we are experimenting; and the magnifying power
will be nearly in the proportion of the focal distance of the lens to the focal distance of the eve.
If, for example, the focal distance of the eye, or the
S E C TI O N  V.                  distance at which we see to read distinctly, be 10
inches, and the focal distance of the lens 11 feet,
TELESCOPE FORMED BY A SINGLE LENS.          the magnifying power will be as 11 feet, or 139
inches to 10, that is, about 13 times.  Let A (fig.
THIS is a species of telescope altogether unno-  51) represent the lens placed on a pedestal; the
ticed by optical writers, so far as I know; nor has
the property of a single lens, in magnifying distant                 Fig. 51.
objects, been generally adverted to or recognized.         A
It may not, therefore, be inexpedient to state a        _.
few experiments which 1 have made in relation to                            ----- 
this point.  When we hold a spectacle-glass of a
pretty long focal distance-say from  20 to 24
inches-close to the eye, and direct it to distant
objects, they do not appear sensibly magnified.- 
But if we hold the glass about 12 or 16 inches             1
from our eye, we shall perceive a sensible degree              }.
of magnifying power, as if distant objects were
seen at less than half the distance at which they  rays of light passing through this lens from  dis.
are placed.  This property of a spectacle-glass taut objects will converge toward a focus at F.I happened to notice when a boy, and on different If a person then place his eye at E, a certain disoccasions since that period have made several ex- tance within the focal point, he will see distant
periments on the subject, some of which I shall objects magnified nearly in the proportion of the
here relate.                                     focal distance of the lens to that of the eye; and
With the object-glass of a common refracting  when the lens is very broad-such as the 26 feet
telescope, 4Y2 feet focal distance, and 212 inches lens mentioned above —two or three persons may
diameter, I looked at distant objects-my eye  look through it at once, though they will not all
being at about 31/ feet from the lens, or about 10 see the same object. I have alluded above to a
or 12 inches within its focus-and it produced  lens made by M. Azout of 600 feet focal distance.
nearly the same effect as a telescope which rnag- Were it possible to use such a lens for distant obnifies the diameters of objects 5 or 6 times. With  jects, it might represent them  as magnified 5 or
another lens, 11 feet focal distance and4 inches di- 600 times, without the application of any eyeameter, standing from it at the distance of about ten  glass. In this way the aeri;al telescope of Husygens
feet, I obtained a magnifying power of about 12 would magnify objects above 100 times, which is
or 14 times, which enabled me to read the letters about half the magnifying power it prod uced with
on the signposts of a village half a mile distant.- its eyepiece.  Suppose Azout's lens had been
Having some time ago procured a very large lens, fitted up as a telescope, it would not have magni26 feet focal distance and 112 inches diameter, I fled above 480 times, as it would have required an
have tried with it various experiments of this kind  eyeglass of 14 or 15 inclhes focal distance, whereas,
upon different objects. Standing at the distance  without an eyeglass, it would have  magnified
of about 25 feet from it, I can see distant objects objects considerably above 500 times.  It is not
through it magnified about 26 times in diameter, unlikely that the species of telescope to which I
and consequently 676 times in surface, and re- have now adverted constituted one of those instrumarkably clear and distinct, so that I can distill- ments for maguifying distant objects which were
guish the hour and minute hands of a public clock  said to have been in the possession of certain perin a village two miles distant.  This single lens, sons long before their iiventioii in Holland, and
therefore, answers the purpose of an ordinary  by Galileo in Italy, to which I have referred ill
telescope with a power of 26 times.  In making p. 55.  Were this kind of telescope to be applied
such experiments, our eye must always be zoithin  to the celestial bodies, it would require to be elethe focus of the lens, at least 8 or 10 inches.  The  vated upon a pole in the manner represented in
object will, indeed, be seen at any distance from  fig. 45, p. 66.
the glass within this limit, but the magnifying
power is diminished in proportion as we aplproach
nearer to the glass. Different eyes, too, will require to place themselves at different distances, so           SE CT I ON  VI.
as to obtain the greatest degree of magnifying
power with distinctness, according as individuals          THE ACHiROMIATIC TELESCOPE.
are lonl or shortsighted.
This kind of telescope stands in no need of a    THIs telescope constitutes the most important
tube, but only of a small pedestal on which it may  and useful improvement ever made upon telescopic
be placed on a table, nearly at the hight of the  instruments, and it is probable it will, ere long,
eye, and that it be capable of a motion in a per- supersede the use of all other telescopes.  Its impendicular or parallel direction, to bring it in a portance and utility will at once appear when we
line with the eye and the object.  The principle consider that a good achromatic telescope of only
on which the magnifying power in this case is 4 or 5 feet in length will bear a magnifying power
produced, is materially the same as that on which  as great as that of a common astronomical telethe Galilean telescope depends.  The eye of the scope 100 feet long, and even with a greater deobserver serves instead of the concave lens in that gree of distinctness, so that they are now come
instrument; and as the concave lens is placed as into general use both for terrestrial and celestial
much within the focus of the object-glass as is observations. There are, indeed, certain obstrucequal to its own focal distance, so the eye, in  tions which prevent their being made of a very




THE ACHROMATIC TELESCOPE.                                            6t
large size; but from the improvement in the man- inch focus, and will magnify the diameters of obufacture of athromatic glass wlhich is now going  jects 34 times; one of 50 feet focal distance will
forward, it is to be hoped that the difficulties require an eyeglass of 4/2 inches focus, and will
which have hitherto impeded the progress of op- magnify only 142 times; whereas, could we apply
ticians will soon be removed.  In order to under- to it an eyeglass of only one inch focus, as in tilhe
stand the nature of this telescope, it will be neces- former case, it would magnify no less than 600
sary to advert alittle to the imperfections connected  times.  And were we to construct an object-glass
with the common refracting telescopes.             of 100 feet focal length, we should require to apTlie first imperfection to which I allude is this, ply an eyeglass not less than six inches focus,
that spherical surfaces do not refract the rays of which would produce a power of about 200 times;
light accurately to a point; and hence the image so that there is no possibility of producing a great
formed by a single convex lens is not perfectly  power by single lenses without extending the teaccurate and distinct.  The rays which pass near lescope to an immoderate length.
the extremities of such a lens meet in foci nearer   Sir Isaac Newton, after having made his disto thelens than those which pass nearly through  coveries respecting the colors of light, considered
the center, which may be illustrated by tile fol- the circumstance we have now stated as an insulowing figure: Let P  P (fig. 52) be a convex  perable barrier to the improvement of refracting
lens, and E e, an object, the point E of which  telescopes, and therefore turned his attention to
the improvement of telescopes by refjection.  In
Fig. 52.                      the telescopes which he constructed and partly
P                      invented, the images of objects are formed by re&e              <5  Xflection from  speculums or mirrors; and beino
free from the irregular convergency of tht various
-li5 B:     0 lF'         colored rays of light, will admit of a much larger
IE!1i tiaperture and the application of a much greater deM kl1I          / li       gree of magnifying power.  Tile reflector which
f I      Newton constructed was only six inches long,
N p                       but it was capable of bearing a power equal to
corresponds with the axis, and sends forth the rays that of a six feet refractor.  It was a long time,
E M, E N, E A, &c., all of which reach the sur- however, after the invention of these telescopes,
face of the glass, but in different parts.  It is before they were made of a size fitted for making
manifest that the ray E A, which passes through  celestial observations.  After reflecting telescopes
tihe middle of the glass, suffers no refraction. The had been some time in use, Dollond made his farays E 1i~, E 31, likewise, which pass through near mous discovery of the principle which led him to
to E A, will be converged to a focus at F, which  the construction of the achromatic telescope. This
we generally consider as the focus of the lens. invention consists of a compound  object-glass
But the rays E N, E N, which are nearer to the  formed of two different kinds of glass, by which
edge of the glass, will be differently refracted, and both the spherical aberration and the errors arising
will meet about G, nearer to the lens, where they  from  the different refrangibility of the rays of
will form another image Gg.  Hence it is evident light are in a great measure corrected.  For the
that the first image, Ff, is formed only by the explanation of the nature of this compound obunion of those rays which pass very near the cenll- ject-glass and the effects it produces, it may be
ter of the lens; but as the rays of light proceed- expedient to offer the following remarks respecting from  every point of an object are very nu- ing the dispersion of light and its refraction by
merous, there is a succession of images formed, different substances.
according to the parts of the lens where they    The dispersion of light is estimated by the vapenetrate, which necessarily produces indistinct- riable angle formed by the red and violet rays
ness and confusion.  This is the imperfection  which bound the solar spectrum, or, rather, it is
which is distinguished by the name of spherical the excess of the refraction of the most refrangiaberration, or the error arising from the spherical ble ray above that of the least refrangible ray.
form of lenses.                                    The dispersion is not proportional to the refracThe second and most important imperfection  tion, that is, the substances which have an equal
of single lenses, when used for the object-glasses mean refraction do not disperse light in the same
of telescopes, is, that the rays of compounded  ratio.  For example, if we make a prism  with
light being differently refrangible, come to their plates of glass, and fill it with oil of cassia, and
respective foci at different distances from the glass; adjust its refracting angle, A C B (fig. 31, p. 42),
the more refrangible rays, as the violet, converging  so that the middle of the spectrum which it forms
sooner than those which are less refrangible, as falls exactly at the same place where the green
the red.  I have had occasion to illustrate this cir- rays of a spectrum formed by a glass prism would
curmstance, when treating on the colors produced  fall, then we shall find that the spectrum  formed
by the prism (see p. 42, and figures 32 and 33), by the oil of cassia prism will be two or three
and it is confirmed by the experiment of a paper times longer than that of the glass prism.  Th3
painted red, throwing its image, by means of a oil of cassia, therefore, is said to disperse the rays
lens, at a greater distance than another paper of light more than the glass, that is, to separate
painted blue. From such facts and experiments, the extreme red and violet rays at O and P more
it appears that the image of a white object con- than the mean ray at green, and to have a greater
sists in an indefinite number of colored images, dispersive power.  Sir I. Newton appears to have
the violet being nearest, and the red farthest from  made use of prisms composed of different subthe lens, and the images of intermediate colors at stances, yet, strange to tell, he never observed that
intermediate distances.  The aggregate, or image they formed spectrums whose lengths were differitself, must therefore be in some degree confused; ent when the refraction of the green ray was the
and this confusion being much increased by the same, but thought that the dispersion was propormagnifying power, it is found necessary to use an  tional to the refraction.  This error continued to
eyeglass of a certain limited convexity to a given  be overlooked by philosophers for a considerable
object-glass.  Thus, an object-glass of 34 inches time, and was the cause of retarding the invention
focal ength will bear an eyeglass of only one of the achromatic telescope for more than 50 years.




70                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
I)ollond was among the first who detected this  F f.  In like manne(, the corresponding ray SM
error.  By his experiments it appears that the dif- will be refracted tof, and a white anld colorless
ferent kinds of glass differ extremlely with respect image of the sun will be there formed by the two
to the. divergency of colors produced by equal re- lenses.  In this combination of lenses, it is obvifractions. He found that two prisms, one of white  ous that the spherical aberration of the flint lens
flint glass, whose refracting angle was about 25  corrects to a considerable degree that of thle crown
degrees, and another of crown glass, whose re-  glass, and by a proper adjustment of the radii of
fracting anlgle was about 29 degrees, refracted the  tlhe surfaces, it may be almost wholly removed.
beam of light nearly alike, but that the divergency  This error is still more completely corrected   in
of color in thie white flint was considerably more  the triple achromatic object-glass, which cotusists
than in the crown glass; so that when they were  of three lenses-a concave flint lens placed beapplied togetlier, to refrtact contrary ways, and a  tween convexes of crown glass.  Fig. 54 shows
beam of lighlt transmitted through them, though  the double achromatic lens, and fig. 55 tho, triple
the emergent continued parallel to the incident object-glass, as they are fitted up in their cells,
part, it was, notwithstanding, separated into com-  and placed at the object end of the telescope.  In
ponent colors.  Froin this he inferred that, in order to render the emergent beam white, it is lie-                Fig. 54         F    55
cessary that the refracting angle of the prism of
crowi glass shlould be increased, and by repeated
experiments he discovered the exact quantity. By
these means he obtained a theory in which refraction was performed without any separation or divergeincy of color, and thus the way was prepared
for applying the principle he had ascertained to
the construction of the object-glasses of refracting telescopes.  For the edges of a convex and.  -—.-             i --- 
concave lens, when placed in contact with each
other, may be considered as two prisms which refiract contrary ways; and if the excess of refraction in the one be such as precisely to destroy the
divergefncy of color in the other, a colorless image            -_____
will bh  forned.  Thus, if two lenses are made                                       _
of the same focal length, the one of flint glass
and the other of crown, the length or diameter  consequeice of tleii producing a focal image fref
of tile colored image in the first will be to that of color, they will bear a much larger aperture
produced by the crown glass as three to two nearly. and a much greatei magnifying powei than co rnNow if we n-aklre the focal lengths of the leiises mon refracting telescopes of the same length.
in this proportion, that is, as three to two, the  WVhile a common telescope whose object-glas is
colored spectruml produced by each will b equal.'   feot focal distance will bear an apeitgre of
But if the flint lens be concave, and tile crown  scarcely one inch, the 32 feet achlomatic will
convex, when placed in contact they will mutu-  bear ail aperture of 314 inches, aald conseq, lutly
ally correct each other, and a pencil of white light transmits 102 times the quantity of liglt. Vthile
reflacted by the compound lens will remain color-  tirh  one can bear a magnifying power of o1lly
less.                                              about 36 times, the other will bear a magnifying
The followibng figure may  perhaps illustrate  power for celestial objects of more thau  20)0 times.
what has been  now stated.  Let L L  (fig. 53)         The theory  of the achrornatic ltescoe is
represent a convex lens of crown glass, and Il a  somewliat complicated and abstruse, aid would
require a more lengthened investigation   than mny
Fig. 53.                       limits will permit.  But what has been already
P                          L                 stated may serve. to give the reader a general idea
~~-..'* ~<~         of the principle on which it is consti ncted, which.... -:::.... is all I intended.  The term achromatic, by whllic.
f         -       =       --— LB              such instruments are now distinguished, was fiibt
given to them by Dr. Bevis.  It is compounded of
two Greek words which signify " fiee of color."'0 - -.  AAnd were it not that even philosophlers are not
L              altogether free of that pedantry which induces us
to select Greek words which are unintelligible to
the mass of mankind, they  might havr  been
oncave letns of li.nt glass.  A ray of the sun, S, contented with selecting the plain English word
fills at F' on tilt convex leins, which will refract it colorless, which is as signlificant and expressive as
exactly as the prismn A B C, whose faces touch  the Greek word achromatic.  The crowon p1lass,
tlie two surfatees of tile lens at the points where  of which the convex lenses of this telescope are
the ray eniters aiid quits it.  T'he solar ray, S F, made, is the same as good common window glass;
thus refracted by the lens L L, or prism A B C, anid the flint glass is that species of glass of which
would have formed a spectrum, P T, on the wall, wine-glasses, tumblers, decanters, and similar arhad there been no othler lens, the violet ray, F, ticles are formed, and is sometimes distinguished
crossing tile axis of the lens at V, and going to  by the name of crystal glass.  Some opticians
the upper end, P, of the spectrum; and the red  have occasionally formed the concave lens of an
ray, FR, goiing to the lower end, T.  But as the  achromatic  object-glass fiom  the bottom  of a
fliit glass lens 11, or the prism A a C, which re-  broken tumbler.
ceives the rays F V, F R, at the same points, is    This telescope was invented and constructed by
interposed, these rays will be uniiited atf, anid form   Mr. Johii Dollond, about the year 1758.  When
a small circle of whiite light; the ray S F of the  he began his researches into this subject, he was a
sun beiig now reflacted withoiit color from  its  silk weaver in Spitalfields, London  TPlie attempt
primitive direction S F Y into the new direction  of the celebrated Euler to form  a c lorless tele



THE ACHROMATIC TELESCOPE.                                       71
tcope, by including water between two meniscus guineas. This was before the piece r f glass was
glasses, attracted his attention, and in the year eitherfigured orpolished, and,consequently, he had
1753 he addressed a letter to Mr. Short, the opti- still to perform the delicate operation of figuring,
cian, which was published in the Philosophical polishing, and adjusting this concave to the convex
Transactions of London, "concerning a mistake lenses with which it was to be combined; and,
ill Euler's theorem for correcting the aberrations during the process, some veins or irregularities
in the object-glasses of refracting  telescopes." might be detected in the flint glass which did not
After a great variety of experiments on the re- then appear. Some years before, he procured a
fractive and dispersive powers of different sub- disc of glass from the Continent, about seven or
stances, he at last constructed a telescope in which eight inches diameter, for which he paid about
an exact balance of the opposite dispersive powers thirty guineas, with which an excellent telescope,
of the crown and flint lenses made the colors dis- twelve feet focal length, was constructed for the
appear, while the predominating refraction of the Astronomical Society of London.  It is obvious,
crown lens disposed the achromatic rays to meet therefore, that large achromatic telescopes must
at a distant focus. In constructing such object- be charged at a pretty high price.
glasses, however, he had several difficulties to en-   In order to stimulate ingenious chemists and
counter.  In the first place, the focal distance as opticians to make experiments on this subject,
well as the particular surfaces must be very nicely the Board of Longitude, more than half a century
proportioned to the densities or refractive powers ago, offered a considerable reward for bringing the
of the glasses, which are very apt to vary in the art of making good flint glass for optical purposes
same sort of glass made at different times.  In the to the requisite perfection.  But considerable difnext place, the centers of the two glasses must be ficulties arise in attempting improvements of this
placed truly in the common axis of the telescope, kind, as the experiments must all be tried on a
otherwise the desired effect will be in a great mea- very large scale, and are necessarily attended with
sure destroyed. To these difficulties is to be added, a heavy expense; and, although government has
that there are four surfaces (even in double achro- been extremely liberal in voting money for warmatic object-glasses) to be wrought perfectly sphle- like purposes, and in bestowing pensions on those
rical; and every person practiced in optical ope- who stood in no need of them, it has thrown an
rations will allow that there must be the greatest obstruction in the way of such experiments, by
accuracy throughout the whole work. But these the heavy duty of excise, which is rigorously exand other difficulties were at length overcome by acted, whether the glass be manufactured into salethe judgment and perseverance of this ingenious able articles or not, and has thus been instrumenartist.                                         tal in retarding the progress of improvement and
It appears, however, that Dollond was not the discovery. It would appear that experiments of
only person who had the merit of making this this kind have been attended with more sucess in
discovery-a  private gentleman, Mr. Chest, of France, Germany, and other places on the ContiChest Hall, a considerable number of years be- nent than in Britain, as several very large achrofore, having made a similardiscovery, and applied matic telescopes have been constructed in those
it to the same purpose. This fact was ascertained countries by means of flint glass, which was
in the course of a process raised against Dollond, cast for the purpose in different manufactories,
at the instance of Watkins, optician at Charing and to which British artists have been considerCross, when applying for a patent.  But as the ably indebted, as the London opticians frequently
other gentleman had kept his invention a secret, purchase their largest discs of flint glass from
and Dollond had brought it forth for the benefit of Parisian agents. Guinaud, a Continental experithe public, the decision was given in his favor. menter, and who was originally a cabinetmaker,
There was no evidence that Dollond borrowed thie appears to have had his labors in this department
idea from his competitor, and both were, to a cer- of art crowned with great success.  Many years
tain extent, entitled to the merits of the invention. were employed in his experiments, and he too freOne of the greatest obstructions to the con- quently, notwithstanding all his attention, discostruction of large achromatic telescopes is the vered his metal to be vitiated by strime, specks, or
difficulty of procuring large discs of flint glass of grains, with cometic tails. He constructed a fura uniform  refractive density, of good color, and nace capable of melting two cwt. of glass in one
free from veins. It is said that fortunately for mass, which he sawed vertically, and polished one
Mr. Dollond, this kind of glass was procurable of the sections, in order to observe what had taken
when he began to make achromatic telescopes, place during the fusion. From time to time, as he
though the attempts of ingenious chemists have obtained blocks including portions of good glass,
since been exerted to make it without much suc- his practice was to separate them by sawing the
cess. [tis also said that the glass employed byDol- blocks into horizontal sections, or perpendicular
lend in the fabrication of his best telescopes was of to their axes. A fortunate accident conducted him
the same melting, or made at the same time, and to a better process. While his men were one day
that, excepting this particular treasure, casually carrying a block of this glass on a handbarrow to
obtained, good dense glass for achromatic purposes a sawmill which he had erected at the Fall of the
was always as difficult to be procured as it is now. Doubs, the mass slipped from its bearers, and rollThe dispersion of the flint glass, too, is so variable, ing to the bottom of a steep and rocky declivity,
that, in forming an achromatic lens, trials on each was broken to pieces. Guinaud having selected
specimen require to be made befoie the absolute those fragments which appeared perfectly homoproportional dispersion of the substances can be geneous, softened them in circular molds in sucll
ascertained.  It is owing, in a great measure, to a manner, that, on cooling, he obtained discs that
these circumstances that a large and good achro- were afterward fit for working. To this method
matic telescope cannot be procured unless at a he adhered, and contrived a way for clearing his
very high price.  Mr. Tulley, of Islington —wo  glass while cooling, so that the fractures should
has been long distinguished as a maker of excel- follow the most faulty parts. When flaws occurlent achromatic instruments-showed me, about red in the large masses, they were removed by
six years ago, a rude piece of flint glass about five cleaving the pieces with wedges; then smelting
inches diameter, intended for the concave lens of them again in molds, which gave them  tile form
an achromatic object-glass, for which he paid eight of discs. The Astronomical Society of London




72.AHE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
have made trial olr'A4s made by Guinaud, and  Herschel discovered with it a sixth star ill the trahave found them  eant'y homogeneous and free peziumnin in the nebula of Orion, whose brightness
fiom  fault.  Of this inr;enious artist's flint glass was about one-third of that of the fifth star dissolme of the largest achr. natic telescopes on the covered by Strove, which is as distinctly seen as
Continent have been constructed.  But it is more the companion to Polaris is in a five feet achrothan twenty years since'ais experimenter took  matic.  Sir James gives the following notices of
his flight from this terrest  sqcene, and it is un- the performance of this instrument on the morncertain whether his process Xr.    harried on with  ing of May 14, 1830.  "At half past two placed
equal success.                                    the 20 feet achromatic on the Georgium  Sidus,
saw it with a power of 346, a beautiful planetary
NOTICES OF SOME L~ARGE,ACHROiMIATIC TELECOPES ON  disc; not the slightest suspicion of alny ring, eiTIlE CONTrINENT AND IN GREAT BRITAIN.      ther perpendicular or horizontal; but the planet
three hours east of the meridian, and the moon
1. The Dorpat Telescope.-This is one of the within three degrees of the planlet.  At a quarter
largest and most expensive refracting telescopes before three, viewed Jupiter with 252 anid 346,
ever constructed.  It was made by the celebrated  literally covered with belts, and the diameters of
Fraunhofer, of Munich, for tile observatory of the his satellites might have been as easily measured
Imperial University of Dorpat, and was received  as himself.  One came from behind the body, and
into the observatory by Professor Strove, in the the contrast of the color with that of the plllet's
year 1825. Tile aperture of tile object-glass of limb was striking. At three o'clock viewed Mars.
this telescope is 9,, English inches, and its solar The contrast of light in the vicinity of the poles
focal length about 14 feet. the main tube being 13 very decided.  Several spots on his body well and
_rench feet, exclusive of the tube which holds strongly malrked; that about the south pole seems
the eyepieces.  Tile smallest of the four magni- to overtake the body of the planet, and gives an
fying powers it possesses is 175, and the largest appearance not unlike that afforded by the new
700, which, in favorable weather, is said to pro- moon, familiarly known as'the old moon in the
sent the object with the utmost precision.  "This moon's arms.' "  Saturn has been repeatedly seen
instrument," says Strtve, " was sold to us by  with powers from  130 to 928, under circumPrivy-counsellor VON UTZCHNEIDER, the chief of stances the most favorable; but' not anything
the optical establishment at Munich, for 10,500  anomalous about the planet or its ring could even
florins (about ~950 sterling), a price which only  be suspected.  This telescope is erected on an
covers the expenses which the establishment in- equatorial stand, at Sir J. South's observatory,
curred in making it."  The framework of the  Kensington.
stand of this telescope is of oak, inlaid with pieces   3. Captain Smith's Telescope in his private obserof mahogany in an ornamental manner, and the vatory at Bedford.-This achromatic telescope is
tube is of deal veneered with mahogany and high- 812 feet focal length, with a clear aperture of 5
iy polished.  The whole weight of the telescope 9-10 inches, worked by the late Mr. Tulley. seand its counterpoises is supported at one point, at nior, from a disc purchased by Sir James South
the common center of gravity of all its parts; and  at Paris.  It is considered by Captain Smithl to be
though these weigh 30010 Russian pounds, yet we the finest specimrien of that eninent optician's
are told that this enormous telescope may be skill, and, it is said, will bear with distinctness a
turned in every direction toward the heavens with  magnifying power of 1200.  Its distinctness has
more ease and certainty than other hitherto in use. been proved by tile clear vision it gives of the obWhen the object-end of the telescope is elevated  scure nebulae, and of the companiolis of Polaris,
to the zenith, it is sixteen feet four inches, Paris Rigel, a. Lyre, and the most minute double stars
measure, above the floor, and its eye-end in this -the lunar mountains, cavities, and shadows unposition is two feet nine inches high   This in- der all powers-the lucid polar regions of Marsstrument is mounted on an equatorial stand, and the sharpness of the double ring of Saturnl-tlle
clockwork is applied to the equatorial axis, which  gibbous aspect of Venus-the shadows of Jupiter's
gives it a smooth and regular sidereal motion, satellites across his body, and the splendid contrast
which, it is said, keeps a star in the exact center of colors in at Hercules,? Andromedm, and other
of the field of view, and produces the appearance superb double stars.
of a state of rest in the starry regions, which mo-    Other large Achromatics.-Beside the above,
tion can be made solar, or even lunar, by a little  the following, belonging to public observatories
change given to the place of a pointer that is and private individuals,  may be mentioned.  in
placed as an index on the dial plate. Professor the Royal Observatory at Greenwich there is an
Strive considers the optical powers of this tele- achromatic of 10 feet focal distance, having a
scope superior to those of Schroeter's twenty-five  double object-glass 5 inches diameter, which was
feet reflector, from  having observed o- Orionis made by Mr. Peter Dollond,and the only one of
with fifteen  companions, though Schroeter ob- that size he ever constructed.  There is also a 46
served only twelve that he could count with eel- ncl achromatic, with a triple object-glass 33
tainty.  Nay, he seems disposed to place it in  inches aperture, which is said to be the most percompetition with the late Sir W. Herschel's forty- feet instrument of the kind ever produced.  It
feet reflector.  The finder of this telescope has a was the favorite instrument of Dr. Maskelyne,
focal distance of 30 French inches, and 2-42 aper- late astronomer royal, who had a small room fitted
ture.                                             up in the observatory for this telescope.  The ob2. Sir James South's Telescope.-About the servatory some years ago erectednear Cambridge
year 1829, Sir J. South, President of the London  is, perhaps the most splendid structure of the kind
Astronomical Society, procured of M. Cauchoix, in Great Britain.  It is furnished with several
of Paris, an achromatic object-glass of 11 2-10 very large achromatic telescopes on equatorial
inches clear aperture, and of 19 feet focal length. machinery; but the achromatic telescope lately
The flint glass employed in its construction was presented to it by the Duke of Northumberland
the manufacture of the late Guinaud le Pere, and  is undoubtedly the largest instrument of this dewas found to be absolutely perfect.  The first ob- scription which is to be found in this country.
servation was made with this telescope while on a The object-glass is said to be twenty-five feet
temporary stand, on Feb. 13, 1830, when Sir J. focal distance, and of a corresponding diameter;




NOTICES OF ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.                                      73
but as there was no access to this instrument at I cure large discs of flint glass for optical purposes,
the time I visited the observatory, nearly six to produce the requisite curves of the different
years ago, I am  unable to give a particular de- lenses, and to combine them  together with that
scription of it.  In the Royal Observatory at extreme accuracy which is requisite, that, when
Paris, which I visited in 1837, I noticed, among a good compound lens of this description is found
other instruments, two very large achromatic perfectly achromatic, the optician must necessatelescopes, which, measuring them rudely by the rily set a high value upon it, since it may happen
eye, I estimated to be from 15 to 18 feet long, and that he may have finished half a dozen before he
the aperture at the object-end from  12 to 15 has got one that is nearly perfect.  The more
inches diameter.  They were the largest achro- common sizes of achromatic telescopes for astromatics I had previously seen; but I could find no nomical purposes, which are regularly sold by the
person in the Observatory at that time who could London opticians, are the following:
give mle any information as to their history, or    1. The 212 feet Achromnatic.-This telescope
to their exact dimensions or powers of magnify- has an object-glass 30 inclies ins focal length, and
ing.*                                             2 inches clear aperture.  It is generally furnished
The Rev. Dr. Pearson, treasurer to the Astro- with two eyepieces, one, for terrestrial objects,
nomrical Society of London, is in possession of magnifying about 30 or 35 times, and one for cethe telescope formerly alluded to made by Mr. lestial objects, with a power of 70 or 75 times. It
Tulley, of twelve feet focal distance and seven might be furnished with an additional astronlomiinches aperture, which is said to be a very fine cal eyepiece, if the object-glass be a good one, so
one.  The small star which accompanies the pole- as to produce a power of 90 or 95 times.  With
star, with a power of 100, appears through this such a telescope the belts and satellites of Jupiter,
telescope as distinct and steady as one of Jupiter's the phases of Venus, and the ring of Saturn may
satellites.  With a single lens of 6 inches focus, be perceived, but not to so much advantage as
which produced a power of 24 times, according with larger telescopes.  It is generally fitted up
to the testimony of an observer who noticed it, either with a mahogany or a brass tube, and is
the small star appeared as it does in an achroma- placed upon a tripod brass stand, with a universal
tic of three inches aperture, which shows the  joint which produces a horizontal and vertical
great effbet of illuminating power in such instru- motion.  It is packed, along with the eyepieces
merits.  Mr. Lawson a diligent astronomical ob- and whatever else belongs to it, in a neat mahoserver in Hereford, possesses a most beautiful gany box.  Its price varies according as it is
achromatic telescope of about 7 inches aperture  furnished with an elevating rack or other apparaand 12 feet focal distance, which was made by  tus.
one of the Dollands, who considered it his chef   The following are the prices of this instrument,
d'osuvre.  It is said to bear powers as high as 1100 as marked in the catalogue of Mr. Tulley, Teror 1400, and has been fitted up with mechanism, rett's Court, Islington, London.
devised by Mr. IJawson himself, so as to be per-                                         ~  s. d.
fectly easy and manageable to the observer, and    21/ feet telescopes, brass mounted on
which displays this gentleman's inventive talent. plain pillar and claw stand, with 1 eyeIn several of his observations with this instru- piece for astronomical purposes and 1
ment, he is said to have had a view of some of for land objects, to vary the magnifythe more minute subdivisions of the ring of Sa- ing power, packed  in a mahogany
turn. A very excellent achromatic telescope was box                                       10 10 0
fitted up some years ago by my worthy friend    Ditto, ditto, brass mounted on pillar
William  Bridles, Esq., Blackheath.  Its object- and claw stand, with elevating rack, 1
glass is 5Y2 inches diameter, and about 512 feet eyepiece for astronomical purposes, and
focal length. It is erected upon equatorial ma- 1 for land objects, to vary the magnifychinery, and placed in a circular observatory iny power, packed in a mahogany box  12 12 0
which moves round with a slight touch of the
hand.  The object-glass of this instrument cost   The following prices of the same kind of teleabout 200 guineas; the equatorial machinery on scope are from  the catalogue of Messrs. W. and
which it is mounted cost 150 guineas; and the S. Jones, 30 Lower Holborn, London.
circular observatory in which it is placed about                                         ~  d. s.
100 guineas, in all 450 guineas.  Its powers vary    The improved 212 feet achromatic
from 50 to 300 times.+                            refractor, on a brass stand, mahogany
tube, with three eyepieces, two magniACHROMATIC TELESCOPES OF A MODERATE SIZE.    fying about 40 and 50 times for terrestrial objects, and the other about 75
Such telescopes as I have alluded to above are times for astronomical purposes, in a
among the largest which have yet been made on mahogany case..              10 10 0
the achromatic principle; they are, of course,   Ditto, ditto, the tube all brass, with
comparatively rare, and can be afforded only at a three eyepieces..  11 11
very high price.  Few of the object-glasses in the    Ditto, ditto, with vertical and horizontelescopes to which I have referred would be tal rack-work motions.  15 15
valued at less than 200 guineas, independently of
the tubes, eyepieces, and other apparatus with   2. The 3Y1/ feet Achromatic Telescope. —The
which they are fitted up. It is so difficult to pro- object-glass of this telescope is from  44 to 46
inches focal length, and 234 inches diameter. It
is generally furnished with four eyepieces, two
* An achromatic telescope is said to be in possession of fo terrestrial and two for celestial objects.  The
Mr. Cooper, M. P. for Sligo, which is 26 feet long, and the lowest power for land objects is generally about
diameter of the object-glass 14 inches.
t This telescope, which was made by Dolland, with a 45, which affords a large field of view, and expower of 240 times, gives a beautiful view of the belts of hibits the objects with great brilliancy.  T'he
Jupiter, and the double ring of Saturn, and with a power of other terrestrial power is usually from 65 to 70
50 the stars in the Milky Way and some of the nebulae appear 
very numerous and brilliant. Its owner is a gentleman who The astronomical powers are about 80 and 130,
unites science with Christianity.                but such a telescope should always have another




74                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
eyepiece, to produce a power of 180 or 200 times, of Saturn's ring might occasionally be perceived,
whicli it will bear with distinctness, in a serene  It is more easily managed, and represents objects
state of the atmosphere, if the object-glass be truly  considerably brighter than reflecting  telescopes
achromatic.  The illuminating power in this tele- of the same price and magnifying power, and it
scope is nearly double that of the 2k~ feet telescope, is not so apt to be deranged as reflectors generally
or in the proportion of 7.56 to 4, and therefore it are.  A  telescope of a less size would not, mi
will bear about double the magnifying power with  general, be found satisfactory  for viewing the
nearly equal distinctness.  This telescope is fitted  objects I have now specified, and for general asup in a manner somewhat similar to tie former, tronomical purposes. It may not be improper, fox
with a tripod stand which is placed upon a table. the information of some readers, to explain whlat
Sonietimnes, however, it is mounted on a long ina- is meant in Mr. Tulley's catalognue, when it is
hogany stand which rests upon the floor (as in  stated that this instrument " hlabs onie eyepiece for
fig. 58,) and is fitted with an equatorial motion; day objects, to vary the aiagti.friog power."  The
andt has generally a small telescope fixed near the eyepiece alluded to is so constructed, that by
eye end of the large tube, called a finder, which' drawing out a tube next the eye you may inserves to direct the telescope to a particular object crease the power at pleasure, and make it to vary
ini the heavens when the higher powers are ap- say from  40 to 80 or 100 times; so that such a
plied.  It is likewise eligible that it should have  construction of the terrestrial eyepiece  (to be
an elevating rack and sliding tubes, for support- afterward explained) serves, in a great measure,
ing the eye end of the instrument, to keep it the purpose of separate eyepieces.  The whole
steady during astronomical observations, and it length of the 312 feet telescope, when the terreswould be an  advantage, for various purposes trial eyepiece is applied, is about 4W.)4' feet frorm
which shall be afterward described, to have fitted  the object-glass to the first eyeglass.
to it a diagonal eyepiece magnifying 40 times or   When the aperture of the object-glass of this
upward.                                           telescope exceeds 2%g inches, its price rapidly adThe prices of this instrument, as marked in  vances.
Mr. Tulley's catalogue, are as follows:              The following is Mr. Tulley's scale of prices,
A; s. d. proportionate to the increase of aperture:
The 3}e feet achromatic telescope,
234. inches aperture, on plain pillar and                                                       s. 
claw stand, 2 eyepieces for astronomical            g3Y2 feet telescopes, 314 inches aperpurposes and 1 for land objects, to vary           ture, with vertical and iorizontal rackthie magnifying power, packed in a ma-             work motions, achromatic  filder, 3
hogany ybox..... 21  0 0 eyepieces for astronomical purposes,
Ditto, ditto, with elevating rack and            and one for day objects, to vary the
achromatic finder, 2 eyepieces for as-magifying power, packed in a mahotronomical purposes and 1 for day ob-gany box..... 42    
jects, to vary the magnifying power,                 Ditto, ditto, 33,/ inches diameter,
packed in a mahogany box. 26  5 0  mounted as above.... 68  5 0
The  following are the prices as marked in    Ditto, with universal equatorial inMessrs. WV. and S. Jones's catalogue:              stead of pillar and claw stand. 84  0 0
~  s.d.
The 3,t. feet achromatic, plain ma-                Here, in the one case, the increase of half all
hogany tube.       18 18 0 inch in the diameter of the object-glass adds about
Ditto, ditto, brass tube... 21  0 0  ~316 to the expense, and ill the other case no less
Ditto, all in brass, with rack-work',.ha  ~26 5s.  The proportion  of light ill those
motions, &c.                             26  5 0 two telescopes, compared with that of' 2%i  indhes
Ditto, the object-glass of the largest           acerture, is as follows:  The square of the  -/4
aperture, and the rack-work motions on             olbject-glass is 7.56; that of 3/4, 10.56; and that
an improved principle, from ~37 16s. to  42  0 0 of the 34, 14.06; so that the light admitted by
Ditto, fitted up with equatorial no-             the: 314 compared with the 234 aiperture is nearly
tion, framed mahogany stand, divided               as 10 to 7; and the light admitted by the 33
altitude and azimuth arches, or declina-           object-glass is  nearly double that of the 2;~,
tion and right ascension circles, &c.,             aperture, and will bear nearly a proportional in&c.,.. from ~60 to  80   0 0 crease of magnifying power.
3. The 5feet Achromatic Telescope.-Tle focal
This is the telescope which I would particularly  length of the object-glass of this telescope is 5
recommend to astronomical amateurs, whose pa- feet 3 inches, ad  tle diameter of its aperture 3
cuniary resources do not permit them to purchase  8-10 inches.  The usual Ilagnifyintg powers apmore expensive instruments.  When  fitted up  plied to it are, for land objects 65 times, and for
with the eyepieces and powers already mentioned, celestial objects 110, 190, 250, and sometinles one
and with a finder and elevating rack-price 25 or two higher powers. T'ile quantity of light it
guineas-it will serve all the purposes of general possesses is not much larger thilan thlat of the 31.
observation.  By this telescope satisfactory views feet telescope, with 34 ilches aperture; blt the
may be obtained of most of the interesting phe- larger focal length of this telescope is consideredl
inomena of the heavens-such as the spots on the  to be an advantage, since the loiger the focus of
sun-tthle mountains, vales, anid caverns onl the the object-glass, the less will be its chromatic and
lun mr surface —the phases of Mercury and Venus spherical aberrations, and the larger may ba the
-the spots on Mars-the satellites and belts of eyeglasses, and the flatter the field of view.
Jlupiter —the ring of Saturn-many of the more
interesting nebulte, and most of the double stars    Tle following are tle prices of tiese telescopes
of the second and  third  classes.  When the as marked in Mr. Tu!ley's catalogue:
oblject-glass of this telescope is accurately figured    5 feet telescopes, 334 inches aperture, on a
anmd perfectly achromatic, a power of from  200  universal equatorial stand, with ac!lromatic finder
to 230 may be put upon it, by which the division 4''-eyepieces for astronomical purposes and.1 for




NOTICES OF ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.                                      75
lay objects, to vary the  magnifying   ~  s. d. made to close up together by means of the brass
power, packed  in a mahogany box,                 frame a a a, which is composed of three bars,
100 guineas to.157 10 0 connected with three joints in the center, and
7 feet ditto, 5 inches aperture, on a           three other joints, connected with the three manewly improved  universal equatorial              hogany bars. It is furnished with an apparatus
stand, 6 eyepieces for astronomical purposes and 1 for day objects, to vary the                              Fig. 58.
magnifying  power, with achromatic
6 ader and Troughton's micrometer,    207  5 0
The above are all the kinds of achromatic teleshopes generally made by the London opticians.                    A
I hose of the larger kind, as 5 and 7 feet telescopes, and the 3t/, feet with 33 inches aperture,                       d
are generally made to order, aud are not always        I 
to be procured. But the 2/2 and 31/ feet achro-                  h
matics of 24 inches aperture are generally to be
found ready made at most of the opticians' shops in?   /l%
the metropolis. The prices of these instruments are
nearly the same in most of the opticians' shops in    B
London. Some of them demand a higer price, but
few of them are ever sold lower than what has been
stated, unless in certain cases where a discount is
allowed.
The stands for these telescopes, and the manner
in which they are fitted up for observation, is
represented  in figures 57, 58, and 59. Fig. 57
Fig. 57.
for equatorial motions. The brass pill is made to
move round in the brass socket b, and may be
tightened by means of the finger screw d, when
the telescope is directed nearly to the object intended to be viewed. This socket may be set perpendicular to the horizon, or to any other required
/ ///  iw  A        angle; and the quantity of the angle is ascertained
by the divided arc, and the iustrument made fast
in that position by the screw e. If this socket bo
Il     m            set to the latitude of the place of observation, and.1~llli[i; l       the plane of this arc be turned so as to be in the
plane of the meridian, the socket b being fixed to
the inclination of the pole of the earth, the telescope, when turned in this socket, will have an
equatorial motion, so that celestial objects may be
always kept in view when this equatorial'motion
is performed. The two handles at k, are connected with rack-work, intended to move the telescope in any required direction.  The two sets of
/3        brass sliding rods, i i, are intended to render the
-''- =c   telescope as steady as possible, and to elevate and
1 2  3 4  5  6  7  8  9 10             depress it at pleasure, and are so constructed as to
rep asents either the 212 or the 312 feet tele- slide into each other with the utmost ease.
sco, es, mounted on a plain brass stand, to be   The finder is placed at A E, either on the top
plat Jd on a table.  A  is the long eyepiece for or the left side of the tube of the telescope. When
laned objects, and B the small eyepiece for astro- high magnifying powers are applied to any telenomical observation, which is composed of two scope, it is sometimes difficult, on account of the
lenses, and represents the object in an inverted smallness of the field of view, to direct the main
position.  These eyepieces are screwed on, as oc- tube of the telescope to the object. But by the
casion requires, at E, the eye end of the tele- finder, which is a telescope with a small power,
scope. The shorter of the two astronomical eye- and  consequently  has a large  field of view,
tubes which accompany this telescope produces when directed to any object, it is easily found,
the highest magnifying power. For adjusting and being brought to the center of the field, where
the telescope to distinct vision, there is a brass two cross-hairs intersect each other, it will then
knob or button at a, which moves a piece of rack- be seen in the larger telescope.  B is the eyetubo
work connected with the eyetube, which must be for terrestrial objects, containing four glasses, and
turned either one way or the other until the ob- C one of the astronomical eyepieces.  A socket
ject appears distinctly, and different eyes frequent- is represented at g, containing a stained glass,
ly require a different adjustment.               which is screwed to any of the eyepieces, to proFig. 58 represents a 5 feet telescope fitted up  tect the eye from  the glare of light, when viewfor astronomical observations.  It is mounted on ing the spots of the sun. The brass nut above j
a mahogany stand, the three legs of which are is intended for the adjustment of the eyepiece to
VOL. II.-34




78                         THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
distinct vision. The 3/2 feet telescope is some- it becomes very inconvenient to stoop to the eye
times mounted in this form.                      end of a telescope when the altitude of an object
Fig. 59 represents a 5 or 6 feet telescope, mount-  is considerable, and the center of motion at the
middle of the tube, this construction of a stand
Fig. 59.                    serves to remedy such inconvenience.
PROPORTIONS OF CURVATURE OF THE LENSES W.II4CH
FORM AN ACHROMATIC OBJECT-GLASS.
As some ingenious mechanics may feel a delIts
to attempt the construction of a compound acihromatic object-glass, I shall here state some of the
proportions of curvature of the concave and convex lenses which serve to guide opticians in their
construction of achromatic instruments.  These
proportions are various; and ever, when demonstrated to be mathematically correct, it is somnetimes difficult to reduce them  to practice, on account of the different powers of refraction and
dispersion possessed by different discs of crown
and flint glass, and of the difficulty of producing,
by mechanical means, the exact curves which
theory requires. The, following table shows the
radii of curvature of the different surfaces of the
lenses necessary to form a double achromatic object-glass, it being supposed that the sine of refraction in the crown-glass is as 1.528 to 1, and
M/titk  b a/m sin the flint as 1.5735 to one, the ratio of their
dispersive powers being as 1 to 1.524.  It is also
assumed that the curvatures of the concave lens
are as 1 to 2, that is, that the one side of this lens
is ground on a tool, the radius of which is double
that of the other. The 1st column expresses the
compound focus of the object-glass in inches;
the 2d column  states the radius of the anterior
surface of the crown, and column 3d its posterior
side.  Column 4th expresses the radius of the anterior surface of the concave lens, and column 5th
its posterior surface, which, it will be observedi
ed on a stand of a new construction by Dollond. is exactly double that of the other.
It possesses the advantage of supporting the telescope in two places, which renders it extremely  Focus Radius of Radius of Rad.ofante- Radius of
steady, a property of great importance when    in  anterior sur- posterior  ior surface, posterior
viewing celestial objects with  high magnify-  inch          s      urface.s
nlug powers.  It possesses, likewise, the advantage     Inc. Dec.  Inc. Dec. Inc. Dec.  Inc. Dec.
of enabling the observer to continue seated at the   1i    3        4. 652   4. 171    8. 342
same hight from the floor, although the telescope    24    6        9. 304   8. 342   16. 684
be raised to any altitude, the elevation being entire-    30  7. 5   11. 63   10. 428  20. 856
ly at the object end, although it may be changed    36     9       13. 956  12. 513  25. 027
from the horizon to the zenith. The framework    48    12          18. 608  16. 684   33. 369
is composed of bars of mahogany, and rests on    60   15           23. 260)   20. 856i | l. 712
three castors, two of which are made fast to their   120    30     46. 520  41. 712   83. 424
respective legs in the usual way, and the third        -
stands under the middle of the lower horizontal   From  the preceding table it will be seen that,
bar that connects the two opposite legs, so that to construct, for example, a 30 inch compound
tile frame has all the advantages of a tripod. As object-glass, the radius of the anterior side of the
|Focagl | Convex lens of Crown glass.    Concave lens of flint glass.  Convex lens of crnrvn glass.
length.  ___                       _     _I_            -_ --  -_ -_1
inches.  Inc. Dec.    Inc. Dec.    Inc. Dec.    Inc. Dec.    Inc. Dec.    Inc. Dec.
6      4.  54        3.  03        3. 03         6.  36        6.  36.64
9      6.  83        4.  56        4.  56        9.  54        9.  54.  92
12      9.  25        6.  17        6.  17       12.  75       12.  75        1.  28 
18     13.  67        9.  12        9.  12       19.  08       19.  08        1.  92
24     1 F.  33      12.  25       12.  25       25.  50       25.  50        2.  56
30     22.  71       15.  16       15.  16       31.  79       31.  79        3.  20
36     27.  33       18.  25       18.  25       38.  17       38.  17        3.  84
42   3l1.  87        21.  28       21.  28       44.  53       44.  53        4.  48
48     36.  42       24.  33       24.  33       50.  92       50.  92        6.  12
54     40.  96       27.  36       27.  36       57.  28       57.  28        5.  76
60     45. 42        30.  33       30.  33       63.  58       63.  58        6.  4
crown must be 7y. inches, and that of the poste- I surface of the concave 10.428, and that of the
nror side &l;63 Inches; the radius of the anterior posterior 20.856 inches. It may be proper to ob-.




NOTICES OF ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.                                      77
serve, that in these computations, the radius of be guarded against in the combination of achrothe anterior surface of the concave is less than matic glasses. The preceding table shows the
the posterior side of the convex, and consequently radii of curvature of the lenses of a triple objectadmits of its approach, without touching in the glass, calculated from formula deduced by Dr.
center-a circumstance which always requires to Robison of Edinburgh.
The following table contains the proportions of curvature said to be employed by the London
opticians:
Focal                               Radius of both the surfaces of   Convex lens of crown glass.
length.   Convex lens of crown glass.    the concave of flint glass. 
Inches.  Inc. Dec.    Inc. Dec.             Inc. Dec.           Inc. Dec.    Inc. Dec.
6      3.  77,       4.  49               3.  47               3.  77        4.  49
9      5.  65        6.  74               5.  21               5.  65        6.  74
12      7.  54        8.  99               6.  95               7.  54        8.  99
18     11.  30       13.  48              10.  42              11.  30       13.  48
24     15.  08       17.  98              13.  90              15.  08       17.  98
36     22.  61       26.  96              20.  84              22.  61       26.  96
42     26.  38       31.  45              24.  31              26.  38       31.  45
48     30.  16       35.  96              27.  80              30.  16       35.  96
54     33.  91       40.  45              31.  27              33.  91       40.  45
60     37.  68       44.  94              34.  74              37.  68       44.  94
From this table it appears that the two convex  the same as to curvature and other properties,
lenses have the same radii of their respective sides, only one was found to produce a distinct and coland that the concave flint lens has its two sur- orless image. Should any one, however, wish to
feces equally concave, so that a triple object-glass attempt the construction of an achromatic teleformed according to these proportions would re- scope, the best way for preventing disappointquire only three pair of grinding tools.  The fol- ments in the result is to procure a variety of
lowing are the curves of the lenses of one of the tables of the respective curvatures founded on
best of Dollond's achromatic telescopes, the focal different conditions, and which, of course, require
length of the compound object-glass being 46 the surfaces of the several lenses to be of differinches. Reckoning from the surface next the ob- ent curves. Having lenses of different radii at
ject, the radii of the crown glass were 28 and 40 his command, and having glass of different reinches; the concave lens 20.9 inches, and the fractive or dispersive powers, when one combinainner crown glass lens 28.4 and 28.4 inches. This tion does not exactly suit, he may try another:
telescope carried magnifying powers of from 100 and ultimately may succeed in constructing a
to 200 times.                                    good achromatic telescope; for, in many cases, it
Although I have inserted  the above tables, has been found that chance, or a happy combinawhich might, in some measure, guide an ingeni- tion of lenses by trial, has led to the formation
ous artist, yet, on the whole, a private amateur of an excellent object-glass.
has little chance in succeeding in such attempts.
The diversity of glasses, and the uncertainty of    ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES COMPOSED OF FLUID
an unpracticed workman's producing the precise                       LENSES.
curvature he intends, is so great, that the objectglass, for the most part, turns out different from    The best achromatic telescopes, when minutely
his expectations. The great difficulty in the con- examined, are found to be in some respects defecstruction is to find the exact proportion of the tive, on account of that slight degree of color
dispersive powers of the crown and flint glass. which, by the aberration of the rays, they give to
The croln, is pretty constant, but there are hardly objects, unless the object-glass be of small diametwo pots of flint glass which have the same ter. When we examine with attention a good
dispersive power.  Even if constant, it is difficult achromatic telescope, we find that it does not show
to measure it accurately; and an error in this white or luminous objects perfectly free from
greatly affects the instrument, because the focal color, their edges being tinged on one side with
distances of the lenses must be nearly as their a claret colored fringe, and on the other with a
dispersive powers. In the two preceding tables, green fringe. This telescope, therefore, required
the sine of incidence in the crown glass is sup- further improvement, to get rid of these secondary
posed to be to the sine of refraction as 1.526 to 1; colors, and Father Boscovich, to whom. every
and in the flint glass, as 1.604 to one. Opticians branch of optics is much indebted, displayed much
who make great numbers of lenses, both of flint ingenuity in his attempts to attain this object.
and crown glass, acquire, in time, a pretty good But it is to Dr. Blair, professor of astronomy in
guess of the nature of the errors which may re- Edinburgh, that we are chiefly indebted for the
mlain after they have finished an object-glass; and first successful experiments by which this end
having many lenses intended to be of the same was accomplished. By a judicious set of experi.
form, but unavoidably differing a little from  it, ments, he proved that the quality of dispersing
they try several of the concaves with the two the rays in a greater degree than crown glass is
convexes, and finding one better than the rest, not confined to a few mediums, but is possessed
they make use of it to complete the set. In this by a great variety of fluids, and by some of these
way some of the best achromatic telescopes are in a most extraordinary degree. Having observed
frequently formed   I have sometimes found, that when the extreme red and violet rays were
when supplying a concave flint glass to a tale- perfectly united, the green were left out, he conscope where it happened to be wanting, that, of ceived the idea of making an achromatic concave
four or five concave lenses which appeared to be lens which should refract the green less than the




78                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
united red and violet, and an achromatic convex tinct vision of a star, when using an erecting eyelens vwhich slould do the same; and as the concave piece, which made this telescope magnify mole than
lens refracted the outstanding green to the axis, 100 times, and they found the field of vision as
while the concave one refracted them  from  the uniformly distinct as with Dollond's 42 inch teleaxis, it followed that, by a combination of these scope, magnifying 46 times, and were led to adtwo opposite effects, the green would be united  mire the nice figuring and centering of the very
with the red and violet.                          deep eyeglasses which were necessary for this amBy means of an ingenious prismatic apparatus, plification.  They saw double stars with a degree
he examined the optical properties of a great va- of perfection which astonished them. These toriety of fluids.  The solutions of metals and  lescopes, however, have never yet come into genesemi-metals proved in all cases more dispersive ral use; and one reason, perhaps, is, that they are
than crown glass.  Some of the salts, such as sal much more apt to be deranged than telescopes
ammnnlolliac, greatly increased the dispersive power constructed of object-glasses which are solid.  If
of water.  The marine acid disperses very con- any species of glass, or other solid transparent
siderably, and  this quality increases with  its substance could be found with the same optical
strength.  The most dispersive fluids were accor- properties, instruments might perhaps be condingly iound to be those in which this acid and structed of a larger size, and considerably superior
the metals were combined.  The chemical prepa- to our best achromatic telescopes.*  It is said that
ration called causticurn antimoniale, or butter of Mr. Blair, the son of Dr. Blair, somle years ago enantimony, in its most concentrated state, when it gaged in prosecuting his father's views, but I have
has just attracted sufficient humidity to render it not heard anything respecting the result of his
fluid, possesses the quality of dispersing the rays investigations.
in an astonishing degree.  The great quantity of
the semi-metal retained in solution, and the highly  BARLOW'S REFRACTING TELESCOPE WITH A FLUID
concentrated state of the marine acid, are con-                    CONCAVE LENS.
sidereal as the cause of this striking effect. Corrosive sublimate of mercury, added to a solution    Professor Barlow, not many years ago suggested
of sal amunmoniacum in water, possesses the next a new fluid telescope, which is deserving of attenplace to the butter of antimony among the disper- tion, and about the year 1829 constructed one of
sive fluids which Dr. Blair examined.  The es- pretty large dimensions.  The fluid he employs
sential oils were found to hold the next rank to for this purpose is the sulphuret of carbon, which
metallic solutions among fluids which possess the he found to be a substance which possessed every
dispersive quality, particularly  those obtained  requisite he could desire.  Its index is nearly the
from bituminous minerals, as native petrolea, pit- same as that of the best flint glass, with a dispercoal, and amber. The dispersive power of the sive power more than double. It is perfectly coessential oil of sassafras, and the essential oil of lorless, beautifully transparent, and, although very
lemons, when genuine, were found  to be not expansible, possesses the same, or very nearly the
much inferior to any of these. But of all the same, optical properties under all circumstancel
fluids fitted for optical purposes, Dr. Blair found  to which it is likely to be exposed in astronomni
that the nuriatic acid mixed with a metallic solu- cal observations, except, perhaps, direct observation, or, in other words, a fluid in which the ma- tions on the solar disc, which will probably be
rine acid and metalline particles hold a due pro- found inadmissible.  Mr. Barlow first constructed
portion, most accurately suited  an object-glass with this fluid of three inches apee.
Fig. 60.    his purpose.  In a spectrum  tore, with which he could see the small saar in
formed by this fluid, the green Polaris with a power of 46, and with the higher
C      A     E  were among the most refran- powers several stars which are considered to regible rays; and when its dis- quirea good telescope, for example, 70,p Ohiuchlli,
persion was corrected by that 29 Bootes,the quadruple star ~ Lyree, Aquarii, a
of glass, there was produced  Herculis, &c. He next constructed a 6 inch oban  inverted  secondary spec- ject-glass.  With this instrument, the small star
trum, that is, one in which the  in Polaris is so distinct and brilliant, with a power
green was above, when it would  of 143, that its transit might be taken with the uthave been below with a comr- most certainty.  As the mode of constructing
mon medium.  He therefore these telescopes is somewhat anovel, it may be expeplaced a concave lens of muri- dient to enter somewhat into detail.
atic acid with a metallic solu-   In the usual construction of achromatic teletion between the two lenses, scopes, the two or three lenses composing the obas in fig. 60, where A B  is the  ject-glass are brought inrto immediate contact;
concave fluid lens, C F a pla- and in the fluid telescope of Dr. Blair, the conno-convex lens, with its plane struction was the same, the fluid having been inside next the object, and E D a closed in the object-glass itself. But in Mr. Barmeniscus.  With this object- low's telescope, the fiaid correcting lens is placed
F — X         D glass the rays of different col- at a distance from the plate lens equal to half its
ors were bent from  their recti- focal length, and it might be carried still farther
lineal course with the same equality and regularity  back, and yet possess dispersive power to render
as in reflection.                                  the object-glass achromatic.  By this means, the
Telescopes constructed with such object-glasses fluid lens, whicrl is the most difficult part of the
were examined by the late Dr. Robison and Pro- construction, is: reduced to one-half, or to less than
fessor Playfair.  The focal distance of the object- one-half of (t.z size of the plate lens; consequently,
glass of one of these did not exceed 17 inches, and to construct a telescope of 10 or 12 inches aperyet it bore an aperture of 312 inches. They
viewed some single and double stars and some     For a nre. particular account of Dr. Blair's instruments
common objects with this telescope, and found that and c,.per.nents, the reader is referred to his Dissertatios
in maglifying power, brightness, and distinctnessor thi isub.cict in vol. ii, of the " Traansactions of the Roya.
Society of Edinburghl," which occupies 76 pages, or to Nichol.
it was manifestly superior to one of Mr. Dollond's     Jsons Journal of 6Natural Philosophy," &e., quarto series,
of 42 inches focal length. They had most dis- vol. i, April-September, 1797.




NOTICES OF ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.                                      79
ture involves no greater difficulty in the manipu- this kind of 10 or 12 feet length will be equivalation than in making a telescope of the usual lent, in its focal power, to one of 16 or 20 feet. By
description of 5 or 6 inches aperture, except in the this means the tube may be shortened several feet,
simple plate lens itself; and, hence, a telescope of and yet possess a focalpowermore considerable than
Fig. 61.
Bfa                                       D:. —H.:..H.....  =-.
B be                                       D  Il
could be conveniently given to it on the usual  6 inches long, which carries the cell in which the
principle of construction.  This will be better un- fluid is inclosed, and an apparatus by which it
derstood from the above diagram (fig. 61).        may be moved backward and forward, so that the
In this figure A B C D  represent the tube of proper adjustment may be made for color in the
the 6 inch telescope, C D the plate object-glass, first instance, and afterward the focus is obtained
F the first focus of rays, d e the fluid concave lens, by the usual rack-work motion.  The followdistant from the former 24 inches; the focal length ing is the mode by which the fluid was inclosed.
M F being 48, and, consequently, as 48: 6: 24: After the best position has been determined prac3 inchses, the diameter of the fluid lens.  The re- tically for the checks forming the fluid lens, these,
suIting compound focus is 62.5 inches.  It is with the ring between them, ground and polished
obvious, therefore, that the rays d f, e f, arrive at accurately to the same curves, are applied together,
the focus under the same convergency, and with and taken into an artificial high temperature, exthe same light as if they proceeded  from  a ceeding the greatest at which the telescope is ever
lens of six inches diameter, placed at a distance expected to be used.  After remaining here with
beyond the object-glass CD (as G H), determined the fluid some time, the space between the glasses
by producing those rays until they meet the lis completely filled, immediately closed, cooled
sides of the tube  in  G  H, namely, at 62.5 down by evaporation, and removed into a lower
inches beyond the fluid lens.  Hence, it is obvi- temperature.  By this means a sudden condensaous, the rays will converge as they would do from  tion takes place, an external pressure is brought
an object-glass, G H, of the usual kind with a fo- on tMe checks, and a bubble formed inside, which
cus of 10 feet 5 inches. We have thus, therefore, is, of course, filled with the vapor of the fluid;
shortened the tube 38.5 inches, or have at least the excess of the atmospheric pressure beyond
the advantage of a focus 38.5 inches longer than  that of the vapor being afterward always acting
our tube; and the same principle may be carried externally to prevent contact. The extreme edges
much further, so as to reduce the usual length of are then sealed with the serum  of human blood,
refracting telescopes nearly one half, without in- or by strong fish glue, and some thin pliable mecreasing the aberration in the first glass beyond tal surface.  By this process, Mr. Barlow says, " I
the least that can possibly belong to a telescope of have every reason to believe the lens becomes as
the usual kind of the whole length.  It should durable as any lens of solid glass.  At all events,
likewise be observed, that the adjustment for focus I have the satisfaction of stating, that my first 3
may be made either in the usual way or by a inch telescope has now been completed more than
slight movement of the fluid lens, as in the Gre- fifteen months, and that no change whatever has
gorian Reflectors by means of the small specu- taken place in its performance, nor the least perlum.                                              ceptible alteration either in the quantity or the
Mr. Barlow afterward constructed another larger quality of the fluid."
telescope onl the same principle, the clear aperture    The following are some of the observations
of which is 8' inches. Its tube is 11 feet, which, which have been made with this telescope, and the
together with the eyepiece, makes the whole tests to which it has been subjected.  The very
length 12 feet, but its effective focus is, on the small star which accompanies the pole star is geprinciple stated, 18 feet. It carries a power of 700 on  nerally one of the first tests applied to telescopes.
the closest double stars in South's and Herschel's This small point of light appeared brilliant and
catalogue, and the stars are, with  that power, distinct; it was best seen with a power of 120, but
round and defined, although the field is not then was visible with a power of 700.  The small star
so bright as could be desired.  The telescope is in Aldebaran was very distinct with a power of
mounted on a revolving stand, which works with 120. The small star a Lyrle was distinctly visible
considerable accuracy as an azimuth and altitude with the same power.  The small star called by
instrument.  To give steadiness to the stand, it Sir J. Herschel Debilissimza, between 4 0 and 5 Lyhas been made substantial and heavy, its weight tre, whose existence, he says, could not be susby estimation being about 400 pounds, and that pected in either the 5 or 7 feet equatorial, and inof the telescope 130 pounds, yet its motions are so visible also with the 7 and 10 feet reflectors of 6
smooth, and the power so arranged, that it may and 9 inches aperture, but seen double with the
be managed by one person with the greatest ease, 20 feet reflector, is seen very satisfactorily double
the star being followed by a slight touch, scarcely with this telescope, s Persei, marked as double in
exceeding that of the keys of a piano-forte. The South and Herschel's catalogue, at the distance of
focal length of the plate lens is 78 inches, and 28", with another small star at the distance of 3'
of the fluid lens 59.8 inches; which, at the dis- 67", is seen distinctly sixfold, four of the small
tance of 40 inches, produce a focal length of 104 stars being within a considerably less distance
inches, a total length of 12 feet, and an equivalent than the remote one of X marked in the catalogue.
focus of 18 feet. The curves of the parallel me- And, rejecting the remote star, the principal and
niscus checks for containing the fluid are 30 inches the four other stars form a miniature representa.
and 144 inches, the latter toward the eye.  The tion of Jupiter and his satellites, three of them
curves for the plate lens are 56.4 and 144. There being nearly in a line on one side, and the other
is an interior tube 5 inches diameter, and 3 feet on the opposite. Castor is distinctly double with




80                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
120, and well opened, and stars perfectly round the construction of an ordinary achromatic objectwith 360 and 700. 3 Leonis and a Piscium  are glass, in which a single crown lens is compensaseen with the same powers equally round and dis- ted by a single one of flint, the two lenses admit
tinct.  In s Bootis, the small star is well separated  of being separated only by an interval too small
from  the larger, and its blue color well marked  to afford any material advantage, in diminishing
with a power of 360. X Corona Borealis is seen  the diameter of the flint lens, by placing it in a
double with a power of 360 and 700.  52 Orionis, narrow part of the cone of rays, the actual amount
3 Orionis and others of the same class, are also  of their difference in point of dispersive power
well-defined'with the same powers.  In regard to  being such as to render the correction of the
the planets which happened to be visible, Venus chromatic aberration impossible when their muappeared beautifully white and well-defined with  tual distance exceeds a certain limit.  This incona power of 120, but showed some color with 360. venience Mr. Rogers proposes to obviate by emSaturn with the 120 power is a very brilliant ob- ploying, as a correcting lens, not a single lens of
ject, the double ring and belts being well and satis- flint, but a compound one consisting of a convex
factorily defined, and with the 360 power it is still crown and concave flint, whose foci are such as
very fine.  The moon also is remarkably beauti- to cause their combination to act as a plain glass
ful, the edges and the shadows being well marked, on the mean refrangible rays.  Then it is evident
while the quantity of light is such as to bring to  that by means of the greater dispersive power of
view every minute distinction of figure and shade. flint than of crown glass, this will act as a conThe principal objections that may be made to  cave on the violet, and as a convex on the red
this construction of a telescope are such as these: rays, and that the more powerfully, according as
Can the fluid be permanently secured? Will it the lenses separately have greater powers or curvapreserve its transparency and other optical proper- tuare.  If then, such a compound lens be interties? Will it not act upon the surface of the glass posed between the object-glass of a telescopeand partially destroy it? &c.  To such inquiries supposed to be a single lens of plate or crown
Mr. Barlow replies, that experience is the only  glass-and its focus, it will cause no alteration in
test we have; our spirit levels, spirit thermome- the focus for mean rays, while it will lengthen
ters, &c., show that some fluids, at least, may be the focus for violet, and shorten it for.red rays.
preserved for many years without experiencing  Now this is precisely what is wanted to produce
any change, and without producing any in the an achromatic union of all the rays in the focus;
appearance of the glass tubes containing them. and as nothing in this construction limits the
But should any of these happen, except thel last, powers of the individual correcting lenses, they
nothing can be more simple than to supliy the may therefore. be applied anywhere that convemeans of replacing the fluid at any time, and by  nience may dictate; and, thus, theoreticaily speakany person, without disturbing the adjustment of ing, a disc of flint glass, however small, may be
the telescope. He expresses his hope that, should  made to correct the color of one of crown, howthese experiments be prosecuted, an achromatic ever large.
telescope shall ultimately be produced which shall   This construction likewise possesses other and
exceed in aperture and power any instruments of very remarkable advantages: for, first, when the
the kind hitherto attempted.  If the prejudice  correcting lens is approximately constructed on a
against the use of fluids could be removed, he calculation founded on its intended aperture, and
feels convinced that well-directed practice would  on the refractive and dispersive indices of its masoon lead to the construction of the most perfect terials, the final and complete dispersion of color
instruments, on this principle, at a comparatively  may be effected, not by altering the lenses by
small expense.  " I am  convinced," he says, grinding them anew, butby shifting the combina"judging from what has been paid for large ob- tion nearer to, or farther from  the object.glass, as
ject-glasses, that my telescope, telescope stand, occasion may require, along the tube of a teleand the building for observation, with every other scope, by a screw motion, until the condition of
requisite convenience, have been constructed for aclhromaticity is satisfied in the best manner posa less sum than would be demanded for the object- sible; and, secondly, the spherical aberration may
glass only, if one could be produced of the same in like manner be finally corrected, by slightly
diameter of plate and flint glass; and this is a separating the lenses of the correcting glass, whose
consideration which should have some weight, surfaces should for this purpose be figured to curand encourage a perseverance in the principle of vatures previously determined by calculation to
construction."*                                   admit of this mode of correction-a condition
which Mr. Rogers finds to be always possible. The
ROGERS S ACHROMATIC TELESCOPE ON A NEW PLAN. following is the rule which he lays down for the
determination of the foci of the lenses of the corThe object of this construction is to render a recting glass: "The focal length of either lens is
small disc of flint glass available to perform  the  to that of the object-glass in a ratio compounded
office of compensation to a much larger one of of the ratio of the square of the aperture of the
crown glass, and thus to render possible the con- correcting lens to that of the object-glass, and of
struction of telescopes of much larger aperture the ratio of the difference of the dispersive indices
than are now common, without hindrance from  of the crown and flint glass to the dispersive inthe difficulty at present experienced in procuring  dex of crown."  For example, to correct the color
large discs of flint glass.  It is well known to of a lens of crown or plate glass of 9 inches aperthose who are acquainted with telescopes, that in  ture and 14 feet focal length (the dimensions of
the telescope of Fraunhofer, at Dorpat) by a dise
A more detailed account of the processes connected with of flint glass 3 inches io   diameter, the fonles of
the construction of this telescope will be found in a paper either lens of the correcting lens will require to
presented to the Royal Society in 1827, and published in be about 9 inches.  To correct it by a 4 inch disc
the Philosophical Transactions 6f that Societv for 1828, and will require a focus of about 16 inches each.
likewise another paper, published in the Transactions for   Mr. Rogers remarks, that it is not indispensa1829. From these documents, chiefly, the preceding ac  ble torrcling  glass act as a plans
count has been abridged. See also the "Edinburgh New  ble to make the correcting glass act as a plane
Philosophical Journal"' for January-April, 1828, and Brews- lens.  It is sufficient if it be so adjusted as to hava
ber's s" Edinburgh Journal of Science" fobr October, 1829.    a shorter focus for red rays than for violet. It.




NOTICES OF ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES.                                       81
preserving this condition, it be made to act as a highly pleased with its performance.  It appeared
concave lens, the advantage procured by Mr. Bar- to be almost perfectly achromatic, and produced
low's construction of reducing the length of the a distinct and well-defined image of minute distelescope with the same focal power is secured; taut objects, such as small letters on sign posts,
and he considers, moreover, that by a proper adapt- at two, three, and four miles distant; but I had
ation of the distances, foci, &c., of the lenses, wet no opportunity of trying  its effects on double
might hope to combine with all these advantages stars or aly other celestial objects. The instrument
that of the destruction of the secondary spectrum, is above 6 feet long; the object-lens is a planoand thus obtain a perfect telescope.              convex of crown glass, 4 feet focal distance and 4
The above is an abstract of a paper read to the inches diameter, the plain side next the object.
"Astronomical Society of London" in April, 1828,   At 26 inches distant from  the object-lens is the
by A. Rogers, Esq.                                compound lens of 2 inches in diameter; and the
The reader will easily perceive that the princi- two lenses of which it is composed are both ground
pie on which Mr. Rogers proposes to construct to a radius of 334/ inches.  That made of crown
his telescope is very nearly similar to that of Pro- glass is plano-convex. the other, made of flint
fussor Barlow, described above, with this differ- glass, is plano-concave, and are placed close toence, that the correcting lens of the professor's gether, the convex side being next the object, and
telescope is composed of a transparentfluid, while  the concave side next tile eye.  The greater rethat of {Mr. Rogers is a solid lens consisting of a fractive power of the flint glass renders the cornconvex crown and concave flint.  The general pound one slightly concave in its effect (although
object intended to be accomplished by both is the the radius of curvature is similar in both), and
same, namely, to make a correcting lens of a lengthens the focus to 6 feet from the object-glass;
comparatively small diameter serve the purpose and this is consequently the length of the instruof a large disc of flint glass, which has hitherto  ment.  The compound corrector so placed interbeen very expensive, and very difficult to be pro- cepts all those rays which go to form the image
cured; and likewise to reduce the length of the in the field of view, producing there an achrotelescope, while the advantage of a long focal matic image. The concave power of the corrector
power is secured.  A telescope on this principle renders the image larger than if directly produced
was constructed seven or eight years ago by Mr. by a convex lens of the same focus.  The conWilson, lecturer on Philosophy and Chemistry, cavity of the corrector is valuable also in this reGlasgow, before he was aware that Mr. Rogers spect, that a very slight alteration in its distance
had proposed a similar plan. I have had an op- fromn the object-glass changes the focal distance
portunity of particularly inspecting Mr. Wilson's much more than if it were plain, and enables us
telescope, and trying its effects on terrestrial oh. to adjust the instrument to perfect achromatism
jects with high powers, and was, on the whole, with great precision.
CHAPTER V.
ON REFLECTING TELESCOPES.
SECTI 0 N  I.                      tions —he then perceived that the errors of telescopes, arising from  that cause alone, were some
HISTORY OF THE INVENTION, AND A GENERAL DE- hundlred times greater than such as were occasioned by the spherical figure of lenses, which induced
SCRirTION OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THESE INthis illustrious philosopher to turn his attention
STRUMENTS.                                      to the improvement of telescopes by reflection.
It is generally supposed that 3Mr. James GregoREFLECTING telescopes are those which repre- ry,-a sonm of the Rev. John Gregory, minister
sent the images of distant objects by reflection, of Drumoak, in the county of Aberdeen-was
chiefly from concave mirrors.                     the first who suggested the construction of a reBefore the achromatic telescope was invented  fleeting telescope.  He was a young mran of unthere were two glaring imperfections in refracting  common genius, and an eminent mathematician;
telescopes, which the astronomers of the seven- and in the year 1663, at the age of only 24, ho
teenth century were anxious to correct.  The  published in London his treatise entitled "Optica
first was its very great length when a high power Proinota," in which  he explained  the  theory
was to be applied, which rendered  it very un- of that species of reflecting telescope which still
wieldy and difficult to use.  The spcond imper-  bears his name, and which he stated as being his
fectioni was the incorrectness of the image as own invention.  But as Gregory, according to his
formed by a single lens.  Mathematicians had  own account, was endowed with no mechanical
demonstrated that a pencil of rays could not be dexterity, and could find no workman  capable of
collected in a single point by a spherical lens, and  realizing his invention, after some fruitless atalso that the image transmitted by such a lens tempts to form proper specula, he was obliged to
would be int some degree incurvated.  After seve- give up the pursuit, so that this telescope remainral attempts had been made to correct this im- ed for a considerable time neglected   It wa3
perfection by grinding lenses to the figure of one several years after Gregory suggested the con.
of the conic sections, Sir I. Newton happened to  struction of reflecting telescopes before Newton
commence an examination of the colors formed  directed his attention fully to the subject.  In a
by a prism; and having, by the means of this letter addressed to the secretary of the Royal Sosimple instrument, discovered the different refran- ciety, dated in February, 1672, he says, " Finding
gibility of the rays of light-to which we have  reflections to be regular, so that the angle of reseveral times adverted in the preceding descrip- flection of all sorts of rays was equal to the




82                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
angle of incidence, I understood, that by their brightness and magnifying f)ower, all the instrumediation, optic instruments might be brought ments of this description Which had previously
to any degree of perfection imaginable, provid- been attempted.
ing a reflecting substance could be found which   I shall now proceed to give a brief sketch of the nawould polish as finely as glass, and reflect as ture of a reflecting telescope, and the difierent forms
much light as glass transmits, and the art of in which  they have been proposed to be constructed.
Fig. 62.                 Fig. 66.   Fig. 62 represents the reflecting tele-..... A:l::::.::.; i~ z   scope as originally proposed by Gregory.
—:" —-.... o                          A B E F represents a tube open at A F
===t  Ad~.-.~S=_  ___ —.  q    toward the object; at the other end is. —  aid  -,'placed a concave speculum, B E, with a
i;P             3 ~H E"  4     I    hole, c D, in its center, the focuLs of which
0'O?'B       A is at e. A  little beyond this focus, to-:q                   a __. [   ward the object end of the telescope, A F,
X4            _  _;gw er  i!i hoN is placed another snmall concave rmirror,
-- Ad  -                                  &_   i;:    G, having its polished face turned toward
the great speculum, and is supported by
f   an arm, G H, fastened to a slider connect-,  -  A.  I;.', ed with the tube. At the end of the
-:    great tube, B E, is screwed in a small
-.-I::- -                         X   S           tube, C D K I, containing a small piano8x —.....               II: i    convex lens, I  dK. Such are the essential:: i I. parts of this instrument and their relaAB                A h |,'tive positions.  It will be recollected in
e our description of the properties of concave mirrors (see p.24), that, when rays.~    X.    \I[  i~~. proceed from  a distant object, and fall
r — E..upon a concave speculum, they paint an
image or representation of the object in
communicating to it a parabolic figure be also ob- its focus before the speculum.  Now suppose two
tained.  Amid these thoughts I was forced from  parallel rays, a b, falling on the speculum B E, in
Cambridge by the intervening plague, and it was c d; they are reflected to its focus e, where an
more than two years before I proceeded further."  inverted image of the object is formed at a little
It was toward the end of 1668, or in the begin- more than the focal distance of the small specuning of the following year, when Newton, being lum from its surface, and serves, as it were, for an
obliged to have recourse to reflectors, and not re- object on which the small mirror may act.  By
lying on any artificer for making the specula, set the action of this mirror this first image is reflected
about the work himself, and early in the year 1672, to a point about f, where a second image is formed
completed two small reflecting  telescopes.  In very large arrd erect.  This image is magnified in
these he ground the great speculum into a spheri- the proportion of f G to e 6', the rays from which
cal concave, although he approved of the parabolic are transmitted to the eyeglass  I K, through
form, but found himself unable to accomplish it. which the eye perceives the object clear and
These telescopes were of a construction somewhat distinct, after the proper adjustments have been
different from  what Gregory had suggested, and  made.
although only 6 inches long, were considered as   Suppose the focal distance of the great mirror
equal to a six feet common refractingtelescope. was 9 inches, and the focal distance of the small
It is not a little singular, however, that we hear I mirror 11/ inch —were we to remove the eyepiece
no more about the construction of reflectors until of this telescope, and look through the hole of the
more than half a century afterward. It was notuntil great mirror, we should see the image of the obthe year 1723 that any reflectors were known to ject depicted upon the face of the small specuhave been made, adapted to celestial observations. lumrn, and magnified in the proportion of 9 to 112,
In that year Mr. Hadley, the inventor of the re- or 6 times, on the same principle as a coummol
fleeting quadrant which goes by his name, pub. convex object-glass 9 inches focal length, with an
lished in No.376 of the Philosophical Transactions, eyeglass whose focus is 1i  inch, magnifies 6
an account of a large reflector on Newton's plan, times. This may be regarded as the first part of
which he had just then constructed, the perform- the magnifying power.  If, now, we suppose the
ance of which left no room to doubt that this in- small speculum placed a little more than 1i2 inch
vention would remain any longer in obscurity. from the image formed by the great speculum, a
The large speculum of this instrument was 62%  second image is formed about f, as much exceedinches focal distance and 5 inches diameter, was ing the first in its dimensions as it exceeds it in.
furnished with magnifying powers of from 190 to distance from the small speculum, on the princi230 times, and equaled in performance the fa- pie on which  the object-glass of a compound
mous abrial telescope of Huygens of 123 feet in microscope forms a large image near the e) eglass.
length.*  Since this period the reflecting telescope Suppose this distance to be 9 times greater, then
has been in general use among astronomers in  the whole magnifying power will be compounded
most countries of Europe, and has received nu- of 6 multiplied by 9, or 54 times.  As a telescope
merous improvements, under the direction of it magnifies 6 times, and in the microscope part 9
Short, Mudge, Edwards, and Herschel, the last of  times. Such is the general idea of the Gregorian
whom constructed reflectors of 7, 10, 20, and even telescope, the minute particulars and structure of
40 feet in focal length, which far surpassed, in  which can only be clearly perceived by a direct
inspection of the instrument.
IThe Newtonian Rfector. —This instrument is
A particular description of this telescope, with the ma- somNewhat diffrent bot.  in its firm    d in its
somewhat different both in its form  and in its
chinery for moving it, illustrated with an engraving, may be mode of operation fom  that of Gregory.  It is
seen in Reid and Gray's " Abridgment of the Philosophical mode of operation from  that of Gregory. It is
Transactions," vol.'i, Part 1 for 1723, p. 147-152.  represented in fig. 63, where B A E F is the tube,




ON REFLECTING TELESCOPES.                                         83
and B E the object concave mirror, which reflects science, about a century ago, aescribed  a new
the parallel rays a b to a plane speculum G, placed form of the reflecting telescope, approximating to
450, or half a right angle to the axis of the con- the Newtonian structure, which he contrived for
cave speculum.  This small plane reflector must his own use.  It is represented in fig. 66. A  B
be of an oval form; the length of the oval should E F is the tube, in which there is an opening or
be to the breadth as 7 to 5, on account of the ob- aperture, O P, in the upper part.  Against this
liquity of its position.  It is supported on an arm  hole, within the tube, is placed a large plane
fixed to the side of the tube; an eyeglass is placed  speculum, G H, at half a right angle with the axis
in a small tube, movable in the larger tube, so as or sides of the tubes, with a hole, C D, perforated
to be perpendicular to the axis of the large reflec- through its middle.  The parallel rays a b, falling
tor, the perpendicular line passing through the on the inclined plane G H, are reflected perpencenter of the small mirror.  The small mirror is dicularly and parallel on the great speculum B E
situated between the large mirror and its focus, in the bottom  of the tube.  From  thence they
that its distance from this focal point may be equal are reflected, converging to a focus, e, through
to the distance from  the center of the mirror to the hole of the plane mirror CD, which, being
the center of the eyeglass.  When the rays a b also the focus of the eyeglass I K, the eye will
from a distant object fall upon the large specuilum  perceive the object magnified and distinct.
at c d, they are reflected toward a focus at h; but,   In the figures referred to in the above descripbeing intercepted by the plane mirror G, they are  tions, only one eyeglass is represented, to avoid
reflected perpendicularly to the eyeglass at I, in  complexity; but in most reflecting telescopes, the
the side of the tube, and the image formed near eyepiece consists of a combination of two pianothat position at e is viewed through a small plano- convex glasses, as in fig. 67, which produces a
convex lens. The magnifying power of this tele- more correct and a larger field of view than a sinscope is in the proportion of the focal distance of gle lens.  This combination is generally known
the speculum  to. that of the eyeglass.  Thus, if by the name of the Hluygenian Eyepiece, which
the focal distance of the speculum  be 36 inches, shall be described in the section on the eyepieces
and that of the eyeglass one-third of an inch, the  of telescopes.
magnifying power will be 108 times.  It was this    The following rule has been given for finding
form of the reflecting telescope that Newton in- the magnifying power of the Gregorian telescope:
vented, which Sir W. Herschel adopted, and with  Multiply the focal distance of the great mirror by
which he made most of his observations and dis- the distance of the small mirror from  the image
coveries.                                          next the eye, and multiply the focal distance of
The Cassegrainian Reflector. —This mode of the  the small mirror by the focal distance of the eyereflecting telescope, suggested by M. Cassegrain, glass; then divide the product of the former mula Frenchman, is represented in fig. 64.  It is con- tiplication by the product of the latter, and the
structed in the same way as the Gregorian, with  quotient  will  express the magnifying power. The
the exception of a small convex speculum, C, be- following are the dimensions of one of the reflecting substituted in the room of the small concave  ing telescopes constructed by Mr. Short, who was
in Gregory's construction.  As the focus of a long distinguished as the most eminent maker of
convex mirror is negative, it is placed at a dis- such instruments on a large scale, and whose
tance from the large speculum equal to the differ- large reflectors are still to be found in various obence of their foci; that is, if the focal length of servatories throughout Europe:
the large speculum be 18 inches, and that of the    The focal distance of the great mirror, 9.6
small convex 2 inches, they are placed at 16 inches; or P m, fig. 67, its breadth, F D, 2.3;
inches distant from  each other, on a principle  the focal distance of the small mirror, L n, 1.5,
similar to that of the Galilean telescope, in which  or 112 inch; its breadth, g h, 0.6 or 6-0lths of an
the concave eyeglass is placed within the focus inch; the breadth in the hole in the great mirror,
of the object-glass by a space equal to the focal U V, 0.5, or half an inch; the distance between
length of the eyeglass.  In this telescope, like- the small mirror and the next eyeglass, L R, 14.2;
wise, instead of two there is only one iimage formed, namely, that in the focus of the eye-                         Fig. 67.
-glass; and, on this account, some ale of
opinion that the distinctness is considerably                                          A
greater than in the Gregorian.  Mr. Rams-. —.
den was of opinion that this construction is                ---------------------
preferable to either of the former reflectors,  g.                  -- --
because the aberrations of the two metals'
" --   -------------... —--- ----- --
have  a  tendency to correct each other,
whereas in the Gregorian, both the metals being  the distance between the two eyeglasses, S R, 2.4;
concave, any error in the specula will be doubled. the focal distance of the eyeglass next the metal,
It is his opinion that the aberrations in the Casse- 3.8; and the focal distance of the eyeglass next
grainian construction to that of the Gregorian is the eye, S a, 1.1, 11-10ths of an inch.  The magas 3 to 5.  The length of this telescope is shorter nifying power of this telescope was about 60
than that of a Gregorian of equal focal length by  times.  Taking this telescope as a standard, the
twice the focal length of the small mirror, and it following table of the dimensions and magnifying
ishows everything in an inverted position, and, powers of Gregorian reflecting telescopes, as conconsequently, is not adapted for viewing terres- structed by Mr. Short, has been computed:
trial objects.                                       Mr. Short-who was born in Edinburgh.n
Dr. Hook's Reflector.-Before  the reflecting  1710, and died near London, 1768-was collsidertelescope was much known, Dr. Hook contrived  ed as the most accurate constructor of reflecting
one, the form  of which is represented fig. 65, telescopes during the period  which intervened
which differs in little or nothing from the Grego- from 1732 to 1768. In 1743 he constructed a rerian, except that the eyeglass, I, is placed in the  flector for Lord Thomas Spencer of 12 feet focal
hole of the great speculum, B E.                  length, for which he received 600 guineas.  He
11artin's Reflector. —Mr. Benjamin Martin a made several other telescopes of the same focal
distinguished writer on optical and philosophical distance, with greater improvements and higher




THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
Distace I                                         Distance
Focal  dis-lBreadth of Focus of Breadth 0ofbetween the Focal dis. Focal  dis-  Distance Magni. Ietbweenthe
tance of thelthe    great the small the hole in small specu-tance  oftanceofthe betweenthe   fying second glass
great  mir    mirror.  speculum.the   great lum and the the  glass glass  next plane  sides poer.and    the
ror.       speculum. first  eye- next the  the eye. of the two         small eyeglass.    metals,             glasses,             hole.
P    c    D    F      L  n    T    V    L    R          R         S        R    S
In. Dec.  In  Dec.  In. Dec. In. Dec.  In. Dec. In. Dec. In. Dec. In. Dec.   Ill.
5.  65    1   54    1. 10   0.  31    8.  54   2.  44   0.  81    1.  68    29    0.  41
(9.  60    2.  3:0    1.  50   0.  39   14.  61   3.  13   1.  04    2.  09    60    0.  52
15.  5)   3.  30    2. 14   0.  50   23.  81   3. 94    1.  31    2.  63    86                0. 66
36.  01)   6.  26 [ 3. 43   0.  65   41.  16   5.  12   1.  71    3.  41    165    0.  85
i60.  000    9.  21    5. 00   0.  85   68.  17   6.  43   2.  14  4.  28    I243    1.  87
magnifiers; and, in 1752, finished one for the King  though the price of labor, and every other article
of Spain, for which, with its whole apparatus, he  required in the construction of a telescope is now
received ~1200.  This was considered the noblest much  dearer.  But he had then scarcely any
ii;strutnent of its kind that had then been con-  competitor, and he spared neither trouble nor ex
structed, and perhaps it was never surpassed until  pense to make his telescopes perfect, alnd put such
Herschel constructed his twenty and forty feet re- a price upon them as properly repaid him.  The
flectors.  High as the prices of large telescopes  following table contains a statement of the apernow are, Mr. Short charged for his instrumrents  tures, powers, and prices of Gregorian telescopes,
at a much higher rate than opticians now do, al- as constructed by Mr. Jamnes Short:j
umber.  Focal length Diameter o                                                         Prices in
Number,  in inches. aperture  in                    Maineas.
inces;Magifyig powers.                                                guineas.
1          3          1.1    1 Power of                                      18 times,       3
2          41         1.3   1  "                                             25 "'    4
3          7          1.9    1 1"                                            40  "i          6
4          9'         2.5    2 Powers of                              40 and 60  "           8
5         12          3.0    2    ".                                  55 and 85  "          10
6         12          3.0    4    "                         35, 55, 85, and 110  "          14
7         18          3.8    4    "                        55, 95, 130, and 200  "      |   20
8         24          4.5    4    "                       90, 150, 230, and 300  "          35
9         36          6.3    4    "                      100,200, 300, and 400  "           75
10         48          7.6    4    "                      120, 260, 380, and 500  "         100
11         72         12.2    4    "                     200, 400, 600, and 800  "          300
12        144         18.0    4    "                    300, 600, 900, and 1200  "          800
From   this table it appears that Mr. Short  of the small mirror, L.  If the hole be smaller
charged 75 guineas for a 3 feet reflector, whereas  than  the cylinder of rays at e, then sorme of the
such an instrument is now marked in the London  necessary light will be excluded, and tile object
opticians' catalogues at ~23 when mounted on a  rendered more obscure.  The diamsieter of this
common brass stand, and ~39 18s. when accom-  hole may be found by dividing the aperture of
panied with rack-work motions and other appa-  the telescope in inches by its magnifying power
ratus.  It is now generally understood that in the  Thus, if we divide the diameter of one of Sihort's
above table Short always greatly overrated  the  telescopes, the diameter of whiose large speculum
higher powers of his telescopes.  By experiment, is 2.30, by 60, the magnifyigng   power, tlhe quotlhey were generally found to magnify much less  tient will be.0383, which is nearly the 1-25th of
than here expressed.                                  an inch.  Sometimes this hole is made so small
General Renarks on Gregorian Reflectors.-1.  as tise 1-50th of an inch.  When this hole is, by
In regard to the hole, U V, of the great specu-  any derangement, shifted from its proper position,
lunm, its diameter should be equal, or nearly so, to  it sometimes requires great nicety to adjust it,
that of the small speculum, L, fig. 67; for if it and, before it is accurately adjusted, the telescope
be less, no more parallel rays will be reflected  is unfit for accurate observation.  3. It is usual
than if it were equal to g h, and it may do harm. to fix a plate with a Iole in it at a b, the focus of
in contractiing the visible area withiin  too narrow   the eyeglass S, of such a diameter as will circumlimits; norl must it be larger thasn the mirror L, scribe the image, so as to exhibit only that part
because some parallel rays will then be lost, and  of it which appears distinct, and to exclude the
those of most consequence, as being nearest thie  superfluous  rays.   4. There  is  an  adjusting
center. 2. Tile small hole at e, to which the eye  screw on the outside of the great tube, connected
is applied, must be nicely adjusted to the size of  with the small  speculum, by which tlhat specuthe cone of rays proceeding from  the nearest lum  may  be pushed  baclkward  or forward  to
lells, S.  If it be larger, it will permit the foreign  adjust the instrumLent to  distinct vision.  The'1 ght of the sky or other objects to enter the eye, Ihand is applied for this purpose at T."
sot as to prevent distinct vision; for the eye should    Newtosian  Telescopes.-These telescopes  are
receive no light but what comes friom the surface  now more frequently used for celestial observais  bort, who has ere     tions than during the last century, when Gre* MAfiss Sanvho  supert, who has ereflectors wee  generally preferintends anSi
observatory on the Calton [ill, Edinburgh, is the descent    on reflectors were gerry   referred.  Sirant of a brother of Mr. Short. She is in possession of a W. Iherschel was chiefly instrumental in introlarge Gregorian reflector, about 12 feet long, made by Mr. ducing this form of the reflecting telescope to the
Short, and mounted on an equatorial axis. It was original  more particular attio
ly placed in a small observatory erected on the Calton Hill                    of 
about the year 176., but for many years past it has been  splendor and extent of the discoveries which it
little used.                                          enabled him  to make.  In this telescope there is




ON  REFLECTIN'G  TELESCOPES.'85
no hole required in the middle of the great specu- table was constructed by using the dimensions
lum, as in the Gregorian construction, which cir- of Mr. Hadley's Newtonian telescol e, formerly
cumstance secures the use of all the rays which referred to, as a standard, the focal distance of the
flow from the central parts of the mirror.      great mirror, being 621,2 inches, its medium  aperThe following table contains a statement of ture 5 inches, and power 208. The fifth, sixth,
the apertures and magnifying powers of Newto- and seventh columns contain the apertures of the
nian telescopes, and the focal distances of their concave speculum, the focal lengths of the eyeeyeglasses.  The first column contains the focal glasses, and the magnifying powers, as calculated
length of the great speculum in feet; the second, by Sir D. Brewster, from  a telescope of Mr.
its linear aperture in inches; the third, the focal Hauksbee, taken as a standard, whose focal length
distance of the single glass in decimals, or in was 3 feet 3 inches, its aperture about 4 inchles
1000ths of an inch, and the fourth column con- and magnifying power 226 times.
tains the magnifying power. This portion of the   One great advantage of reflecting telescopes
Sir D. Brewster's Numbers.
Focal distance Aperture of Focal distance Magni-                              Magniof concave  concave me. of single eye-  fying   Aperture of the  Focal length of  fying
metal.      tal.        glass.    power. concave speculum.    eyeglass.    power.
012      0. 86      0.:167       36        1. 34           0. 107         56
1        1. 44      0. 199        60        2. 23           0. 129         93
2        2. 45      0. 236       102        3. 79           0. 152        158
3        3. 31      0. 261       138        5. 14           0. 1.68       214
4        4. 10      0. 281       171        6. 36           0. 181        265
5        4. 85      0. 297      202         7. 51           0. 192        313
6        5. 57      0. 311      232         8. 64           0. 200= 1   360
7        6. 24      0. 323       260        9. 67           0. 209        403
8        6. 89      0. 334       287       10. 44           0. 218        445
9        7. 54      0. 344       314       11. 69           0. 222        487
10        8. 16      0. 353       340       12. 65           0. 228        527
11        8. 76      0. 362       365       13. 58           0. 233        566
12        9. 36      0. 367       390       14. 50           0. 238        604
13        9. 94      0. 377      414        15. 41           0. 243        642
14       10. 49      0. 384      437        16. 25           0. 248        677
15       11. 04      0. 391      460        17. 11           0. 252        713
16       11. 59      0. 397      483        17. 98           0. 256        749
17       12. 14      0. 403      506        18. 82           0. 260        784
18       12. 67      0. 409      528        19. 63           0. 264        818
19       13. 20      0. 414      550        20. 45           0. 268        852
20       13. 71      0. 420       571       21. 24           0. 271        895
above common refractors is, that they will admit by the magnifying power. Thus 6.25-the aperof eyeglasses of a much shorter focal distance, ture in inches of Herschel's 7 feet Newtonianand, consequently, will magnify so much the multiplied by 74, is 462/o, the magnifying power;
more, for the rays are not colored by reflectionm and 7 multiplied by 12, and divided by 462, is
from a concave mirror, if it be ground to a true 50.182 of an inch, the focal distance of the single
figure, as they are by passing through a convex eyeglass required.  But it is seldom  that more
glass, though figured and polished with the ut- than one-half of this power can be applied with
most exactness.  It will be perceived from  the effect to any of the planetary bodies.  For genabove table that the focal length of the eyeglasses eral purposes, the power produced by multiplying
is very small, the lowest there stated being only the diameter of the speculum by 30 or 40 will be
about 1-10th of an inch, and the highest little found most satisfactory.
more than l4th of an inch focal distance. Sir
W. Herschel obtained the high powers which he   The following are the general prices of reflectsometimes put upon his telescopes by using small ing telescopes as made by the London optidouble convex lenses for eyeglasses, some of cians:
which did not exceed the one fiftieth of an inch in                                       ~  s.
focal length. When the focal length of thi; con-   A four feet, seven inch aperture Grecave. speculum and that of the eyeglass are;iven, gorian reflector, with the vertical motions
the magnifying power is found by dividinlg the upon a nlw invented principle, as well as
former by the latter, after having reduced the apparatus to render the tube more steady
focal length of the concave speculum to inches. ill observation, according to the additional
Thus the 6 feet speculum, multiplied by 12, pro- apparatus of small speculums, eyepieces,
duces 72 inches, which, divided by Brewnster's micrometers, &c.              f jrom 80 to 120  0
number for the focus of the eyeglass= 200, or
1-5th of an inch, produces a quotient of 360 as   Three feet long, mounted on a plain
the magnifying power. It has been calculated brass stand.... 23  2
that, if the metals of a Newtonian telescope be   Ditto, with rack-work motions, improvworked as exquisitely as those in Sir W. Herschel's 7 feet reflector, the highest power thatg, and metals 
such a telescope should bear with perfect distinct-   Two feet long, without rack-work, and
ness will be found by multiplying the diameter with 4 magnifyimg powers, improved. 15 15
of the great speculum  in inches by 74, and the   Ditto, with rack-work motion.. 22  1
focal distance of the single eyeglass may be found    Eighteen inch, on a plain stand     9  9
by dividing the focal distance of the great mirror   Twelve inch, ditto.    -         6  6




86                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
The above are the prices stated in Messrs. W. magnifying powers than had ever previously been
and S. Jones's catalogue.                         applied; but he found that a deficiency of light
The following list of prices of the various could only be remedied by an increased diameter
kinds of reflecting telescopes is from  Messrs. of tile large speculum, which therefore was his
Tulley's (of Islington) catalogue:                main object when he undertoolk to accomplish a
~.  s. work which to a man less enterprising would have
1 foot Gregorian reflector, on pillar and      appeared impracticable.  The difficulties he had
claw  stand, metal 2Y/  inches diameter,         to overcome were numerous, particularly in the
packed in a mahogany box...  6  6 operative department of preparing, melting, an112 foot ditto, on pillar and claw stand,      nealing, grinding, and polishing a maes  of metal
metal 3 inches diameter, packed in a ma-          that was too unwieldy to be moved without the
hogany box.... 11 11 aid of mechanical powers.  At length, however,
2 feet ditto, metal 4 inches diameter   16 16 all difficulties having been overcome, this magniDitto, ditto, with rack-work motions    25  4 ficent instrument was completed, with ail its com3 feet ditto, metal 5 inches diameter,         plicated apparatus, and erected for observation, ox
with rack work motions... 42  0 the 28th of August, 1789, and on the same day
Ditto, metal 6 inches diameter, on a            the sixth satellite of Saturn was detected, as a
tripod stand, with center of gravity mo-          prelude to still further discoveries which were aftion.68  5 terward made by this instrument in the celestiha
4 feet ditto, metal 7 inches diameter, as      regions.
above...... 105  0    It would be too tedious to attempt a description
6 feet ditto, metal 9 inches diameter, on      of all the machinery and apparatus connected
an improved iron stand... 210  0 with this noble instrument.  The reader who
7 feet Newtonian reflectors, 6 inches           wishes to peruse a minute description of the stairs,
aperture, mounted on a new and improved           ladders, platform, rollers, and of every circumstand.105  0 stance relating to joiner's work, carpenter's work,
Ditto, ditto, metal 7 inches diameter. 126  0 smith's work, and other particulars connected
9 feet ditto, metal 9 inches diameter. 210  0 with the formation and erection of this telescope,
10 feet ditto, metal 10 inches diameter  315  0 will find the details recorded in the 85th vcume
12 feet ditto, metal 12 inches diameter  525  0 of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London for 1795, in which there are
Comparative Brightness of Achromatic and Re- sixty-three pages of letter-press, and  eighteen
Deecting Telescopes.-The late astronomer royal, plates illustrative of the subject.  I shall content
Dr. Maskelyne, from  a comparison of a variety  myself with giving a short outline of the essential
of telescopes, was led to the following conclu- parts belonging to this instrument.
sion: " that the aperture of a common reflecting    The tube of this telescope is made of rolled or
telescope, in order to show objects as bright as sheet iron, joined together without rivets; the
the achromatic, must be to that of an achromatic thickness of the sheets is somewhat less than Jbth
telescope as 8 to 5;" in other words, an achroma- part of an inch, or 14 pounds weight for a square
tic whose object-glass is 5 inches in diameter, foot.  Great care was taken that the cylindrical
will show objects with as great a degree of bright- form should be secured, and the whole was coated
ness as a reflector whose large speculum  is 8 over three or four times with paint, inside and
inches in diameter.  This result, if correct, must outside, to secure it against the dainmp.   his tube
be owing to the small number of rays reflected was removed from  the place in which it was
from  a speculum  compared with the number formed by 24 men, divided into six sets, so that
transmitted through an achromatic object-glass.  two men on each side, with a pole 5 feet long in
their hands, to which was affixed a piece of coarse
cloth 7 feet long, going under the tube, and joined
to a pole 5 feet long in the hands of two other
S E C T I 0 N  I I.                 men, assisted in carrying the tube.  The length of
this tube is 39 feet 4 inches, the diameter 4 feet 10
THE  IIERS CHELIAN  TELES COPE.               inches; and, on a moderate computation, it was
ascertained that a wooden tube of proper dimenSOON after Sir William  Herschel commenced  sions would have exceeded an iron one in weight
his astronornical career, he introduced a new era by at least 3000 pounds.  Reckoning the circumnin the history of reflecting telescopes.  After he ference of the tube 15 feet, its length 3913 feet,
had cast and polished an immense variety of spe- and 14 lbs. for the weight of a square foot, it must
cula for telescopes of different sizes, he at length, have contained 590 square feet, and weighed 8260
in the year 1782, finished a 20 feet reflector with'pounds.  Various hoops were fixed within the
a large, aperture.  Being sensible of the vast quan- tube, and longitudinal bars of iron connecting
tity of light which is lost by a second reflection some of them are attached to the two ends of the
fiom the small speculum, lie determined to throw  tube, by way of bracing the sheets, and preservit aside altogether, and mounted this 20 feet re- ing the shape perfect, when the pulleys are apflector on a stand that admitted of being used plied to give the necessary elevation at the upper
without a small speculum in making front obser- end, and that the speculum may be kept secure at
vations; that is, ill sitting with his back to the the lower end.  The lower end of the tube is
object, and looking directly toward the surface of firmly supported on rollers, that are capable of
the speculum.  Many of his discoveries and mea- being moved forward or backward by a double
surements of double stars were made with this rack, connected with a set of wheels and pinions.
instrument, unltil at length, in the year 1785, he By an adjustment at the lower extremity of the
put the finishing hand to that gigantic speculum, tube, the speculum  is turned to a sniall inclinawhich soon became the object of universal aston- tion, so that the line of collimation may not be
ishment, and which was intended for hisforty-feet coincident with the longitudinal axis of the tube,
reflecting telescope.  Ile had succeeded so well but may cross the tube diagonally, and meet the
in constructing reflecting telescopes of compara- eye in the air at about two inches fromn the edge
tively small aperture, that they would bear higher of the tube, which is the peculiarity of the con



THE HERSCHELIAN TELESCOPE.                                        87
struction that supersedes the necessity of applying  one going into the observatory, the other into the
a second reflector.  Hence no part of the head of workman's room, ascending in both places through
the observes intercepts the incident rays, and the the floor, and terminates in the usual shape of
observation is taken with tile face looking at the speaking trumpets.  Though the voice passes in
speculum, the back being turned to the object to this manner through a tube, with many inflecbe observed.                                      tions, and through not less than 115 feet, it reThe large speculum is inclosed in a strong iron quires very little exertion to be well understood.
ring, braced across with bars of iron, and an in-   To direct so unwieldy a body to any part of the
closure of iron, and tell sheets make a case for it. heavens at pleasure, many mechanical contrivIt is lifted by three handles of iron attached to the ances were evidently necessary.  The whole apsides of the ring, and is put into, and taken out of, paratus rests upon rollers, and care was previously
its proper place in the tube by the help of a taken of the foundation in the ground.  This conmovable crane, running on a carriage, which ope- sists of concenltrical brick walls, the outermost 42
ration requires great care. The speculum is made feet, the innermost 21 feet in diameter, 2 feet 6
of a metallic composition, and is 4912 inches in inches deep under ground, 2 feet 3 inches broad
diameter; but the concave polished surface is at the bottom, and 1 foot 2 inches at the top,
only 48 inches, or 4 feet in diameter.  Its thick- capped with paving stones 3 inches thick, and 12Y4
ness is 312 inches; and when it came from  the inches broad.
cast its weight was 2118 pounds. The metals for   In the center is a large post of oak, framed toits formation were procured at a warehouse in gether with braces under ground, and walled fast
Thames street, London, where they kept ingots to brickwork to make it steady. Round this cenof two kinds ready made, one of white and the ter the whole frame is  moved horizontally by
other of bell-metal; and it was composed of two means of 20 rollers, 12 upon the outer and 8 upon
ingots of bell-metal for one of white.  It was not the inner wall.  The vertical motion is given to
to be expected that a speculum of such large di- the instrument by means of ropes and pulleys,
mensions could have a perfect figure imparted to passing over the main beam supported by the ladits surflce, nor that the curve, whatever it be, ders.  These ladders are 49 feet long, and there is
would remain identically the same in changes of a movable gallery with 24 rollers to ease its motemperature; therefore we are not surprised when tion.  There is a staircase intended for persons
we are told that the magnifying powers used with  who wish to ascend into the gallery without being
this telescope seldom  exceeded 200, the quantity  obliged to go up the ladder.  The ease with which
of light collected by so large a surface being the the horizontal and vertical motions may be comprincipal aim of the maker.  The raising of the municated to the tube may be conceived from  a
balcony, on which the observer stands, and the remark of Sir W. Herschel, that in the year 1789
sliding of the lower end of the tube, in which the he several times observed Saturn, two or three
speculum  rests, are effected by separate tackles, hours before and after its meridian passage, with
and require only occasional motions; but the ele- one single person to continue, at his directions,
vation of the telescope requires the main tackle the necessary horizontal and vertical motions.
to be employed, and the motion usually given in    By this telescope the sixth and seventh satellites
altitude at once was two degrees; the breadth of of Saturn were discovered, only one of which is
the zone in which the observations were made, within the reach of the 20 feet reflector, or even
as the motion of the sphere in right ascension of a 25 feet instrument.  The discovery of the
brought the objects into view. A star, however, satellites of the planet Uranus, however, was made
could be followed for about a quarter of an hour. by the 20 feet reflector, but only after it had been
Three persons were employed in using this tele- converted from the Newtonian to the Herschelian
scope, one to work the tackle, another to observe, construction, which affords a proof of the supeand a third to mark down the observations.  The riority of the latter construction over the former
elevation, was pointed out by a small quadrant when the same speculum is used.  Never had the
fixed to the main tube, near the lower end, but heavens before been observed with so extraordithe polar distance was indicated by a piece of ma- nary an instrument as the forty-feet reflector.
chinery, worked by a string, which continually The nebuloslties which are found among the fixed
indicated the degree and minute on a dial in the stars in various regions of the heavens appeared
small house adjoining, while the time was shown almost all to resolve themselves into an innumeraby a clock in the same place, Miss Herschel per- ble multitude of stars; others, hitherto impercepforming the office of registrar.                  tible, seemed to have acquired a distinct light.
At the upper end the tube is open, and directed  On the entrance of Sirius into the field of the
to the part of the heavens intended for observa- telescope, the eye was so violently affected that
tion, and the observer, standing on the foot-board, stars of less magnitude could not immediately
looks down the tube, and perceives the object by after be perceived, and it was necessary to wait for
rays reflected from the speculum through the eye- 20 minutes before these stars could be observed.
glass at the opening of the tube. When the tele- The ring of Saturn had always before ceased to
scope is directed to any objects near the zenith, the be visible when its plane u as directed toward the
observer is necessarily at an elevation of at least earth; but the feeble light which it reflects in that
40 feet from the ground.  Near the place of the position was enough for Herschel's instrument,
eyeglass is the end of a tin pipe, into which a and the ring, even then, still remained visible to
mouthpiece may be placed, so that, during an ob- him.
servation, a person may direct his voice into this   It has been generally considered that this telepipe, while his eye is at the glass. This pipe, scope was capable of carrying a power of 6000
which is 11} inch in diameter, runs down to the times; and, perhaps, for the purpose of an exbottom  of the tube, where it goes into a turning periment, and for trying its effect on certain objoint, thence into a drawing tube, and out of this jects, such a power may have been applied, in
into another turning joint, from whence it pro- which case the eyeglass must have been only
ceeds, by a set of sliding tubes, toward the front 2-25ths of an inch focal distance, or somewhat
of the foundation timber. Its use is to convey less than 1-12th of an inch. But such a power
the voice of the observer to his assistants, for at could not be generally applied with any good efthe last pla;e it divides itself into two branches, feet to the planetary bodies, and I question much




88                        THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
whether any power above 1000 times was ever and obscure objects are to be observed, the whole
generally used; for it is the quantity of light light of the entire aperture may be used with adwhich the telescope collects, more than the mag- vantage on favorable evenings.
nifying power, that enables us to penetrate, with    The eyepieces adapted to this telescope have
effect, into the distant spaces of the firmament; powers which magnify the object linearly from
and hence, as above stated, the power seldom ex- 100 to 1500 times, which are competent to fulfill
ceeded 200, which, on account of the large di- all tile purposes of vision when cleared of aberameter of the speculum, would enable the instru- ration.  When the telescope is placed in the
ment to penetrate into the distant celestial spaces plane of the meridian, and elevated, together with
perhaps farther than if a power'of as many thou- the gallery, into any required altitude, the meridisands of times had been applied.               onal sweeps, formerly practiced by Sir XW. HerSir John Herschel, who inherits all the science, schel, and continued  by Sir John with great
skill, and industry of his father, some time ago success, in the examination of double stars and
ground and polished a new speculum  for the 20 nebula, may be managed with great ease.
feet tube, formerly noticed, which is connected    Mr. Ramage had a telescope of about the same
with a stand, pulleys, and other appendages simi- size erected in an open space in Aberdeen, which
lar to those above described, though of smaller I had an opportunity af inspecting when I paid
dimensions.  This telescope shows the double a visit to that gentleman in 1833, but cloudy
stars exceedingly well-defined, and was one of the weather prevented my obtaining a view of any
principal instruments used in forming his cata- celestial bodies through it.  He showed me at
logue of these objects which was presented to the that time two or three large speculunms, from 12
Royal Society, in conjunction with that of Sir to 18 inches in diameter, which he had finished
James South, about the year 1828. I suppose it some time before, and which appeared most beauis likewise the same telescope with which Sir tifully polished. He told me, too, that he had
John lately made his sidereal observations at the ground and polished them simply with his hand,
Cape of Good Hope.                             without the aid of any machinery or mechanical
power: a circumstance which, he said, astonished
the opticians of London when it was stated, and
which they considered as almost incredible. Hlis
SECTION  III.                     experience in casting and polishing metals of
various sizes during a period of 15 or 16 years
RAMAGE'S LARGE REFLECTING TELESCOPE.      qualified him  to prepare specula of great luster,
and with an unusually high polish. It has been
THE largest front front iew reflecting telescope in asserted that a fifty feet telescope by Ramage of
this country, niext to Herschel's 40 feet instru- 21 inches aperture, was intended to be substituted
ment, is that which was erected at the Royal Ob- for the 25 feet instrument erected at Greenwich,
servatory at Greenwich in the year 1820, by Mr. and the speculum, it is understood, was prepared,
Ramage of Aberdeen. The diameter of the con- and ready for use, provided the Navy Board was
cave.reflector is 15 inches, and its focal length 25 disposed to defray the expense of carrying the
feet. It is erected on machinery which bears a plan into execution; but, unfortunately, this incertain resemblance to that of Herschel's, which genious artist was unexpectedly cut off in the
we have now described, but the mechanical ar- midst of his career; about the year 1835.
rangements are greatly simplified, so that the
instrument is manageable by an observer without
an assistant. The tube is composed of a twelvesidec prism of deal 5/pths of an inch thick. At              SECTION  IV.
the mouth is a double cylinder of different diameters on the same axis; around this a cord is   THE AERIAL REFLECTOR CONSTRUCTED BY TIlE
wound by a winch, and passes up from the small                    AUTHOR.
cylinder, over a pulley, and down through another
pulley on to the large cylinder. When the winch,   A PARTICULAR description of this telescope was
therefore, is turned to raise the, telescope, the given in the "Edinburghl New Philosophical Jourendless cord is unwound from the smaller cylin- nal" for April-July, 1826, conducted by Profesder and wound on to the larger, the difference of sor Jameson, the greater part of which was copied
the size of the two cylinders will be double the in the " London Encyclopedia," under the article
quantity raised. and a mechanical force to any Telescope. From this description I shall endeavor
extent may thus be obtained, by duly proportion- to condense a brief account of this instrument,
ing the diameters of the two cylinders: by this with a few additional remarks.
contrivance the necessity of an assistant is super-   About the year 1822, an old speculum 27 inches
seded. The view through this instrument first in focal length, very imperfectly polished, hapastonished those observers who had not been ac- pened accidentally to come into my possession,
customed to examine a heavenly body with a tel- and feeling no inclination to fit it up in the Greescope possessing so much light, and its perform- gorian form, I adopted the resolution of throwing
ance was deemed quite extraordinary. But when aside the small speculum, and attempting the front
the first impression had subsided, and different view, notwithstanding the uniform  assertion of
trials had been made in different states of the at- opticians that such an attempt in instruments of
mosphere, it was discovered that the central por- a small size is impracticable. I had some ground
tion of the speculum was more perfectly figured for expecting success in this attempt from several
than the ring bordering on the extreme edges. experiments I had previously made, particularly
When the aperture was limited to ten or twelve from some modifications made in the construeinches, the performance as to the distinctness in tion of astronomical eyepieces, which hsave a tenits defining power was greatly improved, and the dency to correct the aberration of the rays of
light was so brilliant that the astronomer royal light when they proceed somewhat obliquely from
was disposed to entertain an opinion that it might a lens or speculum. In the first instance, I placed
equal that of a good achromatic refractor of the the speculum at one end of a tube of the form of
same dimensions.  When, however, very small the segment of a cone, the end next the eye being




ON REFLECTING TELESCOPES.                                        89
somewhat wider than tihat at which the speculum  posite side of the speculum, but in this case the
was fixed, and its length about an inch shorter eyetube is removed farther from the arm  than il
than the focal distance of the mirror.  A small the former case. The hole in the center of the
tube for receiving the different eyepieces was fixed spectlum is obviously a defect in this construction
in the inside of the large tube at the end next the of a reflecting telescope, as it prevents us from
eye, and connected with an apparatus by which obtaining the fall advantage of the rays which
it conild occasionally be moved either in a vertical fall near the center of the mirror; yet the peror horizontal direction.  With the instrument formance of the instruments, even with this disfitted up in this manner, I obtained some inter- advantage, is superior to what we should previousesting views of the moon and of terrestrial ob- ly have been led to expect.
jests; but, finding that one side of the tube in-   The principal nicety in the construction of the
tercepted a considerable portion of light from the instrument consists in the adjustment and proper
object, I determined to throw  aside the tube direction of the eyetube.  There is only one poaltogether, and to fit up the instrument on a dif- sition in which vision will be perfectly distinct.
ferent plan.                                      It must be neither too high nor too low; it must
A. short mahogany tube, about three inches be fixed at a certain distance from the arm, and'ong, was prepared, to serve as a socket for hold- must be directed to a certain point of the specuing the speculum.  To the side of this tube an lum.  This position must be ultimately deterarm was attached, about the length of the focal mined by experiment when viewing terrestrial
distance of the mirror, at the extremity of which  objects.  A person unacquainted with this cona brass tube for receiving the eyepieces was fixed, struction of the telescope would perhaps find it
connected with screws and sockets, by which it difficult, in the first instance, to make this adjustmight be raised or depressed, and turned to the ment; but were it at any time deranged, through
right hand or to the left, and with adjusting ap- accident or otherwise, I can easily make the adparatus, by which it might be brought nearer to justment anew in the course of a minute or two.
or farther from the speculum.  Fig. 69 exhibits a   In pointing this telescope to the object intended
general representation of the instrument in pro- to be viewed, the eye is applied at K, fig. 69, and
file. A B is the short tube which holds the spe- looking along the arm, toward the eyepiece, until
culum; C D the arm which carries the eyetubes, it nearly coincides with the object, it will, in most
which consists of two distinct pieces of mahog- cases be readily found.  In this way I can easily
any; the part D being capable of sliding along point this instrument to Jupiter or Saturn, or to.the under side of C, through the brass sockets E  any of the other planets visible to the naked eye,
F.  To the under part of the socket, F, is at- even when a power of 160 or 170 times isapplied.
tached a brass nut with a female screw, in which When high magnifying powers, however, are used,
the male screw, a b, acts by applying the hand to it may be expedient to fix, on the upper part of
the knob c, which serves for adjusting the instru- the short tube on which the speculum rests, a
ment to distinct vision. G is the brass tube, which finder, such as that which is used in Newtonian
receives the eyepieces. It is supported by a strong telescopes. When the moon is the object intended
brass wire, d e, which passes through a nut con- to be viewed, she may be instantly found by movnected with another strong wire, which passes ing the instrument until her reflected image be
through the arm D. By means of the nut f, this seen from  the eye-end of the telescope on the
tube may be elevated or depressed, and firmly face of the mirror.
fixed in its proper position; and by the nut d it   I have fitted up several instruments of the above
may be brought nearer to, or farther from, the description with specula of 16, 27, 35, and 49
arm D.                                            inches focal distance.  One of these, having a
By the same apparatus it is also rendered capa- speculum of 27 inches focal length, and an astronopable of being moved either in a vertical. 9
or horizontal direction; but when it is once
adjusted to its proper position, it must be                                         I           tx
firmly fixed, and requires no further attention.  The eyepiece represented in this figure is the one used for terrestrial objects,                                          O
which consists of the tubes belonging to
a pocket achromatic telescope. When an
astronomical eyepiece is used, the length
of the instrument extends only to the point
I.  In looking through this telescope the
right eye is applied to the point H, and
the observer's head is understood to be uncovered, or, at least tightly covered with a
thin cap. For those who use only the left
eye, the arm would require to be placed on
the opposite side of the tube, or the arm,
along with the tube, be made to turn round
180 degrees.
Fig. 70 represents a front, or rather an
oblique view of the instrument, in which
the position of the speculum may be seen. All mical eyepiece, producing a magnifying power of
the specula which I fitted up in this form  having about 90 times, serves as a good astronomical telebeen originally intended for Gregorian reflectors, scope. By this instrument the belts and satellites
have holes in their centers.  The eyepiece is of Jupiter, the ring of Saturn, and the mountains
therefore directed to a point nearly equidistant and cavities of the moon, may be contemplated
from the hole to the left hand edge of the specu- with great ease and distinctness.  With a magnilum, that is to the point a. In one of these in- fying power of 35 or 40 times, terrestrial objects
struments fitted up with a four feet speculum, the appear remarkably bright and well-defined, When
line of vision is directed to the point b on the op- compared with a Gregorian, the quantity of light




90                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
upon the object appears nearly doubled, and the is saved, together with the numerous screws,
image is equally distinct, although the speculum  springs, &c., for centering  the  two  specula,
has several blemishes, and its surface is but im- and placing the small mirror parallel to the large
perfectly polished.  It represents objects in their one. The only adjustment requisite in this connatural colors, without that dingy and yellowish struction is that of the eyetube to the speculum;
tinge which  appears when looking through a and, by means of the simple apparatus above deGregorian. Another of these instrumentsisabout scribed, it can be effected in the course of a few
Fig. 70.                     minutes. Almost the whole expense of the instrument consists in the plice of the speculum
and the eyepieces.  The expense of fitting up the
four feet speculum alluded to above, exclusive of
speculumn and eyepiece, but including mahogany
tube and arm, brass sockets, screws, eyetube, brass
joint, and a cast-iron stand, painted and varnished,
did not amount to ~1  8s. A  Gregorian of the
same size would have required a brass tube at
least 4Yi feet in length, which would cost five or
six guineas, beside the apparatus connected with
the small speculum, and the additional expense
connected with the fitting up of the joint and
stand requisite for supporting and steadying so unwieldy an instrument. While the one instrument
would require two persons to carry it from  one
room to another, and would occupy a considerable
space in an ordinary apartment, the other can be
moved with the utmost ease, with one hand, to any
moderate distance, and the space it occupies is extremely small.
2. It is more convenient for viewing celestial objects at a high altitude than other telescopes. When
we look through a Gregorian reflector or an achromatic telescope of four or five feet in length, to
an object elevated 50 or 60 degrees above the horizon, the body re luires to be placed in an uneasy
four feet long. The speculum which belongs to and distorted position, and the eye is somewhat
it is a very old one: when it came into my pos- strained while the observation is continued; but
session, it was so completely tarnished as scarcely  when viewing similar objects by the Aerial Reto reflect a ray of light.  After it was cleaned, flector, we can either stand perfectly erect, or sit
it appeared to be scarcely half polished, and its on a chair, with the same ease as we sit at a desk
surface is covered with yellowish stains which  when reading a book or writing a letter.  In this
cannot be erased.  Were it fitted up upon the way, the surface of the moon or any other of the
Gregorian plan, it would, I presume, be of very planets may be contemplated for an hour or two
little use, unless when a very small magnifying  without the least weariness or fatigue.  A  delipower was applied; yet.in its present form  it neation of the lunar surface may be taken with
bears with distinctness a magnifying power of 130 this instrument with more ease and accuracy than
times, and is equal in its performance to a 32 feet with any other instrument, as the observer can
achromatic.  It exhibits distinct and interesting  sketch the outline of the objectby one eye on a tablet
views of the diversities of shade, and of the mouan- placed a little below the eyepiece, while the other
tains, vales, cavities and other inequalities of the eye is looking at the object. For the purpose of
moon's surface. With a powerof about 50 times, accommodating the instrument to a sitting or
and a terrestrial eyepiece, it forms an excellent standing posture, a small table was constructed,
telescope for land objects, and exhibits them  in a capable of being elevated or depressed at pleasure,
brilliant and novel aspect.  The smallest instru- on which the stand of the telescope is placed.
ment I have attempted to construct on this plan  When the telescope is four or five feet long, and
is only 5l. inches focal distance, and 134ths of an the object at a very high elevation, the instrument
inch in diameter. With a magnifying power of may be placed on the floor of the apartment, and
about 15 times, it shows terrestrial objects with  the observer will stand in an erect position.
distinctness and brilliancy. But I should deem  it   3. This instrument is considerably shorter than
inexpedient to fit up any instrument of this de- a Gregorian telescope whose mirror is of the same
scription with specula of a shorter focal distance focal length.  When an astronomical eyepiece is
than 20 or 24 inches. The longer the focal dis- used, the whole length of the instrument is notance, the more distinctness may be expected, al- thing more than the focal length of the speculum;
though the aperture of the speculum  should be but a Gregorian, whose large speculum  is four
comparatively small.                              feet focus, will be nearly five feet in length, inThe following are some of the properties and eluding the eyepiece.
advantages peculiar to this construction of the   4. The Aerial Reflector far excels the Gregoreflecting telescope:                             rian in brightness.  The deficiency of light in
1. It is extremely simple, and may be fitted up at the Gregorians is owing to the second reflection
a comparatively small expense.  Instead of large from the small mirror; f6r it has been proved by
and expensive brass tubes, such as are used in the experiment that nearly the one-half of the rays
Gregorian and Newtonian construction, little more of light which fall upon a reflecting surface is
is required than a short mahogany tube, two or lost by a second reflection.  The image of tile
three inches long, to serve as a socket for the spe- object may also be presumed to be more correct,
culum, with an arm connected with  it about as it is not liable to any distortion by being re.
the focal length of the speculum.  The ex- flected from another speculum.
pense of small specula, either plain or concave,   5. There is less tremor in these telescopes than




ON REFLECTING TELESCOPES.                                           91
nt. Gregorian reflectors. One cause, among others, W. Herschel's large reflecting  telescope.  The
ol the tremors complained of in Gregorians is, I idea here suggested will perhaps be more-readily
presume, the formation of a second image at a appreciated by an inspection of fig. 71, where A
great distance from  the first, beside that which  is the short tube, B C and DE the two large bars
arises from  the elastic tremor of the small specu- or arms, connected with crossbars, for the purlum, when carried by an arm  supported only at pose of securing strength and steadiness.  At I
one end; but as the image formed by the speculum, and K, behind tile speculum, weights might be
in the aerial telescope is viewed directly, without applied, if necessary, for counterbalancing  the
being exposed to any subsequent reflection, it is lever power of the long arm.  F represents the
not so liable to the tremors which are so fie- position of the eyepiece, and G H the joint and
quently experienced  in other reflectors.  Not- part of the pedestal on which the instrument is
withstanding the length of the arm  of the four placed.  With regard to telescopes of smaller difeet telescope above mentioned, a celestial object mensions, as from 5 to 15 feet in focal lengthappears remarkably steady when passing across with the exception of the expense of the specula
the field of view, especially when it is at a mod- and eyepieces-they might be fitted up for a sum
erate degree of altitude; and it is easily kept in  not greater than from 3 to 10 or 15 guineas.
the field by a gentle motion applied to the arm of
the instrument.                                                         Fig. 71.
In prosecuting my experiments in relation to
these instruments, I wished to ascertain what
efiect might be produced by using a part of a speculumn instead of the whole.  For this tpurpose, I
cut a specultum, three feet in focal length, through i
the center, so as to divide it into two equal parts,
and fitted up each part as a distinct telescope, so
that I obtained two telescopes from one speculum.                        G
In this case, I found that each half of the speculum  performed nearly as well as the whole
speculum had done before; at least, there appeared to be no very sensible diminution in the briqhtness of the object, when viewed with a moderate
power, and the image was equally accurate and    Were any person to attempt the construction
distinct; so that if economy were a particular of those telescopes, it is possible he might not'
object aimed at in the construction of these in- succeed in his first attempts withllout more minute.
strumlents, two good telescopes might be obtained  directions than I have yet given.  The followving;
from  one specutlum; or if a speculum  happened  directions may perhaps tend to guide the experit.
to be broken accidentally into large fragments, one  menter in adjusting the eye-tube to the speculum,.
or more of the fragments may be fitted up on this  which is a point that requires to be particularlyprinciple to serve as a tolerably good telescope.    attended to, and on which' depends the accurate
From the experiments I have made in reference  performance of the instrumnent.  After havingto these instruments, it is demonstrable that a  fixed the eyepiece  nearly in  the  position  ik
tube is -not necessary in the construction of a re- should occupy, and directed the inst-rument to ax
fleeting telescope-at least, on the principle now  particular object, look along the arm. of the tele —
stated-whether it be used by day or by night, scope, from K  (fig. 69), to. tIhe extremity of the..
for terrestrial or celestial objects; for I have fre- eyepiece at IX, and observe whether, it nearlyquently used these telescopes in the open air in  coincides with the object.  If the object appearthe day-time, without any inconvenience from. lower than this line of vision, the eyepiece must:
extraneous light.  Therefore, were a reflecting, be lowered,.and if higher, it must be raised, bytelescope of 50 or 60 feet in length to be con-  means of the nuts and screws at g d and f e, until.
structed, it might be fitted up at a comparatively  the object and the line of vision now stated nearlysmall expense, after the expense of the metallic  coincide.  The eyepiece should be directed as,
substances, and of casting, grinding, and polishing  nearly perpendicular to the front of the spoculuns,
the speculuim is defi'aye.d. The largest instrument as possible, but so that the reflected image of
of this descriptioln which has hitherto been con- one's head from the-mirror shall not interfere t.,
structed is the 40 ieet reflector of Sir W. Her-  obstruct the rays from  the object.  An object.
schel.  This complicated  and  most unwieldy  may be seel.lwith an approximate degree of dis —
instrument had a tube of rolled or sheet iron 39. tinctress, but not accurately, unless this adjustfeet 4 inclhes ill length, abou.ft I 5 feet in circum-  ment be pretty accurately made.  The astronom —
ferenc.e, and Weoighed abou:t 8000 pounds.  Now I ical eyepieees used for these telescopes-are fitted.,
conceive that sfuch  enormous tubes, in instru.-  with a brass cap, which slides on tire end next
meaits of suc1lh dimncusieons, are altogether un- the eye, and is capable of being brought nearer to.
necessary.  No thi:ng more is requisite than a  or farther from the first eyeglass.  Iil the centersh.ort tube for holding the speculum.  Connected  of this cap, next the eye, is a small hole, about
with one side of this tube (or with both sides the 1-40th or 1-50th of an inch diameter, or
were it foLund necessary), two strong bars of wood, about as wide as to admit the point of a pin or a,
proiecting a few feet beyond the speculumn end, moderate-sized needle.  The distance of this hole
and extending in front as far as the focal length  from  the lens next the eye must be adjusted by,
of the mirror, and connected by cross-bars of  trial, until the whole field of view appears distincti
wood, iron, or brass, woaltd be quite sufficient for A common astronomical eyepiece, without thie.
a support to the eyepiece', and for directing the  addition, does not answer well.  I find, lay expe-.
rnotionl of the instrument.  A telescope of 40 or rience, that terrestrial eyepieces, sucds as those50 feot in lengtlh, constructed onthis plan, would  used in good achromatic telescopes, ae-, on the.
not reqtuire one-fifth of the expense, nor one-  whole, best adapted to this constrLetion of. a re —
fourtl  of the apparatus and mechanical power fleeting telescope.
for n'sving it to any isquired position, which'   I have sometimes used these instruments. fot
were found necessary'in the canstruction of Sir  the purpose of viewing perspective prints, wahi.
Vor,. II.-35




92                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
they exhibit in a beautiful and interesting manner. fleeting telescopes, which imperfection, if it could
If a colored perspective be placed at one end of a be completely remedied, would render the reflectlarge room  or gallery, and strongly illuminated ing telescope almost a perfect instrument, as it is
either by the sun or by two candles, and one of not affected by the different refrangibility of the
the reflectors, furnished with a small magnifying  rays of light. His method, we believe, consisted
power, placed at the opposite end of the room, the in forming a large speculum  of two or three
representation of a street or a landscape will be separate pieces of metal, which were afterward
seen in its true perspective, and will appear even accurately combined into one —a central part,
more pleasant and interesting than when viewed which was surrounded by one or two  rings
through the common optical diagonal machine. If  ground on the same tool.  When  the images
an inverting eyepiece be used-which is most formed by the separate pieces were made exactly
eligible in this experiment —the print, of course, to coincide, the image of the object toward which
must be placed in an inverted position.          the whole speculum was directed was then found
That reflecting telescopes of the descriptions to be as distinct as either image had been when
-now  stated are original in their construction, separate; but, at the period referred to, a sufficient
appears from  the uniform  language of optical number of experiments had not been made to dewriters, some of whom  have pronounced such  termine that his lordship had completely accomattempts to  be altogether impracticable.  Sir plished the object he intended.
David  Brewster, one of the latest and  most   Great interest, however, has of late been excirespectable writers on this subject, in the " Edin- ted by the improvements which his lordship has
burgh Encyclopedia," art. Optics, and in the last made in the formation of specula. Sir W.. Heredition of his Appendix to "Ferguson's Lectures,"  schel never made public the means by which he
has the following remarks: "If we could dispense succeeded in giving such gigantic development to
with the use of the small specula in telescopes of the reflecting telescope, and therefore the conmoderate length, by inclining the great speculum, struction of a large reflector has been considered
and using an oblique, and, consequently, a dis- as a perilous adventure; but, according to a retorted reflection, as proposed first by Le Maire, port of Dr. Robinson, of Armagh, to the Irish
we should consider the Newtonian telescope as Academy, the Earl of Rosse has overcome the
perfect; and on a large scale, or when the instru- difficulties which have hitherto been met with,
ment exceeds 20 feet, it has undoubtedly this and carried to an extent which even Herschel
character, as nothing can be more simple than to himself did not venture to contemplate, the itlumagnify, by a single eyeglass, the image formed  minating power of this telescope, along with a
by a single speculum.  As the front view is quite sharpness of definition little inferior to that of the
impracticable, and, indeed, has never been attempted  achromatic; and it is scarcely possible, he obin instruments of a small size, it becomes of great serves, to preserve the necessary sobriety of lanpracticable consequence to remove as much as guage in speaking of the moon's appearance with
possible the evils which arise from  the use of a this instrument, which Dr. Robinson believes to
small speculum," &c.                              be the most powerful ever constructed. The difThe instruments now described have effectuat- ficulty of constructing large specula, and of imed, in some degree, the desirable object alluded  parting to them the requisite degree of polish,
to by this distinguished philosopher, and  the  has hitherto been considered so great, that from
mode of construction is neither that of Sir W. eight to twelve inches diameter, has been, in genHerschel's front view, nor does it coincide with  eral, their utmost size; indeed, except with the
that proposed by Le Maire, which appears to have greatest reluctance, London opticians would not
been a mere hint that was never realized in tie accept of orders for specula of more than nilne
construction of reflecting telescopes of a small inches in diameter.  It appears, however, that the
size. The simplicity of the construction of these  Earl of Rosse has succeeded, by a peculiar method
instruments, and the excellence of their perform- of molding, in casting object-mirrors of true speance, have been much admired by several scientific  culuaz metal of three feet in diameter, and of a
gentlemen and others to whom  they have been weight exceeding 17 cwt. He is about to construct
exhibited.  Prior to the description of them  in a telescope, the speculum of which is six feet in
the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, they were diameter, fifty feet focal distance, and of the
exhibited in the Calton Hill Observatory, Edin- weight of four tons; and from  what he has alburgh, in the presence of Professor Wallace and ready accomplished, it is not doubted that he posanother gentleman, who compared their perform- sesses the power to carry his design into effect.
anc   with that of an excellent Gregorian.  As These great masses of metal, which, in the hands
this instrument is distinguished fromn every other of all other makers of specula, would have been
telescope in being used without a tube, it has as untractable as so much unannealed flint glass,
been denominated "TThe Aerial Reflector."        the Earl of Rosse has farther succeeded in bringe
ing to the highest degree of polish, and the utmost perfection of curvature, by means of machinery. The process is conducted under water,
S E C T I 0 N  V.                  by which means those variations of temperature,
so fatal to the finest specula hitherto attempted,
EARL OF ROSSE'S REFLECTING TELESCOPES.       are effectually guarded against.  To convince Di
Robinson of the efficacy of this machinery, the
Tins  nobleman, unlike many of his compeers, Earl took the three-feet speculum out of its telehas, for a considerable number of years past, de- scope, destroyed its polished surface, and piaced
voted his attention to the pursuits of science, and  it under the mechanical polisher.  In six h]ourt it
particularly to the implrovement of reflecting tel- was taken out with a perfect new surface as bright
escopes.  He is  evidently possessed  of high as the original.  Under the old system  of hand
mathematical attainments, combined with an un- polishing, it might have required months, and
comlmon degree of mechanical ingenuity.  About even years to effect this restoration.  Even before
14 or 15 years ago, he engaged in various experi- achieving these extraordinary triumphs on the
ments with the view of counteracting the effects solid substance, his lordship had constru( ted a
of the spherical aberration of the specuia of re- six-feet reflector by covering a curved surface of




ON REFLECTING TELESCOPES.                                       93
brass with squares of the true speculum  metal, image was somewhat vivid, so that every object
which gave an immense quantity of light, though appeared  double.  Jupiter appeared with two
subject to some irregularities, arising from  the bodies, at a little distance from  each other, and
number of joinings necessary in such a mosaic his four satellites appeared increased to eight.
work.  Of the performance of his lordship's The moon likewise appeared as a double orb, but
great telescope, mounted with this reflector, those the principal image was distinct and well-defined.
who have seen it speak in terms of high admira- Such a telescope, therefore, was not well adapted
tion; but in reference to the smaller and more for celestial observations, but might answer well
perfect instrument, furnished with the solid three- enough for viewing terrestrial objects.
feet speculum, the language of the Armagh as-   Considering that the injurious effects of the
tronorner assumes a tone of enthusiasm, and even secondary image arose from the images reflected
of sublimity. By means of this exquisite instru- from the two surfaces being formed near the same
ment, Dr. Robinson and Sir J. South, in the inter- point, and at nearly the same focal distance, I
vals of a rather unfavorable night, saw several formed a plan for destroying the secondary image,
new stars, and corrected numerous errors of other or at least counteracting its effects, by forming
observers.  For example, the planet Uranus, sup- the concavity of the mirror next the eye of a
posed to possess a ring similar to that of Saturn, portion of a sphere different from that of the conwas found not to have any such appendage; and  vex side which was silverized, and from  which
those nebula, hitherto regarded, from their appa- the principal image is formed; but, for a long
rently circular outline, as "coalescing systems," time, I could find no opticians possessed of tools
appeared, when tested by the three-feet speculum, of a sufficient length of radii for accomplishing
to be very far indeed from  presenting a globular my design.  At length a London working optiappearance, numerous offshoots and appendages, clan undertook to finish a glass speculum accordinvisible by other telescopes, appearing in all di- ing to my directions, which were, that the conrections radiating fron their edges. Such dis- vex surface of the mirror should be ground on
coveries, which reflect great honor on the Earl a tool which would produce a focal distance by
of Rosse, will doubtless have great effect on the reflection of about four feet, and that the concave
interests of astronomical science.o              surface should have its focal distance at about
three feet three inches, so that the secondary image might be formed at about nine inches within
the focal distance of the silverized side, and not
interfere to disturb the principal image; but, eiS E C T    W 0 N  V, I.         ther from ignorance or inattention, the artist fmistook the radius for the half radius of concavity,
REFLECTING TELESCOPES WITH GLASS SPECULA.   and the speculum turned out to be only 23 inches
focal distance by reflection.  This mirror was
AFTER making a variety of experiments with  fitted up as a telescope on the aerial plan, and I
wacial telescopes constructed of metallic specula found, as I expected, the secondary image ccrnof different focal lengths, I constructed a tele- pletely destroyed.  It produced a -. y beautiful
scope on the same plan with a concave glass mir- and brilliant view of land objects, aa  even the
ror. Having obtained a fragment of a very large brightest objects exhibited no double image. The
convex mirror which happened accidentally to mirror was nearly five inches in diameter, bat the
have been broken, I caused the convex side to be image was most accurately defined when the apfoliated or silverized, and found its focal length to erture was contracted to about three inches.  It
be about 27 inches.  This mirror, which was was fitted with a terrestrial eyepiece which proabout five inches diameter, I placed in one of the duced a magnifying power of about 25 times.
aerial reflectors instead of the metallic speculum, When directed to the moon, it gave a very disand tried its effects with different terrestrial eye- tinct and luminous view of that orb, without the
pieces. With a power of about 35 or 40 times, least appearance of a secondary image; but as
it gave a beautiful and splendid view of distant the focal distance of the speculum was scarcely
terrestrial objects, the quantity of light reflected  half the length I had prescribed, I did not apply
from them being considerably greater than when to it any high astronomical powers, as I find that
a metallic speculum was used, and they appeared, these can only be applied with effect, in this conon the whole, well-defined.  The only imperfec- struction, to a speculum  of a considerable focal
tion-as I had foreseen-consisted in a double length.  Happening to have at hand a convex lens
image being formed of objects which were re- ten feet focal length and four inches in diameter.
markably bright and white, such as a lighthouse  the one side of which had been ground to a cerwhitened on the outside, and strongly illuminated  tain degree of concavity, I caused the convex si5de
by the sun.  One of the images was bright, and to be foliated, which produced a focus by reflection
the other faint. This was obviously owing to the at 13Y2 inches distant.  To this mirror I applied
two reflections from the two surfaces of the mir- -terrestrial powers of 15 and 24 with considerable
ror-one from the convex silverized side, and the distinctness.  The power of 15 produced a very
other from the concave side next the eye, which brilliant and distinct view of land objects.  Had
produced the faint image -which circumstaneo the mirror been at least three times the focal
has been generally considered as a sufficient rea- length, it would have formed an excellent tele
son for rejecting the use of glass specula in tele- scope with the same aperture.
scopes. But, although very bright objects exhibited a double image, almost all the other objects
in the terrestrial landscape appeared quite distinct
tnd without any  secondary image, so that a com-               SECTION  VII.
snon observer could scarcely have noticed any
imperfection.  When the instrument, however, A REFLECTING TELESCOPE, WITH A SINGLE MIRROR
was directed to celestial objects, the secondary                AND NO EYEPIECE.
* A particular account of the Earl of Rosse's fifty-feet ON the same principle as that by which a ree.llec*or, which is now finished, is given in the Appendix. fracting telescope may be constiucted by means




a94                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
of a single lens, as represented fig. 51 (page (;S), I scope. Such an instrument is one of the most
we may form  a telescope by reflection with a  simple forms of a telescope, and would exhibit a
single mirror and without an eyepiece.  Let A B, brillialnt and interesting view of the mooi}, or of
fig. 72, represent a large concave speculum, and  terrestrial objects.
-Fig. 72.                               PRICES OF REFLECTING TELESCOPES.
A                                           1. Prices as stated by iMessrs. W. and S. Jones.
Holborn, London.
s~..
A 4 feet, 7 inch aperture, Gregorian
reflecior, with the vertical motions upon
a newly invented principle, as well as apparatus to rendur the tube more steady
" for observation, according to the additional apparatus of small specululs
eyepieces, micrometers, &c. from  0SO to  120  0
3 feet long, mounted on a plain brass
stand.                                   23 2
C its focus: if an eye be placed at D, about eight    Ditto with rack-work motions, imor tell inches within the focal point C, all the ob- provedl mountings and metals           39 18
jects in the direction of C, or behind the specta-    2 feet long, without rack-work, and
tor, will be seen magnified by reflection on the with 4 magnifying powers, improved         15 15
face of the mirror, and strongly illuminated. Tile    Ditto improved, with rack-work momagnifying power, in this case, will be nearly in  tiOS.22  1
the proportion of the focal length of the mirror    18 inch, on a plain stald                 9  9
to the focal length of the eye for near objects.   12 ihch ditto..         6  6
If, for example, the focal distance of the mirror
be eight feet, and the distasnce from  trhe eye    2. Prices as stated by Messrs. Tulley, Islillngton.
at which we see near objects most distinctly be                                             ~.   s
eight inches, the magnifying power will be ill   1 foot Gregorian reflector, on pillar
the ratio of 8 to 96, or 12 times.  I have a  and claw stand, metal 2/2 inches, diamglass mirror of this description, whose  focal eter, packed in a mahogany box.              6  6
length is four feet eight inches, and diameter   I1} foot ditto, on pillar and claw stand,
six inches, which magnifies distant objects about metal 3 inches diameter, packed in a
seven  times, takes in a large field of view, mahogany box...               1 11
and exhibits objects with great brilliancy.  It    2 feet ditto, metal 4 inches diameter   16 16
presents a very distinct picture of the moon,    Ditto with rack-work motions..  25  4
showing the different streaks of light and shade    3 feet ditto, metal 5 inches diameter,
upon her surface, and in some cases shows the  rack-work lnotions.    -..  42  0
larger spots which traverse the solar disc.'This    4 feet ditto, metal 7 inches diameter,
mode of viewing objects is extremely easy and  on a tripod stand with center of gravity
pleasant, especially when the mirror is of a large  motion..105  0
diameter, and the observer is at first strulck and    6 feet ditto, metal 9 inlches diameter  210  0)
gratitied with  the novel aspect in which  the    7 feet Newtonian, 6 inches aperture. 105  0
objects appear.                                     12 feet ditto, metal 12 inches diameter  525  0
Were a concave mirror of this description —
whether of glass or of speculum  metal-to be    Prices as stated by Mr. G. Dollond, St. Paul's
formedl to a very lolng focus, the magnifying  Churchyard.
power would be considerable.  One of 50 feet                                                ~.  s.
focal length, and of a corresponding diameter,    Reflecting telescopes, 14 inches long,
might produce a magnifying power, to certain  in a mahogany box...                   9
eyes, of about 75 times; and, firom  the quantity    Ditto 18 inches...                 1 i
of lighlt with which the object would be seen, its    Ditto 2 feet.18.  18
effect would be much greater than the same power    Ditto with 4 different powers, and rackapplied to a common telescope.  Sir W. Herschel work stand supporting the telescope in
states that, on one occasion, by looking with his  the center of gravity...       36 15
naked eye on the speculum of his 40 feet reflect-    Ditto 3 feet, with ditto..      50  0
or, withlout the interposition of any lens or mirror,
he perceived distinctly one of the satellites of    4. Prices of single speculumrs alld reflecting
Saturn, which requires the application of a con- telescopes, as made by Mr. Grub, Charlemnolnt
siderable power to be seen by an ordinary tele- Bridge-works, Dublin.
NEWTONIAN TELESCOPES.                              GREGORIAN TELESCOPES.
Focal    Price of  P                               Focal    Price ofP    f tete.
Diamete  lenglthIle.te w                          Diaemth Foe s, Pric o
ininche   legthin    irrors   scope corn-          Diameter  eth t       irrr    scope comft.      aone.    lete with-          in inches      et.     ao.   plete wtth.
fet  a''out stand.                                        out stand.
6         3      17  10    25 2  0
7        7       17  10    27 10                   7         3      25   0    34  0
9       10       25   0    40   0                  9         49     35   0    50   0
12       12       60   0    90   0                 12         7      70   0  100   0
15       15      120   0   170   0                 15         9     150   0  200   0
iS       18      200   0   260   0                18        12      240   0  300   0




ON THE EYEPIECES OF TELESCOPES.                                     95
ON TIME EYEPIECES OF TELESCOPES.         lar lenses; and in this case the d —tance -etween
them was equal to half the sum of their focal disAlthough the performance of telescopes chiefly tances, as in the Huygenian eyepiece.
depends on the goodness of the object-glass, or
the object-speculum of the instrument, yet it is                    Fig. 73.
of considerable importance. in order to distinct       A      B
vision, and to obtain a large and uniformly distinct field of view, that the eyepiece be properly
constructed.  The different kinds of eyepieces
may be arranged into two general divisions, Astronomnical and Terrestrial.
1. Astronomical Eyepieces. — The most simple
astronomical eyepiece is that which consists of a
single convex lens; and when the focal distance
of this lens, and that of the object-glass of the    The image is formed at I M, at the focal disinstrument, is accurately ascertained,. the magni- tance of the lens next the eye, and at the sarne
fying power may be nicely determined by dividing distance from the field-glass. When distinct vision
the focal length of the object-lens by that of the is the principal object of an achromatic telescope,
eyeglass; but as the pencil of white light trans- the two lenses are usually both plano-convex, and
mnitted by the object-glass will be divided by the fixed with their caurved faces toward the objecteyeglass into its component colors, the object will glass, as in the figure. Sometimes, however, they
appear bordered with colored fringes, and the consist of what is called crossed lenses, that is,
distinctness of vision consequently injured; be- lenses ground on one side to a short focus, and on
side, the spherical aberration, when a single lens the other side to a pretty long focus, the sides
is used, is much greater than when two or more with the deepest curves being turned toward the
glasses are employed: hence astronornical eye- object-glass.  A diaphragm, or aperture of a propieces are now  formed by a combination of at per diameter, is placed at the focus of the eye-lens
least two lenses.                               where the image formed by the object-glass falls,
The combination of lenses now generally used for the purpose of cutting off the extreme rays of
for astronomical purposes is that which is usuallvy  the field-lens, and rendering every part of the
denominated the Huygenian Eyepiece, having been field of view equally distinct. This is likewise
first proposed by the celebrated Huygens as a the form of the eyepiece generally applied to Gregreat improvement on the single lens eyepiece. gorian reflectors.  In short, when accurately conThe following figure (73) represents a section of structed, it is applicable to telescopes of every dethis eyepiece: Let A B be a compounded pencil scription. This eyepiece,having the image viewed
of white light proceeding from the object-glass; by the eye behind the inner lens, is generally
B F a plano-convex field-glass, with its plane called the negative eyepiece, and is that which the
side next the eyeglass E.  The red rays of the optical instrument makers usually supply, of
pencil A B, after refraction, would cross the axis three or four different sizes, for so many magnifyin R, and the violet rays in V; but, meeting the ing powers, to be applied to different celestial obeyeglass E, the red rays will be refracted to 0, jects, according to their nature, or the state of the
and the violet nearly in the same direction, when atmosphere in which they are used.
they will cross each other about the point O in    Ramsden's Eyepiece. —There is another modifithe axis, and unite.  The distance of the two cation of lenses, known by the name of the Posiglasses F E, to produce this correction, when tire, or Ramsden's Eyepiece, which is snuck used
made of crown glass, must be equal to half the in transit instruments, and telescopes which are
sum of their focal distances nearly: for example, furnished with micrometers, and which affords
suppose the focal distance of the largest, or field- equally good vision as the other eyepiece.  In this
lens, to be three inches, and the focal distance of construction the lenses are plano-convex, and
the lens next the eye one inch, the two lenses nearly of the same focus, but are placed at a disshould be placed exactly at the distance of two tance from each other less than the focal distance
inches, the sum of their focal length being four,
the half of which is two. In other words, the                       Fig. 74.
glass next the eye should be placed as much with-             A
in the focus of the field-glass as is equal to its
own focal distance.  The focal length of a single         I
lens that has the same magnifying power as this
co]mpound eyepiece, is equal to twice the product
of the focal lengths of the two lenses divided by              I.
the sum of the same numbers; or, it is equal to
half the focal length of the field-glass.  Thus,
in reference to the preceding example, twice the         AI                    D
product of the focal length of the two lenses is
equal to six, and their sum is four. The former
number divided by the latter prbduces a quotient of the glass next the eye, so that the image of the
of 1i, which is the focal length of a single lens, object viewed is beyond both the lenses when
which would produce the same magnifying power measuring from the eye. The flat faces of the
as'the eyepiece; and!y  is just half the focal two lenses are turned into contrary directions in
length of the field-glass. The proportion of the this eyepiece, one facing the object-glass, and the
focal lengths of the two lenses to each other; other the eye of the observer; and as the image
according to Huygens, should be as three to one; formed at the focus of the object-glass lies parallel
that is, if the field-glass be 41/  inches, the eye- to the flat face of the contiguous lens, every part
glass should be l/2, and this is the proportion  of the field of view is distinct at the same adjustmost generally adopted; but some opticians have ment, or, as opticians say, there is a flat field,
recommended that the proportion should be as which, without a diaphragm, prevents distortion
three to two. Boscovich recommended two simi- of the object.  This eyepiece is represented in




96                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
fig. 74, where A B and C D are two plano-convex  138ths of an inch in diameter, placed at half an
lenses, with their convex sides inward. They  inch distant, with their convex surface facing each
have nearly the same focal length, and are placed  other, as in fig. 74, which forms an excellent eyeat a distance from each other equal to about two- piece for an achromatic telescope six feet eight
thirds of the focal length of either.  The focal inches focal distance and four inches aperture, palrlength to an equivalent single lens is equal to  ticularly for viewing clusters of stars, the Milky
three-fourths the focal length of either lens, sup- Way, and the large nebule.  The field of view is
posing them to have equal focal distances.  This large, the magnifying power is only between 50
eyepiece is generally applied when wires of spi- and 60 times, and the quantity of light being so
der's lines are used ill the common focus, as the  great, every celestial object appears with great
piece containing the lenses call be taken out with- brilliancy, and it is, in general, much more preferout disturbing the lines, and is adjustable for dis- able, when applied to the stars, than any of the
tinct vision; and whatever may be the measure  higher powers. When applied to Presepe in Canof any object given by the wire micrometer at cer, it exhibits that group at one view, as consistthe solar focus, it is not altered by a change of ing of nearly 100 stars, which exhibit a beautiful
the magnifying power when a second eyepiece of and most striking appearance.
this construction is substituted.                   It may appear a curious circumstance that any
Aberration of Lenses.-In connection with the eyepiece which is good with a short telescope is
above descriptions, the following statements re- also good with a long one, but that the reverse is
specting the spherical aberration of lenses may  not true; for it is found to be more difficult to
not be inappropriate.  Mr. John Dollond, in a make a good eyepiece for a short than for a long
letter to Mr. Short, remarks, that "the aberration  focal distance of the object-glass.
in a single lens is as the cube of the refracted an-    Celestial eyepieces are sometimes constructed
gle; but if the refraction be caused by two lenses, so as to produce variable powers. This is effected
the sum of the cubes of each half will be a quar- by giving a motion to the lens next the eye, so as
ter of the refracted angle, twice the cube of one to remove it nearer to or farther from  the fieldbeing a quarter of the cube of two.  So three  lens; for at every different distance at which it is
times the cube of one is only orte-ninth of the placed from the other lens, the magnifying power
cube of three," &c. Hence the indistinctness of  will either be increased or diminished.  The greatthe borders of the field of view of a telescope is est power is when the two lenses are nearly in
diminished by increasing the number of lenses in  contact, and the power diminishes in proportioc
an eyepiece. Sir J. Herschel has shown that if to the distance at which the glass next the eye is
two plano-convex lenses are put together as in  removed from  the other. The scale of distance,
fig. 75, the aberration will be only 0.2481, or one- however, between the two lenses cannot be greater
fourth of that of a single lens in its best form. than the focal distance of the field, or inner glass;
The focal length of the first of these lenses must for if it were, the lenses would no longer form an
be to that of the second as I to 23. If their fo- eyepiece, but would be changed into an inverting
cal lengths are equal, the aberration will be 0.603, opera-glass. For effecting the purpose now stated,
or nearly one-half. The spherical aberration, how- the eyeglass is fixed in a tube, which slides upon
ever, may be entirely destroyed by combining a an interior tube, on which is marked a scale of
meniscus and double convex lens, as shown in  distances corresponding to certain magnifying
fig. 76, the convex sides being turned to the eye powers; and in this way an eyepiece may be made
to magnify about double the number of times
when the lenses are in one position than when
Fig. 75~.      Fig. 76.                they are in another; as, for example, all the powers from  36 to 72 times may be thus applied,
merely by regulating the distance between the
two lenses. When the glasses are varied in this....&l. _          manner, the eyepiece becomes sometimes a positive
eyepiece, like Ramsden's, and sometimes a negative one, like that of Huygens.
Diaqonal Eyepieces.-The eyepieces to which
we have now adverted, when adapted to refracting
when they are used as lenses, and to parallel rays telescopes, both reverse and invert the object, and
when they are used as burning glasses.  Sir J. therefore are not calculated for showing terresHerschel has computed the following curvatures trial objects in their natural position; but as the
for such lenses:                                  heavenly bodies are of a spherical form, this cirFocal length of the convex lens..  +10.000  cumstance detracts nothing from their utility.
Radius of its first surface..       5.833  When the celestial object, however, is at a high
Radius of its second surface.      -35.000  altitude, the observer.is obliged to place his head
Focal length of the meniscus..  +i7.82    in a very inconvenient position, and to direct his
Radius of its efirst surfsace...  -+  3.68   eye nearly upward; in which position he cannot
adius of its second surface      6.94  remain long at ease, or observe with a steady eye.
Focal length of the compound   s    6.407  To remedy this inconvenience, the diagonal eyepiece has been inverted, which admits of the eye
On the general principles above stated, a good  being applied at the side, or at the upper part of
astronomical eyepiece may be easily constructed  the eyepiece, instead of the end; and whlen such
with two proper lenses, either according to the an eyepiece is used, it is of no importance' in
plan of Huygens or that of Ramsden: and, from  what direction the telescope is elevated, as the ohwhat has been now stated, it is demonstrably cer- server can then either sit or stand erect, and look
tain, that, in all cases where two glasses are prop- down upon the object with the utmost ease. This
erly combined, such an eyepiece is superior to a object is effected by placing a flat piece of polished
single lens both in point of distinctness and of the  speculum-metal at an angle of 45 degrees in reenlargement of the field of view. I lately fitted  spect to the two lenses of the eyepiece, which
up an eyepiece, on Ramsden's principle, with two  alters the direction of the converging rays, and
lenses, each about three inches focal length, and  forms an image which becomes erect with respect




ON THE EYEPIECES OF TELESCOPES.                                       97
to altitude, but is reversed with respect to azimuth; struction of the diagonal eyepiece may be used
that is, in other words, when we look down upon  with any eyepiece whatever, whether the Huythe objects in the field of view, they appear erect; genian or that of Ramsdel.  It will admit of any
but that part of an object which is in reality on  magnifying power, and if several different eyeour right hand, appears on our left; and if it be pieces be fitted to the sliding tube, they may be
in motion, its apparent, is opposite to its real mo- changed at pleasure.  This form of the diagonal
tion; if it be moving toward the west, it will seem  eyepiece I therefore consider as the best and the
to move toward the east.                          most convenient construction, although it is not
There are three situations in which the diago- commonly adopted by opticians.
nal reflector in this eyepiece may be placed. It   When any of these eyepieces are applied to a
nay be placed either, 1, before the eyepiece, or 2, telescope, with the lens E  on the upper part of
behind it, or, 3, between the two lenses of which  it, we look down upon the object, if it be a terthe eyepiece consists.  The most common posi- restrial one, as if it were under our feet.  If we
tion of the reflector is between the lenses; and  turn the eyepiece round in its socket a quarter
this may be done both in the negative and the posi- of a circle toward the left, an object directly betive eyepieces; but as the distance between the fore us in the south will appear as if it were in
two lenses is necessarily considerable, to make  the west, and turned upside down.  If, from  this
room for the diagonal position of the reflector, position, it is turned round a semicircle toward
the magnifying power cannot be great; otherwise  the right, and the eye applied, the same object
a diagonal eyepiece of this construction remains will appear as if it were situated in the east, and
always in adjustment, and is useful in all cases inverted; and if it be turned round another quadwhere a high power is not required.  The pre- rant, until it be directly opposite to its first posiceding is a description and  representation  of  tion, and the eye applied from  below, the object
a diagonal eyepiece of this kind in my posses- or landscape will appear as if suspended in the
sion.                                             atmosphere above us.  This eyepiece, therefore,
In fig. 77, A B re-                             is capable of exhibiting objects in a great variety
Fresents  the  plano-          Fig 77.            of aspects, and the use of it is both pleasant and
convex lens next the                              easy for the observer. But there is a considerable
object, which is about                            loss of light, occasioned by the reflection from
2  inches  in  focal                  E     G      the speculum,. which is sensibly felt when very
length, and 3 of an A                              high powers are applied; and therefore, when
inch in diameter; CB-. v                         very small stars are to be observed, such as some
D, a plain  metallic _L ___                        of those connected with double or triple stars, the
speculum  of an oval         -:               observer should not study his own ease so much
form, well polished, -                            as the quantity of light he can retain with a high
and lilaced at half a                       i_    power, which object is best attained with an ordiright-angle to the axis     -                     nary eyepiece and a telescope of large aperture.
of the tube; and E F, B           C                 We have said that a diagonal eyepiece may be
another plano-convex lens, about 11, inch focal constructed with a reflector before the eyepiece.
distance.  The center of the speculum  is about In this case, the speculum is sometimes made to
ll4th of an inch from  the lens A B, and about slide before the eye at the requisite angle of rehalf or one-third of an inch from E F; so that clination, in which  application  each eyepiece
this eyepiece is a positive one, on the principle must necessarily have a groove to receive it, and
proposed by Ramsden.  The  rays proceeding the eye must be applied without a hole to direct
from the lens A B, and falling upon the speculum, it, but it may be put oni and taken off without
are reflected in a perpendicular direction to the disturbing the adjustment for distinct visionl, and
lens E F, where they enter the eye at G, which  is very simple in its application.  But, on the
looks down upon the object through the side of whole, the form represented in fig. 78 is the most
the tube.  The real size of this eyepiece is much  convenient, and should generally be preferred, as
about the same as that represented in the figure. any comrnon astronomical eyepiece can be apWhen applied to an achromatic telescope of 4412  plied to it. I have used a diagonal eyepiece of this
inches focal distance, it produces a magnifying  lkind with good effect, when a power of 180 has
power of 36 times, and exhibits a very beautiful been applied to the sun and other celestial objects.
view of the whole of the full moon.  It likewise    Instead of a metallic speculum, a rectanqular
presents a very pleasing prospect of terrestrial prism of glass is sometimes substituted; for the
objects, which appear as if situated immediately  rays of light are then bent by reflection from the
below us.                                         second polished surface, which ought to be d*ry,
Another plan of                                 and undergo two refractions, which achromatize
the  diagonal eye-            Fig. 78.            them; and the same effect is thus produced as by
piece is represented      G                       polished metal.  Ramsden sometimes gave one
in Fig. 713, where  E                             of the polished faces of a right-angle prism  a
the speculum is fix-  E                           curve, which prism served instead of a lens in an
ed within the sliding                             eyepiece, and also performed the office of a retube which receives                               flector.  A semi-globe, or what has been called a
the eyepiece, or iin-             l      A        bull's eye, has also been used as a diagonal eyemediately below  it.  _                           piece, and when the curve is well formed, and
The part of the tube                              the glass good, it is achromatic, and is said to
A B slides into the                               perform pretty well, but it is not superior to the
tube  of the  tele-                               forms already described.
scope, C D  is the
opeculum  placed at
half a right-angle to             C      B                       SECTION  II.
the axis of the tube, and E F the tube containing
the lenses, which stands at right-angles to the
position of the telescope, and slides into an exte-   WHEN describing the common refracting telerior tube, and the eye is applied at G.  This con- scope (p. 67), I have noticed that three eyeglasses,




98                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
placed at double their focal distances from  each contrary position; and the length of the image
other, formerly constituted the terrestrial eye- will exceed the length of the radiant in the same
piece, as represented in fig. 47. But this con- proportion, as the distance of the image from the
struction, especially for achromatic instruments, radiant exceeds that of the radiant from  the lens.
has now become obsolete, and is never used ex- This secondary image of the radiant at i, is not
cept in small pocket spyglasses formed with a well-defined when only one lens, as A, is used,
single object-lens.  In its place a four glassed owing to the great spherical aberrations, and
eyepiece has been sutbstituted, which is now uni- therefore the amtlifying Lens is t'laced. at tke disversally used in all good telescopes, and which, tance of the shorter conjugate focus, with an
beside improving the vision and producing an  intervening diaphragm of a small diameter at the
erect position of the images of objects, presents place of the principal focus; the uses of which
a considerably larger field of view. During the lens and diaphragm are, first, to cutoff the colored
progressive stages of improvement made in the rays that are occasioned by the dispersive proconstruction of erect eyepieces by Dollond and perty of the object-lens, and, secondly, to bring
Ranlsdel, three, four, and five lenses were suc- the rays to a shorter conjugate focus for the
cessively introduced; and hence, in some of the place of the image than would have taken place
old telescopes constructed by these artists, we with a single lens having only one refraction.
frequently find five lenses of different descriptions As the secondary image is in this way much
composing the eyepiece.  But four lenses, ar- better defined and free from coloration, the addiranged in the manner I am now about to describe, tion of this second lens is a great improvement
have ultimately obtained the preference.  In a to vision.  For this reason, I am clearly of opintelescope having a celestial eyepiece of the Huy- ion that the object-glass of a compound microgenian form, the image that is formed in the focus scope, instead of consisting of a small single lens,
of the object-glass is that which is seen magni- should be formed of two lenses, on the principle
fled, and in an inverted position; but when a four now  stated, which would unquestionably add to
glassed eyepiece is used, which produces an erect the distinctness of vision.
view of the object, the image is repeated, and the    With respect to the proportions of the focal lengths
second image, which is formed by the inner pair of the lenses in this four glass eyepiece, Mr. Codof lenses, A B, on an enlarged scale, is that which  dington states, that if the focal lengths, reckoning
the pair of lenses, C D, at the eye-end render from  A to D, fig. 79, be as the numbers 3, 4, 4,
visible on a scale still more enlarged.  The mod- and 3, and the distances between them  on the
ern terrestrial eyepiece, represented in fig. 79, is, same scale, 4, 6, and 5, 2, the radii, reckoning
from the outer surface of A, should be thus:
Fig 79.,
(First surface    27
c     A  ISecond surface   I  nearly plano-convex....... 5 —'  First surface  9
A.      ~                                  B   Second suface   4  a meniscus.
First surface        nearly pano-convex.
Second surface  21
in fact, nothing else than a compound microscope, D   First surface     1      ble c
consisting of an object-lens, an amplifying-lens, D Second surface  245 double convex.
and an eyepiece composed of a pair of lenses on
the principle of the Huygenian eyepiece.  Its   Sir D. Brewster states that a good achromatic
properties will be best,understood by considering  eyepiece may be made of four lenses, if their fothe first image of an object, which is formed in cal lengths, reckoning from that next the object,
the focus of the object-glass, as a small luminous be as the numbers 14, 21, 27, 32; their distances,
object to be rendered visible, in a magnified state, 23, 44, 40; their apertures, 5.6, 3.4, 2.6; and the
by a compound microscope.  The object to be aperture of the diaphragm placed in the interior
Miagnified may be considered as placed near the focus of the fourth eyeglass, 7.  Another proporpoint A, and the magnified image at i, which is tioni may be stated: Suppose the lens next the
viewed by the lens D. Hence, if we look through  object, A, to be 17ths of an inch focal length,
such an eyepiece at a small object placed very  then B may be 2Y2 inches; C, 2 inches; and D,
near the lens A, we shall find that it acts-as a 1,; and their distances, A B, 212; B C, 358ths;
compound microscope of a moderate magnifying and C D, 23Sths.  In one of Ramsdel's small
power, inicreasing, in somine cases, the diameter of telescopes, whose object-glass was 8k  inches in
the object about 10 times, and 100 times in sur- focal length, and its magnifying power 15.4, the
face.                                            focal lengths of the eyeglasses were, A, 0.775 of
In order to distinguish the different lenses in an inch; B, 1.025; C, 1.01; D, 0.79; the disthis eyepiece, we may call the lens A, which is tances, A B, 1.18; B C, 1.83; and C D, 1.105.
next to the first image, the object-lens; the next In the excellent achromatic telescope of Dollond's
to it, B, the ampliyjing-lens; the third, or C, the construction which belonged to the Due de Chaulfield-lens;, and the one next the eye, D, the eye- nes, the focal lengths of the eyeglasses, beginning
lens.  The first image, formed a little before A, with that next the  object, were 144 liles,
mayv bedenominated the radiant, or the object from  19, 22Y4, 14; their distances, 22.48 lines, 46.17,
which the rays proceed.  Now it is well known 21.45; and their thickness at the center, 1.23
as a principle in optics, that if the radiant be lines, 1.25, 1.47. The fourth lens was plano-conbrought nearer to the lens than its principal focus, vex, with the plane side to the eye, and the rest
the ernerging rays will diverge, and, on the con- were double convex lenses. This telescope was
trary, if the radiant be put farther from  the lens in focal length three feet five and a half inches.
than its principal focal distance, the emerging    The magnifying power of this eyepiece, as
rays will converge to a point at a distance beyond  usually made, differs only in a small degree from
the lens, which will depend on the distance of what would be produced by using the first or the
the radiant from  the face of the, lens. In this fourth glass alone, in which case the magnifying
place an image of the radiant will be formed by power would be somewhat greater, but the vision
the concurrence of the converging rays, but in a less distinct; and were the lens next the eye used




ON THE EYEPIECES OF TELESCOPES.                                    99
alonewithout the field-glass,the field ofviewwould  power may be increased to 100, 120, or 140, acos much contracted. Stops should be placed be- cording to the distance to which this movable
tween the lenses A and B, near to B, and a larger tube is drawn out.  It has also a second and
one between C and D, to prevent any false light third set of lenses, corresponding to C and D, of
from passing through the lenses to the eye. The a shorter focal distance, which produce higher
more stops that are introduced into a telescope-  magnifying powers on a principle to be afterzwhich should all be blackened-provided they do  ward explained.
not hinder the pencils of light proceeding from
the object, the better will the instrument perDESCRIPIrON OF AN EYEPIECE, ETC., OF AN OLD
form.
DUTCH ACHROMATIC TELESCOPE.
For the information of amateur constructors
of telescopes, I shall here state the dimensions of    About twenty or thirty years ago, I purchased,
two or three four glassed eyepieces in my posses- in aii optician's shop in Edinburgh, a smnall achrosion, which perform with great distinctness, and matic telescope, made in Amsterdam, which was
present a pretty large field of view. In one of supposed by tile optician to have been constructed
these, adapted to a 441/ inch achromatic, the lens, prior to the inivention of achromatic telescopes by
A, next the object, is lsths of an inch focal Mr. Dollond.  It is mounted wholly of brass, and
length and about one inch in diameter, with the in all its parts is a piece of beautiful and exquisite
plane side next the object. The focal length of workmanship, and the utmost care seems to have
the lens B, 2 1-10th inches, diameter 7-1Oths of been taken to have all the glasses and diaDhragms
an inch, with its plane side next A; distance of accurately adjusted. The object-glass is a double
these lenses from each other, 2 4-10ths inches; achromatic, 61  inches focal distance and one
distance of the field-lens C from  the lens B, 5Y/  inch in diameter, but the clear aperture is only
inches. T'he small hole or diaphragm between A  seven-eighths of an inch in diameter. It is perand B is at the focus of A, and is about one-sixth fectly achromatic, and would bear a power of 50
of an inch in diameter, and about three-eighths times if it had a sufficient quantity of light.  The
of an inch from  the lens B. The field-lens C is following inscription is engraved on the tube
two inches focal length, and 1y4th of an inch in adjacent to the object-glass: "Jan van Deyl en
diameter, with its plane side next the eye. The Zoon, Inveenit et Fecit, Amnsterdam, Ao. 1769."
lens next the eye D, is one inch focal distance, Although Dollond exhibited the principle of an
half an inch in diameter, and is distant from the achromatic eight or tenl years before the date here
field-glass ai4ths of an inch, with its plane side specified, yet it is not improbable that the artist
next the eye. The magnifying power of this eye- whose name is here stated -may not have heard of
piece is equivalent to that of a single lens whose Dollond's invention, and that hlie was really, as he
focal length is half an inch, and with the 441  assumes, one of the inventors of the achromatic
inch object-glass produces a power of about 90 telescope; for the invention of this telescope by
times. Tile lens next the eye call be changed for Dollond was not very generally known, except
another of l:/ths of an inch focal length, which among philosophers and the London opticians,
produces a power of 65, and the two glasses C D  until a number of years after the date above
call be changed for another set of a longer focal stated.  Euler, in his "Letters to a German Prindistance, which produces a power of 45 times. cess," in which telescopes are particularly deThe whole length of this eyepiece is 11)2 inches. scribed, makes no mention of, nor the least alluIn another eyepiece, adapted to a pocket achro- sion to, the invention of Dollond, though this was
matic, whose object-glass is nine inches focal a subject which particularly engaged his attenlength, the lens A is one inch focal length and tion. Now these letters were written in 1762,
half an inch in diameter; the lens B, 14th1 of an but were not published until 1770. When alluding
inch, and half an inch in diameter; their distance, to the defects in telescopes arising from the difier1,L inches; the lens. C, i 1-10th of an inch focal ent refrangibility of the rays of light, in Letter
length and five-eighths of an inch in diameter; 43, and that they might possibly be rectified by
tile eyeless D, five-eightlhs of an inch focal length means of diiferent transparent substances, he
and three-eighths of an inch in diameter; distance says, "But neither theory nor practice  have
between C and D, 1l~th of an inch; the distance hitherto been carried to the degree of perfection
between B and C, aI4ths of an inch.  The whole necessary to the execution of a structure which
length of this eyepiece is 4Y/  inches, and its should remedy these defects."  Mr. B. Martin, in
power is nearly equal to that of a single lens of his " Gentleman and Lady's Philosophy," pubhalf or six-tenths of an inch focal length, the lished in 1781, alludes to the achromatic telemagnifying power of the telescope being about scope, but speaks of it as if it were but very little,
16 times. Another eyepiece of much larger di- if at all, superior to the common refracting telemensions has the lens A of 212 inches focal length scope: and therefore I think it highly probable
and three-fourths of an inch in diameter; the lens that Jan van Deyl was really an inventor of an
B, 234ths inches focus and five-eighths of an inch achromatic telescope before he had any notice of
in diameter, and their distance 2y4ths inches; what Dollond and others had done in this way
the lens C, 2y5ths inches focus and 13lth of an some short time before.
inch in diameter: the lens D, 1/4ths of an inch    But my principal object in adverting to this
focus and three-fourths of an inch in diameter; telescope is to describe the structure of the eyedistance from each other, 234ths inches.  The piece, which is a very fine one, and which is
distance between thile lenses B  and C is four somewhat different from the achromatic eyepiece
inches. TI'he magnifying power is equal to that above described. It consists of four glasses, two
of a single lens 1/yth of an inch focal distance. combined next the eye, and two next the object.
When applied to an achromatic object-glass six Each of these combinations forms an astronomifeet seven inches focal length, it produces a cal eyepiece nearly similar to the Huygenialln.
power of about 70 times.  This eyepiece has a The lens A, next the object, fig. 80, is fivemovable tube nine inches in length, in which the eighths of an inch focal distance, and 4-l0ths of
two lenses next the eye are contained, by pulling an inch in diameter; the lens B, three-eighths
out which, and consequently increasing the dis- of an inch focus, and one-fifth of an inch inl ditance between the lenses B and C, the magnifying  ameter, and the distance between them somewhat




100                        THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
less than five-eighths of an inch; the diameter of power of a compound microscope is increased by
the aperture e about 1-15th of an inch.  This removing the eyeglasses to a greater distance from
cembination  forms an  excellent astronomical the object lens. If, then, the pair of eyelenses C
eyepiece, with a large flat field, and its magnify- D be attached to an inner tube that will draw out
ing power is equivalent ts that of a single lens and increase their distance from the inner pair of
five-eighths or six-eighths of an inch focal length. lenses, as the tube a b c d, the magnifying power
The lens C is half an inch focal length, and may be indefinitely increased or diminished by
4-10ths of an inch in diameter; the lensD, a quar- pushing in or drawing out the sliding tube, and a
ter of an inch focus, and about one-fifth of an scale might be placed on this tube, which, if
divided into equal intervals, will be a scale of
Fig. 80.                   magnifying powers, by which the power of the
telescope will be seen at every division, when the
_...........___...lowest power is once determined.
Sir David Brewster, in his "Treatise on New
I             Pe     C        ID    d  Philosophical Instruments," Book I, chap. vii,
page 59, published in 1813, has adverted to this cir-............ ---— ='..at-_ -  cumstance in his description of an "Eyepiece
Wire Micrometer," and complains of Mr. Ezekiel
inch in diameter; their distance about half an Walker having in the " Philosophical Magazine'
inch or a small fraction more. The hole at d is for August, 1811, described such an instrument as
about 1-20th or 1-25th of an inch in diame- an invention of his own. Dr. Kitchener, some
ter, and the distance between the lenses B and C years afterward, described what he called a Pancraabout 11 inches.  The whole length of the eye- tic or omnipotent eyepiece, and got one made by
piece is 314 inches-exactly the same size as re- Dollond, with a few modifications different from
presented in the engraving. Its magnifying power that suggested by Brewster and Walker, which
is equal to that of a single lens one-fourth of an were little else than cutting the single tube into
inch focal length; and consequently the telescope, several parts, and giving it the appearance of a
though only 912 inches long, magnifies twenty-six new invention. In fact, none of these gentlemen
times with great distinctness, though there is a had a right to claim it as his peculiar invenlittle deficiency of light when viewing land ob- tion, as the principle was known and recogjects which are not well illuminated.          nized long before. I had increased the magnifyThe glasses of this telescope are all plano-con- ing powers of telescopes on the same principle
vex, with their convex sides toward the object, several years before any of these gentlemen comexcept the lens D, which is double convex, but municated their views on the subject, although
flattest on the side next the eye, and they are all I never formally constructed a scale of powers.
very accurately finished. The two lenses C and Mr. B. Martin, who died in 1782, proposed many
D form an astronomical eyepiece nearly similar years before, such a movable interior tube as that
to that formed by the lenses A and B. The focus alluded to for varying the magnifying power
of the telescope is adjusted by a screw, the threads   In order to give the reader a more specific idea
of which are formed upon the outside of a tube of this contrivance, I shall present hiln with
into which the eyepiece slides. The eyepiece and figure and description of one of Dr. Kitchener's
apparatus connected with it is screwed into the pancratic eyepieces, copied from one lately in my
inside of the main tube when not in use, when possession. The following are the exact dimenthe instrument forms a compact brass cylinder six sions of this instrument, with the focal distances,
inches long, which is inclosed in a fish skin case, &c., of the glasses, &c., of which it is composed.
lined with silk velvet, which opens with hinges.
The lenses in the eyepieces formerly described,                                   In. Tenths.
though stated to be plano-convexes, are, for the    Length of the whole eyepiece, conmost part, crossed glasses, that is, ground on tools sisting of four tubes, when fully drawn
of a long focus on the one side, and to a short fo- out, or the distance from A to B, fig. 81  14   4
cus on the other. The construction of the eye-   Length of the three tubes on which
piece of the Dutch telescope above described is one the scale is engraved, from  the comwhich might be adopted with a good effect in most mencement of the divisions at B to their
of our achromatic telescopes; and I am persuad- termination at C.9  15
ed, from the application I have made of it to   Each division into tens is equal to
various telescopes, that it is even superior in dis- 3-10ths of an inch.
tinctness and accuracy, and in the flatness of   When the three inner tubes are shut
field which it produces to the eyepiece in com- up to C, the length of the eyepiece is
mont use.  The two astronomical eyepieces of exactly.                                  5 5
which it consists, when applied to large achroma-   When these tubes are thus shut up, the
tic telescopes, perform with great accuracy, and magnifying power for a 312 feet achroare excellently adapted for celestial observations. matic is 1 00 times, which is the smallest
power. When the inner tube is drawn
out one-third of an inch, or to the first
division, the power is 110, &c.
SEC TI O N  I I I.                Focal distance of the lens next the object  1  0
Breadth of ditto...         0 65
DESCRIPTION OF THE PANCRATIC IEYETUB.        B
The plane side of this glass is next the
Fano  what we have stated when describing the object.
common terrestrial eyepiece now applied to ach-   Focal distance of the second glass from
romatic instruments (p. 98, fig. 79), it appears the object..                   1  5
obvious that any variety of magnifying powers,   This glass is double and equally conwithin certain limits, may be obtained by remov- vex.
ing the set of lenses C D, fig. 79, nearer to or   Breadth.....          0  5
farther from the tube which contains the lenses   Distance between these two glasses    i  7
A and B, on the same principle as the magnifying   Focal distance of the third or field




MANNER OF USING TELESCOPES.                                       101
In. Tenths. utmost extent, as represented in the  figure, a
lens, which is plane on the side next the         power of 400 is obtained.  These powers are by
eye..1 I                            far too high for such a telescope, as the powers
Breadth of ditto.                     0  55   between 300 and 400 can seldom or -never be used.
Focal distance of the lens next the eye  0   6   Were the scale to begin at 50 and terminate at 200,
Breadth of ditto.                     0  43  it would be much better adapted to a 3/L feet teleThis glass is plane on the side next the        scope.  Each alteration of the magnifying power
eye.                                              requires a new  adjustment of the eyepiece for
Distance between the third and fourth           distinct vision. As the magnifying power is inglasses..     1   creased, the distance between the eyeglass and the
object-glass must be diminished.  Dr. Kitchener
From  the figure  and description, the reader says that "the pancratic eyetube gives a better
will be at no loss to perceive how the magnifying  defined image of a fixed star, and shliows double
power is ascertained by this eyepiece.  If the  stars decidedly more distinct and perfectly separatlowest power for a 44 inch telescope be found  ed, than any other eyetube, and that such tubes
to be 100 when the  three sliding tubes are  will probably enable usto determine the distancesof
shut into the larger one, then by drawing out the  these objects from each other in a more perfect mnantube next the eye four divisions, a power of 140  iner than hlas been possible heretofore." These tubes
is produced; by drawing  out the tube snext are made by Dollond, London, and are sold for two
the eve its whole length, and the second tube to the  guineas each; but I do not think they excel in
division marked 220, a power of 220 times is distinctness those which are occasionally made by
produced; and drawing out all the tubes to their Mr. Tulley and other opticians.
Fig. 81.
C HAPTER VI.
MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS IN RELATION TO TELESCOPES.
THE following remarks, chiefly in regard to the  rian reflecting telescopes this adjustment is made
manner of using telescopes, may perhaps be use- by means of a screw connected with the small
ful to young observers, who are not tmuch accus- speculum; and in large achromatics, by means of
tomed to themode of managing these instruments. a rack and pinion connected with the eyetube.
1. Adjulstments requisite to be attended to in the When the magnifying power of a telescope is
use of Telescopes.-When near objects are viewed  comparatively small, tile eyetube requires to be
with a considerable magnifying power, the eye- altered only a very little.
tube requires to be removed farther from  the ob-   There is another adjustment requisite to be atject-glass than when very distant objects are con- tended to in order to adapt the telescope to the eyes
templated.  When the telescope is adjusted for of different persons.  Those whose eyes are too
an object 6, 8, or 10 miles distant, a very couside- convex, or who are shorlt-sighted, require the eyerable alteration in the adjustment is requisite in tube to be pushed in, and those whose eyes are
order to see distinctly an object at the distance of somewhat flattened, as old people, require the
two or three hundred yards, especially if the in- tube to be drawn out. Indeed, there are scarcely
strumeut is furnished with a high magnifying  two persons whose eyes do not require different
power.  In this last case, the eyetube requires to adjustments in a slight degree.  In some cases I
be drawn out to a considerable distance beyond  have found that the difference of adjustment for
the focus for parallel rays.  I have found that, in two individuals, in order to produce distinct vision
a telescope which magnifies 70 times, when ad- in each, amounted to nearly Ialf an inch.  Hence
justed for an object at the distance of two miles, the difficulty of exhibiting the sun, moon, and
the adjustment requires to be altered fully one planets through telescopes, and even terrestrial
inch in order to perceive distinctly an object at objects, to a company of persons who are unacthe distance of two or three hundred yards; that quainted with the mode of using or adjusting such
is, the tube must be drawn, in this case, an inch  instruments, not one-half of whom generally see
farther from  the object-glass, and pushed in the the object distinctly; fori upon the proper adjustsame extent, when we wish to view an object at ment of a telescope to the eye, the accuracy of
the distance of two or three miles.  These adjust- visio n in all cases depends, and no one except the
ments are made, in pocket perspectives, by gently  individual actually looking through the instrusliding the eyetube i1: or out, by giving it a gentle ment can be certain that it is accurately adjusted
circular or spiral motion, until the object appears to his eye; and even tile individual himstelf, from
distinct. In using telescopes which are held in not being accustomed to the view of certain obthe hand, the best plan is to draw all the tubes out jects, may be uncertain whether or not the adjustto their full length, and then, looking at the oh- merit be correct. I have found by experience
ject, with the left band supporting the main tube that when the magnifying powers are high, as
near the object-glass, and the right supporting the 150 or 200, mle difference of adjustment required
eyetube, gently and gradually push in the eye- for different eyes is very slight; but when low
piece until distinct vision be obtained. In Grego- powers are used, as 20, 30, or 40, the difference




102                         THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
of the requisite adjustments is sometimes very  of the declining sun strongly illuminated distant
considerable, amounting to a quarter or half an  objects.
inch.                                               The atmosphere is likewise frequently a great
2. State of the atmosphere most proper for observ- obstruction to the distinct perception of celestial
ing Terrestrial and Celestial Objects.-The atmo- objects.  It is scarcely possible for one who has
sphere which is thrown around the globe, while it not been accustomed to astronomical observations
is essentially requisite to the physical constitution  to form  a conception of the very great difference
of our world, and the comfort of its inhabitants, there is in the appearance of some of the heavenly
is found in many instances a serious obstruction bodies in different states of the atmosphere. There
to the accurate performance of telescopes.  Some- are certain conditions of the atmosphere essentimes it is obscured by mists and exhalations; tially requisite for making accurate observations
sometimes it is thrown into violent undulations with powerful telescopes, and it is but seldom,
by the heat of the sun and the process of evapora- especially ill our climate, that all the favorable
tion; and even, in certain cases, where there ap- circumstances concur.  The nights must be very
pears a pure unclouded azure, there is an agitation  clear and serene-the moon absent —no twilightamong its particles, and the substances incorpora- no haziness —no violent wind —no sudden change
ted with them, which prevents the telescope from  of temperature, as from  thaw to frost-and  no
producing distinct vision either of terrestrial or surcharge of the atmosphere with aqueous vapor.
celestial objects.  For viewing distant terrestrial I have fiequently found that, on the first and
objects, especially with high powers, the best time  second nights after a thaw, when a strong firost
is early in the morning, a little after sunrise, and  had set in, and when the heavens appeared very
from that period until about nine o'clock, A. M., in  brilliant, and the stars vivid and sparkling, the
summer, and in the evening about two or three  planets, when viewed with high powers, appeared
hours before sunset.  From  about telln o'clock. remarkably undefined and indistinct; their marA. M., until four or five in the afternoon, in sum- gins appeared wavring and jagged; and the belts
mer, if the sky be clear and the sun shining, there  of Jupiter, which at othl-er times were remarkably
is generally a considerable undulation in the at- distinct, were so obscured and ill-defined that they
mosphere, occasioned by the solar rays and the could with difficulty be traced.  This was probarapid evaporation, which prevents high powers bly owing to the quantity of aqueous vapor, and
from  being used with distinctness on any tele- perhaps icy particles, then floating in the air, and
scope, however excellent.  The objects, at such  to the undulations thereby produced.  When a
times, when powers of 50, 70, or 100 are applied, hard frost has continued a considerable time, this
appear to undulate like the waves of the sea, and, impediment to distinct observation is in a great
notwithstanding  every effort to adjust the tele- measure removed.  But I have never enjoyed
scope, they appear confused and indistinct. Even  more accurate and distinct views of the heavenly
with very moderate magnifying powers this im- bodies than in fresh, serene evenings, when there
perfection is perceptible.  In stuch circumstances, was no frost and no wind, and only a few fleecy
I have sometimes used a power of 200 times on  clouds occasionally hovering around.  On such
distant land objects with good effect a little before evenings, and on such alone, the highest powers
sunset, when, in the forenoonl of the same day, I may be applied.  I have used magnifying powers
could not have applied a power of 50 with any de- on such occasions with good effect which could
gree of distinctness.  On days when the air is not have been applied, so as to insure distinct
clear and the atmosphere covered with clouds, ter- vision, more frequently than two or three days in
restrial objects may be viewed with considerably  the course of a year.
high powers. When there has been a long (con-    Sir William Herschel has observed, in reference
tinued drought, the atmosphere is then in a very  to this point, " In beautiful nights, when the outunfit state for enjoying distinct vision with high  side of our telescopes is dropping with moisture,
magnifying powers, on account of the quantity  discharged from  the atmosphere, there are now
of vapors with which the atmosphere is then sur- and then favorable hours in which it is hardly
charged, and the undulations they produce.  But, possible to put a limit to the magnifying powers;
after copious showers of rain, especially if ac-  but such valuable opportunities are extremely
companied with high winds, the air is purified, scarce, and with large instruments it will always
and distant objects appear with greater brilliancy  be lost labor to observe at other times.  In order,
and distinctness than at any other seasons.  In  therefore, to calculate how long a time it must
using telescopes, the objects at which we look  take to sweep the heavens, as far as they are withshould, if possible, be nearly in a direction oppo- in the reach of my forty feet telescope, charged
site to that of the sun.  When they are viewed  with a magnifying power of 1000, I have had renearly in the direction of the sun, their shadows course to my journals to find how many favorable
are turned toward us, and they consequently ap- hours we may annually hope for in this climate;
pear dim and obscure. By not attending to this and, under all favorable circumstances, it appears
circumstance, some persons, in trying telescopes, that a year which will afford ninety, or, at most,
have pronounced a good instrument to be imper- one hundred hours, is to be called very producfect, which, had it been tried on objects properly  tive."  "In the equator, with my twenty feet teilluminated, would have been found to be excel- lescope, I have swept over zones of two degrees
lent.  In our variable northerly climate the atmo- with a power of 157, but an allowance of tell
sphere is not so clear and serene for telescopic  minutes in polar distance must be made for lapobservation as in Italy, the -,Muth of France, and  ping the sweeps over one another where they join.
in many of the countries which lie within the  As the breadth of the zones may be increased totropics.  The undulations of the air, owing to  ward the poles, the northern hemisphere may be
the causes alluded to aboet. constitute one of the  swept in about 40 zones; to these we must add 19
principal reasons why a telescope magnifying  southern zones; then 59 zones, which, on account
above a hundred times can seldom  be used with  of thile sweeps lapping over one another about five
any good effect in viewing terrestrial objects, minutes of time in right ascension, we must reckthough I have sometimes used a power of nearly  on of 25 hours each, will give 1475 hours; and
200 with considerable distinctness in the stillness allowing 100 hours per year, we find that with
of a surnmer or autumnal evening, when the rays the twenty feet telescope the heavens may be




MANNER OF USING TELESCOPES.                                      103
weopt in about fourteen years andl three-quarters. heavens.  Most of the phenomena of the planets,,N1ow the time of sweeping with different magni- conets, double stars, and other objects, are visible'yitg powers will be as the squares of the powers; with instruments of moderate  dimensions, so
and pnttingp and t for the power and time in  that every one who has a relish for celestial investhe twenty feet telescope, and P-1000 for the tigations may, at a comparatively small expense,
power in the forty feet instrument, we shall have procure a telescope for occasional observations
P2    2  _59840. TIen making the same which will show the principal objects and phep2                                  nomena described in books on astronomny. Manlily
allowance for 100 hours per year, it appears that persons have been misled  by some occasional
it will require not less than 598 years to look with  remarks which Sir WV. Herschel made, in refierthe forty feet reflector, charged with the above- ence to certain very high powers which he somnementioned power, only one single moment into  times put, by way of experiment, on some of lhis
each point of space; and even then, so much of telescopes, as if these were the powers requi;ie
the southern hemisphere will remain unexplored  for viewing the objects to which he refers.  For
as will take up 213 years more to examine."'-      example, it is stated that he once put a power of
From  the above remarks of so eminent an ob- 6450 times on his seven feet Newtonian telescope
server, the reader will perceive how difficult it is of 6 3-l0ths inches aperture; but this was only
to explore the heavens with minuteness and accu- for the purpose of all experiment, and could be
racy, and with how many disappointments, aris- of no use whatever when applied to the moon, the
ing from the state of the atmosphere, the astrono- planets, and most objects in the heavens.  1termer must lay his account, when employed in schel, through the whole course of his writings,
planetary or sidereal investigation. Beside the mentions his only having used it twice, namely,
circumstances now stated, it ought to be noticed on the stars a Lyrna and 7' Leonis, whllich stars
that a star or a planet is only in a situation for a can 1e seen more distinctly and sharply defined
high magnifying power about half the time it is with a power of 420.  To produce a power of
above the horizon.  The density of the atmo- 6450 on such a telescope would require a lens of
sphere, and the quantity of vapors with which  only 1-77th of an inch in focal distance; and it
it is charged near the horizon, prevent distinct is questioned  by some whether Herschel  had
vision of celestial objects with high powers until lenses of so small a size in his possession, or
they have risen to at least 15 or 20 degrees in alti- whether it is possible to form  them  with aecutude, and the highest magnifiers can scarcely be racy.
applied with good effect unless the object is near    Powers requisite for observing the Phenomena
the meridian, and at a considerable  elevation of the Planets.-The planet Mercury requires a
above tihe horizon.  If the moon be viewed a considerable magnifying power in order to perlittle after her rising, and afterward when she ceive its phases with distinctness.  I have seldom
comes to her highest elevation in autumn, the viewed this planet with a less power than 100 and
difference in her appearance and distinctness will 150, with which powers its half-moon, its gi)bbe strikingly  perceptible.  It is impossible  to  bous, and its crescent phase may be distinctl.
guess whether a night be well adapted for celestial perceived.  With a power of 40), 50, or even ti;'
observations until we actually make tile experi- times, these phases can with difficulty be seen,
ment, and instruments are frequently condemned, especially as it is generally at a low altitude whben
when tried at improper seasons, when the atmo- such observations are made. The phase-s of  respliere only is in fault.  A  certain observer re- nus are much more easily distinguisled, espemarks, "I have never seen the face of Saturn  cially the crescent phase, which is seen to the
more distinctly than in a night when the air has greatest advantage about a month before and
been  so  hazy that with my naked eye I could  after the inferior conjunction.  With a power!(not
hardly discern a star of less than the third magni- exceeding 25 or 30 times, this phase, at sulch
tude.   The degree of the transparency of the periods, may be easily perceived.  It requires,
air is likewise varying almost in the course of  however, much higher powers to perceive (lisevery minute, so that even in the course of the tinctly the variations of the gibboius phasl; and
same half hour planets and stars will appear per- if this planet be not viewed at a considerably
fectly defined, and  the reverse.  The  vapors high altitude when in a half-moon or gibbon.
moving and undulating the atmosphere, even  phase, the obscurity and undulations of the atwhen the sky appears clear to the naked eye, mosphere near the horizon prevent such phases
will in a few instants destroy the distinctness of from  being accurately distinguished, even when
vision, and in a few seconds more the object will high powers are applied.  Although certain pheresume its clear and well-defined aspect."t        nomena of the planets may be seen with such
3. On the magnifying Powers requisitefor observ-  low  powers as I have now stated, yet in every
ing the Phenomena of the difierent Planets, Comets, instance the highest magnifying powers consistdouble Stars,4-c. —There are some objects connected  cut with distinctness should be preferred, as thle
with astronomy which cannot be perceived with- eye is not then strained, and the object appqears
out having recourse to instruments and to powers with a greater degree of magnitude and splendor.
of great magnitude; but it is a vulgar error to  The planet Mars requires a considerable degree
imagine that very large and very expensive tele- of magnifying power, even when at its nearest
scopes are absolutely necessary for viewing the distance from  the earth, in order to discern its
greater part of the more interesting scenery of the spots and its gibbous phase. I have never obtained a satisfactory view  of the spots which
mark the surface, and their relative position, with
Philosophical Transactions for 1800, vol. xc, p. 80, &c. a less power than 130, 160, or 200 tinmes; aind
t In using telescopes within doors, care should generally even with such powers, persons not much  ccus)e taken that there be no fires in the apartment where they...re placed fbr observation, and that the air within be nearly tomed to look through telescopes find a difficulty
of the same temperature as the air of the surrounding atmo- in distinguishing them.
sphere; for if the room be filled with heated air, when the    The strongest and most prominent belts of JlAwindows are opened there will be a current of cold rushing  pitr may be seen with a power of about 45,
in, and of heated rushing out, which will produce such an
undulation and tremulous motion as will prevent any celes- which power may he put upon a twenty-linch
U- tal object from being distinctly seen,          achromatic or a one foot reflector; but a satisfae



104                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
tory view of all the belts, and the relative posi- presents us with such a variety of extraordinary
tions they occupy, cannot be obtained with much  phenomena as the planet Saturn: a magnificent
lowel powers than 80, 100, or 140. The most globe, encompassed by a stupendous double ring;
common positions of these belts are, one dark  attended by seven satellites; ornamented with
and well-defined belt to the south of Jupiter's  equatorial belts; compressed at the poles; turning
equator; another of nearly the same description  upon its axis; mutually eclipsing its ring and
to the north of it, and one about his north and  satellites, and eclipsed by them; the most distant
his south polar circles.  These polar belts are  of the rings also turning upon its axis, and the
much more faint, and, consequently, not so easily  same taking place with the farthest of the sateldistinguished as the equatorial belts.  the moons lites; all the parts of the system  of Saturn ocof this planet, in a very clear night, may some- casionally reflecting light on each  other; the
times be seen with a pocket one foot achromatic  rings and moons illuminating the nights of the
glass magnifying about 15 or 16 times.  Some  Saturnian, the globe and satellites enlightening
people have pretended that they could see some  the dark parts of the ring; and the planet and
of these satellites with their naked eye; but this rings throwing back the sun's beams upon the
is very doubtful, and it is probable that such per- moons, when they are deprived of them  at the
sons mistook certain fixed stars which happened  time of their conjunctions."  TI'his illustrious asto be near Jupiter for his satellites.  But, inl tronomer states that with a new seven feet mirror
order to have a clear and interesting view  of  of extraordinary distinctness he examined this
these, powers of at least 80 or 100 times should  planet, and found that the ring reflects more light
be used.  In order to perceive their immersions  than the body, and with a power of 570 the color
into the shadow of Jupiter, and the exact moment of the body becomes yellowish, while that of the
of their emersions from  it, a telescope not less ring remains more white. On March 11, 1780,
than a 44 inch achromatic, with a power of 150, he tried the powers of 222, 332, and 440 successhould be employed. When these satellites are  sively, and found the light of Saturn less intense
viewed through large telescopes with high magni-  than that of the ring; the color of the body turnfying powers, they appear with wvell-defined discs, ing, with the high powers, to a kind of yellow
like small planets.  The planet Jupiter has gen- whlite, while that of the ring still remained white.
erally been considered as a good test by which to    Most of the satellites of Saturn are difficult to be
try telescopes for celestial purposes.  When it is perceived with ordinary telescopes, excepting the
near the meridian and at a high altitude, if its fourth, which may be seen with powers of from
general surface, its belts, and its margin appear 60 to 100 times.  It was discovered by Huygens
distinct and well-defined, it forms a strong pre- in 1655 by means of a common refracting telesumptive evidence that the instrument is a good  scope 12 feet long, which might magnify about
one.                                              70 times.  The next in brightness to this is thle
The planet Saturn forms one of the most in- fifth satellite, which Cassini discovered in 1671
teresting objects for telescopic observation.  The  by means of a 17 feet refractor, which might carry
ring of Saturn may be seen with a power of 45; a power of above 80 times.  The third was:v
but it can only be contemplated with advantage  covered by the same astronomer in 1672 by a
when powers of 100, 150, and 200 are applied to  longer telescope; and the first and second in 16849
a three or a five feet achromatic. The belts of S.t- by means of two excellent object-glasses of 100
urn are not to be seen distinctly with an achro- and 136 feet, which might have magnified from
matic of less than 23f4ths inches aperture, or a 200 to 230 times.  They were afterward seen by
Gregorian reflector of less than four inches aper- two other glasses of 70 and 90 feet, made by
ture, nor with a less magnifying power thai 100  Campani, and sent from Rome to the Royal Obtimes.  Sir W. Herschel has drawn this planet servatory at Paris by the king's'order, after the
with five belts across its disc; but it is seldom  discovery of the third and fifth satellites.  It is
that above one or two of them  can be seen by  asserted, however, that all those five satellites
moderate-sized telescopes and common observers. were afterward seen with a telescope of 34 feet,
The.division of the double ring, when the planet with an aperture of 3-10ths inches, which would
is in a favorable position for observation, and in  magnify about 120 times.  These satellites, on
a high altitude, may sometimes be perceived with  tihe whole, except the fourth and fifth, are not
a 44 inch achromatic, with an aperture of 24/ths  easily detected.  Dr. Derham, who frequently
tnches, and with powers of 150 or 180; but viewed Saturn through Huygens' glass of 126
higher powers and larger instruments are gen- feet focal length, declares, in the preface to his
erally requisite to perceive this phenomenon dis- " Astro-Theology," that he could never perceive
tinctly; and even when a portion of it is seen at above three of the satellites.  Sir W. Herschel
the extremities of the anse, the division cannot, observes, that the visibility Of these minute and
in every case, be traced along the whole of the  extremely faint objects depends more  on  the
half-circumference of the ring which is presented penetrating than upon the snagnifying power of
to our eye.  Mr. Hadley's engraving of Saturn, our telescopes; and that with a ten feet Newtoin the "Philosophical Transactions" for 1723, nian, charged with a magnifying power of only
though taken with a Newtonian reflector with a 60, he saw all the five old satellites; but the sixth
power of 228, represents the division of the ring  and seventh, which were discovered  and were
as seen only on the ansme or extremities of the  easily seen with his forty feet telescope, and were
elliptical figure in which the ring appears.  The  also visible in his twenty feet instrument, were
best period for observing this division is when the  not discernible in the seven or the ten feet telering appears at its utmost width.  In this posi- scopes, though all that nag7isfyiinq power can do
tion it was seen in 1840, and it will appear nearly  may be done as well witbl the seven feet as with
in the same position in 1855. When the ring  any larger instrument. Speaking of the seventh
appears like a very narrow  ellipse a short time  satellite, he says, "Even in my forty feet reflectol
previous to its disappearance, the division, or it appears no bigger than avery small lucid point.
dark space between the rings, cannot be seen by  I see it, however, very well in the twenty feet reordinary instruments.                             flector, to which the exquisite figure of the specuSir W. Herschel very properly observes, " There  lum not a little contributes."  A late observer as>s not,?'~erhaps, another object in the heavens that sorts that in 1825, with a twelve feet achromatic,




MANNER OF USING TELESCOPES.                                     105
of seven inches aperture, made by Tulley, with  perly proportioned, as much depends upon the
a power of 150, the seven satellites were ea- state of the weather, and the pureness of the atsily visible, but not so easily with a power of 200; mosphere.  In order to perceive the closest of
and that the planet appeared as bright as brilliant- the double stars, Sir W. Herschel recommends
ly burnished silver, and the division in the ring that the power of the telescope should be adjusted
and a belt were very plainly distinguished with a upon a star known to be single, of nearly the
power of 200.                                    same altitude, magnitude, and color with the douThe planet Uranus, being generally invisible to  ble star which is to be observed, or upon one star
the naked eye, is seldom an object of attention to above and another below it. Thus the late Mr.
common observers. A considerable magnifying  Albert, the astronomer, could not see the two
power is requisite to make it appear in a planetary  stars of 7' Leonis when the focus was adjusted
form with a well-defined disc. The best periods upon that star itself, but he soon observed the
for detecting it are when it is near its opposition  small star after he had adjusted the focus upon
to the sun, or when it happens to approximate to Regulus.  An exact adjustment of the focus of
any of the other planets, or to a well known fixed  the instrument is indispensably requisite in order
star.  When none of these circumstances occur, to perceive such minute objects.
its position requires to be pointed out by an equa-   In viewing the Nebukle, and the very small and
torial telescope.  On the morning of the 25th of immensely distant fixed stars, which require much
January, 1841, this planet happened to be in light to render them visible, a large aperture of
conjunction with Venus, at which time it was the object-glass or speculum, which admits of a
only four minutes north of that planet. Several great quantity of light, is of more importance
days before this conjunction I made observations on than high magnifying powers.  It is light chiefly,
Uranus. On the evening of the 24th, about eight accompanied with a moderate magnifying power,
hours before the conjunction, the two planets ap- that enables us to penetrate into the distant regions
peared in the same field of the telescope, the one of space. Sir W. Herschel, when sweeping the
exceedingly splendid, and the other more obscure, profuindities of the Milky Way,and the Hand and
but distinct and well-defined. Uranus could not Club of Orion, used a telescope of the Newtonian
be perceived either with the naked eye or with an form, 20 feet focal length and 18 7-10ths inches
opera-glass, but could be distinguished as a very  in diameter, with a power of only 157. On apsmall star by means of a pocket achromatic tele: plying this telescope and power to a part of the
scope magnifying about 14 times. It is question- Via Lactea, he found that it completely resolved
able whether, under the most favorable circum- the whole whitish appearance into stars, which
stances, this planet can ever be distinguished by  his former telescopes had not light enough to efthe naked eye. With magnifying powers of 30 feet, and which smaller instruments with much
and 70, it appeared as a moderately large star highermagnifying powerswould not have effected.
with a steady light, but without any sensible disc. He tells us that, with this power, "the glorious
With powers of 120, 180, and 250, it presented a multitude of stars," in the vicinity of Orion, " of
round and pretty well-defined disc, but not so all possible sizes,, that presented themselves to
luminous and distinctas it would have done in a view, was truly astonishing, and that he had
higher altitude.                                 fields which contained 70, 90, and 110 stars, so
The Double Stars require a great variety of that a belt of fifteen degrees long and two degrees
powers in order to distinguish the small stars that broad, which passed through the field of the teleaccompany the larger. Some of them  are distin- scope in an hour, could not contain less than fifty
guished with moderate powers, while others re- thousand stars that were large enough to be disquire pretty large instruments, furnished with  tinctly numbered."  In viewing the Milky Way,
high magnifying eyepieces.  I shall therefore se- the Nebulae, and small clusters of stars, such as
lect only a few as a specimen.  The star Castor, Prcvsepe in Cancer, I generally use a power of 55
or a Geminorum, may be easily seen to be double times on an achromatic telescope six feet six
with powers of from 70 to 100.  I have some- inches in focal length and four inches in diameter.
times seen these stars, which are nearly equal in The eyepiece which produces this power-which
size and color, with a terrestrial power of 44 on a I formed for the purpose-consists of two convex
44 inch achromatic.  The appearance of this star lenses, the one next the eye three inches focal
with such powers is somewhat similar to that of s length and 1 2-10ths of an inch diameter, and
Coronm in a seven feet achromatic of five inches that next the object 3y2 inches focus and 1
aperture, with a power of 500.?Andromede may  4-lOths of an inch diameter, the deepest convex
be seen with a moderate power.  In a thirty inch surfaces being next each other, and'their distance
achromatic of two inches aperture and a power a quarter of an inch.  With this eyepiece a very
of 80, it appears like i Bootis when seen in a five large and brilliant field of view is obtained; and I
feet achromatic with a power of 460. *This star find it preferable to any higher powers in viewing
is said to be visible even in a one foot achromatic the nebulosities and clusters of stars. In certain
with a power of 35. ~ Lyrn, which is a quintu- spaces of the heavens it sometimes presents in one
pie star, but appears to the naked eye as a single field nearly a hundred stars.  It likewise serves
star, may be seen to be double with a power of to exhibit a very clear and interesting view of
from six to twelve times. 9 Leonis is visible in the full moon.
a 44 inch achromatic with a power of 180 or 200.   In observing Comets, a very small power should
Riqel, in a 3Y1 feet achromatic, may be seen with  generally be used, even on large instruments.
powers varying from  130 to 200.  The small These bodies possess so small a quantity of light,
star, however, which accompanies Rigel, is some- and they are so frequently enveloped in a vail of
times difficult to be perceived, even with such dense atmosphere, that magnifying power somepowers. g BootiS is seldom distinctly defined with times renders them  more obscure, and therefore
an achromatic of less aperture than 314 inches, the illuminating power of a large telescope with
or a reflector of less than five inches, with a a small power is in all cases to be preferred   A
power of at least 250.                           comet eyepiece should be constructed with a very
These and similar stars are not to be expected  large and uniformly distinct field, and  should
to be seen equally well at all times, even when  magnify only from  15 to 30 or 40 times, and the
the magnifying and illuminating powers are pro- lenses of such an eyetube should be nearly two




106                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
inches in diameter.  The late Rev. F. Wollaston  which  I now allude, I generally make use of a
recommended, for observing comets, "a telescope  terrestrial eyepiece of a considerable power, with
with an achromatic object-glass of 16 inches  a large field; the sunglass is fixed at tilhe end of a
focal length and. two inches aperture, with a  short tube, which slides on  the eyepiece, and
Ramsden's eyeglass magnifying about 25 times, permits the colored glass to approach within a
mounted on a very firm equatorial stand, the field  line or two of the lens next the eye, so that tie
of view taking in two degrees of a great circle."  whole field of the telescope is completely seCUred.
In viewing the moon, various powers may be  The eyepiece alluded  to  carries a nmagnifying
applied,  according  to circumstances.'IThe best power of 95 times for a 46 inch telescope, and
periods of the moon for inspecting the inequali-  takes in about three-fourths of the surfae  of the
ties on its surface are either when it assumes a  sun, so that the relative positions of all the spots
crescent or a half-moon phase, or two or three  may generally be perceived at one view.  Such
days after the period of half-moon.  Several days  a power is, in most cases, quite sufficient for
after full moon, and particularly about the third  ordinary observations, andt I have seldom  found
quarter, when the orb is waning, and when the  any good  elict to arise, from  attempting very
shadows of its mountains and vales are thrown in  high powers when miniutely examining the solar
a difFrernt direction from  what they are when oni  spots.
thile increase, the most prmninent and interesting    But the most pleasant mode of vi:ewing the
views may be obtained.  The mniost convenient solar spots, especially when we wish to exhibit
season for obtaining such views is dnring  the  them  to others, is to throw the image of the sun
autumrinal months, when the moon,  about the  upon a white screen, placed in a room  which is
third quarter, sometimes rises as early as eight considerably darkened.  It is difficult, however,
o'clock, i. M., and may be viewed at a considerably  when  the sun is at a high altitude, to put this
high altitude  by ten or eleven.  When in thle  method into practice, oni account of the great
positions now all'uded to, and at a high altitude, obliquity with which his rays then fall, which
very high magnifying powers may sometimes be  prevents a screen  from  beiNg  placedl at any
applied with good e]ebct, especially if the atmo- considerable  distance  from  the eye-end  of the
sphere be clear and serene. I have sometimes  telescope.  The followinig plan, therefore, is that
applied a power, in such cases, of 350 times onil a  which I uniformly adopt, as  being  both  the
46 inch achlromnatic with considerable distinctness;  easiest and tihle most satisfactory.  A telescope is
but it is only two  r thre te  times ii a year, and  placed in a conveinient position, so as to be directwhen  the atmosphere  is remarkably favorable,  ed to the sun.  This telescope is furnished with a
that such a power can be used.  The autumnal  diagonal eyepiece, such as that represented in fig.
evenings are generally best fitted for such obser-  77 (p. 97), The window-shutters of the apartvations.  The full moon is an. object which is mrent are all closed excepting a space snfficient to
inever seen to advantage with high powers, as no  admit the solar rays; andii when the telescope is
shadows or inequalities on its surface can then be  properly adjusted, a beautiful image of the suon,
perceived. It forms, however, a very beautiful with all the spots whichl then happen to diversity
object when magnifying   powers not higher than  his surface, is thrown upon the Ceiling of thie roon.
40, 50, or 60 tlnes are used.  A  power of 45  Th'I'ilis imoage may be from  12 to 220, ora i0 nehes
times, if properly  constructed, will show  the  or more in diameter, according to the distamice
whole of the m'oon with a margin around it, when  of the ceiliiig fmiin the diagonal eyepiece.'I me
tile darker and brighter parts of its surface willi greater this distance Dt, the larger tthe image.  If
present a variegated aspect, and appear somewhat  tihe sun is at a very high ahtitude, tie imat  e  will
like a 1map to the eye of thile observer.            be elliptical; if hlie be ait n. great detance froml
4. Mode of exhibiting  the Solar   Spots.-The  tihe horizon, time image will appear cimcular, or
solar spots may be contemplated with advantage  nearly so: but in either case tIhe spots viii be disby magnifying payers varying fiom  60 to 1i0  tinitly depicted, proviled the focus of the teletimes; about 90 times is a good riedion powier,  scope be accurately adjusted.  In this exlckbiti mon,
though they may sometimes be distinguished with  t!te appiarent miotion of the sun produced by the
very low powers, such as those usually adapted to  rotation of tihe eartl,,and the passage of tlimi
a oame foot telescope, or even by means of a com- fleces of clouds across tihe solar di sc, exhibit a
mon opera-glass.  The comnmoni astrmoii cal eye-  very plea4nig appearance.
pieces given along with achromatic telescopes,    By this moode of viewing the sohar spots we may
and  the suniglassas connected witli tiemn, are  easily ascertain their diameter anid niagnitude, at
generally  ill adapted for taking a pleasant and  least to a near approximation.   We have only to
comnprelhensve view of the solar spots.  In tile  take  a scale of inches, anid measure) tihe diameter
higher  magnifying  powerS, tihe first eyeglassa is  of any well-defined and  remarkable spot, and
generally at too great a distance from  tibh  eye, leau  theim  diameter of time solar image; and, coiand thie sungimss  which is screwed over it remcoves pariig thie one with thoe ither, we can ascertain
it to a still greater  distance fiomi  tihe point to  the mnumber of rloies, either liheal or squnare comowvliicmi time eye is applied, so that not above one- prehended  in the dimensions of tihe spot.  For
third of the field oS view caui  be taken iin.  This example,, suppose a spot to measure half an inci
circumstance renders it difficult to point the in- in Ciarneter, anid the whole image of time sun  5
strumneut to any parti.-ular small spot oni the  incies tihe proportion between the dimiamnelr oi
solar disc which we wish  minutely to inspect; the spot and tlat of the sun w.ll be as 1 to 50; in
and besime, it prevents us from takiing a compre- ether words, tihe one:-iftielh patr  of the sum's
hiensive view of the relative positions of all the  diameter. Now timis diameter being 130,100 miles,
spots that may at any time be traversing tihe disc. this number,. divided by 50, produices a quomieit
To obviate this inconveniene,     tihe sunglasswonlt  of 17,600 —thIe numnber of miles which its diarmrequire lobe il)aced so near to time glass next the eye  eter measures.  Such a spot will therefore containm
as almost to touch it.  But this is sometimes diffi- an area of 24 3,285,504, or more thamn two b undred
cult to be attained, and in hiigh. powers even the  mmmd forty-three millions of square miles, which
thickness of the sunglass itself is sufficient to  is 46 milions of miles more than the whole suprevent the eye from taking  in the whole field of  perficies of the terraqueouns globe.  Again, sup.
view.   For preventing  thie inconveniences  to  pose tihe diameter of a spot measures 3-10ths of




SPACE-PENETRA'TING POWER.                                        107
an inch, and the solar image 23 inches, the pro- the magnifying powers irn due proportion. What
portion of the diameter of the spot to that of the this proportion is, depends, ill a certain degree,
sun is as 3 to 230=the number of tenths in 23  upon the brightness of the object.  In proportion
inches.  The number of miles in the spot's diam- to its brightness or luminosity, the magnifying
eter will therefore be found by the following pro- power may, to a certain extent, be, increased. Sir
portion: 230: 880,000:: 3: 11,478; that is, the W. Herschel remarks in reference to ac Lyre,
diameter of such a spot measures eleven thousand  " This star, I surmise, has light enough to bear
four hundred and seventy-eight miles. Spots of being magnified at least a hundred thousand times,
such sizes are not unfrequently seen to transit the with no nlore thani six inches of aperture." Howsolar disc.                                       ever beautifully perfect any telescopes may appear,
By this mode of viewing the image of the sun, and however sharp their defining power, their perhis spots may be exhibited to twenty or thirty
individuals at once without the least straining or                     Fig. 82.
injury to the eyes; and as no separate screen is
requisite, and as the ceilings of rooms are generally white, the experiment may be performed in
lhalf a rilnuto without any previous preparation
except screwing on and adjusting the eyepiece.
The manner of exhibiting the solar spots in this
way is represented in fig. 82.
5. On the Siace-penetratinq Power of Telescopes.
-The power of telescopes to penetrate into the
profundity of space is the result of the quantity
of light they collect and send to the eye- in a state
fit for vision.  This property  of telescopes is
sorne times designated by the expression Illruminatilng PoUweer'.
SirW h. Herschel appears to have been the first who
made a distinction between the mayngifying power
and the space-pelnetrating power of a telescope;
and there are many examples which prove that formance is limited by their illuminating powers,
such a distinction ought to be made, especially in  which are as the squares of the diameters of thi
the case of large instruments.  For example, the  apertures of the respective instruments. Thus a tesmall star, or speck of light which accompanies lescope whose object-glass is four inches diameter
the pole-star, may be seen through a telescope of will have four times times the. quantity of' light, or
large aperture with a smaller magnifying power illuminating power, possessed by a telescope whoso
than with a telescope of a small aperture furnished  aperture is only two inches, or' in the proportion
with a much higher power.  If the magnifying  of 16 to 4; tile square of 4 being 16, and the'
power is sufficient to show the small star com- square of 2 being 4.
pletely separated from  the rays which surround    The nature of the space-penetrating power tthe large one, this is sufficient, in one point of  which we are adverting, and the distinction be —
view; but, in order that this effect may be pro- tween it and magnifying power, may be itlustrat —
duced, so as to render the small star perfectly  ed from a few examples taken from  Sir W. Heir
distinguishable, a certain quantity of light must schel's observations.
be admitted into the pupil of the eyg, which    The first observation which I shall notice refers
quantity depends upon the area of tle object-glass to the nebula between a and f Ophluchi, discovered
or speculum of the instrument, or, in other words, by Messier in 1764.  The observation was made,
on the illuminating power. If we compare a tele- with a ten feet reflector, having a magnifying.
scope of 24ths inches aperture with one of five power of 250, and a space-penetrating power of
inches aperture, when the magnifying power of 28.67. His note is dated May 3, 1783. "I  see seveeacth does not exceed 50 times for terrestrial ob- ral stars in it, and make no doubt a higher powerjects, the effbct of illnminatin  power is not so and more light will resolve it all into stars.  This
evident; but if we use a power of 100 for day seems to me a good nebula for the purpose of esabjects, and  t180 for the heavenly bodies, the tablishing the connection between nebulma and;
effects of illuminating power is so clearly percep- clusters of stars itn general."  "J June 18, 1784.
tible, that otiJeets not only appear brighter and The same nebtla viewed with a Newtonian twen —
more clearly visible in the larger telescope, but ty feet reflector;- penetrating power 61, and a mag —
with the same mragnifying power they also appecar nifying power of 157; a very large anid a very
larger, particularly when the satellites of Jupiter bright cluster of excessively compressed stars.
and small stars are tile objects we are viewing.   The stars are but just visible, and are of unequal'
Sir W. Herschel remarks, that "objects are magnitudes. The large stars are red; the cluster'
viewed in theil greatest perfection when, in pene- is a minliature of that near Flamstead's forty-.
trnting space, the magnifying power is so low as second Comra   Berenices.  Right ascension, 17h..
only to be sufficient to show the object well, and  6m. 32s. Polar distance, 1080 18"." In this case,.
when, in magnifying objects, by way of examin- a penetrating power of about 28, with a magnify —
ing them rrinutely, the space-penetrating power is ing power of 250, barely showed a few  stars;:
no hliglher thtan what will suffice for the purpose; while in the second instrument the illuminating,
for in the use of either power, the injudicious power of 60, with the magnifying power of' only
overcharge of the other will prove hurtful to vi-. 157, showed themn completely.
sion."  Wt'hen illuminating power is in too highl   Subsequently to the date of the latter observaa degree, the eye is oieLnded by the extreme bright- tion, the twenty feet Newtonian telescope was
ness of the object; when it is in too low a de- converted into an Herschelian instrument by tak,gree, thie eye is distressed by its endeavors. too see ing away the small speculum, and giviiingthe largoe
what is beyond its reach; and therefore it is de- one the proper inclination for o~btailning the front
sirable, when we wish to give the eye all the as- view; by which alteration the illuminating power;
sistance possible, to have the illuminating and was increased from  61 toi 75, and, the advantage'
VOL. II.-36




1'08                         THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
derived from the alteration was evident in the dis- the natural eye could not penetrate far into space,
covery of the satellites of Uranus by the altered te-  the telescope possessed that power sufficiently to
lescope, which before was incompetent in the point show, by the dial of a distant church steeple, what
of penetration, or illuminating power.  "March  o'clock it was, notwithstanding the naked eye
14, 1798, I viewed the Georgian planet (or Ura- could no longer see the steeple itself.
nus) with a new twenty-five feet reflector.  Its   In order to convey an idea of the numbers by
penetrating power is 95.85, and having just before  which the degree of space-penetrating power is
also viewed it with my twenty feet instrument, I expressed, and the general grounds on which they
found that with an equal magnifying power of  rest, the following statements may be made. The
300, the twenty-five feet telescope had considerably  depth to which the naked eye can penetrate into
the advantage of the former."  The aperture of the spaces of the heavens is considered as extendthe twenty feet instrument was 18.8 inches, and  ing to the twelfth order of distances; in other
that of the twenty-five feet telescope 24. inches, — words, it can perceive a. star at a distance twelve
so that the superior effect of the latter instrument times farther than those luminaries, such as Sirins,
must have been owing to its greater illuminating  Arcturus, or Capella, which, from their vivid light-,
power.  The following observations show the su- we presume to be nearest to us. It has been stat
perior power of the forty feet telescope, as corn- ed above that Herschel calculated his ten feet teJpared with the twenty feet.  "Feb. 24, 1786, I lescope to have a space-penetrating power of 28.67,
viewed the nebula near Flamstead's fifth Serpentis that is, it could enable us to descry a star 28 times
with my twenty feet reflector, magnifying power farther distant than the naked eye can reach. His
157. The most beautiful, extremely compressed  twenty feet Newtonian was considered as having
cluster of small stars, the greatest part of them  a similar power of 61; his 25 feet, nearly 96; and
gathered together into one brilliant nucleus, evi- his forty feet instrument, a power of 191.69.  If
dently consisting of stars, surrounded with many  each of these numbers be multiplied by 12, tile
detached gathering stars of the same size and co- product will indicate how much farther these tele-'or. R. A., 15h. 7m. 12s. P. D. 870 8"." "May 27, scopes will penetrate into space than the nearest
1791, I viewed the same object with my forty feet range of the fixed stars, such as those of the first
telescope, penetrating power 191.69, inagnifying  magnitude.  For instance,the penetrating power
power 370. A beautiful cluster of stars. 1 counted  of the forty feet reflector being 191.69, this nurnabout 200 of them.  The middle of it is so comrn- ber, multiplied by 12, gives a product of 2300,
pressed that it is impossible to distinguish the stars."  which shows that, were there a series of two thou"Nov. 5, 1791, I viewed Saturn with the twenty  sand three hundred stars extended in a line beyond
and forty feet telescopes. Twenty feet.-The fifth  Sirius, Capella, and similar stars, each star sepasatellite of Saturn is very small. The first, second, rated from the one beyond it by a space equal to
third, fourth and fifth, and the new sixth satellites  the distance of Sirius from  the earth, they might
are in their calculated places.  Forty fJet.-I see be all seen through the forty-feet telescope  In
the new sixth satellite much better than with the  short, the penetrating power of telescopes is acirtwenty feet.  The fifth is also much larger here  curmstance which requires to be particularly atthan in the twenty feet, in which it was R)early the  tended to in our observations of celestial phenosame size as a small fixed star, but here it is con-  mena, and in many cases is of more importance
siderably larger than that star."                 than maynifyiing power.  It is the effect produced
These examples, and many others of a similar by illuminating power that renders telescopes, furkind, explain sufficiently the nature and extent of  nished with comparatively small magnifying powthat species of power that one telescope possesses ers, much more efficient in observing comets, and
over another, in consequence of its enlarged aper- certain nebulae and clusters of stars, than when
ture; but the exact quantity of this power is in  high powers are attempted.  Every telescope may
some degree uncertain.  To ascertain practically  be so adjusted as to produce different space-penethe illuminating power of telescopes, we must try  trating powers. If we wish to diminish such a
them with equal powers on such objects as the  power, we have only to contract the object-glass
following: the small stars near the pole-star, and  or speculum by placing circular rims, or apertures
near Rigel and f Bootis; the division in the ring of of different degrees of breadth, across the mouth
Saturn; and distant objects in the twilight or to- of the great tube of the instrunment.  But we canward the evening.  These objects are distinctly  not increase this illuminating power beyond a
seen with a five feet achromatic of 3 8-10ths in- certain extent, which is limited by the diameter
ches aperture, and an illuminating power of 144, of the object-glass. When we wish illuminating
while they are scarcely visible in a 3$'~ feet with  power beyond this limit, we must be furnished
an aperture of 2%ths inches, and an illuminating  with an object-glass or speculum of a larger size;
power of 72, supposing the same magnifying  and hence the rapid advance in price of instrupower to be applied. The illuminating power of a ments which have large apertures, and consequenttelescope is best estimated, in regard to land ob-  ly high illuminating powers.  Mr. Tulley's 3~./
jects, when it is tried on minute objects, and such  feet achromatics of 2s4ths inches aperture sell at
as are badly lighted up; and the advantage of a ~26 5s.; when the aperture is 314th  inches, the
telescope with a large aperture will be most obvi- price is ~42; when 334inches, ~68 5s. The folous when it is compared with another of inferior lowing table contains a statement of the;' compasize in the close of the evening, when looking at rative lengths, apertures, illuminating powers, and
a printed bill composed of letters of various sizes. prices of achromatic refractors and Gregorian reAs darkness comes on, the use of illuminating  flectors," according to Dr. Kitchener:
power becomes more evident.  In a five feet tele-    The illuminating powers stated in the following
scope some small letters will be legible which are  table are only comparative. Fixing on the number
hardly discernible in the 3/2 feet, and in the 212  25 as the illuminating power of a two feet telefeet are quite undefinable, though the magnifying  scope, 1 6-10ths of an inch aperture, that of a 2;t/~
powers be equal.  Sir W. Herschel informs us feet, two inches aperture, will be 40; of a five feet,
that, in the year 1776, when he had erected a tele- 3 8-10ltis inches aperture, 144, &c.  If tile illuniiscope of twenty feet focal length of the Newtoni-  nating power of a Gregorian 1,/2 foot, and three
an construction, one of its effects by trial was, inches aperture, be 90, a five feet, withll nie inclhe
that when, toward evening, on account of darkness, aperture, will be 810, &c.




ON CHOOSING TELESCOPES.                                      109
ACHROMATIC REFRACTORS.                        GREGORIAN, ETC., REFLECTORS.
Lengtkand name Diameter of Illuminating         Length and name Diameter of Illuminating   Price.
they are known                         Price.   they are known                          Prce.
by.       aperture.    power.                   by.        aperture.    power.
Feet.      In; Th.                 L. s.        Feet.       In. Th.                  L S.2          1. 6         25         44       1               2. 5          62        7  7
12         2            40        12 12    1                3             90      12 12
21 to     2               4. 5         202      20()
2.  7  72        42        3               5. 5         302      50
105 to     4               7            490     105
44  150  1 7 Newtonian    7             490     126
7          5           250      250        5 Gregorian      9            810     200
-7         6          360       360       10 Newtonian   10            1000      315
6. On choosing Telescopes, and ascertaining their enlarge in a circle concentric with the disc itself
Properties. —It is an object of considerable im- When the disc will enlarge so as to make a ring
portance to every astronomical observer that he of diluted white light round its circumference, as
should be enabled to form a judgment of the qua- the sliding tube holding the eyepiece is pushed in
lities of his telescope, and of any instruments of or drawn out, the cell may be finally fixed by the
this description which he may intend to purchase. screws passing through its elongated holes.
The following directions may perhaps be useful   When the object-glass is thus adjusted, it may
to the reader in directing him in the choice of an then be ascertained whether the curves of the reachromatic refracting telescope:                spective lenses composing the object-glass are
Suppcsing that an achromatic telescope of 3/2 well formed, and suitable for each other.  If a
eet focal length and 314th inches aperture were small motion of the sliding tube of about 1-10th
offered for sale, and that it were required to as- of an inch in a 3/2 feet telescope from the point
certain whether the object-glass, on which its ex- of distinct vision will dilute the light of the disc
cellence chiefly depends, is a good one, and duly and render the appearance confused, the figure of
adjusted, some opinion may be formed by laying the object-glass is good, particularly if the same
the tube of the telescope in a horizontal position, effect will take place at equal distances from the
on a firm support, about the hight of the eye, and point of distinct vision when the tube is alterby placing a printed card or a watch-glass verti- nately drawn out and pushed in. A  telescope
cally, but in an inverted position, against some that will admit of much motion in the sliding
wall or pillar at 40 or 50 yards distant, so as to be tube, without sensfbly affecting the distinctness of
exposed to a clear sky. When the telescope is vision will not define all object well at any point
directed to this object, and accurately adjusted to of adjustment, and must be considered as having
the eye, should the letters on the card, or the an imperfect object-glass, inasmuch as the spheristrokes and dotson the watch glass, appear clearly cal aberration of the transmitted rays is not duly
and sharply defined, without any mistiness or co- corrected.  The due adjustment of the convex
loration, and if very small spots appear well-de- lens or lenses to the concave one will be judged of
fined, great hoFes may be entertained that the by the absence of coloration round the enlarged
glass will turn out a good one. But a telescope disc, and is a property distinct from  the spherical
may appear a good one, when viewing common aberration; the achromatism depending on the reterrestrial objects, to eyes unaccustomed to dis- lative focal distances of the convex and concave
criminate deviations from perfect vision, while it lenses is regulated by the relative dispersive powers
may turn out to be an indifferent one when di- of the pieces of glass made use of, but the disrected to certain celestial objects.  Instead, there- tinctness of vision depends on a good figure of
fore, of a printed card, fix a black board, or one- the computed curves that limit the focal distances.
half of a sheet of black paper, in a vertical po- When an object-glass is free from imperfection in
sition at the same distance, and a circular disc of both these respects, it may be called a good glass
white writing paper, about one-fourth of an inch for terrestrial purposes.
in diameter, on the center of the black ground;   It still, however, remains to be determined how
then, having directed the telescope to this object, far such an object-glass may be good for viewing
and adjusted for the place of distinct vision, mark a star or a planet, and can only be known by acwith a black-lead pencil the sliding eyetube at the tual observations on the heavenly bodies. When
end of the main tube, so that this position can a good telescope is directed to the moon or to J1ualways be known; and if this sliding tube be piter, the achrematism may be judged of by altergradually drawn out or pushed in while the eye  nately pushing in and drawing out the eyepiece
beholds the disc, it will gradually enlarge and lose from  the place of distinct vision. In the former
its color until its edges cease to be well-defined. case, a ring of purple will be formed round the
Now if the enlarged misty circle is observed to be,edge; and in the latter, a ring of light green,
concentric with the disc itself, the object-glass is which is the central color of the prismatic specproperly centered, as it has reference to the tube; trum; for these appearances show that the exbut if the misty circle goes to one side of the treme colors, red and violet, are corrected. Again,
disc, the cell of the object-glass is not at right an- if one part of a lens employed hlave a different
gles to the tube, and must have its screws re- refractive power from  another part of it, that is,
moved and its holes elongated by a rat-tailed file if the flint-glass particularly is not homogeneous,
small enough to enter the holes. When this has a star of the first and even of the second magnibeen done, the cell may be replaced, and the disc tude will point out the natural defect by the exexamined a second time, and a slight stroke on hibition of an irradiation, or what is called a wing,
one edge of the cell by a wooden mallet will show  at one side, which no perfection of figure or of
by the alteration made in the position of the misty adjustment will banish, and the greater the aperportion of the disc how the adjustment is to be ture, the more liable is the evil to happen: hence
effected, which is known to be right when a mo- caps with different apertures are usually supplied
tiao in the sliding tube will make the diluted disc with large telescopes, that the extreme parts of




110                         THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
the glass mnay be cut off in observations requiring  globe was placed at forty yards' distance from the
a round and well-defined image of the body ob- object-end  of the telescope when the sun was
served.                                             shining, and the speck of light seen reflected from
Another method of determining the figure and  this globe formed a good substitute for a large
quality of an object-glass is by first covering its  star, as an object to be viewed.  When the focal
center by a circular piece of paper, as much as length of the object-glass was adjusted to this luone-half of its diameter, and adjusting it for dis- minous object, no judgment could be formed of
tinct vision of a given object, such as the disc  its prismatic aberrations until the eyepiece had
above-mentioned, when the central rays are inter- been pushed in beyond the place of correct vision;
cepted, and then trying if the focal length remains  but when the telescope was shortened a little, the
unaltered when the paper is taken away and an  luminous disc occasioned by such shortening was
aperture of the same size applied, so that the ex- strongly tinged with red rays at its circumference.
treme rays may in their turn be cut off.  If the  On the contrary, when the eyepiece was drawn
vision remains equally distinct in both cases, with-  out so as to lengthen the telescope too much, the
out any new adjustment for focal distance, the  disc thus produced was tinged with a small circle
figure is good, and the spherical aberration cured, of red at its center, thereby denoting that the conand it may be seen by viewing a star of the first vex lens had too short a focal length; and Mr.
magnitude successively in both cases, whether the  Tulley observed, that if one or both of the curves
irradiation is produced more by the extreme or by  of the convex lens were flattened until tile total
the central parts of the glass; or, in case the one- focal length should be about four inches increased,
half be faulty and the other good, a semnicircular it would render the telescope quite achromatic,
aperture, by being turned gradually round in trial, provided in doing this the aberration should not
will detect what semicircle contains the defective  be increased.
portion of the glass; and if such portion should    The following general remarks may be added:
be covered, the only inconvenience that would  1. To make anything like an accurate cornpariensue would be the loss of so much light as is thus  son of telescopes, they must be tried not only at
excluded.  When an object-glass produces radia-  the same place, but as nearly as possible at the
tions in a large star, it is unfit for the nlicer ob- same time, and, if the instruments are of the same
servatiors of astronomy, such as viewing double  length andl construction, if possible, with the same
stars of the first class.  The smaller a large star eyepiece.  2. A  difference of eight or ten times
appears in any telescope, the better is the figure  in the magnifying power will sometimes, on cerof the object-glass; but if the image of the star tain objects, give quite a difcerent character to a
be free from wings, the size of its disc is not an  telescope.  It has been found by various experiobjection in practical observationls.*              ments that object-glasses of two or three inches
Some opticians are in the habit of inserting a  longer focus will produce? different vision with
diaphragm  into the body of the large tube, to cut the same eyepiece.  3. Care must be takenl to
off the extreme rays coming from the object-glass ascertain that the eyeglasses are perfectly clean
when the figure is not good, instead of lessening  and free from defects.  The defects of glass are
the aperture by a cap.  When this is th6 case, a. either from veins, specks, scratches, color, or an
deficiency of light will be the consequence be-  incorrect figunre.  To discover veins in an eve or
yond what the apparent aperture warrants.  It is an object-glass, place a candle at tile distance of
therefore proper to examine that the diaphragm  four or five yards; then look through the glass,
Ibe not placed too near the object-glass, so as to  and move it from  your eye until it ap;pear full of
intercept any of the useful rays.  Sometimes a  light; you will then see every vein, or other insportion of the object-glass is cut off by the stop  perfection in it, which may distort the objects and
in the eyetube.  To ascertainm this, adjust tile tele-  render vision imperfect.  Specks or scratches,
scope to distinct vision, then take out the eye- especially in object-glasses, are not so injurious
glasses, and put your finger on some other object as veins, for they do not distort the object, but
on the edge of the outside of the object-glass, and  only intercept a portion of the light.  4. We cantook down the tube; if you can see tile top of inot judge accurately of the excellence of any
your finger, or any object in its place, jtist peep-  telescope by observing olbjects with which we are
ing over the edge of the object-glass, no part is not familiarly acquainlted.  Opticians generally
cut off. I once had a 3)2 feet telescope whose ob-  try all instrument at their own marks, such as
ject-glass measured three inches in diameter, which  the dial-plate of a watch, a finely engraved card,
was neither so bright, nor did it perform in other a wveathercock, or the muoon and the planret Alpcrespects nearly so well as another of the same  ter, when near the meridian. Of several telescopes
length whose object-glass was only 234ths inches  of the same length, aperture, and mafnifyimnng
in diameter; but I found that a diaphragm was  power, that one is generally considered the best
placed about a foot within the end of the large  with which we can read a given print at the
tube, whichl reduced the aperture of the object-  greatest distance, especially if the print consists
glass to less than 2,~ inches, and when it was re-  of fiqures, such as a table of logarithms, where
moved the telescope was less distinct than before. the eye is not apt to be deceived by the imaginaeThe powers given along with this instrument tion in guessing at the sense of a passage when
were much lower than usual, none of them  ex-  two or three words are distinguished.
ceeding 100 times.  This is a trick not uncom-    There is a circurnstance xwhich I have frermon with some opticians.                           quently noticed in reference to achromatic teleDr. Pearson mentions that an old Dollond's tele- scopes, particularly those of a smali size, and
scope of 63 inches focal length and 334ths inches which I have never seen noticed by any optical
aperture, supposed to be an excellent one, was  writes.  it is this: if the telescope, wheo w'e are
brought to Mr. Tulley when he was present, and  viewing objects, be gradusally turned round Its axis,
the result of the examinatioJn was that its achro- there is a certain position in which the objects
matisimn was not perfect.  The imperfection was will appear distinct and accurately defined; and
thus determined by experiment.  A  small glass if it be turned round exactly a semicircle frioms
The above directions and remarks are abridged with  this poilt, the same degree of distinctness is persome alterations from Dr. Pearson's " Introduction to Prac- ceived, but in all other positions there is an eviti:al Astronomy," vol. ii.                         dent want of clearness and defining power. This




MAGNIFYING POWER OF TELESCOPES.                                    111
I find to be the case in more than ten one-foot a modern building, which, upon an average, in
and two-feet telescopes now in my possession, found to have eight courses in two feet, so that
and therefore I have put marks upon the object- each course or row is three inches. Then cut a
end of each of them to indicate the positions in piece of paper three inches in hight, and of the
which they should be used for distinct observa- length of a brick, which is about nine inches, so
tion.  This is a circumstance which requires, in that it may represent a brick, and fixing-the paper
many cases, to be attended to in the choice and against the brick wall, place the telescope to be
the use of telescopical instruments, and in fixing examined at the distance of about 80 or 100 yards
and adjusting them  on their pedestals.  In some from it. Now, looking through the telescope at
telescopes this defect is very striking, but it is in the paper with one eye, and at the same ti;ne,
some measure perceptible in the great majority with the other eye, looking past the telescope,
of instruments which I have had occasion to in- observe what extent of wall the magnified image
spect.  Even in large and expensive achromatic of the paper appears to cover; then count the
telescopes this defect is sometimes observable. I courses of bricks in that extent and it will give
have an achromatic whose object-glass is 4 1-10th tile magnifying power of the telescope. It is to
inches in diameter, which was much improved in be observed, however, that the magnifying popver
its defining power by being unscrewed from its determined in this way will be a fraction greater
original position, or turned round its axis about than for very distant objects, as the focal distance
one-eighth part of its circumference.  This de- of the telescope is necessarily lengthened in order
feet is best detected by looking at a large printed to obtain distinct vision of near objects.
bill, or a signpost at a distance, when on turning    In comparing the magnifying powers of two
round the telescope or object-glass, the letters will telescopes, or of the same telescope when different
appear much better defined in one position than magnifying powers are employed, I generally use
in another. The position in which the object the following simple method.  The telescopes are
appears least distinct is when the upper part of placed at eight or ten feet distance from a window,
the telescope is a quadrant of a circle different with their eye-ends parallel to each other, or at
from the two positions above stated, or at an equal the same distance from the window. Looking at
distance from each of them.                     a distant object, I fix upon a portion of it whose
7. On the mode of determining the magnfying  magnified image will appear to fill exactly two or
power of Telescopes.-In regard to refracting tele- three panes of the window; then, putting on a
scopes, we have already shown that, when a single different power, or looking through another teleeyeglass is used, the magnifying power may be scope, I observe the same object, and mr'ark exactfound by dividing the focal distance of the object- ly the extent of its image on the window-panes,
glass by that of the eyeglass; but when a Huyge- and compare the extent of the one image with
nian eyepiece, or a four-glass terrestrial eyepiece, the other. Suppose, for example, that the one
such as is now common in achromatic telescopes, telescope has been previously found to magnify
is used, the magnifying power cannot be ascer- ninety times, and that the image of the object
tained in this manner; and in some of the delicate fixed upon exactly fills three panes of the window,
observations of practical astronomy, it is of the and that with the other power or the other teleutmost importance to know the exact magnifying scope the image fills exactly two panes, then the
power of the instrument with which the observa- magnifying power is equal to two-thirds of the
tions are made, particularly when micrometrical former, or sixty times; and were it to fill only
measurements are employed to obtain the desired one pane, the power would be about thirty times
results. The following is a general method of A more correct method is to place at one side of
finding the magnifying powers of telescopes when the window a narrow  board two or three feet
the instrument called a dynsmeter is not employed, long, divided into fifteen or twenty equal parts,
and it answers for refracting and reflecting tele- and observe how many of these parts appear to
scopes of every description.                    be covered by the respective image of the differHaving put up a small circle of paper an inch ent telescopes. Suppose, in the one case, ten dior two in diameter at the distance of about 100 visions to be covered by the image in a telescope
yards, draw upon a card two black parallel lines, magnifyiang ninety times, and that the image of
whose distance from each other is equal to the dia- the same object ill another telescope measures six
meter of the paper circle; then view through the divisions, then its power is found by the following
telescope the paper circle with one eye, and the proportion: 10: 90:: 6: 54; that is, this telescope
parallel lines with the other, and let the parallel magnifies 54 times.
lines be moved nearer to or farther from the eye,   Another mode which I have used for determinuntil they seem  exactly to cover the small circle ing, to a near approximation, the powers of televiewed through the telescope; the quotient obtain- scopes, is as follows: Endeavor to find the focus
ed by dividing the distance of tile paper circle by the of a single lens which is exactly equivalent to the
distance of the parallel lines from the eyewill be the magnifying power of the eyepiece, whether the
magnifying power of the telescope. It requires a Huygenian or the common terrestrial eyepiece.
little practice before this experiment can be per- This may be done by taking a small.lens, and
formed with accuracy. The one eye must be aceus- using it as an object-glass to the eyepiece. Looktomed to look at an object near at hand, while the ing through the eyepiece to a window, and holding
other is looking at a more distant object through the lens at a proper distance, observe whether the
the telescope. Both eyes must be open at the same image of one of the panes exactly coincides witlI
time, and the image of the object seen through the the pane as seen by the naked eye; if it does,
telescope must be brought into apparent contact then the magnifying power of the eyepiece is
with the real object near at hand. But a little prae- equal to that of the lens. If the lens be half an
tice will soon enable any observer to perform the inch in focal length, the eyepiece will produce
experiment with ease and correctness, if the tele- the same magnifying power as a single lenswhex
scope be mounted on a firm stand, and its eleva- used as an eyeglass to the telescope, and the magtion or depression produced by rack-work.       nifying power will then be found by dividing the
Tile following is another method founded on focal distance of the object-glass by that of the
thie saine principle: Measure the space occupied eyeglass; but if the image of the pane of glass
bmy a number of the courses, or rows of bricks in does not exactly coincide with the pane as seen




112                         THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
by tile other eye, then proportional parts may be dividing the diameter of the object-glass by the
taken by observing the divisions of such a board diameter of this circle of light, the power will be
as described above, or we may try lenses of differ- obtained.*  The most accurate instrument of this
ent focal distances. Suppose, for example, that a kind is the Double Image Dynameter, invented by
lens two inches focal length had been used, and RamsdPn, and another on the same principle now
that the image of a pane covered exactly the made by Dollond, a particular description of
space of two panes, the power of the eyepiece is which may be found in Dr. Pearson's "Introducthen equal to that of a single lens of one inch fo- tion to Practical Astronomy."  The advantage
cal distance.                                    attending these dynameters is, that they do not
The following is another mode depending on  require any knowledge of the thickness and focal
the same general principle.  If a slip of writing- lengths of any of the lenses employed in a telepaper one inch long, or a disc of the same mate- scope, nor yet of their number and relative posirial one inch in diameter, be placed on a black  tions; neither does it make any difference whether
ground at from. 30 to 50 yards' distance from the the construction be refracting or reflecting, direct
object-end of the telescope, and a staff painted  or inverting. One operation includes the result
white, and divided into inches and parts by strong arising from  the most complicated construction.
black lines, be placed vertically near the said    I shall only mention further the following methpaper or disc, the eye that is directed through the od of discovering the magnifying power, which
telescope, when adjusted for vision, will see the is founded  on the same  general principle as
magnified disc, and the other eye, looking along alluded to above.  Let the telescope be placed in
the outside of the telescope, will observe the numn- such a position opposite the sun that the rays of
bher of inches and parts that the disc projected on light may fall perpendicularly on the object-glass;
it will just cover, and as many inches as are thus the pencil of rays may be received on a piece of
covered will indicate the magnifying power of the paper, and its diameter measured. Then, as the
telescope, at the distance for which it is adjusted  diameter of the pencil of rays is to that of the
for distinct vison. The solar power, or powers object-glass, so is the magnifying power of the
for very distant objects, may be obtained by the telescope.
following  proportion: As the terrestrial focal   8. On cleaning the Lenses of Telescopes.-It is
length at the given distance is to the solar focal necessary, in order to distinct vision, that the
length, so is the terrestrial to the solar power. glasses, particularly the eyeglasses of telescopes,
For example, a disc of white paper one inch in  be kept perfectly clean, firee of damp, dust, or
diameter was placed on a black board, and sus- whatever may impede the transmission of the
pended on a wall contiguous to a vertical black rays of light; but great caution ought to be exerstaff that was graduated into inches by strong  cised in the wiping of them, as they are apt to
white lines, at a distance of 33 yards 22 feet, be scratched or otherwise injured by a rough and
and when the adjustment for vision was made incautious mode of cleaning them. They should
with a 42 inch telescope, the left eye of the ob- never be attempted to be wiped unless they really
server viewed the disc projected on the staff, while require it; and in this case, they should be wiped
the right eye observed that the enlarged image of carefully and gently with a piece of new and soft
the disc covered just 58  inches on the staff, which lamb's-skin leather; if this be not at hand, a piece
number was the measure of the  magnifying of fine silk paper, or fine clean linen may be used
power at the distance answering to 33 yards 2y!  as a substitute.  The lens which requires to be
feet, which in this case exceeded the solar focus most particularly attended to is the second glass
by an inch and a half.  Then, according to the from the eye, or the field-glass; for if any dust or
above analogy, we have, as 43.5: 42::58.5: 56.5 other impediment be found upon this glass, it is
nearly.  Hence the magnifying power due to the always distinctly seen, being magnified by the
solar focal length of the telescope in question is glass next the eye.  The next glass which re56.5, and the distance 33 yards 212 feet, is that quires attention is the fourth fro.m  the eye, or
which corresponds to an elongation of the solar that which is next the object.  Unless the glass
focal distance an inch and a half.*  If we multi- next the eye be very dusty, a few small spots or
ply the terrestrial and the solar focal distances grains of dust are seldom  perceptible.  The obtogether, and divide the product by their dif- ject-glass of an achromatic should seldom  be
ference, we shall again obtain the distance of touched unless damp adheres to it.  Care should
the terrestrial object from  the telescope.  Thus, be taken never to use pocket-handkerchiefs or
4 3'5 +   ~-21218 inches=-101.5 feet, or 33 yards dirty rags for wiping lenses.  From the frequent
21- feet.                                        use of such articles, the glasses of seamen's teleThe magnifyihng power of a telescope is also scopes get dimmed and scratched in the course of
9 mg-in  w   o    tlso       asa few years. If the glasses be exceedingly dirty,
determined by measuring the image which the and if greasy substances are attached to them,
object-glass or the large speculum of a telescope they may be soaked in spirits and water, and afterforms at its solar focus.  This is accomplished by ward carefully wiped.  In replacing the glasses
means of an instrument called a Dynameter. This in their socket, care should be taken lot to touch
apparatus consists of a strip of mother-of-pearl, the surfaces with the fingers, as they would be
marked with equal divisions, from  the 1-100th  dimmed with the perspiration; they siould be
to the 1-1000th of an inch apart, according to taken hold of by the edges only, and carefully
the accuracy required.'This measure is attached screwed into the same cells from  which they
to a magnifying lens in its focus, in order to were taken.
make the small divisions more apparent. When
the power of a telescope is required, the person
must measure the clear aperture of the object-                  V MEGALAScOPES, OR TELESCOPES FOR VIEWING
glass; thell, holding the pearl dynameter next the              V     NER OBJECTS.
eyeglass, let him observe how many divisions the
snlal circle of lighlt occlpies when thle ilstlU- It appears to have been almost overlooked by
small circle of light occupies when the instru-y be con
ment is directed to a bright object; then, by opticians and others, that telescopes may be con-    Tihe mother-of-pearl dynameter may be _,urchased'so
Pearson's "Practical Astronomy," vol. ii.  about twelve shillings. See fig. 57, a, o, p, 7,5.




MAGNIFYING POWER OF TELESCOPES.                                       118
structed so as to exhibit a beautiful and minute composed of a variety of delicate flowers, or even
view of very near objects, and to produce even a a single flower, such as- the sea pink, makes a
microscopic effect without the least alteration in splendid appearance in this way. A peacock's
the arrangement of the lenses of which they are feather, or even the fibers on a common quill.
composed.  This object is effected  simply by  appear very beautiful when placed in a proper
making the eyetube of a telescope of such a light.  The leaves of trees, particularly the leaf
length as to be capable of being drawn out of the plane-tree, when placed against a windowtwelve or thirteen inches beyond the point of pane, so that the light may shine through them,
distinct vision for distant objects. The telescope  appear, in all their internal ramifications, more
is then rendered capable of exhibiting with dis- distinct, beautiful, and  interesting than when
tincthess all kinds of objects from the most distant viewed in any other way; and in such views a
to those which are placed within three or four large portion of the object is at once exhibited to
feet of the instrument, or not nearer than double the eye. In this case, the eyepiece of such a
-the focal distance of the object-glass.  Our tele- telescope as that alluded to requires to be drawn
scopes, however, are seldom  or never fitted with  out twelve or fourteen inches beyond the point
tubes that slide farther than an inch or two be- of distinct vision for objects at a distance, and the
yond the point of distinct vision for distant ob- distance between these near objects and the objectjects, although a tube of a longer size than usual, end of the telescope is only about 3}I feet.
or an additional tube, would cost but a trifling    A telescope having a diagonal eyepiece preeLxpeuse.                                        sents a very pleasant view of near objects in this
The following, among many others, are some manner. With an instrument of this kind I have
of the objects on which I have tried many amus- I frequently viewed the larger kind of small objects
ing experimlents with telescopes fitted up with  alluded to above, such as the leaves of shrubs and
the long tubes to which I allude. The telescope to  trees, flowers consisting of a variety of parts, the
which I shall more particularly advert is an achro- fibers of a peacock's feather, and similar objects.
matic, mounted on apedestal,havingan object-glass In this case, the object-glass of the instrument,
about nineteen inches focal length, and l15ths of an  which is 10/  inches focal length, was brought
inch in diameter, with magnifying powers for dis- within 22 inches of the object, and the eye looked
taunt objects of thirteen and twenty times. When  down upon it in tile same manner as when wo
this instrument is directed to a miniature portrait view objects in a compound microscope. A com3,a/ inches in length, placed in a good light, at the  mon pocket achromatic telescope may be used for
distance of about eight or ten feet, it appears as the purposes now stated, provided the tube in the
large as an oil painting four or five feet long, and  eyepiece containing the two lenses next the object
represents the individual as large as life.  The  be taken out, in which case the two glasses next
features of the face appear to stand out in bold  the eye form  an astronomical eyepiece, and the
relief; and perhaps there is no representation of  tubes may be drawn out five or six inches beyond
the human figure that more resembles the living  the focal point for distant objects, and will proprototype than in this exhibition, provided the  duce distinct vision for objects not farther distant
miniature is finely executed.  In this case the than about 20 or 24 inches; but in this case. the
tube requires to be pulled out four or five inches objects to be viewed must be inverted, in order
from the point of distinct vision for distant ob- that they may be seen in their natural positions
jects, and consequently the magnifying power is when viewed through the instrument. Telescopes
proportionably increased. Another class of ob- of a large size and high magnifying powers may
jects to which such a telescope may be applied is likewise be used with advantage for viewing very.
Perspective Prints, either of public buildings, near objects in gardens adjacent to the room  in
streets, or landscapes.  When viewed in this way  which the instruments are placed, provided the
they present a panoramic appearance, and seem  sliding tube next the eye has a range of two or
nearly as natural as life, just in the same manner three inches beyond the point of vision for distant
as they appear in the Optical Diagonal Machine, objects. In this case, a rnagnifying   power of 100
or when reflected in a large concave mirror, with  times on a 31d or a five feet achromatic produces
this advantage, that while in these instruments a very pleasant effect.  In making the observathe left-hand side of the print appears where the tions to which. I have now alluded, it is requisite
right should be, the objects seen through the tele- in order to distinct vision, and to obtain a pleasscope appear exactly in their natural position.  In  ins view of the objects, that the instrument should
this case, however, the telescope should have a be placed on a pedestal, and capable of motion
small magnifying power, not exceeding five or in every direction. The adjustment for distinct
six times, so as to take in the whole of the land- vision may be made either by the sliding tube, or
scape.  If an astronomical eyepiece be used, the  by removing the telescope nearer to or farther
print will require to be inverted.               from the object.
Other kinds of objects which may be viewed
with this instrument are trees, flowers, and other R EFLECTIONS ON LIGHT AND VISION, AND ON THN
objects in gardens immediately adjacent to the apart-  NATURE AN.D UTILITY OF TELESCOPES.
ment in which we make our: observations.  In
this way we may obtain a distinct view of a variety    Light is one of the most wonderful and benefiof rural objects, which we cannot easily approach, cial, and, at the same time, one of the most myssuch as the buds and blossoms on the tops of  terious agents in the material creation. Though
trees, and the insects with which they may be the sun from  which it flows to this part of our
infested. There are certain objects on which the  system is nearly a hundred millions of miles from
telescope may be made to produce a powerful our globe, yet we perceive it as evidently, and feel
microscopical effect, such as the more delicate and  its influence as powerfully, as if it emanated
beautiful kinds of flowers, theleaves of trees, and si- from no higher a region than the clouds. It supmilar objects. In viewing such objects, the telescope  plies life and comfort to our physical system, and
may be brought within little more than double  without its influence and operations on the varithe focal distance of the object-glass from the ob- ones objects around us, we could scarcely subsist
jects to be viewed, and then the magnifying  and participate of enjoyment for a single hour.
power is very considerably increased. A nosegay  It is diffused around us on every hand from  its




114                        THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER
fountain tlhe sun; and even the stars, though at   Could we suppose an order of beings indued
a distance hundreds of thousands of times greater with every human faculty but that of sight, it
than that of the solar orb, transmit to our distant would appear incredible to such beings, accusregion a portion of this element.  It gives beauty  tomed only to the slow  information  of touch,
and fertility to the earth, it supports the vegeta- that by the addition of an organ consisting of a
ble and animal tribes, and is connected with the ball and socket, of an inch in diameter, they
various motions which ara going forward through- might be enabled, in an instant of time, without
out the system of the universe.  It unfolds to us changing their place, to perceive the disposition
the whole scenery of external nature; the lofty  of a whole army, the order of a battle, the figure
mountains and the expansive plains, the majestic of a magnificent palace, or all the variety of a
rivers and  the  mighty ocean; the trees, the landscape.  If a man were by feeling to find out
flowers, the crystal streams, and the vast canopy  the figure of the Peak of Teneriffe, or even of
of the sky, adorned with ten thousands of shin- St. Peter's Church at Rome, it would be the
ing orbs.  In short, there is scarcely an object work of a lifetime.  It would appear still more
within the range of our contemplation but what incredible to such beings as we have supposed,
is exhibited to our understanding  through the if they were informed of the discoveries which
medium of light, or at least bears a certain rela- may be made by this little organ in thinigs far betion to  this  enlivening  and  universal agent. yvnd the reach of any other sense, that by means
When we consider the extreme minuteness of the of it we can find our way in the pathless ocean;
rays of light, their inconceivable velocity, the in- that we call traverse the globe of the earth, detervariable laws by which they act upon all bodies, mine its figure and dimensions, and delineate
the multifarious phenomena produced by their every region of it; yea, that we can measure the
inflections, refractions, and reflections, while their planetary orbs, and make discoveries in the sphere
original properties remain the same; the endless of the fixed stars.  And if they were further invariety of colors they produce on every part of formed that, by means of this same organ, we can
our terrestrial creation, and the facility with which perceive the tempers and dispositions, tile passions
millions of rays pass through the smallest aper- and affections of our fellow-creatures, even when
tures, and pervade substances of great density, they want most to conceal them; that when the
while every ray passes forward in the crowd  tongue is taught most artfully to lie and dissemwithout disturbing another, and produces its own ble, the hypocrisy should appear in the countenance
specific impression, we cannot but regard this to a discerning eye; and that by this organ we
clement as the most wonderful, astonishing, and can often perceive what is straight and what
delightful part of the material creation.  When  crooked in the mind as well as in the body. would
we consider the admirable beauties and the ex- it not appear still more astonishing to beings such
quisite pleasures of which light is the essential as we have now supposed?*
source, and how much its nature is still involved    Notwithstallding-ttieX - wonderful properties of
in mystery, notwithstanding the profound inves- the organ of visiona the' eyA, when unassisted by
tigations of modern philosophers, we may well art, is comparatively limited in the range of its
exclaim with the poet,                            powers.  It cannot ascertain the existence of certain objects at the distance of three or four miles,
" How then shall I attempt to sing of HIM   nor perceive what is going forward in nature or
Who, light himself, in uncreated light     art beyond such a limit.  By its natural powers
Invested deep, dwells awfully retired
From mortal eye or angel's purer ken;      we perceive the moon to be a globe about half ta
Whose single smile has, from the first of time,    degree in. diameter, and diversified with two or
Filled, overflowing, all yonlamnls of heaven,  three dusky spots, and that the sun is a luminous
That beam forever through the boundless sky."
That be  forever throgh the boundles   body of apparently the same size; that the planets
are luminous points, and that about a thousand
The eye is the instrument by which we per- stars exist in the visible canopy of the sky.  But
ceive the beautiful and multifarious effects of this the ten thousandth part of those luminaries whlich
universal agent.  Its delicate and. complicated are within the reach of hIuman vision can never
structure; its diversified muscles; its coats and be seen by the unlassisted eye.  Here the TELEmembranes; its different humors, possessed of SCOPE interposes, and adds a new power to the
different refractive powers; and the various con- organ of vision, by which it is enabled to extend
trivances for performing and regulating its ex- its views to regions of space immeasurably disternal and internal motions, so as to accomplish  taut, and to objects, the number and magnitude
the ends intended, clearly demonstrate this organ of which could never otherwise have been surto be a masterpiece of Divine mechanism-the  mised by the human imagination.  By its aid we
workmanship  of Him  whose intelligence sur- obtain a sensible  demonstration  that space is
passes conception, and whose wisdom  is un- boundless; that the universe is replenished with
searchable. " Our sight," says Addison, " is the innumerable suns and worlds; that the remotest
most perfect and delightful of all our senses.  It regions of immensity, immeasurably beyond the
fills the mind with the largest variety of ideas, limits of unassisted vision, display the energies of
converses with its objects at the greatest distance, Creating Power; and  that the empire of tihe
tand  continues the longest in  action, without Creator extends far beyond what eye hath been or
being tired or satiated with its proper enljoyments. the human imagination call conceive.
The sense of feeling can indeed give us a notion    The telescope is an instrument of a much more
of extension, shape, and all other ideas that enter wonderful nature than what most people are apt
the eye except colors; but, at the same time, it is to imagine. However popular such instruments
very much strained, and confined in its operation  now  are, and however common a circumstance
to tile number, bulk, and distance of its particu- it is to contemplate objects at a great distance
lar objects. Our sight seems designed to supply all which the naked eye cannot discern, yet, prior
these defects, and may be considered as a more deli- to their invention and improvement, it would
cate and diffusive kind of touch, that spreads itself have appeared a thing most mysterious, if not imover an infinite multitude of bodies, comprehends possible, that objects at the distance of ten miles
the largest figures, and brings into our reach
some  of the more remote parts of the universe."         Reid's Inquiry into the Human Mind, chap. iv




REFLICTIONS OF LIGHT AND VISION.                                      115
coxld be made to appear as if within a few yards the back is turned to the object, and the eye in
of us, and that some of the heavenly bodies could  an opposite direction.
be seen as distinctly as if we had been transported    These circumstances should teach us humility
by some superior power hundreds of millions of  and a becoming diffidence in our own powers;
miles beyond the bounds of our terrestrial habita- and they should admonish us not to be too dogtion.  Who could ever have imagined, reasoning  matical or peremptory in affirmillg what is possia priori, that the refraction of light in glass-the  ble or impossible in regard either to nature or art
saine power by which a straight rod appears or to the operations of the Divine Being.  Ar
crooked in water, by which vision is variously  has accomplished, in modern times, achievement,
distorted, and by which we are liable to innumer- in regard to locomotion, marine and aerial naviga_
able deceptions —that that same power or law of  tion, the improvement of vision, the separation
nature, by the operation of which the objects inl  and combinations of invisible gases, anld numera landscape appear distorted when seen through ous other objects, of which the men of former
certain panes of glass in our windows, that that ages could not have formed the least conception;
power should ever be so modified and directed as and even yet we call set no bound;Iuies to tlhe
to extend the boundaries of vision, and enable us future discoveries of science and the il proveclearly to distinguish scenes and objects at a dis- ments of art, but have every reason to indulge the
tance a thousand times beyond the natural limits hope that, il the ages to come, scenes of Divine
(of our visual organs?  Yet such are the dis- mechanism in the system of nature will be uncoveries which science has achieved, such the folded, and the effects of chemical and mechanipowers it has brought to light, that by glasses cal powers displayed, of which the human mind,
ground into different forms, and properly adapted  in its present state of progress, cannot tform  the
to each other, we are enabled, as it were, to con- most imperfect idea. Such circumstances lilietract the boundaries of space, to penetrate into the wise should teach us not to reject any intimations
most distant regions, and to bring within the which have been made to us ill relation to the
reach of our knowledge the most sublime objects character, attributes, and dispensations of tile
in the universe.                                  Divine Being, and the moral revelations of his
When Pliny declared in reference to Hippar- will given in the Sacred Records, because we are
cihus, the ancient astronomer, "Ausus rem Dee unable to comprehend every truth and to remove,
improbam annumerare posteris stellas," that "lie every difficulty which relates to the moral governdared to enumerate the stars for posterity, an an- ment of the Great Ruler of the universe; for if
dertaking forbidden by God," what would that we meet with many circumstances in secular
natural historian have said had it been foretold science, and even in the common operations of
that in less than 1600 years afterward a manl nature, which are difficult to comprehend-if even
would arise who should enable posterity to per- the construction of such. telescopes as we now
ceive and to enumerate tell times more new stars use would have appeared ain incomprehensible
than Hipparchus ever belield-who should point mystery to ancient philosophers, we must expect
out higher mountains on the moon than on the to find difficulties almost insurmountable to such
earth —who should discover dark spots as large as limited minds as ours in the eterinal plans and
our globe in the sun, the fountain of light —who  moral arrangements of the "King Imrortal and
should descry four moons revolving in different Invisible," as delineated only in their outlines in
periods of time around the planet Jupiter, and  the Sacred Oracles, particularly those which recould show to surrounding senators the varying  late to the origin of physical and moral evil, the
phases of Venus? and that another would soon0  ultimate destiny of man, and the invisible realiafter arise who should point out a double ring of ties of a future world.
six hundred thousand miles in circumference re-   The UTILITY of the telescope may be considered
volving around the planet Saturn, and tenl hun- in relation to the following circumstances:
dreds of thousands of stars which neither Hip-   In the first place, it may be considered as an
parchus nor any of the ancient astronomers could instrument or machine which virtually transports
ever descry?  Yet these are only a small portion  us to the distant regions of space.  When we
of the discoveries made by Galileo and Herschel look at the moon through a telescope which magby Ineans of the telescope.  Had any one pro- nifies 200 times, and survey its extensive plainis,
phetically informed Archimedes, the celebrated  its lofty peaks, its circular ranges of mountains,
geometrician of Syracuse, that vision would, in throwing their deep shadows over the vales, its
after ages, be thus wonderfully assisted by art; deep and rugged caverns, and all the other varieand, further, that one manner of improving vision ties which appear on the lunar surface, we behold
would be to place a dark, opaque body directly be- such objects in the same manner as if we were
tween the object and the eye; and that another stanlding at a point 238,800 miles from the earth
method would be, not to look at the object, but to  in the direction of the moon, or only twelve
keep the eye quite in a different, and even in an hundred miles from that orb, reckoning its distance
opposite direction, or to stand with the back di- to be 240,000 miles.  When we view the planet
rectly opposed to it, and to behold all the parts of Saturn with a similar instrument, and obtain a
it, invisible to the naked eye, most distinctly in view of its belts and satellites, and its magnificent
this way, lie would doubtless have considered the rings, we are transported, as it were, through
prophet as an enthusiastic fool or a raving mad- regions of space to a point in the heavens more
maln.  Yet these things have been realized in  than nine hundred mnillions of miles from  the surmodern times in the fullest extent. In the Gre- face of our globe, and contemplate those august
gorian  reflecting  telescope, an  opaque  body, objects as if we were placed within five millions
namely, the small speculum  near the end of the of miles of the surface of that planet.* Although
tube, interposes directly between the eye and the
object.  Ill the Newtonian reflector, and in the   * The distance of Saturn from the sun is 906,000,Q00 of
diagonal eyepieces formerly described, the eye is miles; it is sometimes nearer to, and at other times fiurther
directed in a line at right angles to the object, or from the earth, according as it is near the point of its opposition to, or conjunction with, the sun. If this number be
a1 deiviation of 90 degrees from the direct line of divided by 200 hundred, the supposed magnifying power of
v ision.  In Herschel's large telescopes, and in the the telescope, the quotient is 4,520,000, which expresses the
Aerial Refector, formerly described (in pp. 88-92), distance in miles at which it enables us to contemplate this




116                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER
a supernatural power sufficient to carry us in one is visible to the naked eye: it has laid own
such a celestial journey a thousand miles every  to our view thousands of Nebula, of various deday were exerted, it would require more than  scriptions, dispersed  through  different regions
two thousand four hundred and sixty years be- of the firmament, many of them containing thoufore we could arrive at such a distant position; sands of separate stars: it has directed our invesyet the telescope, in a few  moments, transports tigations to thousands of double, treble, and mulour visual powers to that far distant point of tiple stars-suns revolving around suns, and sysspace.  When we view with such an instrument tenls around systems; and  has enabled us to
the minute and  very distant clusters of stars determine some of the periods of their revoluin  the Milky Way, we are carried, in effect, tions: it has demonstrated the immense distances
through the regions of space to the distance of of the starry orbs from  our globe, and their
five hundred thousand millions of miles from the consequent magnitudes, since it shows us that,
earth; for we behold those luminaries through  having  brought them  nearer to our view  by
the telescope nearly as if they were actually several hundreds or thousands of times, they still
viewed from  such a distant point in the spaces appear only as so many shining points: it has enof the firmament.  These stars cannot be con- abled us to perceive that imighty changes are
ceived as less than a hundred billions of miles going forward throughout the regions of immenfrom our globe, and the instrument we have sup- sity —new  stars appearing, and others removed
posed brings them within the two hundredth part from our view, and motions of incomprehensible
of this distance.  Suppose we were carried for- velocity carrying forward those magnificent orbs
ward by a rapid motion toward this point at the through the spaces of the firmament: in short, it
rate of a thousand miles every hour, it would re- has opened a vista to regions of space so imaquire more than fifty-seven thousand years before measurably distant, that a cannon ball impelled
we could reach that very distant station in space with its greatest velocity would not reach tracts
to which the telescope, in efect, transports us: so of creation so remote in two thousand millions of
that this instrument is far more efficient in open- years; and even light itself, the swiftest body in
ing to our view the scenes of the universe, than  nature, would  require more  than a thousand
if we were invested with powers of locomotion years before it could traverse this mighty interto carry us through the regions of space with  val.  It has thus laid a foundation for our acquirthe rapidity of a cannon ball at its utmost ve- ing an approximate idea of the infinity of space,
locity; and all the while we may sit at ease in and for obtaining a glimpse of the far distant
our terrestrial apartments.                       scenes of creation, and the immense extent of the
In the next place, the telescope has been the universe.
means of enlarging our views of the sublime scenes   Again, the telescope, in consequence of the disof creation more than ally other instrument which coveries it has enabled us to make, has tended to
art has contrived.  Before the invention of this amplify our conceptions of the attributes and the enr
instrument, the universe was generally conceived pire of the Deity.  The amplitude of our concepas circumscribed within very narrow limits. The tions of the Divine Being bears a certain proporearth was considered as one of the largest bodies tion to the expansion of our views in regard to
in creation; the planets were viewed as bodies of his works of creation, and the operations he is ina far less size than what they are now found to cessantly carrying forward throughout the unibe; no bodies similar to our moon were suspected  verse.  If our views of the works of God, and of
as'revolving around any of them; and the stars the manifestations he has given of himself to his
were supposed to be little more than a number intelligent creatures, be circumscribed to a narrow
of brilliant lamps hung up to emit a few glimmer- sphere, as to a parish, a province, a kingdom, or
ing rays, and to adorn the canopy of our earthly  a single world, our conceptions of that Great Behabitation. Such a wonderful phenomenon as the ing will be proportionably limited; for it is chiefly
ring of Saturn was never once suspected, and the fiom  the manifestation of God in the material
sun was considered as only a large ball of fire. creation that our ideas of his power, his wisdom,
It was suspected, indeed, that the moon was di- and his other natural attributes are derived.  But
versified with mountains and vales, and that it in proportion to the ample range or prospect we
might possibly be a habitable world; but nothing are enabled to take of the operations of the Most
certainly could be determined on this point, on High, will be our conceptions of his character,
account of the limited nature of unassisted vision. attributes, and agency.  Now the telescope, more
But the telescope has been the means of expand- than any other invention of man, has tended to
ing our views of -the august scenes of creation open to our view the most magnificent and extento an almost unlimited extent: it has withdrawn  sive prospects of the. works of God; it has led us
the vail which formerly interposed to intercept to ascertain that, within the limits of the solar
our view af the distant glories of the sky: it has system, there are bodies which, taken together,
brought to light five new  planetary bodies, un- comprise a mass of matter nearly two thousand
known to former astronomers, one of which is five hundred times greater than that of the earth;more than eighty times larger than the earth, and  that these bodies are all constituted and arranged
seventeen secondary planets which revolve around in such a manner as to fit them for being habitable
the primary: it has expanded the dimensions of worlds; and that the sun, the center of this systhe solar system to double the extent which was tem, is five hundred times larger than the whole.
formerly supposed: it has enabled us to descry But, far beyond tihe limits of this system, it hw
hundreds of comets which would otherwise have presented to our view a universe beyond the grasp
escaped our unassisted vision, and to determine of finite intelligences, and to which human imasome of their trajectories and periods of revolu- gination can assign no boundaries: it has enabled
tion: it has explored the profundities of the Milky  us to descry suns clustering behind suns, rising
Way, and enabled us to perceive hundreds of to view in boundless perspective, in proportion to
thousands of those splendid orbs, where scarcely the extent of its niagnifying and illuminating
powers, the numbers of which are to be estimatplanet.  If this number be subtracted from 906,000,000, ed,not merely by thousauds, ad tensof tlousands,
the remainder is 901,470,000, which expresses the number
of' sniles fi-o i the earth at which we are supposed to view  and hundreds of thousands, but by scores of mnil,Satusl with such an instrument.                  lions; leaving us no room  to doubt that hundreds




UTILITY  OF TELESCOPES.                                   117
of millions more beyond the utmost limits of hu- omniscient eye. What boTndless intelligence is
nan vision, even when assisted by art, lie hid from  implied in the superintendence and arrangement of
mortal view in the unexplored and unexplorable the affairs of such anll unlimited empire! and what
regions of immensity.                           a lofty and expansive idea does it convey of Him
Here, then, we are presented with a scene which who sits on the throne of Universal Nature, and
gives us a display of Omnipotent Power which no whose greatness is unsearchable! But without
other objects canl unfold, and which, without the the aid of the telescopic tube we could not have
aid of the telescope, we should never have beheld; formed such ample conceptions of the greatness,
a scene which expands our conceptions of the either of the Eternal Creator himself, or of the
Divine Being to an extent which the men of for- universe which he hath brought into existence.
mner generations could never have anticipated; a   Beside the above, the following ustos of the telescene which enables us to form all approximate scope, in relation to science and common lieb,
idea of Him who is the "King Eternal, Immor- may be shortly noticed:
tal, and Invisible," who "created all worlds, and    in  the business of astronomy, scarcely anything
for whose pleasure they are and were created." can be done with accuracy without the assistance
Here we behold the operations of a Being whose of tile telescope. 1. It enables the astronomer to
power is illimitable and uncontrollable, and which  determine with precision the transits of the planets
far transcends the comprehension of the highest and stars across the meridian; and on the accucreated intelligences; a power, displayed not only racy with which these transits are obtained, a vain the vast extension of material existence, and riety of important conclusions and calculations
the countless number of mighty globes which the depend. The computation of astronomical and
universe contains, but in the astonishingly rapid nautical tables for aiding the navigator in his
motiolns with which myriads of them are carried voyages round the globe, and facilitating his c;lalong through the immeasurable spaces of crea- culations of latitude and longitude, is rierived.tion, some of those magnificent orbs moving with frorn observations made by the telescope, without
a velocity of one hundred and seventy thousand  the use of which instrumlent they cannot be made
miles anl hour. Here, likewise, we have a display  with precision. 2. The apparent diameters of the
of the infinite wisdom and intelligence of the Di- planets can only be measured by means of this invine Mind, in the harmony and order with which strument, furniished with a micrometer.  By the
all the mighty movements of the universe are con- naked eye no accurate measurements of the diaducted; in proportionating the magnitudes, meo- meters of these bodies call be taken; and without
tions, and distances of the planetary worlds; in knowing their apparent diameters in minutes or
the nice adjustment of the projectile velocity to seconds, their real bulk cannot be determined,
the attractive power; in the constant proportion even although their exact distances be known.
between the times of the periodical revolution of The differences, too, between the polar and equathe planets and the cubes of their mean distances; torial diameters cannot be ascertained without obin the distances of the several planets from  the servations made by powerful telescopes. For excentral body of the system, compared with their ample, the equatorial diameter of Jupiter is found
respective densities; and in the constancy and re- to be in proportion to the polar as 14 to 13, that
g iarity of their motions, and the exactness with is, the equatorial is more than 6000 miles longer
which they accomplish their destined rounds-all than the polar diameter, whicll could never have
which circumstances evidently show that He who been determined by observations made by the nacontrived the universe is " the only wise God," ked eye.  3. The parallaxes of the heavenly
who is "wonderful in counsel and excellent in bodies call only be accurately ascertained by the
working."  Here, in fine, is a display of bound- telescope; and it is only from the knowledge of
less benevolence; for we cannot suppose, for a their parallaxes that their distances from the earth
moment, that so many myriads of magnificent or from the sun call be determinled.  In tile case
globes, fitted to be the centers of a countless hlum- of the fixed stars, nothing of the nature of a paber of mighty worlds, should be nothing else than  rallax coulft ever be expected to be found without
barren wastes, witlhout the least relation to intel- tile aid of a telescope. It was by searching for
ligent existence; and if they are peopled with in- the parallax of a certain fixed star that the imtellectual beings of various orders, how vast must portaent fact of the Aberration of Light was disbe their numbers, and how overflowing theat Di- covered. The observations for this purpose were
vine Beneficence which has provided for them all made by means of a telescope 24 feet long, fixed
everything requisite to their existence and hap- in a certain position. 4. The motions and revopiness.                                         lutionary periods of Sidereal Sysltems can only be
In these discoveries of the telescope we obtain  determined by observations made by telescopes of
a glimpse of the grandeur and the unlimited ex- great magnifying and illuminating powers. Withtent of God's universal empire. To this empire out a telescope the small stars which accompany
no boundaries call be perceived.  The larger and double or treble stars cannot be perceived, and
the more powerful our telescopes are, the farther much less their motions or variation of their relaare we enabled to penetrate into those distant and  tive positions. Before tile invention of the tele
unknown regions; and however far we penetrate scope, such phenomena, now deemed so wonderfla
Into tile abyss of space, new objects of wonder and interesting, could never have been surmised.
and magnificence still continue rising to our view, 5. The accurate determination of the longitude
affording the strongest presumption that, were we of places on the earth's surface is ascertained by
to penetrate ten thousand times farther into those the telescope, by observing with this instrument
remote spaces of immensity, new suns, and sys- tile immersions and emnersions of the satellites of
terns, and worlds would be disclosed to our view. Jupiter. From such observations, with the aid of
Over all this vast assemblage of material exist- a chronometer, and having the time at any known
ence, and over all the sensitive and intellectual place, the situation of ally unknown place is
beirngs it contains, God eternally and unchangea- easily determined. But the eclipses of Jupiter's
bly presides; and the minutest movements, either moons can be perceived only by telescopic instruof thie physical or the intelligent system, through- ments of considerable power. 6. By means of a
out eN ary department of those vast dominionms, telescope with cross hairs in the focus of the eyeare at every m ment "naked and open" to his 1 glass, and attached to a quadrant, the altitude of




118                        THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
the sun or of a star, particularly the pole-star, Station.-This depends upon the increase of the
may be most accurately taken, and from such ob- focal distance of the telescope in the case. of near
servations the latitude of the place may be readily objects.  Look through a telescope at the object
and accurately deduced.                         whose distance is required, and adjust the focus
Again, in the Surveying of Land, the telescope until it appear quite distinct; then slide in the
is particularly useful; and for this purpose it is drawer until the object begins to be obscure, and
mounted on a stand with a horizontal and vertical mark that place of the tube precisely; next draw
motion, pointing out by divisions the degrees and out the tube until the object begins to be again
minutes of ihclination of tile instrument. For obscured, and then make another mark as before;
the more accurate reading of these divisions, the then take the middle point between these two
two limbs are furnished with a nonius, or Ver- marks, and that will be the point where the image
nier's Scale. The object here is to take the an- of the object is formed most distinctly, which is
gular distances between. distant objects on a plane to be nicely measured from the object-lens, and
truly horizontal, or else the angular elevation or compared with the solar focus of the lens or teledepression of objects above or below the plane of scope, so as to ascertain their difference.  And
the horizon.  In order to obtain either of those the rule for finding the distance is: as the differkinds of angles to a requisite degree of exactness, ence between the focal distance of the object and
it is necessary that the surveyor should have as the solar focal distance is to the solar focal dis
clear and distinct a view as possible of the ob- tance, so is the focal distance of the object to its
jects, or station-staves, which he fixes up for his true distance from the object-lens. An example
purpose, that he may with the greater certainty  will render this matter more perspicuous:
determine the point of the object which exactly
corresponds with the line he is taking.  Now, as                    Fig. 84.
such objects are generally at too great a distance
for the surveyor to be able to distinguish with the                                 I E
naked eye, he takes the assistance of the telescope,
by which he obtains, 1, a distinct view of the ob-      
ject to which his attention is directed, and, 2, he 
is enabled to determine the precise point of the    Let A B (fig. 84) be the object-lens, E Y the
object aimed at by means of the cross hairs in the eyeglass, F C the radius, or focus of tle lens A B,
focus of the eyeglass. A telescope mounted for and Cf the focal distance of the object U B,
this purpose is called'a Theodolite, which is de- whose distance is to be measured. Now suppose
rived from  two Greek words, Osbg-ut, to see, and C F-48 inches, or four feet, and that we find by
cJ&r, the way or distance.                      the above method that Cf is 50 inches, then Ff
In the next place, the telescope is an instrument is two inches; and the analogy is, as Ff-2 is to
of special importance in the conducting of Tele- C F —48, so is Cf-50 to C Q-1200 inches, or
graphs, and in the conveyance of siqnals of all 100 feet. Again, suppose Cf —49 inches, then
descriptions. Without its assistance telegraphic will FJ-1  inch; and the proportion is, 1:48
dispatches could not be conveyed with accuracy: 49: 2352=Q C, or 196 feet. A telescope of
to any considerable distance, nor in quadruple the this focal length, however, will measure only
time in which they are now communicated, and siall distances.  But suppose A B a lens whose
the different stations would need to be exceedingly solar focus is 12 feet, or 144 inches, and that we
numerous; but, by the assistance of the telescope, find by the above method that Cf, or the focal disinformation may be communicated, by a series of tance of the object, is 146 inches, then will F f
telegraphs, with great rapidity.  Twenty-seven be two inches, andt the proportion will be as 2:
telegraphs convey information from  Paris to Ca- 144::146: 21024 inches, or 1752 feet —the dislais, a distance of 160 miles, in three minutes; tance Q C.  If with such a large telescope we
twenty-two, from Paris to Lisle, in two minutes; view an object O B, and find, Ff but 1-10th of
forty-six, from Strasburg to Paris, in four and a an inch, this will give the distance of the object
half minutes; and eighty, fiom Paris to Brest, in as 17,292 feet, or nearly 313d miles.
ten minutes.  In many other cases which occur   Since the difference between the radius of the
both on land and sea, the telescope is essentially  object-lens and the focal distance of the object is
requisite for descrying signals. The Bell-Rock so considerable as two inches in a tube of four
Lighthouse, for example, is situated twelve, miles feet, and more than twelve inches in one of twelve
from  Arbroath, and from every other portion of feet, a method might be contrived for determining
land, so that the naked eye could not discern any the distance of near objects by the former, and
signal which the keepers of that light could have more distant objects by the latter, by inspection
it in their power to make; but by means of a only. This may be done by adjusting or drawing
large telescope in the station-house in Arbroath, a spiral line round the drawer or tube through the
the hoisting of a ball every morning at 9, A. I., two-inch space in the small telescope, and by calwhich indicates that "All is well," may be dis- culation graduate it for every 100 feet and the intinctly recognized.                             termediate inches, and then, at the same time we
Many other uses of this instrument, in the or- view an object, we may see its distance on the
dinary transactions of life, will readily occur to tube. In making such experiments, a common
tlhe reader, and therefore I shall only mention the object-glass of a long focal length, and a single
following purpose to which it may be applied, eyeglass, are all that is requisite, sincethe inverted
namely,                                         appearance of the object can cause no great inTo measure the Distance of an Object from one convenience.




CHAPTER VII.
ON THE METH'OD OF GRINDING AND POLISHING OPTICAL LENSES ANI)
SPECULA.
I ORIiGINALLY intended to enter into particular be kept separate from each other, ana worked in
details on this subject for the purpose of gratifying  their proper order, beginning at the first, and
those mechanics and others who wish to amuse  working off all the marks of the grindstone; then
themselves by constructing telescopes and other take of the second, next of the third, &c., holding
optical instruments for their own use; but, having  the glass upon the pan or tool with a light hand
dwelt so long on the subject of telescopes ill the when it comes to be nearly fit for polishing.  The
preceding pages, I am constrained to confine my- glass, in this operation, should be cemented to a
self to a very general sketch.                   wooden handle by means of pitch or other strong
1. To grind and polish Lenses for Eyeglasses, cement. After the finest emery has been used,
Microscopes, -c.-First provide an upright spindle, the roughness which remains may be taken away,
at the bottomn of whichi a pulley is fixed, which  and a slight polish given, by grinding the glass
must be turned by a wheel by means of a cord  with pounded pumice-stone.  Before proceeding
and handle. At the top of the spindle make a to the polishing, the glass should be ground as
screw the same as a lathe-spindle, on which you  smooth as possible, and all the scratchelles erased,
may screw chocks of different sizes, to which the otherwise the polishing will become a tedious probrass tool in which the lens is to be ground may  cess. The polishing isperformned as follows: Tie
be fixed. Having fixed upon the breadth and fo- a piece of linen rag or fine cloth about the tool,
cal length of the lens, and whether it is to be a and with fine putty (calcined tin) or colcothar of
piano or a double convex, take a piece of tin-plate vitriol (a very fine powder, sometimes called the
or sheet copper, and with a pair of compasses red oxide of iron), moistened with water, continue
draw an arch upon its surface, near one of its ex- the grinding motion, and in a short time theretremities, with a radius equal to the focal distance will be an excellent polish.
of the lens, if intended to be double. convex, or   In order to grind lenses very accurately for the
with half that distance if it is to be plano-convex. finest optical purposes, particularly object-glasses
Remove with a file that part of the copper which  for telescopes, the concave tool is firmly fixed to
is without the circular arch, and then a convex a table or bench, and the glass wrought uponl it
gauge is formed.  With the same radius strike by the hand with circular strokes, so thlat its cellanother arch, and having removed that part of ter may never go beyond the edges of the tool.
the copper which is within it, a concave gauge will For every six or seven circular strokes, tile glass
be obtained. Tile brass tool in which the glass should receive two or three cross ones alolig the
is to be ground is then to be fixed upon a turning- diameter of the tool, and in difierenlt directions;
lathe, and turned into a portion of a concave and, while the operation is goilg on, tile conllv,
sphere, so as to correspond to the convex g:auge. tool should, at the end of five minutes, be wrougilt
In5 order to obtain an accurate figure to the con- upon tile concave one for a few seconds, in order
cave tool, a convex tool of exactly the same radius to preserve the same curvature to the tools anld to
is generally formed, and they are ground one upon  the glass. The finest polish is generally given ill
another with flour of emery, and wlhen they ex- tile following way: Cover the concave tool with a
actly coincide they are fit for use.  The convex layer of pitch, hardened by tile addition of a little
tool will serve for grinding concave glasses of the resin, to the thickness of 1-15th of an inch; then,
same radius; and it should be occasionally ground  having taken a piece of thin writing paper, press
in the concave tool to prevent it from  altering its it upon the surface of the pitch with tile convex
figure.                                          tool, and pull the paper quickly from  the pitch
The next thing to be attended to is to prepare before it has adhered to it; and if the surface of
the piece of glass which is to be ground, by chip- the pitch is marked everywhere with the lines of
ping it in a circular shape by means of a large the paper, it will be truly spherical. If allny paper
pair of scissors, and removing the roughness from  remains on the surface of the pitch, it may be
its edges by a common grinidstone.  The faces rubbed off by soap and water; and if the marks
of the glass near the edges should likewise be of the paper should not appear on any part of it,
ground on the grindstone until they nearly fit the the operation must be repeated until the polisher
concave gauge, by which the labor of grinding in or bed of pitch is accurately spherical. Tile glass
the tool will be considerably saved.  The next is then to be wrought on the polisher by circular
thing required is to prepare tile emery for grind- and cross strokes with the putty or colcothar
ing, which is done in the following manner: Pro- until it has received a complete polish. When one
vide four or five clean earthen vessels: fill one of side is finished, the glass must be separated from
them with water, and put into it a pounlld or half its handle by inserting the p)oint of a knife bea pound of fine emery, and stir it about with a tween it and the pitch, and giving it a gentle
stick; after which, let it stand three or four stroke. The pitch which remains upon the glass
seconds, and then pour it into another vessel, may be removed by rubbing it with a little oil, or
which maty stand about ten seconds: then pour it spirits of wine.  The operation of polishing on
off again into the several vessels until the water cloth is slower, and tilhe polish less perfect than on
is quite clear, and by this means emery of differ- pitch; but it is a mode best fitted for those who
ent degrees of fineness is obtained, which must have little experience, and who would be apt ina
( 19 )




120                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
the first instance, to injure the figure of the lens   When the metal is cast, and prepared by the
by polishing it on a bed of pitch.                 common grindstone for receiving its proper figure,
2. On the method of casting and grinding the the gauges and grinding-tools are to be formed in
Specula of ReJlecting Telescopes. —The first thing  the same manner as formerly described for lenses,
to be conisidered in the formation of reflecting  with this difference, that the radius of the gauges
telescopes is the composition of the metal of which  must always be double the focal length of the
the specula are made.  The qualities required are, speculum, as the focus of parallel rays by refleca sound, uniforrn  metal, free from  all micro- tion is at one half the radius of concavity.  In
scopic pores, not liable to tarnish by absorption  addition to the concave and convex tools, which
of moisture fromn the atmosphere-not so hard as should be only a little broader than the metal
to be incapable of taking a good figure and polish, itself, a convex elliptical tool of lead and tin should
nor so soft as to be easily scratched, and possess- be formed with the same radius, so that its transing a high reflecting power.  Various cormposi- verse should be to its conjugate diameter as 10 to
tions have been used for this purpose, of which 1 9, the latter being exactly equal to the diameter
the following  are  specimens: Take  of good of the metal.  The grinding of the speculum is
Swedish copper 32 ounces, and whten melted,.then to be commenced on this tool wiil coarse
add 1412 ounces of grain tin to it; then, having  emery powder and water, when the roughness is
taken off the scoria, cast it into an ingot.  This taken off by moving the speculum  across the tool
me'tal must be a second time melted to cast a ill different directions, walking round the post on
speculum; but it will fuse in this compound state which the tool is fixed, holding the speculum  by
with a small heat, and therefore will not calcine  the wooden handle to which it is cemented; it is
the tin to putty.  It should be poured off as soon  then to be Wrought with great care on. the cosnvex
as it is melted, giving it no more heat than is ab- brass tool, with circular and cross strokes, and
solutely necessary.  The best method for giving  with emery of different degrees-the concave tool
the melted metal a good surface is thiis: the mo- being sometimes ground upon the convex one, to
ment before it is poured off, throw into the cruci- keep them all of the same radius-and wheen every
ble a spoonful of charcoal-dust; immediately after scratch is removed from its surface, it will be fit
which, the metal must be stirred with a wooden  for receiving the final polish.
spatula and  poured  into tile molds.  The fol-   When the metal is ready for polishing, the ellowing is another composition somewhat similar: liptical tool is to be covered with black pitch
Take two parts of copper as pure as it is possible about 1-20th of an inch thick, and the polisher
to procure: this must be melted in a crucible by formed in the same way as in the case of lenses
itself; then put, int another crucible, one part of either with the concave brass tool or with tile
pure grain tin: when they are both melted, mlix  metal itself. Thecolcothar of vitriol should then be
and stir them with a wooden spatula, keeping a triturated between two surfaces of glass, and a
good flux on the melted surface to prevent oxyda- considerable quantity of it applied at first to the
tion, and then pour the metal quickly into the surface of thie polisher.  Tile speculum  is theu
molds, which may be made of founders' loam.    to be wrought in the usual way upon the polishThe composition suggested, more than half a ing tool until it has received a brilliant luster,
century ago, by the Rev. Mr. Edwards, has often taking care to use, no more of the colcothar, if it
been referred to with peculiar approbation. This canl be avoided, and only a small quantity of it,
gentleman took a great deal of pains to discover if it should be found necessary. When the metal
the best composition, and to give his mnetals a fine moves stiffly onl the polisher, and tile colcothar
polish and the true parabolical figure.  His tele- assumes a dark, muddy hue, the polish advances
scopes were tried by Dr. Maskelynle, the astrono- with great rapidity.  The tool will then grow
mer royal, who found them  greatly to excel in  warm, and would probably-stick to the speculumr
brightness, and to equal in other respects those if its motion were discontinued for a moment.
made by the best artists.  They showed a white At this stage of the process, therefore, we must
object perfectly white, and all objects of their proceed with great caution, breathing continually
proper color.  He found, after trying various on the polisher until the friction is so great as to
combinations, the following to be the best, name- retard the motion of the speculum.  VWhen thiis
ly, 32 ounces of copper, with 15 or 16 ounces of happens, the metal is to be slipped off the tool at
grain tin (according to the purity of the copper), one side, cleaned with soft leather, an4 placed in
with the addition of one ounce of brass, one of a tube for the purpose of trying its performance;
silver, and one ounce of arsenic. This, he affirms. and if the polishing has been conducted with care,
will form  a metal capable, when polished in a it will be found to have a true parabolic figure.*
proper manner, of reflecting more light than any    It was formerly the practice, before the specuother metal yet made public.                      lum was brought to the polisher, to smooth it on
The Rev. J. Little, in his observations on this a bed of hones, or a convex tool made of the best
subject in the " Irish Transactions," proposes the blue stone, such as clockmakers use ill polishing
following composition, which he founld to answer their work, which was made one-fourth pa:t
the purpose better than any he had tried, namely, larger than the metal which was to be ground
32 parts of best bar copper, previously fluxed with  upon it, and turned as true as possible to a gauge;
the black flux of 2 parts tartar and 1 of niter, but this tool is not generally considered as abso4 parts of brass, 16 parts of tin, and 114 of arse- lutely necessary, except when silver and brass
nic. If the metal be granulated, by pouring it, enter into the composition of the metal, in ordem
when first melted, into water, and then fused a to remove the rouglness which remains after
second time, it will be less porous than at first. In  grinding with the emery.
this process, the chief object is to hit on the ex-    To try the Figure of the Metal.-In order to
act point of the saturation of the copper, &c., by  this, the speculum must be placed in the tube of
the tin; for if the latter be added in too great the telescope for which it is intended, and at
quantity, the metal will be dull colored and soft; about 20 or 30 yards distant there should be put
if too little, it will not attain the most perfect up a watch-paper, or similar object, onl which
whiteness, and will certainly tarnish.*           there are some very fine strokes of anl engraver.
* Irish Transactions, vol. x; and Nicholson's Phllilosophical Journal, vol. xvi.                                * Brewster's Appendix to " Ferguson's Lectures."




OPTICAL LENSES AND SPECULA.                                    121
An annular kind of diagram should be made with  next the eye one inch, and theirdistance two inches,
card-paper, so as to cover a circular portion of then the compound focal distance from the eyethe middle part of the speculum, between the hole glass will be32 —'     inch.  The diameter of
and the circumference, equal in breadth to about            3 -12
one-eighth of its diameter.  This paper ring the eyehole is always equal to the quotient abshould be fixed in the mouth of the telescope, and tained by dividing the diameter of the great speremain so during the whole experiment.  There culum by the magnifying power of the telescope.
must likewise be two other circular pieces of card- It is generally from  1-25th to 1-50th of an inch
paper cut out, of such sizes that one may cover in diameter. It is necessary, in many cases, to
the center of the metal by completely filling the obtain from direct experiment an accurate detefreihole in the annular piece now  described, and the nation of the place and size of the eyehole, as on
other such a round piece as shall exactly fill the this circumstance depends, in a certain degree, the
tube, and so broad as that the inner edge just accurate performance of the ilstrument.
touches the outward circumference of the middle    To center the two specula of Gregorian Reflectors.
annular piece.  All these pieces together will -Extend two fine threads or wires across the
completely shut up the mouth of the telescope. aperture of the tube at right angles, so as to interLet the round piece which covers the center of sect each other exactly in the axis of the telescope
tile metal be removed, and adjust the instrument Before the arm  is finally fastened to the slider,
so that the image may be as4harp and distinct as place it in the tube, and through the eyepi ce
possible; then replace the central piece, and re- (without glasses) the intersection of the crossmove the outside annular one, by which means wires must be seen exactly in the center of the
the circumference only of the speculum will be hole of the arna. When this exactness is obtained,
exposed, and the image now formed will be from  let the arm be firmly riveted and soldered to the
the rays reflected from the exterior side of the slider.
metal. If the two images formed by these two    To center Lenses.-The centering of lenses is of
portions of the metal be perfectly sharp and equal- great importance, more especially for the objectly distinct, the speculum  is perfect and of the glasses of achromatic instruments.  The followtrue parabolic curve; if, on the contrary, the ing is reckoned a good method: Let the lens to be
image from the outside of the metal should not be centered be cemented on a brass chock, having the
distinct, and it should be necessary to bring the middle turned away so as not to touch the lens
little speculum nearer by the screw, the metal is except near tile edge, which will be.hid when
not yet brought to the parabolic figure; but if, in  mounted.  This rim is very accurately turned flat
order to procure' distinctness, we be obliged to where it is to touch the glass. When the chock
move the small speculum  farther off, then the and cement is warm, it is made to revolve rapidly;
figure of the great speculum has been carried be- while in motion, a lighted candle is brought beyond the parabolic, and has assumed the hyper- fore it, and its reflected image attentively wv atched.
bolic form.                                     If this image has any motion, the lens is not flat
To adjust the Eyehole of Greqorian Reflectors.-  or central; a piece of soft wood must therefore
If there is only one eyeglass, then the distance of be applied to it in the manner of a turning tool,
the small hole, should be as nearly as possible equal until such time as the light becomes stationary.
to its focal length; but in the compound Huyge- When the whole has cooled, the edges of the lens
nian eyepiece, the distance of the eyehole may be must be turned by a diamond, or ground with
thus found: Multiply the difference between the emery.
focal distance of the glass next to the speculum,   For more particular details in reference to grindand the distance of the two eyeglasses, by the fo- ing and polishing specula and lenses, the reader is
cal distance of the glass nearest the eye; divide referred to Smith's " Complete System of Optics,"
the product by the sum of the focal distances of Imison's " School of Arts,"  Huygenii Opera,
the two lenses, lessened by their distance, and the Brewster's Appendix to " Ferguson's Lectures,"
quotient will be the compound focal distance re- " Irish Transactions," vol. x, or " Nicholson's
quired. Thus, if the focal distance of the lens Journal," vol. xvi, Nos. 65, 66, for January and
next the speculum be three inches, that of the lens February, 1807.




PART III.
ON VARIOUS ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.
CHAPTER I.
ON MICROM ETERS.
A MICROMETER is an instrument attached to a the micrometer in the field of the telescope, then
telescope, in order to measure small spaces in the the micrometrical scale, instead of being fixed to
heavens, such as the spaces between two stars, and  the diaphragm, may be fitted to a circular perfothe diameters of the sun, moon, and planets; and  rated plate of brass, of wood, or even of paper
by the help of which, the apparent magnitude of which may be occasionally placed upon the said
all objects viewed through telescopes may be mea- diaphragm.  One of these micrometers, in my
sured with great exactness.                       possession, which contains 600 divisions i n an inch,
There are various descriptions of these instru- is fitted up in a separate eyetube, with a glass pecdments, constructed with different substances and liar to itself, which slides into the eyepiece of the
in various forms, of which the following consti- telescope when its own proper glass is taken uot.
tute the principal variety: the Wire Micrometer-    To ascertain the Value of the Divisions of this
the Spider's-line Micrometer —the Polymletric Re- A Micrometer.-Direct the telescope to the sun, and
tidcle-Divided Object-glass Micrometer-Divided  observe how many divisions of the micrometer
Eyeglass Micrometer-Ramsden's Catoptric Mi- measure its diameter exactly; thenl take out of the
crometer —Rochon's Crystal Micromlleter-Mas-  Nautical Almanac the diameter of the sun for the
kelyne's PrismaticMicrometer. —Brewster's llicro- day on which the observation is made; divide it
metrical Telescope-Sir W. Herschel's Lamp Mi- by the above-mentioned number of divisions, and
crometer-Cavallo's 1Mother-of-Pearl MIicrometer, the quotient is the value of one division of the
and several others; but instead of attempting even  micrometer   Phus, suppose that 2612 divisions
a general description of these instruments, I shall of the micrometer measure the dialnieter of the
confine myself merely to a very brief descrip- sun, and that the Nautical Almanac gives for the
tion of Cavallo's Mlicrometer, as its construction  measure of the same diameter 31' 22", or 1822":
will be easily understood by the general reader, as i divide 1822 by 26.5, and the quotient is 71", or 1'
it is one of the most simple of these instruments, 11", which is the value of one division of the miand is so cheap as to be procured for a few shil- crometer, the double of which is the value of two
uings, while some of the instruments now men- divisions, and so on. The value of the divisions
tioned are so expensive as to cost nearly as much  may likewise be ascertained by the passage of an
as a tolerably good telescope.*                   equatorial star over a certain number of divisions
This micrometer consists of a thin and narrow  in a certain time.  The stars best situated for this
slip of mother-of-pearl finely divided, which is purpose are such as the following: Sin the Whale,
placed in the focus of the eyeglass of a telescope, R. A. 370 3y', Dec. 37' 50" S.; S in OriQon, R. A.
just where the image of the object is formed; 800 11' 42", Dec. 28' 40" S.; v in the Lion, R. A.
and it may be applied either to a reflecting or a 1710 25' 21", Dec. 23' 22" N.; a in Virgo, R. A.
refi'acting telescope, provided the eyeglass be a 1820 10', Dec. 33' 27" N.  But the following is the
convex lens. It is about the twentieth part of most easy and accurate method of determining tlh
an inch broad, and of the thickness of common  value of the divisions.
writing paper, divided into equal parts by parallel   Mark upon a wall or other place the length of
lines, every fifth and tenth of which is a little six inches, which may be done by m.aking two
longer than the rest.  The simplest way of fixing dots or lines six inches asunder, or by fixing a six
it is to stick it upon the diaphragm, which gene- inch ruler upon a stand. Then place the telescope
raliy stands within the tube, and in the focus of before it, so that the ruler, or six inch length may
the eyeglass. WThen thus fixed, if you look through  be at right angles with the direction of the telethe eyeglass, the divisions of the micrometrical scope, and just57 feet 3/S inches distant from the
scale will appear very distinct, unless the dia- object-glass of the telescope; this done, look
phragm is not exactly in the focus of the eyeglass, through the telescope at the ruler, or o:ther exin which case it must be moved to the proper tension of six inches, and observe how many diviplace; or the micrometer may be placed exactly sions of the micrometer are equal to it, and that
in the focus of the eyelens by the interposition of same number of divisions is equal to half a dea circular piece of paper, card, or by means of gree, or 30'; and this is all that is necessary for
wax. If a person should not like to see always the required determination; the reason of which
is, because an extension of six inches subtends an
*A particular description of the micrometers here enume- angle of 30' at the distance of. 57 feet 32 inches,
rated, and several others, will be found in Dr. Pehrson's as may be easily calculated from  the rules of
"Introduction to Practical Astronomy," vol. ii.  Plane Trigonometry.




ON MICROMETERS.                                        123
Fig. 85 exhibits this micrometer scale, but shows measure the lineal dimensions of the object, as the
it foul times larger than the real size of one. which  diameter of a hair, the length of a flea, or the limbs
was adapted to a three feet achromatic telescope of an insect. In order to find the value of the tlinlagnifying 84 times. The divisions upon it are visions for this purpose, we need only apply a ruler,
the 200ths of an inch, which reach from one edge divided into tenths of an inch, to theend of the tube,
of the scale to about the middle of it, excepting and looking through the tube, observe how many
every fifth and tenth division, which are longer. divisions of the micrometer measure one-tenth of
Two divisions of this scale are very nearly equal
to one minute; and as a quarter of one of these                      Fig. 85.
divisions may be distinguislied  by estimation,
therefore an angle of one-eighth of a minute, or              I i            i 
of 7f12", may be measured with it. When a tele-              I  I
scope magnifies more, thie divisions of the micro-                            
meter must be more minute. When the focus of
the eyeglass of the telescope is shorter than half
an inch, the micrometer may be divided with the an inch on the ruler, which will give the required
500ths of an inch; by means of which, and the value. Thus, if 30 divisions are equal to 1-10th of
telescope magnifying about 200 times, one  may an inch,300 of them must be equal to the 300th part
easily and accurately measure an angle smaller of an inch. 2. For measuring the mnagifyiag
than half a secondl. On the other hand, when power of other telescopes.  This is done by meathe telescope does not magnify above 30 times, the suring the diameter of the pencil of light at the
divisions need not be so minute.  In one of Dol- eye-end of the telescope in question; for, if we
lond's pocket telescopes, which, when drawn out divide the diameter of the object-lens by the difor use, is only 14 inches long, a micrometer with amneter of this pencil of light, the quotient will
the hundredths of an inch is quite sufficient, and express how many tinmes that telescope magnifies
one of its divisions is equal to little less than three in diameter.  Thus, suppose that 300 divisionsof
minutes, so that an angle of a minute may be the micrometer are equal to the apparent extenmeasured by it. Supposing llo of those divi- sion of one inch-that the pencil of light is measions equal to 30', or 23 to a degree, any other sured by four of these divisions-and that the
angle measured by ally other number of divisions diameter of the object-lens measures one inch
is determined by proportion. Thus, suppose the and two tenths: Multiply 1.2 by 300, and the
diameter of the sun, seen through the same tele- product 360, divided by 4, gives 90 for the magscope, be found equal to 12 divisions, say, as 1112 nitying power of the telescope.
divisions are to 30 minutes, so are 12 divisionis to   Problems which may be solved by this Micrometer'.
( l-r 0-~) 31.3, which is the required diameter of -I. The angle-lnot exceeding one degree-which
the sun.                                         is subtended by an extension of one foot, bi.ng
Practical Uses of this 1Micrometer.-T his micro- given, to find its distance from  the place of ohmeter may be applied to the following purposes; servation: Rule 1. If the angle be expressed in
I. For measuring the apparent diameters of the  minutes, say as the given angle is to 60, so is
sun, moon, and planets. 2. For measuring the  687.55 to a foulth proportional, which gives the
apparent distances of the satellites froim  their answer in inches. 2. If the angle ie expressed
primaries. 3. FPor measuring the cusps of the moon in seconds, say, as the given angle is to 3600, so
in eclipses. 4. For measuring the apparent distan- is 687.55 to a fourth proportional, which expresses
ces between two contiglous stars-between a star the answer in inches.  3. If the anlgle be expressand a planet-between a star and the moon-or ed in minutes and seconds, turn it all into seconds,
between a comet and the contiguous stars, so as to proceed as above. Example: At what distance is a
determine its path. 5. For finding the difference globe of onei foot in diameter when it subtends
of declination of contiguous stars, when they  an angle of two seconds? 2: 3600::  687.55
have nearly the same right ascension.  6. For   6         0  -8 1237596 inches, or 10313212
measuring the small elevations or depressions of feet-the answer required.  II. The angle which
objects above and  below  the horizon.  7. For is subtended by any known extension being given,
measuring the proportional parts of buildings, to find its distance from the place of observation:
and other objects in perspective drawing.  8. For Rule: Proceed as if the extension were of one
ascertaining whether a ship at sea, or any moving foot, by Problem  I, and call the answer B; then,
object, is coining nearer or going farther ofF; for if if the extension in question be expressed in inches,
the angle subtended by the object appears to in- say as 12 inches are to that extension, so is B
crease, it shows that the object is comling nearer, to a fourth proportional, which  is the answer
and if the angle appears to decrease, it indicates in inches.  But if the extension in question be
that the object is receding from us. 9. For ascer- expressed in feet, then we need only multiply it
taining the real distances of objects of known  by B, and the product is the answer in inches.
extension, and hence to measure hights, depths, Example: At what distance is a man six feet high
and horizontal distances. 10. For measuring tilhe when he appears to subtend an angle of 30"?
real extensions of objects when their distances are By Problem I, if the man were one foot high the
known. 11. For measuring the distance and size distance would be 82506 inches; but as lie is six
of an object when neither of them is known.     feet high,therefore multiply 82506 by 6, and the
When the micromreter is adapted to those tele- product is the required distance, namely, 495036
scopes which have four glasses in the eyetube, inches, or 41253 feet.
sZd when the eyetube only is used, it may be applied    For greater convenience, especially in travelto the following purposes: 1. For measuring the ing, when one has not the opportunity of making
real or lineal dimensions of small objects, instead such calculations, the two following tables have
of the angles; for if the tube be unscrewed from  been calculated, the first of which shows the disthe rest of the telescope, and applied to small ob- tance answering to ally angle from one minute to
jects, it will serve for a microscope, having a con- one degree, which is subtended by a man who3o
%iderable magnifying power, as we have already hight is considered an extension of six feet, beshown (p. 97); and the micrometer, in that case, will cause at a mean, such is the hight of a man when
VOL. IL-. 37




124                        THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
dressed with hat and shoes on. These tables may 9,<'.-  Take the number answering to 9' out of the
be transcribed on a card, and may be kept always table, namely 382, and subtract from it a proporready with a pocket telescope furnished with a tiolal part for the half minute, namely 19.1,
micrometer.  Their use is to ascertain distances which, subtracted from  382, leaves 362.9.  This
without any calculations; and they are calculated multiplied by 3, the diameter of the tree, produces
only to minutes, because with a pocket telescope 1087. 7 feet-the distance from the object-end of
and micrometer it is not possible to measure an the telescope.
angle more accurately than to a minute. Thus,   In this way the distance of a considerably reif we want to measure the extension of a street, mote object, as a town or building at ten or twelve
let a foot ruler be placed at the end of the street; miles' distance, may be very nearly determined,
measure the angular appearance of it, which sup- provided we have the lineal dimensions of a house
pose to be 36', and in the table we have the re- or other object that stands at right angles to the
quired distance against 36', which is 95/s4 feet. line of vision. The breadth of a river, of an arm
Thus, also, a man who appears to be 49' high is of the sea, or the distance of a lighthouse, whose
at the distance of 421 feet. Again: Suppose the elevation above the sea or any other point is
trunk of a tree, which is known to be three feet known, may likewise, in this manner be easily
in diameter, be observed to subtend an angle of determined.
Angles subtended by an extension of one foot at    Angles subtended by an extension of six feet at
different distances.                        different distances.
Angles in  Distances in Angles in  Distances in  Angles in  Distances in Angles in  Distances in
minutes.    feet.    minutes.    feet.      minutes.    feet.    minutes.    feet.
1      3438         31        110.9        1       20626.8      31       665.4
2      1719         32        107.4         2      10313        32        644.5
3      1146         33        104.21        3       6875.4      33       625
4       1859.4      34        101.1         4       5156.5      34        606.6
5       678.5       35         98.2        5        4125.2      35       589.3
6       572.9       36         95.5         6       3437.7      36       572.9
7       491.1       37         92.9         7       2946.6      37       557.5
8       429.7       38         90.4         8       2578.2      38       542.8
9       382         39         88.1         9       2291.8      39       528.9
10       343.7       40         85.9        10       2062.6      40        515.6
11       312.5       41         83.8        11       1875.2      41        503.1
12       286.5       4          81.8        12       1718.8      42        491.7
13       264.4       43         79.9        13       1586.7      43        479.7
14       245.5       44         78.1        14       1473.3      44        46t.s3
15       229.2       45         76.4        15       1375.       45        458.4
16       214.8       46         74.7        16       1298.1      46        448.4
17       202.2       47         73.1        17       1213.3      47       438.9
18       191         48         71.6        18       1145.9      48       429.7
19       181         49         70.1        19       1085.6      49        421.
20       171.8       50         68.7        20        681031.4   50        412.5
21       1 62.7      51         67.4        21        982.2      51        404.4
22       156.2       52         66.1        22        937.6      52        396.7
23       149.4       53         64.8        23        896.8      53        389.2
24       143.2       54         63.6        24        859.4      54        381.9
25       137.5       55         62.5        25        825.       55        375.
26       132.2       56         61.4        26        793.3      56        368.3
27       127.3       57         60.3        27        763.9      57        361.9
28       122.7       58         59.1        28        736.6      58        355.6
29       118.5       59         58.2        29        711.3      59        349.6
30       114.6       60         57.3        30        687.5      60        343.7
CHAPTER  IL
ON THE EQUATORIAL TELESCOPE, OR PORTABLE OBSERVATORY.
TIsr equatorial instrument is intended to answer its diurnal revolution, without the trouble of oa number of useful purposes in Practical Astrono- peated adjustments for changes of elevation, wh T;h
my, independently of any particular observatory. quadrants and circles with vertical and horizoital
Beside answering the general purpose of a quad- axes require. Such an instrument is not ouly
ranit, a transit instrument, a theodolite, and an convenient for many useful and interesting purazimuth instrument, it is almost the only instru- poses in celestial observations, but is essentially
ment adapted for viewing the stars and planets in requisite in certain cases, particularly in examint/e day-timne, and for following them  in their ap- ing and measuring the relative positions of twte
parent diurnal motions. It may be made use of contiguous bodies, or in determining the diame.
in any steady room or place, and performs most ters of the planets, when the spider's-line micro.
of the useful problems in astronomical science.   meter is used.
The basis of all equatorial instruments is a re-   Christopher Scheiner is supposed to have been
volving axis, placed parallel to the axis of the the first astronomer who, in the year 1620, made
earth, by which an attached telescope is made to use of a polar axis, but without any appendage
follow a star-or other celestial body in the are of 1 of graduated circles. It was not, however, until




THE EQUATORIAL TELESCOPE.                                    125
the middle of the last century that any instru- a quadrant in measuring either altitudes or dements of this description, worthy of the name, pressions.  It has a nonius plate at K. At right
were attempted to be constructed. In 1741, Mr. angles to the plane of this semicircle, the equatoHenry HIindley, a clockmaker in York, added to rial circle, MN, is firmly fixed. It represents the
the polar axis an equatorial plate, a quadrant of equator, and is divided into twice twelve hours,
altitude, and declination semicircle; but when every hour being divided into twelve parts of five
this piece of mechanism was sent to London for minutes each. Upon the equatorial circle moves
sale in 1748, it remained unsold for the space of another circle, with a chamfered edge, carrying a
13 years. Mr. Short, the optician, published in nonius, by which the divisions on the equatorial
the Philosophical Transactions for 1750 a "de- may be read off to single minutes; and at right
scription of an equatorial telescope," which was angles to this movable circle is fixed the semicircle
of the reflecting kind, and was mounted over a of declination, D, divided into two quadrants of
combination of circles and semicircles, which 90 degrees each. The telescope, P 0, is surwere strong enough to support a tube, and a spe- mounted above this circle, and is fixed to an inculum of the Gregorian construction 18 inches dex movable on the semicircle of declination, ana
in focal length. This instrument consisted of a carries a nonius opposite to Q. The telescope is
somewhat cumbersome and expensive piece of furnished with two or three Huygenian eyepieces
machinery, a representation of which may be and likewise with a diagonal eyepiece for viewing
seen in vol. iii, of Martin's "Philosophia Britan- objects near the zenith. Lastly, there are two
nica, or System of the Newtonian Philosophy." spirit levels fixed on the horizontal circle at right
Various modifications of this instrument have angles to each other, by means of which this circle
since been made by Nairne, Dollond, Rarmsden, is made perfectly level when observations are to
Troughton, and other artists; but even at the be made.
present period it has never come into very general   To adjust the Equatorial for Observations.-Set
use, though it is one of the most pleasant and the instrument on a firm support; then, to adjust
iuseful instruments connected with astronomical the levels and the horizontal circle, turntlle horizonobservations.                                  tal circle until the beginning O of the divisions
As many of these instruments are somewhat coincides with the middle stroke of the nonins,
complicated and very expensive, I shall direct the or near it. In this situation, one of the levels
attention of the reader solely to one which I con- will be found to lie either in a right line joining
sider as the most simple, which may be purchased the two footscrews which are nearest the nonius,
at a moderate expense, and is sufficiently accu- or else parallel to such a right line. By means of
rate for general observations.                 the last two screws, cause the bubble in the level
The instrument consists of the following parts: to become stationary in the middle of the glass;
A  horizontal circle, E F (fig. 86), divided into then turn the horizontal circle half round by
bringing the other O to the nonius; and if the
Fig. 86.                    bubble remains in the middle as before, the level
P  is well adjusted; if it does not, correct the position of the level by turning one or both of the
i*-.)..  screws which pass through its ends until the
bubble has moved half the distance it ought to
come to reach the middle, and cause it to move
3DS4Vgi~~                 ) |   Xthe other half by turning the foot-screws already
mentioned; return the horizontal circle to its first
position, and if the adjustments have been well
made, the bubble will remain in the middle; if
otherwise, the process must be repeated until it
bears this proof of its accuracy; then turn the
horizontal circle until 900 stands opposite to the
nonius; and by the foot-screw immediately opposite the other 900, cause the bubble of the same
p11~'a            2level to stand in the middle of the glass; lastly,
a3  T H  E          R by its own proper screws set the other level so
BW 9. 9     that its bubble may occupy the middle of its glass.
A Ad;            1lil 0                     / sTo adjust the Line of Sight.-Set the nonius on
the declination semicircle at 0, the nonius on the
\Kl   ll1l'I3\ @G:              horary circle at VI, and the nonius on the semi___.    circle of altitude at 90; look through the telel;   a~~                         scope toward some part of the horizon where
there is a diversity of remote objects; level the
horizontal circle, and then observe what object
appears in the center of the cross-wires, or in the
center of the field of view if there be no wires;
/. N   reverse the semicircle of altitude so that the other
900 may apply to the nonius, taking care, at the
same time, that the other three noniuses continue
HER9~ W'                   at the same parts of their respective graduations
as before.  If the remote object continues to be
four quadrants of 90 degrees each.  There is a seen on the center of the cross-wires, the line of
fixed nonius at N; and the circle is capable of sight is truly adjusted.
being turned round on an axis. In the center of   To find the Correction to be applied to Observathe horizontal circle is fixed a strong upright pil- tions by the Semicircle of Altitude.-Set the nonius
lar, which supports the center of a vertical semi- on the declination semicircle to 0, and the nonius
circle, A B, divided into two quadrants of 90 de- on the horary circle to XII; direct the telescope
grees each. This is called the semicircle of alti- to any fixed and distant object by moving the
tade, and may, at any time, serve the purpose of horizontal circle and semicircle of altitude, and




126                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
nothing else; note the degree and minute of alti- meridian; therefore at the distance of three or
tude or depression; reverse the declination semi- four hours either before or afternoon tin sumcircle by directing the nonius on the horary circle mer), adjust the horizontal circle; set the semito the opposite XII; direct the telescope again to circle of altitude so that its nonlius may stand at
the same object, by means of the horizontal circle the colatitude of the place; lay the plane of the
and semicircle of altitude, as before. If its alti- last-mentioned semicircle in the meridiae  by estude or depression be the same as was observed in timation, its 0 being directed toward the depressed
the other position, no correction will be required; pole; place the nonius of the declination semibut if otherwise, half the difference of the two circle to the declination, whether north or south;
angles is the correction to be added to all observa- then direct the telescope toward the sun, partly
tions made with that quadrant, or half of the by moving the declination semicircle on the axis
semicircle which shows the least angle, or to be of the equatorial circle, and partly by moving the
subtracted from all the observations made with horizontal circle on its own axis. There is but
the other quadrant, or half of the semicircle. one position of these which will admit of the sun
When the levels and other adjustments are once being seen in the middle of the field of view.
truly made, they will be preserved in order for a When this position is obtained, the nonins on the
length of time, if not deranged by violence; and equatorial circle shows the apparent time, and the
the correction to be applied to the semicircle of circle of altitude is in the plane of the mneridian.
altitude is a constant quantity.                When this position is ascertained, the meridian
Description of the Nonins. —The nonius-some- may be settled by a landmark at a distance.
times called the Vernier-is a name given to a   With an equatorial instrument nearly similar to
device for subdividing the arcs of quadrants and that now described, I formerly made a series of
otherastronomical instruments. It depends on the " day observations on the celestial bodies," which
simple circumstance that if any line be divided into were originally published in vol. xxxvi, of. " Niequal parts, the length of each part will be great- cholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy," and
er the fewer the divisions; and contrariwise, it will which occupy twenty pages of that journal. Sonme
be less in proportion as those divisions are more of these observations I shall lay before the reader,
numerous. Thus, in the equatorial now described, after having explained the manner in which they
the distance between the two extreme strokes on are made.
the nonius is exactly equal to eleven degrees on    The instrument was made by Messrs. W. and
the limb, only that it is divided into twelve equal S. Jones, opticians, HIolborn, London.  The teleparts. Each of these last parts will therefore be scope which originally accompanied the instrushlorter than the degree on the limb in the propor-  ment was an achromatic refractor, its object-glass
tion of 11 to 12, that is to say, it will be 1-12th being 8/2 inches focal distance, and one inch in
part, or five minutes shorter; consequently, if the diameter. This telescope, not admitting sufficientmiddle stroke be set precisely opposite to ally de- ly high magnifying powers for the observations
gree, the relative positions of the nonius and the intended, was afterward thrown aside for another
limb must be altered five minutes of a degree be- telescope having an object-glass 20 inches focal
fore either of the two adjacent strokes next the length and 134 inches in diameter, which was atmiddle on the nonius can be brought to coincide tached to the equatorial machinery ill place of the
with the nearest stroke of a degree; and so like- small telescope.  It was furnished with magnifywise the second stroke on the nonius will require ing powers of 15, 30, 45, 60, and 100 times. The
a change of ten minutes, the third of fifteen, and instrument was placed on a firm  pedestal about
so on to thirty, when the middle line of the no- three feet high. The feet of this pedestal had
nius will be seen to be equidistant between two short iron pikes, which slipped into corresponding
of the strokes on the limb; after which, the lines holes in the floor of the apartment adjacent to a
on the opposite side of the nonius will coincide south window, so that when the direction of the
in succession with the strokes onl the limb.  It is meridian was found, and the circles properly adclear from this that whenevex the middle stroke justed, the instrument was in no danger of being
of the nonius does not stand precisely opposite to shifted from  this position. Though this instrually degree, the odd minutes, or distance between ment generally stood fronting the southern part
it and the degree immediately preceding, may be of the heavens, yet the equatorial part along with
known by the number of the stroke marked on the the telescope, could occasionally be removed to
nonius, which coincides with any of the strokes another position fronting the north and north-west,
on the limb.*  In some instruments the nonius- for observing the stars in those quarters.
plate has its divisions fewer than the number of   Manner of observing Stars and Planets in the
parts on the limb to which it is equal; but when Day-time bythe Equatorial.-Before such observaonce a clear idea of the principle of any nonius tion can be made, the semicircle of altitude must
is obtained, it will be easy to transfer it to any be placed in the meridian, and the degree and miother mode in which this instrument is contrived. nute pointed out by the nonius on the horizontal
To find by this Equtatorial the MERIDIAN LINE, circle, when in this position, noted down in a
dnd the Time, FROM ONE OBSERVATION OF THE book, so that it may be placed again in the same
SuN. —In order to this, it is requisite that the sun's position, should any derangement afterward hapdeclination and the latitude of the place be known. pen. The semicircle of altitude must be set to
I'he declination of the sun may be found for every the colatitude of the place, that is, to what the
day in the Nautical Almanac, or any other astro- latitude wants of 900. Suppose the latitude of
nomical ephemeris; and the latitude of the place the place of observation be 52~ 30' north, this lamay be found by means of the semicircle of alti- titude subtracted from  900 leaves 370 30' for the
tude, when the telescope is directed to the sun or colatitude, and therefore the semicircle of altitude
a known fixed star.  It is likewise requisite to on which the equatorial circle is fixed, must be
make the observation when the azimuth and alti- elevated to 370 30', and then the equatorial circle
tude of the sun alter quickly, and this is general- on the instrument coincides with the equator in
ly the case the farther that luminary is from the the heavens. Lastly, the telescope must be adjusted on the declination semicircle so as exactly to
correspond with the declination of the heavenly
* Adams's Introduction to Practical Astronomy.  body to be viewed. If the body is in the equa



THE EQUATORIAL TELESCOPE.                                      127
tor, the telescope is set by the index at 0 on the a few of the observations above alluded to, which
semicircle of declination, or at the middle point I formerly published in Nicholson's Journal, along
between the two quadrants, and then, when the with a few others which have been since made.
telescope along with the semicircle of declination, These observations were made with a view to deis moved friom right to left, or the contrary, it de- termine the following particulars: 1. What stars
scribes all arc of the equator.  If the declination and planets may be conveniently seen in the dayof the body be north, the telescope is elevated to time when the sun is above the horizon?  2.
the northern division of the semicircle; if south, to What degrees of magnifying power are requisite
the southern part of it.                         for distinguishing them?  3. How near their conThese adjustments being made, take the diffe- junction with the sun they may be seen?.and, 4.
rence between the right ascension of the sun and Whether the diminution of the aperture of the
the body to be observed, and if the right ascension  object-glass of the telescope, or the increase of
of the body be greater than that of the sun, sub- magnifying power, conduces most to render a star
tract the difference from the time of observation; or a planet visible in daylight. Having never
if not, add to the time of observation.*  The re- seen such observations recorded in books of asmainder in one case, or the sum in the other, will tronomy or in scientific journals, I was induced to
be the hour and minute to which the nonius on continue them, almost every clear day, for nearly
the equatorial circle is to be set; which being done, a year, in order to determine the points now spethe telescope will point to the star or planet to cified.  Some of the results are stated in the folwhose  declination  the instrument is adjusted. lowing pages.
-When the heavenly body is thus found, it may be    Observations on Fixed Stars of the first Magnifollowed, in its diurnal course, for hours, or as tude. —April 23, 1813, at 10h. 16m., A. M., the sun
long as it remains above the horizon; for as the being 5/_ hours above the horizon, saw the star
diurnal motion of a star is parallel to the equa-  Vega, or ac Lyrm, very distinctly with a power of
tor, the motion of the telescope on the equatorial 30 times. Having contracted the aperture of the obcircle will always be in the star's diurnal arc; and ject-glass to 9-l0ths of an inch, saw it on a darker
should it have left the field of the telescope for ground, but not more plainly than before. Havany considerable time, it may be again recovered ing contracted the aperture still further to half an
by moving the telescope onward according to the inch, I perceived the star, but not so distinctly as
time which elapsed since it was visible in the field before. The sky being very clear, and the star in
of view. We may illustrate what has been now  a quarter of the heavens nearly opposite to the sun,
stated by an example or two: Suppose on the 30th  I diminished the mnagnifying power to'15, and
of April, 1841, at one o'clock, P. M., we wished to could still perceive the star, but indistinctly; it
see the star Aldebaran: the right ascension of this was just perceptible. August 23, at Oh. 12m., r. a.
star is 4h. 271n., and the sun's right ascension for saw the star Capella or a Auriyce, with a power of
that day at noon, as found in " White's Epheme- 60, and immediately afterward with a power of
ris " or the " Nautical Almanac," is 2h. 30m.; sub- 30, the aperture undiminished. With this last
tract this last number from 4h. 27mn., and the re- power it appeared extremely distinct, but not so
mainder 1h. 57m., shows that the star comes to the brilliant and splendid as with the for mer power.
meridian on that day at 57 minutes past 1 o'clock  Having diminished the aperture to 9-10ths of an
P. WI.; and as the tinme of observation is 1 P. M., the inch, it appeared on a darker ground, though in
nonius which moves on the equatorial circle must the former case it was equally perceptible. A few
be set to three minutes past XI, as the star is at that minutes afterward, could distinguislh it withl a
hour 57 minutes from the meridian. The declina- power of 15, the aperture being contracted to half
tion of Aldebaran is 160 11' north, to which point an inch. It appeared very small; it was with
on the semicircle of declination the telescope must difficulty the eye could fix upon it in the field of
be adjusted, and then the star will be visible in the the telescope; hbut when it was once perceived, its
field of view. Again: supposewe wished to observe motion across the field of view  could be readily
the planet Venus on 1st of Jan., 1842, at 12 o'clock  followed. It could not be perceived when the dinoon: the sun's right ascension on that day is 18h. minished aperture was removed. The sun was
46Xm., and that of Venus 17h. 41m., from which the then shining in meridian splendor.
sun's right ascension being subtracted, the remain-   August 10th, 9h. 30m., A. M., saw the star Sirius
der is 22h. 55m., or 55 minutes past 10, A. M. Here, with a power of 60, the aperture contracted to
as the right ascension of Venus is too small to have 9-l0ths of an inch; saw it likewise when the aperthe sun's right ascension taken firom it, we borrow  ture was ihninished to half an inch, but not so
24 hours, and reckon the remainder from XII, at distinctly as through the aperture of 9-1Oths of
noon. As the planet at 12 at noon is one hour and  an inch. Having put on a power of 30, could
five minutes past the meridian, the nonius on the  distinguish it distinctly enough through each of
equatorial circle must be set to that point, and the  the former apertures, and likewise when th ey
telescope adjusted to 230 6' of south declination, were removed, but somewhat more distinctly
which is the declination of Venus for that day, with the apertures of 9-I10ths and a half inch
when this planet will appear in the field of view,  than without them. At this time the star wras 2h.
42m. in time of right ascension west of the sun,
OBSERVATIONS ON THE FIXED STARS AND PLANETS, having an elevation above the horizon of about
MADE IN TIHE DAY-TIME BY THE EQUATORIAL.    170 10', the sun shining bright, and the sky very
much enlightened in that quarter of the heavens
For the purpose of illustrating the descriptions where the star appeared. There was also a connow given, and for affording some information, siderable undulation of the air, which is generalrespecting celestial day observations, I shall select ly the case in the hot mornings of summer, which
renders a star more difficult to be perceived than
in the afternoon, especially when it is viewed at
*Or find the sun's right ascension for the given day; sub- a low  altitude. June 4th, 1h. 30m., P. M., saw
tact this fiom the star or planet's right ascension, and the Sirius with a power of 30 with great distinctness,
emsainder is the approximate time of the star's coming to the aperture not contracted.  The star was then
lie meridian. The difference between this time                           of rit ascension east
l;.me of observation will then determine the point to which within lh. 50m. n time  of riht ascension east
he telescope is to be directed.                  from  the sun. August 24th, 9h. 5m., a M., saw




128                           THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
the star Procyon, C.Canis MIinoris, distinctly with  9-l0ths of an inch.  The sun was than more
a power of 60, the aperture not contracted. When  than two hours above the horizon.  August 28th,
diminished  to 9-l0ths of an inch, it appeared  saw the star Pollux, or C G(emini, two hours after
ratlher more distinct, as the ground on which it sunrise, with a power of 60, aperture undiminishwas seen was darker.  With a power of 30, and  ed.  November 12th, lh. 30m., P. M.. saw the star
the aperture contracted to 9-lOths of an inch, Altair, or M Aquilce, with al 81/ inch telescope,
could  perceive it, but somewhat indistinctly. one inch aperture, carrying a power of 45, the
When the equatorial motion was performed in or- aperture not contracted.  Having contracted the
der to keep it in the field of view, it was some aperture a little, it appeared somewhat less dis.
time before the eye could again fix upon it. When  tinct. This star is reckoned by some to belong to
the aperture was diminished to half an inch, it the class of stars of the first magnitude, but in
could not be perceived.  Saw  it when both the  tWhite's "Ephemeris" and other almanacs it is
apertures were removed, but rather more distinct- generally marked as being of the second magnily with the aperture of 9-l0ths of an inch.  The  tude.  It forms a kind of medium  between stars
difference in the result of this observation from  of the first and second magnitude.
that of Capella above stated was owing to the    Similar observations, giving the same results,
star's proximity to the sun, and the consequent were made on the stars Bellatrix, Orion's Girdle,
illumination of the sky in that quarter where it iaAndromedm,ot Pegasi,Alioth, Beletnasch, North
appeared.  Its difference in right ascension from  Crown, or a Coronle Borealis, and various other
that of the sun was then about 2h. 5m. of tine, stars of the same magnitude.
and its difference of declination about 40 50'.*    From the above and several hundreds of similar
This star may  be considered as one of those  observations, thefollowing conclusions are deduced:
which rank between the first and second magni-   1. That a magnifying power of 30 times is suffitudes.                                             cient for distinguisling a fixed star of the first
Similar observations to the above were made  magnitude, even at noonday, at any season of the
and frequently repeated on the stars Rigel, Alde- year, provided it have a moderate degree of elevabaran, Betelguese, (,or Leonis, and other stars of  tion above the horizon, and be not within 30~ or
the first magnitude, which gave nearly the same  40~ of the Sun's body; also, that by a magnifying
results.  The stars Altares and Fomalhaut are  power of 15, a star of this class may be distinnot so easily distinguished, on account of their guished when the sun is not more than an hour
great southern declination, and consequent low  and a half above the horizon; but, in every case,
elevation above the horizon.  The following ob- higher powers are to be preferred.  Powers of 45
servation on Arctnrus may be added.  June 3d, or 60, particularly the last, were found to answer
observed Arcturus very distinctly a little before  best in most cases, as with such powers the eye
seven in. the evening,-the sun being about lbh. could fix on the star with ease as soon as it en40m. above the horizon, and shining bright-with  tered the field of the telescope.
a power of 15, the aperture not contracted.  It   2. That most of the stars of the second magni.
appeared very small, but distinct.  This star is tude may be seen with a power of 60 when the
easily distinguishable at any time of the day with  sun is iiot much more than two hours above the
a power of 30.                                     horizon; and, at any time of the day, the brightObservations on Stars of the Second lMagnitude.-  est stars of this class may be seen with a power
MIay 5, 1813, at 6h., P. Mo., the sun being an hour of 100 when the sky is serene, and the star not
and three-quarters above the horizon, saw Al-  too near the quarter in which the sun appears.
phard, or a Hydrae, a star of the second magni-    3. That, in every instance, an increase of magtude, with a power of 60, the aperture diminished  nifying power has the principal effect in rennening
to 9-10ths of an inch.  A few minutes afterward  a star easily perceptible; that diminution of apero
could perceive it, but indistinctly, with a power ture, in most cases, produces a very slight efffctof 30, the aperture contracted as above.  It could  ill some cases none at all; and, when the aperture
not be seen very distinctly with this power until is contracted beyond a certain limit, it produces a
about half an hour before sunset. It was then  hurtful effect.  The cases ill which a moderate
seen rather nore distinctly when the aperture was contraction is useful are the two following: 1
contracted than without the contraction.  May  When the star appears in a bright part of' the
7th, saw the star Deneb, or C Leonis, distinctly  sky, not far from  that quarter in which the sun
with a power of 60, about an hour and a half be- appears.  2. When  an object-glass of a large
fore sunset.  August 20th, saw Ras Alhague, or aperture and a small degree of magnifying power
C Ophiachi, at 4h. 40mr., r. M., with a power of 100, is used.  In almost every instance, the contracthe sun being nearly three hours above the hori-  tion of the object-glass of the 81~ inch telescope
zon, and shining bright.  Perceived it about an  with a power of 45 had a hurtful effect; but dwhlen
hour afterward with a power of 60, with the aper-  the 20 inch telescope carried a power of only 15,
ture contracted to 9-10ths of an inch, and also  tile contraction served to render the object more
when this contraction was removed.  The star perceptible.
was seen nearly as distinctly in the last case as in
the first.  August'27, 5h., P. M., the same star ap-  OBSERVATIONS ON THE PLANETS MADE IN THE DAYpeared quite distinct with a power of 60, the                            TIME.
aperture not contracted.  It did not appear more
distinct when the aperture was contracted  to    Some of the planets are not so easily distinguished in the day-time as the -fixed stars of the
* The right ascensions, declinations, longitudes, &c., first magnitude.  The one which is most easily
stated in these memoranda, which were noted at the title  distinguished at all times is the planet Venus.
of observation. are only approximations to the truth; perfect. Observati on Venus-My   observations on
accuracy in these respects being of no importance in such
observations. They are, however, in general, within a this planet comenced about the end of August
minute or two of the truth. The timesof the observations, 1812, about three or four weeks after its inferior
too, are noted in reference, not to the ast?-onomical, but to conjunction.  About that period, between ten and
the civil day.  The astronomical day commences at 12 eleven in tie forenoon, with a power of 45, it apnoon, and the hours are reckoned, without interruption, to
the following noon. The civil dayconmences at 12 mid- peared as a beautiful crescent, quite dlstlnct and
night                                              well-defined, with a luster similar to that of the




STARS OF TIHE SECOND MAGNITUDE.                                   129
moon about sunset, but of a whiter color. The passed the line of sight from  the eye to the top
view of its surface and phase was fully more dis- of the window, and his body was eclipsed by it, I
tinct and satisfactory than what is obtained in the was gratified with a tolerably distinct view of the
evening after sunset; for, being at a high eleva- planet, with a power of 60, the aperture being
tion, the undulation near the horizon did not contracted to 9-10ths of an inch. This distinctaffect the distinctness of vision.  The planet was iness increased as the sun retired, until, in two or
then very distinctly seen with a power of seven three minutes, the planet appeared perfectly welltimes, when it appeared like a star of the first or defined. Saw  it immediately afterward with a
second magnitude.  I traced the variation of its power of 30, the aperture contracted as before.
phases almost every clear day until the month of Saw it also quite distinctly with a power of 15;
May, 1813. As at that time it was not far from  but it could not be distinguished with this power
its superior conjunction with the sun, I wished to when the contracted aperture was removed. At
ascertain how near its conjunction with that lu- this time Venus was just 3~ in longitude, or about
minary it might be seen, and particularly whether 13' ill time of R. A. east of the sun's center, and
it might not be possible, in certain cases, to see of course only about 2%th degrees frorn his eastit at the moment of its conjunction.             ern limb; the difference of their declination being
The expressions of all astroiomical writers pre- 27', and the planet's latitude 11' north.
vious to this period, when describing the phases   Several years afterward I obtained views of this
of Venus, either directly assert, or at least imply, planet when considerably nearer the sun's margin
that it is ismpossible to see that planet, in any in- than as stated in the above observation, particustance, at the time of its superior conjunction. larly on tie 16th of October, 1819, at which time
This is the language of Dr. Long, Dr. Gregory, Venus was seen when only six days and nineteen
Dr. Brewster, Ferguson, Adams, B. Martin, and hours past the time of the superior conjunction.
most other writers on the science of Astronomy. At that time its distance from the sun's eastern
How  far such language is correct will appear limb was only 10 28' 42". A  subsequent obserfrom the following observations and remarks.     vation proved that Venus can be seen when only
April 24, 1813, 10h. 50m., A. m., observed Venus 10 27' from the sun's margin, which I consider as
with a power of 30, the aperture not contracted. approximnating to the nearest distance from  the
She was then about 31 minutes of time in right sun at which this planet is distinctly visible. I
ascension distant from the sun, their difference of shall only state further the two or three followdeclination 30 59'.  She appeared distinct and  iling observations.
well-defined. With a power of 100, could distin-   June 17th, 1813, 101., A. Mr., saw Venus with a
guish her gibbous phase. May 1st, 10h. 20rn., A. M., power of 60, the aperture being contracted to
viewed this planet with a power of 60, the aper- 9-10ths of an inch, the direct rays of the sun not
ture not contracted.  It appeared distinct.  Saw  beiTqg intercepted by the top of the window.  The
it about the same time with a power of 15, the aperture having been farther contracted to half
aperture being contracted to 9-10ths of an inch. an inch, could perceive her, but not quite so disHaving contracted the aperture to half an inch, tinctly.  When the contractions were removed,
saw  it more distinctly.  When the contracted  she could scarcely be seen. She was then 30 33'
apertures were removed, the planet could with  in loungitude, and nearly 15 minutes in time of
difficulty be distinguished, on account of the di- 1R. A. distant from the scun's center. Some fleeces
rect rays of the sun striking on0 the inside of the of clouds having moved across the field of view,
tube of the telescope. Tile sun was shiaing bright, she was seen remarkably distinct in the interstices,
and the planet about 25' of time in R. A. west of his the san at the same time being partly obscured
center. their difference of declination being 30 7'. by thern.  August 19th, lbh. 10m., s. M., viewed
May 7th, 10., A. Mi., saw Venus distinctly with a Venus with a magnlifying power of 100. Could
power of 60, the sun shlining bright.  It was then perceive her surface and gibbous phase almost as
about 19' of time in R. A., and 40 27' il longitude distinctly as when the siln is below the horizon.
west of the sun, their difference of declinationl She appeared bright, steady in her lighlt, and wellbeing 2~ 18'.  I found a dimilution of aperture defined, without that glare and trenmulous appearparticularly useful when viewing the planet at ance she exhibits in the evening when near the
this time, even when the higher powers were ap- horizon. She was then nearly on the meridian.
plied.  This was the last observation I had an Oin tile whole, such a view of this planet is as
opportunity of making prior to the conjunction satisfactory, if not preferable, to those views we
of Vellus with the sun, which happened oil May  obtain with an ordinary telescope in the evening,
25thl, at 9h. 3m., A. Mr. Its geocentric latitude at when it is visible to the naked eye.
that time being about 16' south, the planet must   All the particulars above stated have been conhave passed almost close by the sun's southern firmed by many subsequent observations contiliillb.  Cloudy weather for nearly a month after nued thlroughout a series of years.  I shall state
the last observation prevented allny furtherviews of only two recent observations, which show that
the planet, when it was in that part of the heavens Venus may be seen somewhat nearer the sun than
which was within the range of the instrument. what is deduced from the preceding observations,
The first day that proved favorable after it had and at the point of its superior conjunction.
passed the superior coIljunction was June 5th. Mlarch    10th, 1842, observed the planet Venus,
The following is the memorandum of the obser- then very near tlhe sun, at 19 minutes past 11,
vation then taken:                              A. M.  It had passed the point of its superior conJune 5th, 9h., A. M., adjusted the equatorial tele- junction with the sun on the 5th of March, at 1h
scope for viewing the planet Venus, but it could 19m., p. mr. The difference of right ascension bha
not be perceived on account of the direct rays of tween the sun and the planlet was then about 61l
the sun entering the tube of the telescope.  I con- minutes of time, or about 10 37}1', and it was
trived an apparatus for screening his rays, but only about 10 21' distant from the sun's eastern
could not get it conveniently to move along with limb.  It appeared quite distinct and Wvell-defined,
the telescope, and therefore determined to wait and might perhaps iave been seen on the preceding
until past eleven, when the top of the window of day, had the observation been then made. The
the place of observation would intercept the solar following observation shows that Venus may be
rays. At 11h. 20m., A. M., just as the sun had seen still nearer the sun than in the preceding;




130                                THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER
observations, and even at the moment of its superior    The  following  conclusions are  deduced  from
conjunction.  On  the 2d  of October, 1843, this  the observations on Venus:
planet passed the point of its superior conjunc-                1. That this planet may be seen distinctly, with
tion with the sun at 4h. 65 m., P. m. At two o'clock, a moderate degree  of magnifying  power, at the
P. ms., only two  hours before the conjunction, I  moment of  its superior conjunction  with  the  sun,
perceived the planet distinctly, and kept it in view   when its geocentric latitude, either north or south,
for nearly ten  minutes, until some dense clouds  at the  time  of conjpunction, is nrt less than 1~
intercepted  the view.  It appeared  tolerably dis-  14', or when  the  planet is about 58' from   the
tinct and well-defined, though  not brilliant, and
with a round, full face, and its apparent path was  not  ere  mit to mention a very   sal                  tcnor   that 
not here omit to mention a very masusa~l phenomenone that I
distinctly traced several times across the field of  observed about ten years ago in my darkened room. Thei
view  of the telescope.  I perceived  it afterward,  window looked towardt the west, and the spire of Chiches.
about  aialf past four, a. M., otly a few  minutes  ter Cathedral was before it at the distance of 50 or Ov0yards.
I used very often to divert myself by observing the pleasant
after it had passed the point of conjunction, on    ul
manner in which thile sun passed behind the spire, and was
which  occasion  it appeared less distinct than in  eclipsed by it for some time; for the image of the sun and
the preceding observation, owing to the low alti-  of the spire were very large, being nilade by a lens of 12 feet
tude of the planet, being then only a few degrees                                 once, as I observed the occultation of
tbcal distance; and once, as I observed the occultation of
abovde  the horizo  Theobservationsi.this ie   the sun behind the spire, just as the disc disappeared, I saw
above the horizon.  The observations, in this  in-  several small, bright, round bodies or balls runseniu toward
stance, were made, not with an equatorial instru-  the sun from the dark part of the room, even to the distance
melt, which I generally use in such observations,  of 20 inches.  I observed their motion was a little irregular,
but with  a  good  achromatic  telescope  of 44d  but rectilinear, and seemed acceleratedi as they approached
the sun.  These luminous globules appeared also on the
inches  focal distance, mounted  on a  common  other side of the spire, and preceded the sun, running out
tripod, with  a terrestrial power of 95 times.  A   into tihe dark room, sometimes more, sometimes less, toconical tubs about ten  inches long was fixed oin  gether, in thie same manner as they followed the sun at its
the oject-end ofthetele,at toccultation.  They appeared to be, in general, one-twenof the telescope,   te  extremity  tieti of an inch in diameter, and therefore must be very
of whiich an aperture 1y2 inches in diameter was  large, luminous globes in some part of the heavens, rwhose
placed, so as to intercept, as much as possible, the  lighit was extinguished by that of thie sun, so that they updirect ingress of the solar rays.  The  top of the  peared  not is open slayigit;  hut shesiser at tse meteor
peared not inl open daylight; but whether of' the meteor
dupper  sash of the wisdow  of the place of obser-  itind, or what sort of bodies they might be, I couli not conjecture."  Professor tIansteen mentions that, when eavation was likewise so adjusted as to intercept the  ployed in measuring the zenith distances of the pole-star,
greater part of the sun's rays from  entering  the  hlie observedt a somewhat similar phenomeuon, which hie detube of the telescope.  Tile sun's declinatioa at scribed as " a luminous body which passed over the field of
that time was 30 26' south, ad that of Venus 20  the universal telescope; that its motion was neither perfectly
equal nor recti!inear, but resembled very much the unequal
12' south; consequently, the difference of decli-  andl somewhiat serpentine motion of an ascending rocket;"
nation  was 10 14'=-  the distance of Venus firom   and hlie concluded that it must have been' a meteor" or
the   s's center;    d as te sun's diameter was  hooting star" descending from the highler regions of the
the sunl's center; and as thle sun's, diameter was                     0
atmosphere.  (See Edinburgh Philosolphical Jourinal  br
about 16', Venus  was then only 58' from  the sun's  April, 1825, No. xxiv.)
northern limb, or 6' less than two diameters of the    In my firequent observations on Venus, to setermine the
sun.                                                          nearest positions to thie sun in which that planet couli be
This is the Dearest a proximation to the sun at seen, I sad several times an opportunity of witnessing simihc Ilavee   bhdtipaeltar phenomena.  I was not a little surprised, when searchi.
which  I have ever beheld this planet, and it de- ing fbr the iplanet, firequently to perceive a body pass across
monstrates that Venus may be seen even within  the field of the telescope, apparently of the same size as
a degree of the sun'u s margin; and it is, perhaps,  Venus, though sometimes larger and sometimes smaller, so
tile  nto that l r    i   that I fresluently mistook that body for the planet, until its
the nearest position  to that luminary in  which  rapid motion nndleceived me.  In several instancesfwo r or
this planet can be distinctly perceived.  It shows  five of these bodies appeared to cross thie field of view.
that the light reflected from  tile surface of Venus  sometimes in a perpendicular, and at other times in a honri
is far more bnilliatt tihan  that reflected  fromn  the  zontal direction.  They appeared to be luminous bodies,
somewhat resembling thie appearance of a planet when
surface of our moon; for  tace   of this nctr-  viewed in the d-time with a moderate muagni                      g pover.
nal lutninary call be  perceived, even  when at a  Their motios was nearly rectilinear, but sometimes inclined
tachl greater distatce   firom  the sun, nor is there  to a waving or serpentine form, and they appieared to move
any other celestiaol body thiat cas  be seen witlit   with considerable rapidity —thie telescope being furnished'-'i istefrs beva        with a power of about 70 times.  I was for a considerable
the limit now stated.  This is the first observation,  time at a loss what opinion to form of the nature of these
so far as my information extends, of Veslus having  bodies; but, havintg occasion to continue these observations
been  seen  at tile time of Ier superior comijuas-  almisost every clear day for nearly a twelvemonth, I hiiad fret 0ioa*cocuso   fo                                            quent opportunitiesof viewing this phenomenon in different
aspects, and was  at length enabled to form an opinion as to
The practical conclusion  from    this observation  the cause of at least some of the appearances which presentis, that at the superior conjunction of this planet, ed themselves.  In several instances, the bodies alluded to
whens its distaoce fr-om  the sus's nargin is tot appeared much larger than usual, and to move with a more
less than 58', its polar endc equatorial diameter?nay  rapid velocity; in which case I could plainly perceive that
they were nothing else than birlds of dififetent sizes, and
be measured by a mnicrometer, when it will be de-  apparently at different distances, the convex sur/ace of whose
termined whether or not Venus be of a spheroidal bodies, it certain positions, strongly reflected the solar rays.
In other instances, when they app eared smaller, their true
figure.  The Earth, Mars, Jupiter, antd  Satur   I   te istces, ien  they appeared salle, lie    ue
shape was  sndistinguishable, by reason of their motion and
are found to be, not spheres, but spheroids, having    their distance.
their polar shorter than their equatorial diameters.    Having inserted a few remarks on this suhject in No. xxv,
But the true figure of Venus has never yet been  of the Edinburgh Philosophital Journal tbr July, 1825, parascertaioed, because it is omly at the superior cos-  ticularly in reference to Professor Hansteen's opinion, that
article came under tihe review of M. Serres, sunb-prefict of
junction  that she  presents  a  full, enlightened  Embrun, in a paper inserted in the  Istnales de Chimaie for
hemisphere, and  when  both  diameters can  be  October, 1825, entitled "Notices regardinsg fiery meteors
measured, except at the time when  she transit  seen during tie dsy."  (See Edinburgi Philosophical Jour.
seenr Julyr86    14)ing the da.(eeEiscussPilonsophical subjct
the sun's disc, which  happens only twice ill the                    for July, 126, p. 114.)  i   e discussion of this subject,
M. Serres admits that the light reflected very obliquneiy liom
course of 120 years.t                                         the feathers of a bird is capable of producing an ettbct similar to thsat which I have now described, but that "ithe ex.
Thiis observation is inserted in tihe "Edinburgh Philo. planation ought not to be generalized."  He remarks, thrat
sophisal Journal" for January, 1844.                          while observing the sun at the repeating circle, hie fireqtuently
t The late Dr. Benjanin Martin, when descrhibing the  perceived, even'through the colored glass adapted to the
nature of the solar telescope, in his " Plhilosophia Britan. eyepiece, large luminous points which traversed the field 4tf
aica," vol. iii, p. 85, gives the following relation: "I can. the telescope, and which appeared too well-defined no t 




OBSERVATIONS ON THE PLANETS.                                               131
sun's limb   This conclusion is deduced fromh the  passed the point of her inferior conjuction; and
observation of October 2, 1843,* stated above.          in a late instance she was seen when little more
2. Another conclusion is, that during the space  than a day friom the period of conjunction.  The
of 583 days, or about 19 months-the time this  longest time, therefore, that this planet can be hid
planet takes in moving from  one conjunction with  from  view during a period of 583 days, is only
the sun to a like conjlunction  again-when  its  about ten days; and when its latitude at the tilne
latitude at the time of its superior conjunction  of the superior conjunction equals or exceeds 10
exceeds 10 14', it may be seen with an equatorial  14', it can be hid little more than two days.  This
telescope every  clear day without interruption,  is a circumstance which cannot be affirmed of
except about the period of its inferior conjunc-  any other celestial body, the sun only excepted.
tion, when its dark hemisphere is turned toward the    3. That every variation  of the phases of this
earth, and a short time before and after it. When  planet, from a slender crescent to a full enlightits geocentric latitude is less than 10 14', it will ened hemisphere, may, on every  clear day, be
be hid only about four days before, and the same  conveniently exhibited  by means of the equatotime after its superior conjunction.  During the  rial telescope.   This circumnstance renders  this
same period it will be invisible to the naked eye, and  instrument peculiarly useful in  the instruction
consequently no observations can be made upon it of the young in the principles of astronorly; for
with a common telescope for nearly six months,  if the phase which Venus should exhibit at any
and sometimes more, according as its declination  particular time be known, the equatorial teleis north or south, namely, about two or three  scope may be directed to the planet, and its actual
months before, and the same time after its supe-  phase in the heavens be immediately exhibited to
rior conjunction, except where there is a very  the astronomical pupil.
free and unconfined  horizon.  In  regard to the           4. Since it is only at the period of the superior
time in which this planet can be hid about the  conjunction that this planet presents a full enperiod of its snferior conjunction, I have ascer-  lightened hemisphere, and since it is only when
tained from observation that it can never be hid  this phase is presented that both its diameters can
longer than during a space of 2 days 22 hours, be measured, it is of some importance that ohhaving  seen  Venus, about noon, like a fine, servations be made on it at the moment of conslender crescent, only 35  hours after she had  junction, by means of powerful telescopes furlnished with micrometers, so as to determine the
admit them to be distant, anti subtended too large angles to  difference (if any) between its polar and equatoimagine them  birds. In illustration of this subject, he  rial diameters.
states the following facts: On the 7th of September, 18,       nother  conclusion from  the observtions0,
after having observed for some time the eclipse of the sun
which happened on that day, he intended to take a walk in  on Venus is, that a moderate diminution of the
the fields, and on crossing the town, he saw a numerous  aperture of the object-glass of the telescope is
group of individuals of every age and sex, who had their  useful and even necessary in
eyes fixed in the direction of the sutn. Farther on, he per-  n                                     i p
ceived another group, having their eyes in like manner when near the sun.  Its efect is owing in part to
turned toward the sun. Hie questioned an intelligent artist the direct solar rays being thereby effectusally exwho was among them to learn the object that fixed his at- eluded, for when  these rays enter directly into
tentions. He replied, " We are looking at the stars which    tube of the telescope, it is very difficult, and
are detaching themselves firom the sutn."' " You may look
yourself; that will be the shortest way to learn the fact."
He lookedl, and saw, in fact, not stars, but balls of fire, of a  other celestial body when in the vicinity of the sun.
diameter equal to the largest stars, which were projected in
various directions from the upper hemisphere of the sun,
with an incalculable velocity; and although this velocity of   OBSERVATIONS ON JUPITER  AND OTHER PLANETS.
projection appeared the satme in all, yet they did not all attain the same distance. These globes were projected at    This planet is very easily distinguished in the
unequal and pretty short intervals. Several were often pro- day-time with a very moderate Iagnifying power,
jected at once, but always diverging from  one another. when it is not within 300 or 350 of t.e sui. The
Some of them described a right line, and were extinguished
in the dlistance: some described a parabolic line, and were  following extract from  my  memorandums may
in like manner extinguishedl; others, arain, after having re. serve as a specimen: May 12, 1813, lbh. 40m.,
moved to a certain distance, in a right line, retrogradedl. M., saw Jupiter with a power of 15 times, the
upon the same line, anti seemed to enter, still luminous,
into the sun's dise. irle ground of this magnificent picture  aperture not contracted.  The planet appeared so
was a sky-blue, somewhat tinged with brown. Such was  distinct with this power that I have reason to behis astonislhment at tile sight of so majestic a spectacle, lieve it would have been perceived with a power
that it was imnpossible for him to keep his eyes off it until  of six or sever  tines.  When the aperture was
it ceased, which happened gradually as the eclipse wore off
and the solar rays resumed their ordinary luster. It was  contracted  to 9-10ths of an inch, and afterward
remarked by one of the crowd that  t the sun projected  to half an inch, there was little perceptible differmost stars at the tirme when it was palest;" and that the  ence in its appearance.  It was tileta about 580 in
circumstance which first excited attention to this phenome- 1ongitude east of the sun.
non was that of a woman, who cried out, "Come here  l
come antd see tlhe Hlames that are issuing from the sun!"  Though Jupiter, when  at a considerable disI rhave stated the above fatcts because theyv  ay afterward  tance from  the sun, and  near his opposition, aptend to throw light upms certain objects or phenomena with    to tie taked  eye with a brilliarlcy alearly
which we are at present unacquainted. Tie ptenomenon  equal to tiat of Vetus, yet there is a very strikof;' ialling stars" has of late years excited considerable
attention, and it seems now to be adtmittd that at least ing difference between them  in respect of luster
certain species of these bodies descend friom regions far be. when viewed in daylight.  Jupiter, when viewed
yontd ithe limits of our atmosphere. This may be pronounced  with a high magnifying power in the day-time,
as certain with regard to the " November Meteors."  May  
not some of the phenomena described above be connected
with the fial of meteoric stones —the  showers of falling  whereas Venus appears with a moderate degree
stars seen on the lath anal 13th of November, or other me-  of splendor.  About the end of June, 1813, Deteoric phlenomena wvhose causes we have hitherto been un-  tween five and six it the evering, having viewed
alle lo explain? Or, may we conceive that certain celestial
bodies, tvithl whose nat.ure and destination we are as yet the planet Venus, then within 200 of the sun,
unacquainted, may be revolving in different courses in the  and which appeared with a moderate degree of
regions aroundl us, somne of them opaque and others lumi- luster, I directed the telescope to Jupiter, at that
nous, and whose lighlt is undistinguishable by reason of the  time more than  2 o   the      wen the cousolar effuilgence?
a For an explanation of the manner of viewing Venus at trast between the two planets was very striking,
her superior conjunction, see "Celestial Scenery.'     Jupiter appearing so faint as to be just discernible,




182                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
though his apparent magnitude was nearly double  The ruddy aspect of this planet-doubtless caused
that of Venus.  In this observation a power by a dense atmosphere with which it is environled
of 65 was used.  In his approach toward the  -is one of the causes which prevents its appearsun, about the end of July, I could  not per-  ing with brilliancy in the day-time. With respect
ceive him when he was within 160 or 170 of his  to the planet Mlercury, I have had opportunities
conjunction with that luminary.  These circum-  of observing it several times after sunrise and bestances furnish a sensible and popular proof, inde-  fore sunset, about 10 or 12 days before and after
petndently of astronomical calculations, that the its greatest elongation from the sun, with a power
planzet Jutpiter is placed at a much greater distance  of 45.  I have several times searched for this
Jioan the sun than Venus, since its light is so faint planet about noon, but could not perceive it. The
as to be scarcely perceptible when more than 20  air, however, at the times alluded to, was not
degrees from the sun, while that of Venus is dis- very clear, and I was not certain that it was
tinctly seen amid the full splendor of the solar within the field of the telescope, and therefore I
rays, when only abou-t a degreet from  the margin  am  not convinced but that, with a moderately
of that luminary.  With a power of 65 I have  high power, it may be seen even at noonday.
been enabled to distinguish the belts of Jupiter    Such are some of the specimens of the obserbefore sunset, but could never perceive any of his vations I have made oni the heavenly bodies in the
satellites until the sun was below  the horizon. day-time, and the conclusions which may be deThere are no observations which so sensibly and  duced from them.  I have been induced to comstrikingly indicate the different degrees of light tnunicate them from  the consideration that the
emitted by the different planets as those which  most minute facts in relation to any science are
are made in the day-time./ To a commoni obser- worthy of being known, and may possibly be usever, during night, Jupiter and Venus appear, in a  fill.  They may at least gratify thle astronomical
clear sky, nearly with equal brilliancy, and even  tyro with some information which he Nvill not
Mars, when about the point of his opposition to  find in the common treatises on Astronoomy, and
the sun, appears with a luster somewhat similar, may perhaps excite him  to prosecute a train of
though tinlged with a ruddy hue; but when seen  simimilar observations for confirming or correcting
in daylight their aspect is very dissimilar.  This  those which have been noted above.
circumxlstance evidently inidicates, 1. That these    Beside the deductions already stated, the folplanets are placed at different distances from  the  lowing general conclusions may be noted: 1.
sun, and consequently are furnished with differ- That a celestial body may be as easily distinguisheat degrees of light proportional to the square of  ed at noonday as at any time between the hours
their distances from that luminary; and, 2. That of nine in the morning and three in the afternoon,
there are certain circumstances connected with  except during the sholrt days in winter.  2. They
the surfaces and atmospheres of the planetary  are more easily distinguished at a ligh than at a
bodies which render the light they emit more or low altitude-in the afternoon than in thie mornless inCtense, independently of their different dis- ing, especially if their altitudes be low-and in
tances from  the central luminary; for Mars, the northern region of the heavens than in the
though imuch nearer to the sun than Jupiter, is soLi thern.  The difficulty of perceiving them at a
not so easily distinguishled in the day-time, and  low altitude is obviously owing to the thick vapors
even in the night-time appears with a less degree  near the horizon.  Their being less easily distinof luster.                                         guised in the morning than in the afternoon is
My observations on Saturn in daylight have  owing to the undulations of thle atmosphere,
not been so frequent as those on Jupiter.  I have  wihich are generally greater in the morniing thlan
beena enabled to distinguish his ring several times in the afternoon.  This may be evidently perceivbefore sunset with a power of 65, but his great ed by looking at distanlt laud objects at those
southern declination, and consequent low altitude, times, ins a hot day, through a telescope which
at the periods when these observations were made, magnifies about 40 or 50 tiumes, when they will be
were unafavorable for determining the degree of  found to appear tremulous and distorted in consehis visiltility in daylight; for a planet or a star is quence of these undulations, especially if the sun
always more distinctly perceptible in a high thansm  be sllillillg bright.  In consequence of this cirin a low altitude, on account of tl-e superior cumstanlce, we can seldom  use a high terrestrial
purity of the atmosphere through which a celes- power with effect on land objects except early in
tial object is seen when at a high elevation above  the morning and a short time before suniset.
the horizon.  This planet, however, is not nearly  Thleir being more easily distinguished in the norso distinctly visible in daylight as Jupiter, and I thern region of the heavens is owing to that part
have chiefly seen it when the sums was not more of the sky being of a deeper azure, onl account
tian an hour or two above the horizon, but never of its being less enlightened timan the southern
at nioonday, although it is probable that with  with the splendor of the solar rays.
powerful instruments it may be seen even at that
period of the day.  Tile planet Mars, is seldom         UTILITY OF CELESTIAL DAY OBSERVATIONS.
distinctly visible in the day-time, except when at
no great distance from  its opposition to the sun.    The observations on the lheavenly bodies inl the'The following is a memorandum of an observa- day-time, to which I have now directed the attentiol on Mars, when in a favorable position: Octo- tion of the reader, are not to be considered as
ber 24, 1836, saw the planet Mars distinctly with  merely gratifications of a rational curiosity, but
a power of about 60, at 40 minutes past 9, A. M., may be rendered subservient to the proimotion of
the sun having been above the horizomn nearly' astr'onomical science.  As to the planet Venus:
three hours.  It appeared tolerably distinct, but whenm I consider the degree of brilliancy it exhibscarcely so brilliant as a fixed star of tihe first its, even iu daylight, I am convinced that useful
maagnitude, though with apparently as much light observations might frequently be made on its suras Jupiter generally exhibits whemn viewed in day- face in the day-time, to determine some of its
light.  It could not be traced loinger at the time, physical peculiarities and phenomena.  Such ( —t
so as to ascertain if it could be seen at midday, servations might set at rest any disputes whih
on account of the interposition of the western   may still exist respecting the period of rotation
side of the window of the place of observation. of this planet.  Cassinli, from  observations on a




UTILITY OF DAY OBSERVATIONS.                                       1.33
bright spot, which advanced 200 in 24h. 34m., the planet may be viewed at higher altitudes and
determined the time of its rotation to be 23 hours for a greater length of time, without the interrup20 minutes.  On the other hand, Bianchini, from  tion of clouds, than in our island.
similar observations, concluded that its diurnal   Again, the apparent magnitudes of the fixed
period was 24 days and 8 hours. The difficulty  stars, the quantity of light they respectively emit,
of deciding between these two opinions arises and the precise class of magnitude which should
fiom tile short time in which observations can be be assigned to them, might be more accurately
made on this planet, either before sunrise or after determined by day observations than by their apaznset, which prevents us from tracing with accu- pearance in the nocturnal sky.  All the stars
racy the progressive motion of its spots for a which are reckoned to belong to the first magnisufficient length of time; and, although an ob- tude are not equally distinguishable in daylight.
server should mark the motion of the spots at the For example, the stars Aldebaran and Procyon
same hour on two succeeding evenings, and find  are not so easily distinguished, nor do they appear
they had moved forward  150 in 24 hours, he with the same degree of luster by day, as the
would still be at a loss to determine whether they  stars M Lyres and Capella.  In like manner, the
had moved only 15~ in all since the preceding  stars Altair, Alphard, Deneb, Ras Alhafoue, considobservation, or had finished a revolution and 150 ered as belonging to the second magnitude, are
more.  If, therefore, any spots could be perceived  not equally distinguishable by the same aperture
on the surface of Venus in the day-time, their and magnifying power, which seems to indicate
motion might be traced, when she is in north de- that a different quantity of light is emitted by
clination, for 12 hours or more, which would  these stars, arising from a difference either in their
completely settle the period of rotation.  That it mag nitude, their distance, or the quality of the
is not improbable that spots fitted for this purpose light with which they are irradiated.
may be discovered on her disc in the day-time,   The following are likewise practical purposes
appears from some of the observations of Cassini, to which celestial day observations may be applied.
who saw  one of her spots when the sun was In accurately adjusting circular and transit instrumore than eight degrees above the horizon.*  The nments, it is useful, and even necessary, for determost distinct and satisfactory views I have ever mining the exact position of the meridian, to take
nad of this planet were those which I obtained in  observations of certain stars which differ greatly
the day-time, in summer, when it wasviewed at a in zenith distance, and which transit the meridian
nigh altitude with a 44jt inchl achromatic tele- nearly at the same time.  But as the stars best
scope, carrying a power of 150.  I have at such  situated for this purpose cannot, at every season,
times distinctly perceived the distinction between  be seen in the evenings, we must, in certain cases,
the shade and color of its margin and the superior wait for several months before such observations
luster of its central parts, and some spots have can be made, unless we make them  in the dayoccasionally been seen, though not so distinctly  time, which can very easily be done if the instrumarked as to determine its rotation.  Such dis- ment have a telescope adapted to it, furnished with
tinct views are seldom to be obtained in the even- such powers as those above stated, or higher powing after sunset, on account of the undulations of ers if required.  I have likewise made use of obhthe atmosphere, and the dense mass of vapors servations on the stars in the day-time for adjusting
through which the celestial bodies are viewed  a clock or watch to meani time, when the sun was
when near the horizon.                            in a situation beyond the range of the instrument,
Nor do I consider it altogether improbable that or obscured by clouds. and when I did not choose
its satellite (if it have one, as some have supposed) to wait until the evening.  This may, at first
may be detected in the day-time, when this planet view, appear to some as paradoxical, since the
is in a favorable position for such an observation, finding of a star in daylight depends on our
particularly when a pretty large portion of its knowing its right ascension from the sun, and
enlightened surface is turned toward the earth, this last circumstance depends, in some measure,
and when its satellite, of course, must present a on our knowing the true time. But if a watch
similar phase.  About the period of its greatest or clock is known not to have varied above seven
elongation from the sun, and soon after it assumes or eight minutes from the time, a star of the first
a crescent phase in its approach to the inferior magnitude may easily be found by moving the
conjunction, may be considered as the most eligi- telescope a little backward or forward until the
ble times for prosecuting such observations.  If  star appear; and when it is once found, tile exact
this supposed satellite be about one-third or one- variation of the umovement is then ascertained by
fourth of the diameter of its primary, as Cassini, comparing the calculations which were previously
Short, Baudouin, Montbarron, Montaigne, and necessary with the time pointed out by the nonius
other astronomers supposed, it must be nearly as oil the equatorial circle; or, in other words, by aslarge as Mercury, which has been frequently seen certaining the difference between the time assumed
in daylight.  If such a satellite have a real exist- and the time indicated by the instrument when
ence, and yet undistinguishable in daylight, its the star appears in the center of the field of view.
surface must lbe of a very different quality for  All this may be accomplished  in five or six
reflecting the rays of light from  that of its pri- minutes.
mary; for it is obvious to every one who has seen    Beside the practical purposes now  stated, the
Venus with a high power in the day-time, that a equatorial telescope is perhaps the best iiistrument
body of equal brilliancy, though four times less for instructing a learner in the various operations
in diameter, would be quite perceptible, and ex- of practical astronomy, and particularly for enahibit a visible disc. Such observations, however, bling him to distinguish the names and positions
would be made with much greater effect ii Italy  of the principal stars; for when the right ascenand other southern countries, and particularly in sion and declination of any star is known from
tropical climates, such as the southern parts of  astronomical tables, the telescope may be irnAsia and America, and in the West India islands, mediately adjusted to point to it, which will Infalwhere the sky is more clear and serene, and where libly prevent his mistaking one star for another.
In this way, likewise the precise position of the
*See Long's Astronomy, vol. ii, p. 487, and Encyclopedia planets Mercury, Uranus, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, PalBritannica, vol. ii, p. 436, 3d edition.          las, a small comet, a nebula, a double star or an"




134                          THE PRACTICAL. ASTRONOMER.
other celestial body not easily distinguishable by  considerably complex  and expeksive, according
the naked eye, may be readily pointed out, when  to the degree of accuracy which the observations
its right ascension and declination are known to  require   The following is a description of the
a near approximation.                              Pillar Quadrant, as it was made by Mr. Bird for
In conclusion, I cannot but expressmy surprise  the Observatory of Greenwich, and several Conthat the equatorial telescope is so little known by  tinental observatories.
many of the lovers of astronomical science.  In    This instrument consists of a quadrant, E E II
several respectable academies in this part of Bri-  G L (fig. 8S,) mounted on a pillar B, which is
tain, and, if I am  nof misinformed, in most of supported by a tripod, A A, restingl on three foot'
our universities, this instrument is entirely un- screws.  Tlie quadrant, the pillar, and thle hori
linown. This is the more unaccountable, as a zontal circle all revolve round a vertical axis.  A
small equatorial may be purchased for amoderate  telescope, I, is pl'aced on the horizontal radius,
sum, and as there is no single instrument so well and is directed to a mneridian mark previously made
adapted for illustrating all the operations of prac- onl some distant object for placing the plane of the
tical astronomy.  Where very great accuracy is instrument in the meridian, and also for setting
not required, it may occasionally be made to serve
the general purposes of a transit instrumuent for                       Fig. 88.
observing the passages of the sun and stars across
the meridian.  It may likewise be made to serve
as a theodolite for surveying land and taking horizontal angles-as a quadrant for taking angles of       _,   
altitude-as a level-as an equal altitude instru-.
ment-an azimnuth instrument for ascertaining the
sun's distance fiomn the north or south points of
the horizon-and as an accurate universal sundial, for finding the exact mrean or true time on
allny occasion when the sun is visible.  The manner of applying it to these different purposes will              o
be obvious to every one who is in the least acquainted with the nature and construction of this
instrument.
The price of a small equatorial instrument, such
as that described p. 125, is about 16 guineas, ex- 
clusive of some of the eyepieces, which were af-            b  
terward added for the purpose of makinlg particular observations.  Instruments of a larger size,
and with more complicated machinery, sell from 
50 to 100 gfuineas and upward.  Messrs. W. and
8. Jones, Holborn, London, construct such instrumoents.
ON THE QUADRANT.
Every circle being supposed to be divided into
360 equal parts or degrees, it is evident that 90
degrees, or the fourth part of a circle, will be suf-                                         A
ficient to measture all angles between the horizon                                             A
of any place and the line perpendicular to it which  the zero, or beginning of the scale, truly horizon
goes up to the zenith.  Thus, in fig. 87, the line  tal.  This is sometimes done by a level instead
C B represents the plane of the horizon.  A C B  of a telescope, and sometimes by a plumb-line,
H, the quadrant; A C the perpendicular to the ho- G, suspended from  near tlle ceiter, and brought
rizon; and A, the zenith point.  If the lines B C  to bisect a file dot made on tle limb, where a iniand C A represent a pair of compasses with the  croscope is placed to examniie the bisectioll.  The
legs standing perpendicular to each other, and the weiglt or plunmet at the end of tile plumb-line
curved  liness A B, D  E, is suspended in the cistern of water b, which keeps
Fig. 87.1      and F G, the quarter of as it from being agitated by the air.  A  similar dot
A                     many  circles of different is made for tile upper end of the plumb-line upon
-[iL]    sizes, it is evideint that al- a piece of brass, adjustable by a screw, d, in order
ji            \t tllough each of these dif- that the line may be exactly at right angles to the
F                     fers from the others in size, telescope when it is placed at 0.  The quadrant is
yet that each contains the  screwed by the center of its fiame against a piece
K r_                  same portion of a circle, of brass, e, with three screws, and this piece is.namely, a  quadramnt  O1 screwed to the top of the pillar B with  other
fourth part; and thus it three screws.  By means of the first three screws
Cm,_           xv] would be from the smallest the plane of the quadrasnt can be placed exactly
A  E B to the largest quadrant that parallel to the vertical axis, and by thlle other
could  be formed-they  screws tile telescope H, canl be placed exactly perwould all constain exactly 90 degrees each.  By  pendicular to it.  The nut of the delicate screw
tihe application of this principle, the comparative  L is attached to the end of the telescope F by a
mreasure of angles may be exteided to ain indefi- universal joint.  The collar for the other end is
nite distance. By mneaims of anl instrumet co1- jointed in the same manner to a clamp, which
structed in tihe form  of a quadrant of a circle, can be fastemed to any part of the limb.  A simiwith its curved edge divided into 90 equal parts, lar clamp screw alid slow motion is seen at n for
the altitude of any object in the heavens call at the lower circle, which is intended to hold the
an; time be determined.                            circle fast anid adjust its motion. The divisions of
There are various constructions of this instru- I the lower, or horizontal circle, are read by verniment, some of them extremely simple, and others ers, or noniuses, fixed to the ai ms of the tripod al




THE ASTRONOMICAL CIROLE.                                       135
I and m; and, in some cases, three are used to ob- with the horizontal axis, and fixedl to the vertical
tain greater accuracy.                          columns.  This circle is the center upon which
In using this quadrant, the axis of the telescope they can turn round nearly a quadrant for the
H is adjusted to a horizontal line, and the plane purpose of employing a new portion of the diviof the quadrant to a vertical line by the means sions of the circle, when it is reckoned prudent
already stated. The screw of the clampL is then  to repeat any delicate  observations upon any
loosened, and the telescope directed to the star or part of the limb. At h is represented a level for
other object whose altitude is required.  The placing the axis in a true horizontal line, and at
clamp-screwbeingfixed, the observerlooks through  k is fixed another level parallel to the telescope
the telescope, and with the nut of the screw  for bringing the zero of the divisions to a horizonL he brings the telescope into a position where the tal position.  The horizontal axis to which tfle
star is bisected by the intersection of the wires in vertical circle and the telescope are fixed is equal
the field of the telescope. The divisions are then in length to the distance between tlhe vertical
to be read off upon the vernier, and the altitude pillars, and its pivots are supported by scmicircuof the star will be obtained. By means of the lar bearings placed at the top of each pillar
horizontal circle D, all angles in the plane of These two vertical pillars are firmly united at
the horizon may be accurately measured, such as their bases to a crossbar, f.  To this crossbar is
the amplitudes and azimuths of the celestial bodies. also fixed a vertical axis about three feet long, the
Quadrants of a more simple construction than
the above may be occasionally used, such as Gun-                    Fig. 89.
ter's, Cole's, Sutton's, and others; but none of
these is furnished with telescopes or telescopic
sights, and therefore an altitude cannot be obtained
by them with the same degree of accuracy as with
that which has been now described.
By means of the quadrant, not only the altitudes of the heavenly bodies may be determined,
but also the distances of objects on the earth by
observations made at two stations; the altitude of
fireballs and other meteors in the atmosphere; the         A 
hight of a cloud by observation on its altitude
and velocity; and numerous other problems, the         C
solution of which depends upon angular measurements. A Mural Quadrant is the name given to
this instrument when it is fixed upon a wall of
stone, and in the plane of the meridian, such as
the quadrant which was erected by Flamstead in                 1'
the Observatory at Greenwich.  Although the                                  I
quadrant was formerly much used in astronomical observations, yet it may be proper to state that
its use has now been almost completely super-.    X
ceded by the recent introduction of lstronomical
Circles, of which we shall now give the reader a
very short description, chiefly taken fi'om Trough-  
ton's account of the instrument he constructed,    AA
as found in Sir D. Brewster's Supplement to Ferguson's Astronomy.
THE ASTRONOMICAL CIRCLE.                   il
AN astronomical circle is a complete circle substituted in place of the quadrant, and differs from
it only in the superior accuracy with which it
enables the astronomer to make his observations.
The large vertical or declination circle C C (fig.
89) is composed of two complete circles, strengthened by an edge-bar on their inside, and firmly  end of which, terminating in an obtuse point,
united at their extreme borders by a number of rests in a brass conical socket firmly fastened it
short braces or bars, which stand perpendicular the bottom of the hollow in the stone pedestal D,
between them, and which keep them  at such a which receives the vertical axis.  This socket
distance as to admit the achromatic telescope T  supports the whole weight of the movable part
T.  This double circle is supported by 16 coni- of the instrument. The upper part of the vertical
cal bars, firmly united, along with the telescope axis is supported by two pieces of brass, one of
to a horizontal axis. The exterior limb of each  which is seen at e, screwed to the ring i, and concircle is divided into degrees and parts of a de- taining a right-angle, or Y. At each side of the
gree, and these divisions are divided into seconds ring, opposite to the points of contact, is placed a
by means of the micrometer microscopes m 7m, tube containing a heliacal spring, which, by a
which read off the angle on opposite sides of each constant pressure on the axis, keeps it against its
circle. The cross wires in each microscope may bearings, and permits it to turn, in these four
be moved over the limb, until they coincide with points of contact, with an easy and steady mothe nearest division of the limbn, by means of the mi- tion. The two bearings are fixed upon two rings
crometer screws c c, and the space moved through capable of a lateral adjustment; the lower one by
is ascertained by the divisions on the graduated  the screw d, to incline the axis to the east or west,
head above c, assisted by a scale within the micro- while the screw b gives the upper one, i, a motion
scope. The microscopes are supported by two in the plane of the meridian. By this means the
arms proceeding from a small circle concentric  axis may be adjusted to a perpendicular position




136                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
as exactly as by the usual method of the tripod  objections, as stated in vol. i, of the  Memoirs ot
with foot-screws. These rings are attached to the  the Astronomical Society of London:"  1. Th(1
center-piece s, which is firmly connected with  origin of the repeating circle is due to bad dividthe upper surface of the stone by six conical ing, which ought not to be tolerated in any instrutubes A, A, A, &c., and brass standards at every  ment in the present state of the art.  2. There
angle of the pedestal.  Below this frame lies the are three sources of fixed error which cannot be
azimuth  cilcle, E  E, consisting of a circular exterminated, as they depend more on the matelimb, strengthened by ten hlollow  cones firmly  rials than on the workmanship; first, the zero of
united with the vertical axis, and consequently  the level changes with variations of temperature;
turning freely along with it. The azimuth circle, secondly, the resistance of the center work to the
E E, is divided and read off in tile same manner action of the tangent screws; and, thiridly, tile
as the vertical circle. The arms of the micro- imperfection of the screws in producing motion
scopes, B B, project from the ring i, and the mi- and in securing permanent positions.  3. The
croscopes themselves are adjustable by screws, to  instrument is applied with most advantage to
bring them to zero and to the diameter of the  slowly moving or circumpolar stars; but in low
circle.  A little above the ring i is fixed an arm, altitudes these stars are seen near the horizon,
L, which embraces and holds fast the vertical where refraction interferes. 4. Much. time and
axis with the aid of a clamp-screw.  The arm L  labor are expended, first in making the observais connected at the extremity with one of the  tionq, and again in reducing them.  5. When
arms A, by means of the screw  a, so that by  any one step in a series of observations is bad,
turning this screw  a slow  motion is cornmu- the whole time and labor are absolutely lost.  6.
nicated to the vertical axis and the  azimuth  When the instrument has a telescope of small
circle.                                           power, the observations are charged with errors
In order to place the instrument in a true vet- of vision which the repeating circle will not cure.
tical position, a plumb-line, made of fine silver 7. This instrument cannot be used as a transit
wire, is suspended from a small hook at the top  instrument, nor for finding the exact meridian of
of the vertical tube n, connected by braces with  a place.
one of the large pillars.  Thile plumb-line passes    A  great variety of directions is necessary in
through an angle in which it rests, and by means order to enable the student of practical astronomy
of a screw may be brought into the axis of the  thoroughly to understand and to apply this instrutube.  The plummet at the lower end of the line  ment to practice, which the limited nature of the
is immersed in a cistern of water, t, in order to  present work prevents us from detailing.  As this
check its oscillations, and is supported on a-shelf  instrument consists of a variety of conplicated
proceeding  from  one of the pillars.  At the  pieces of machinery, it is necessarily somewhat
lower end of the tube n are fixed two micro- expensive.  A six-inch brass astronomical circle
scopes, o and p, at right-angles to one another, for altitudes, zenith or polar distances, azimuths,
and opposite to each is placed a small tube con- with achromatic telescopes, &c., is marked in
taiiiing a lucid point.  The plumb-line is then  Messrs. W. and S. Jones's catalogue, of astronombrought into such a position by the screws d b, ical instruments at ~27 6s. A circle 12 inches in
and by altering the suspension of the plumb-line  diameter, from ~36 15s. to ~68 5s. An 18 inch
itself, that the image of the luminous point, like  ditto, of the best construction, ~105. The larger
the disc of a planet, is formed on the plumb-line, astronomical circles for public observatories, from
and accurately bisected by it.  The vertical axis 100 to 1000 guineas and upward, according to their
is then turned round, and the plumb-line exam- size, and  the peculiarity of their construction.
ined in some other position.  If it still bisects
the luminous point, the instrument is truly verti-            THE TRANSIT INSTRUMENT.
cal; but if it does not, one half of the deviation
must be corrected by the screws d b, and the    A transit instrument is intended for observing
other half, by altering the suspension of the line  celestial objects as they pass across the meridian.
until the bisection of the circular image is per- It consists of a telescope fixed at right angles to a
fect in every position of the instrument.         horizontal axis, which axis must be so supported
It is not many years since circular repeating  that what is called the line of collimation, or the
instruments came into general use.  The princi-  line of sight of the telescope, may move in the
pile on which the construction of a repeating  plane of the meridian.  This instrument was first
circle is founded appemls to have been first suge- invented byRomer, in the year 1689, but has since
gested by Professor Mayer, of Gottingen, in 1758; received  great improvements  by  Troughton,
but the first person wiho applied this principle to  Jones, and other modern artists.  Transit instrumeasure round the limb of a divided instrument ments may be divided into two classes, Portable
was Borda, who about the year 1789, caused a and  Fixed.   The portable  instrument, when
repeating  circle to be constructed that would  placed truly in the meridian, and well adjusted,
measure with equal facility horizontal and verti- may be advantageously used as a stationary iical angles.  Afterward Mr. Troughton greatly  strument in an observatory, if its dimlensions be
improved the construction of Borda's instrument such as to admit of a telescope of 31. feet focal
by the introduction of several contrivances, which  length; but when the main tube is only from 20
insure, at the same time, its superior accuracy  to 30 inches long, with a proportional aperture, it
and convenience in use; and his instruments have  is more suited for a traveling instrument to give
been introduced  into  numerous observatories. the exact time; and, when carried on board a
Circular instruments, on a large scale, have been  ship in a voyage of discovery, may be taken on
placed in the Royal Observatory of Greenwich, shore at any convenient place for determining
and in most of the principal observatories on the  the solar time of that place, and for correcting
Continent of Europe.  Although it is agreed on  the daily rate of the chronometer, giving the time
all hands that greater accuracy may be obtained  at the first meridian, so that the longitude of
by a repeating circle than by any other having  the place of observation may be obtained from
the same radius, yet there are some objections to  the difference  of the observed  and  indicated
its use Which do not apply to the altitude and  times, after the proper corrections have been
azimuth circle.  The following are the principal made.




THE TRANSIT INSTRUMENT.                                        137
The following is a brief description of one of angles with a horizontal one, and the telescope is
Mr. Troughton's portable transit instruments. sometimes furnished with a diagonal eyepiece for
In fig. 90, P P is all achromatic telescope firmly  observing stars near the zenith.  A level likewise
fixed by the middle to a double conical and hori- generally accompanies the instrument, in order to
zontat axis H H, the pivots of which rest on an- place it horizontal by being applied to the pivots
gular bearings called Y's, at the top of the stan- of the axis.
dards B B, rendered steady by oblique braces D D,   In order to fix the transit instrument exactly in
fastened to the central part of the circle A A. In  the meridian, a good clock regulated to sidereal
large fixed instruments, the pivots and angular time is necessary.  This regulation may be efbearings are supported on two massive stone pil- fected by taking equal altitudes of the sun or a
lars, stnk several feet into the ground, and are star before and after they pass the meridian, which
sometimes supported  by  mason-work, to  se- may be done by small quadrants or by a good
cure perfect stability.  The axis  H  H  has two  sextant.  The axis H of the instrument is then to
adjustments, one for making it exactly level, be placed horizontal by a spirit level, which acand the other for placing the telescope in the companies the transit, and the greatest care must
meridian.  A  graduated circle, L, is fixed to be taken that the axis of vision describes in the
the extremity of the pivot, which extends be- heavens a great circle of the sphere.  To asceryond one of the Y's and the two radii that tain whether the telescope be in the plane of the
carry the verniers, a a, are fitted to the extre- meridian, observe by the clock when a circummities of the pivot in such a way as to turn  polar star seen through the telescope transits both
round independent of the axis.  The double ver- above and below the pole, and if the times of deniers have a small level attached to them, and a scribing the eastern and western parts of its cirthird arm, b, which is connected with the standard  cult be equal, the telescope is then in the plane of
B by means of a screw, s.  If the verniers are the meridian; otherwise, certain adjustments must
placed, by means of the level, in a true horizontal be made.  When the telescope is at length perposition, when the axis of the telescope is hori- fectly adjusted, a landmark must be fixed upon at
zontal, and the arm b screwed by the screws to  a considerable distance, the greater the better.
the standard B, the verniers will always read off This mark must be in the horizontal direction of
the intersection of the cross wires, and iin a place
Fig. 90.                      where it call be illuminated, if possible, in the
night-time, by a lantern hanging near it; which
mark being on a fixed object, will serve at all
times afterward for examining the position of the
telescope.
Various observations and adjustments are requisite in order to fixing a transit instrument exactly
in tile plane of the meridian. There is the adjustment of the level; the horizontal adjustment of
the axis of the telescope; the placing of the parallel lines in the focus of the eyeglass, so as to be
truly vertical, and to determine the equatorial'\o a           value of their intervals; the collimation ill azimuth, so that a line passing from  the middle vertical line to the optical center of the object-glass
is at right angles with the axis of the telescope's
motion; the collimation in altitude, so that the
horizontal line should cross the parallel vertical
lines, not only at right angles, but also ill the optical center of the field of view, with various other
particulars, but of which our limited space will
not permit us to enter into details.  Those who
wish to enter into all the minute details in reference to the construction and practical application
of this and the other instruments above described,
as well as all the other instruments used by the
practical astronomer, will find ample satisfaction
in perusing the Rev. Dr. Pearson's Introduction
_t-                   to Practical Astronomy, 4to, vol. ii.
A portable transit instrument, with a cast-iron
tlhe inclination of the telescope, and will enable  stand, the axis 12 inches in length, and the achrothe observer to point it to any star by means of  matic telescope about 20 inches, packed in a case.
its meridian altitude.   The whole instrument sells at about 16 guineas; with a brass-framed
rests onl three foot-screws entered into the circle stand and other additions, at about 20 guineas.
A A.  In the field of view of the telescope there  Transit instruments of larger  mdmensions are
are several parallel vertical wires, crossed at right higher in proportion to their size, &c.




CH I A P TER III.
ON OBSERVATORIES.
IN order to make observations with convenience Immediately over this is the assistant's bedroom,
and effect on the heavenly bodies, it is expedient with ail alarum to awake him to make his obserthat an observatory, or place for making the requi- vations at the proper time.  The room  on the
site observations, be erected in a proper situation. eastern side of this is called the transit-roomn, in
The following are some of the leading features of which is an eight feet transit instrument, with an
a spot adapted for making celestial observations: axis of three feet, resting on two pieces of stone,
1. It should command an extensive visible hori- made by Mr. Bird, but successively improved by
zon all around, particularly toward  the south Messrs. Dollond, Trouglhton, and others.  Hero
and the north. 2. It should be a little elevated  is also a chair to observe with, the back of which
above surrounding objects.  3. It should be, if lets down to any degree of elevation that convepossible, at a considerable distance from manufac- nience may require.  Oin the western side is the
tories, and other objects which emit much smoke quadrant-room, with a stone pier in the middle
or vapor, and even from chimney-tops where no running north and south, having on its eastern
sensible smoke is emitted, as the heated air from  face a mural quadrant of eight feet radius, by
the top of funnels causes undulations in the at- which observations are made on the southern
mosphere.  4. It should be at-a distance from  quarter of the meridian, through an opening in
swampy ground or valleys that are liable to be the roof of three feet wide, produced by means of
covered with fogs and exhalations.  5. It should  two sliding shutters.  Oin the western face is
not, if possible, be too near public roads, particu- another mural quadrant of eight feet radius, the
larly if paved with stones, and frequented  by frame of which is of iron and the arch of brass,
heavy carriages, as in such situations undulations which is occasionally applied to the north quarter
and tremulous motions may be produced injurious of the meridian.  In the same room is the famous
to the making of accurate observations with  zenith sector, twelve feet long, with which Dr.
graduated instruments.  6. It is expedient that Bradley made the observations which led to the
the astronomical observer should have access to discovery of the nutation of the earth's axis and
some distant field within a mile of the observato- the aberration of the light of the fixed stars.
ry, on which a meridian mark may be fixed after Here are also Dr. Hooke's reflecting quadrant,
his graduated instruments are properly adjusted. and three time-keepers by Harrison.  O(I  the
The distance at which a meridian mark should be south side of this room a small wooden building
erected will depend in part on the focal length of is erected for the purpose of observing the eclipseis
the telescope generally used for making observa- of Jupiter's satellites, occultations of stars by thi
tions on the right ascensions and declinations of moon, and other phenomena which require merethe stars.  It should be fixed at such a distance  ly the use of a telescope, and the true or mean
that the mark may be distinctly seen without time.  It is furnished with sliding shutters on
altering the focus of the telescope when adjusted  the roof and sides to view any part of the hemito the sun or stars, which, in most cases. will re- sphere from the prime vertical down to thre southquire to be at least half a mile from the place of ern horizon.  It contains a forty inch achlromatic
observation, and more if it can be obtained.      with a triple object-glass, and also a five feet
Observatories may be distinguished into public achromatic by Messrs. John and Peter Dollond,
and private.  A private observatory may be com- a two feet reflecting telescope by Eciwards, and
prehended in a comparatively small building, or a six feet reflector by Herschel.  Above the dwelin the wing of a building of ordinary dimensions  ling-house is a large octagonal room, which is
for a family, provided the situation is adapted to it. made the repository for certain old instruments,
Most of our densely peopled towns and cities, and for those which are too large to be used in
which abound in narrow streets and lanes, arege- the other apartments.  Among many other inierally unfit for good observatories, unless at an  struments, it contains an excellen t ten leet achelevated position at their extremities.  Public ob- romatic by Dollond, and a six feet reflector by
servatories, whlere a great variety of instruments Short.  Upon a platform, in an open space, is
is used, andwhere different observers are emrnploy- erected the great reflecting telescope constructed
ed, require buil. ings of larger dimensions, divid- by Mr. Ramage of Aberdeen, onI the Hersclielian
ed into a considerable number of apartments. principle, which  has a speculumn of 15 inches
Tihe observatory of Greenwich- is composed prin- diameter and 25 feet focal length, remarkable for
cipally of two separate buildings, one of which is the great accuracy and brilliancy with which it
the observatory properly so called, where the as- exhibits celestial objects.  Various other instrusistant lives and makes all his observations; the  ments of a large size and of modern construetion
other is the dwelling-house in which the astrono- have of late years been introduced into this ob.
mer royal resides.  The former consists of three  serratory, such as the large and splendid transit
rooms on the ground-floor, the middle of which  instrument constructed by Trouglrton, in 1816,
is the assistant's sitting and calculating room, the two large  miral circles by ""roughton and
furnished with a small library of such books only  Jones. the transit clock  by Mr. Hardy, and
as are necessary for his computations, and an ac- several other instruments and apparatus which
curate clock made by the celebrated Graham, it would  be  too  tedious to  enumerate  and
which once served Dr. Halley as a transit clock. describe.
(138)




ON  OBSERVATORIES.                                       1.9
Every observatory, whether public or private, hatchway, which forms an entrance into the obshould be furnished with the following instru-  servatory from  the apartments  below, which
ments: 1. A transit instrument for observing the  folds down, and forms a portion of the floor.
meridian passage of the sun, planets, and stars.
2. A good clock, whose accuracy may be depended upon. 3. An aohromatic telescope of at least                      A North.
44 inches focal distance, with powers of from 45
to 180, for viewing planetary and other phenomena; or a good reflecting telescope at least three               ____
feet long, and the speculurn five inches in diameter. 4. An equatorial instrument, for viewing
the stars and planets in the day-time, and for
finrding the I ight ascension and declinatior of        A l
a comet, or any  other celestial phenomenon.         iest.  l    E
Where this instrument is possessed, and in cases                                        East.
where no great degree of accuracy is required,
the equatorial may be made to serve the general
purposes of a transit instrument.
A private observatory might be constructed inll              I ___l_
any house which has a commanding view of the
heavens, provided there is an apartment in it in
which windows may be placed, or openings cut
out fronting the north, the south, the east, and                               e H
the west. The author of this work has a small
observatory erected on the top of his house,
which commands a view of 20 miles toward the                       A South. A
east, 30 miles toward the west and north-west,
and about twenty miles toward the south, at an    Ta public observatories, where zenith or polar
elevation of more than 200 feet above the level (listatlce. require to be neadsured, it is neoessary
of the sea and the banks of the Tay, which are   r.sat the shoul   e a dome, with an oeig
about half a mile distant. The apartment is 12[2  aross tlhe roof, and down the north anr  soutil
walls. Should an altitude or azimuth circle, or
feet long by 82 wide, and 8S'l feet between the
floor and the roof. It has an opening oni the  an equatorial instrument be used, they will require
north, by which observations can be made on the  a revolving roof with openings and doors on two
pole-star; a window  on the south, by which thle  opposite sides, to enable an observer to follow a
meridian passages of the heavenly bodies may be heavenly body across all the cardinal points. The
observed; another opening toward the east, and a openings may be about 15 inches wide, and the
fourth opening, consisting of a door, toward the  roof need not be larger than what is requisite for
west.  There is a pavement of lead on the out-  giving room to the observer and the instrument,
side, all around the observatory-room, inclosed |lest its bIlk and wveight should impede its easy
by a stone parapet 312 feet high, the upper part fo      r revolving  domes. Fig.een various plans adopted
of which is coped with broad flat stones, in cer- for reolving domes.   Fig. 92 represents  section
tain parts of which grooves or indentations are  of the rotatory dome constructd at East Slien by
made for receiving the feet of the pedestal of an
achromatic telescope, which form a steady support
for the telescope  in  the open air, when the                           g. 92.
weather is caln and serene, and when observations are intended to be made on any region of
the heavens. By placing an instrument onil this
parapet, it may be directed to any point of the
celestial canopy except a small portion near the
northern  horizon, which is partly intercepted
by a small hill. In the following ground plan,
fig. 91, A A A is the parapet surrounding the observatory room; B B B, a walk around it nearly
three feet broad, covered with lead.  O is the
apartment for the observatory, having an opening,
C, to the north; another opening, D, to the east;
E is a window which fronts the south, and F is
a door fronting the west, by which an access is
obtained to the open area on the outside.    o  H I
is an area on the outside, toward the south, covered with lead, 15 feet long from G to H, and
6:2 feet from E to I, from which a commanding
view of the southern, eastern, and western por- on three detached spheres of lignum vit.e, in a
tions of the heavens may be obtained: ee ee are  circular bed, formed  partly by the dome, and
positions on the top of the parapet where a tele- partly by the cylindrical framework which surscope may be conveniently placed, when obser- rounds the circular room  of nine feet diameter.
vatious are intended to be made in the open air. A section of this bed forms a square which the
The top of this parapet is elevated about 30 feet sphere just fills, so as to have a small play to allow
from  the level of the ground. On the roof of  for shrinking; and, when this dome is carried
the observatory, about 12 feet above its floor, on  round, the spheres, having exactly equal diameters
the outside, is a platform  of lead, surrounded by  of 44 inches each, when placed at equal disa railing six feet by five,'with a seat, on which  tances from  one another, keep  their relative
observations either on celestial or terrestrial ob- places, and umove together in a beautifully smooth
jects may occasionally be made. K is a door or manner. These spheres act as friction rollers in
-oO. I.-38




140                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
two directions at the four points of contact, in  the hook of a handle that is usec, for this purpose
case any obstacle is opposed to their progressive  The doors a a, being curved, are made to open in
motion by the admission  of dirt, or by any  two halves, the upper one being opened first, on
change of figure of the wood that composes the account of its covering the end of the other; and
rings of tile dome and of the gangway.  No  the observer may open one or two doors, as may
groove is here made but what the weight of the best suit his purpose.  The weight of tthis dome
roof resting on tile hard sphere occasions.  The is such that a couple of wedges, inserted by a
dome itself moves twice round for the balls once, gentle blow between the rings b b anid c c, will
and has, in this way, its friction diminished. The  keep it in its situation under the influence of the
wood of this dome is covered by Wyatt's patent strongest wind.
copper, one square foot of which weighs upward
of a pound; and the copper is so turned over the. 92
nails that fix it at the parts of junction that not a
single nail is seen in the whole dome.  This co-:
vering is intended to render the dome more permaneunt thain if it had been made of wood alone..
At the observatory at Cambridge the dome is
made chiefly of iron. In the figure, a a repre-    It may not be improper to remark, that in all
sents one of the two oblong doors that meet at the observatories, and in every apartment where ceapex of the cone, and a piece of sheet-copper, lestial observations are made, there should, if posbent over the upper end of the door which shuts sible, be a uniform temperature; and, consequentlast, keeps the rain from entering at the place of ly, a fire should never be kept in such places, parjunction. The two halves of the dome are united  ticularly when observations are intended to be
by brass rods passing through the door-cheeks of made, as it would cause currents of air through
wainscot at a and a by means of nuts that screw  the doors and other openings which would be inupon their ends, which union allows the dome to  jurious to the accuracy of observations.  When
be separated into two parts when there may be a window  is opened in an ordinary apartment
occasion to displace it. The wooden plate  b b, where a fire is kept, there is a current of heated
which appears in a straight line, is a circular broad  air which rushes out at the top, and a current of
ring, to whiclh the covering wainscot boards are cold air which rushes in from  below, producing
muade fast above the eaves, and c c is a similar agitations and undulations which prevent even a
ring forming the wall-plate or gangway on which  good telescope from showing celestial objects disthe dome rests and revolves.                     tinct and well-defined; and I have no doubt that
Fig. 92* shows a small door that lies over the many young observers have been dlisappointed in
summit of the dome, and may be separately open- their views of celestial phenomella finom this cired for zenith observations; the rod of metal, with cumstance, when viewing the heavenly bodies
a ring at the lower end passing through it; serves fiom heated rooms in cold winter evenings, as the
to open and shut this door, and at the same time aerial undulations before the telescope prevent
carries upon its upper end a large ball, which  distinct vision of such obiects as the belts of
falls back on the roof when the door is open, and Jupiter, the spots of Mar's, and the rings of
keeps the door in a situation to be acted upon by Saturn.
CHAPTER IV.
ON ORRERIES OR PLANETARIUMS.
AN orrery is a machine for representing the a modern invention.  The hollow sphere of Arorder, the motions, the phases, and other phenom- chimedes was a piece of mechanism of this kind,
ena of the planets.  Although orreries and plan- having been intended to exhibit the motions of
etariums are not so much in use as they were half the sun, the moon, and the five planets, according
a century ago, yet, as they tend to assist the con- to the Ptolemaic system.  The next orrery of
ceptions of the astronomical tyro in regard to which we Ilave anly account was that of Posido.
the motions, order, and positions of the bodies nius, who lived 80 years before the Christian era,
which compose the solar system, it may not be of which Cicero says, " If any man should carry
inexpedient shortly to describe the principles and the sphere of Posidonius into Scythia or l]litain,
construction of some of these machines.          in every revolution of which the motions of the
Tile reason why the name Orrery was at first sun, moon, and five planets were the same as inl
given to such machines is said to have been owing the heavens each day and night, who in those barto the following circumstance: Mr. Rowley, a barous countries could doubt of its being finished,
mathematical instrument-maker, having got one not to say act uated, by perfect reason?"  Thle
from Mr. George Graham, the original inventor, next machine of this kind which history records
to be sent abroad with some of his own instru- was constructed by the celebrated Boethius, the
nients, he copied it, and made the first for the Earl Christian philosopher, about the year of Christ
of Orrery.  Sir R. Steele, who knew nothing of 510, of which it was said " that it was a machine
Mr. Graham's machine, thinking to do justice to pregnant with the universe-a portable heaventhe first encourager, as well as to the inventor of a compendium of all things."  ACter this period
such a curious instrument, called it an Orrery, we find no instances of such machacismir   of aly
and gave Mr. Rowley the praise due to Mr. Gra- note until the 16th century, when scienllc, bagan
aam. The construction of such machines is not to revive and the arts to flourish.  About this




ON ORRERIES.                                         141
time the curious clock in Hampton Court Palace  specting it in November, 1839. The essential
was constructed, which shows not only the hours parts of the machine still remain nearly -n the
of the day, but the motibns of the sun and moon  same state as when originally constructed in 1758.
through all the signs of the zodiac, and other ce-    The machine which I shall now describe is of
lestial phenomena.  Another piece of mechanism  a much smaller and less complex description than
of a similar kind is the clock in the Cathedral of  that which has been noticed above, and may be
Strasburg, in which, beside the clock part, is a made for a comparatively small expense, while it
celestial globe or sphere with the motions of the exhibits with sufficient accuracy the motions,
sun, moon, planets, and the firmament of the  phases, and positions of all the primary planets,
fixed stars, which was finished in 1574.        with the exception of the new  planets, which
Among the largest and most useful pieces of cannot be accurately represented on account of
machinery of this kind is the great sphere erected  their orbits crossing each other. Ill order to the
by Dr. Long, in Pembroke Hall, in Cambridge. construction of the planetarium to which I allude,
This machine, which he called the Uranium, con- we must compare the proportion which the ansists of a planetarium, which exhibits the motion  nual revolutions of the primary planets bear to
of the earth and the primary planets, the sun, and  that of the Earth.  This proportion is expressed
the motion of the moon around the earth, all in- in the following table, in which the first column
closed within a sphere. Upon the sphere, beside is the time of the Earth's period in days; the
the principal circles of the celestial globe, the second, that of the planets; and the third and
zodiac is placed, of a breadth sufficient to contain  fourth are numbers very nearly in the same protie apparent path of the moon, with all the stars portion to each other:
over which the moon can pass; also the ecliptic,
and tile heliocentric orbits of all the planets. 3651:     88::  83:  20 for Mercury.
T'he Earth in the planetarium  has a movable 365l:    2243::  52:  32 for Venus.
horizon, to which a large movable brass circle 365:    687::  40:  75 for Mars.
within the sphere may be set coincident, repre- 36514:  4332s::  7:  83 for Jupiter.
senting tile plane of the horizon continued to the 3651: 1075913::   5: 148 for Saturn.
starry heavens. The horizons, being turiied round, 3654: 30686::  3      253 for Uranus.
sink below the stars on the east side, and make
them  appear to rise, and rise above the stars on    On account of the number of teeth required for
the west side, and make them appear to set.  On the wheel which moves Uranus, it is frequently
the other hand, the earth and the horizon being omitted in planetariums, or the' planet is placed
at rest, the sphere may be turned round to repre- upon the arbor which supports Saturn. If we now
sent the apparent diurnal motion of the heavens. suppose a spindle or arbor with six wheels fixed
In order to complete his idea on a large scale, the upon it ii a horizontal position, having tile uimdoctor erected a sphere of 18 feet diameter, in ber of teeth in each corresponding to thie numbers
which above 30 persons might sit conveniently, in the third columnii, namely, the wheel A Mi
the entrance to which is over the south pole by (fig. 93) of 83 teeth, B L of 52, C K of 50, for
six steps. The frame of the sphere consists of a the earth, D I of 40, E H  of 7, and F G of 5;
number of iron meridians, the northern ends of and another set of wheels moving freely about an
which are screwed to a large round plate of brass arbor having the number of teeth in the fourth
with a hole in the center of it; through this hole, column, nlamely, A N of 20, B 0 of 3'2, C P of
from a beam in the ceiling, comes the north pole, 50, for the earth, D Q of 75, E R of 83, and F' S
a round iron rod about three inches long, and of 148; then, if these two arbors of fixed and
which supports the upper part of the sphere to movaw;le wheels be made of the size anid fixed at
its proper elevation for the latitude of Cambridge, the distance here represented, the teeth of the forso much of it as is invisible in Eniigland being cut mer will take hold of those of the latter, and turn
off, and the lower or southern ends of the merid- them  freely when the maclihle is in motion.
ians terminate on, and are screwed down to, a These arbors, with their wheels, are to be placed
Fig. 93.                                       Fig. 94.
40
148
strong circle of oak 13 feet in diameter, which,
when the sphere is put in motion, runs upon large
rollers of lignum  vitme  in the manner that the
tops of some windmills turn round. Upon the
iron meridians is fixed a zodiac of tin painted                              -
blue, on which the ecliptic and heliocentric orbits
of the planets are drawn, and the stars and con- in a box of a proper size, in a perpendicular poolstellations traced. The whole is turned round tion; the arbor of fixed wheels to move in pivots
with a small winch, with as little labor as it takes at the top and bottom of the box, and the arbor
to wind up a jack, although the weight of iron, of the movable wheels to go through the top of
tin, and the wooden circle is above a thousand  the box, and having  on tIhe top a wire fixed, and
pounds. This machine, though now somewhat bent at a proper distance into a right angle upneglected, may still be seen in Pembroke Hall, ward, bearing on the top a small round ball reCambridge, where I had an opportunity of in- presenting its proper planet. If, then, on the




142                         THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
lower part of the arbor of fixed wheels be placed  a half moon, and Mercury is somewhat gibbous,
a pinion of screw-teeth, a winch turning a spindle approaching to a half moon phase.  If, now, we
with an endless screw, playing in the teeth of the turn the machine by the winch until the index of
arbor, will turn it with all its wheels, and these the earth point at the 8th of August. 1845, we
wheels will turn the others about, with their plan- shall find the planets in the following positions:
ets, in their proper and respective periods of time; Mars and Saturn are nearly in opposition to the
for while the fixed wheel C K  moves its equal C  sun; Venus and Mercury are evening stars, at ne
P once round, the wheel A M  will move A N a great distance from  each other, and Jupiter is a
little more than four times round, and will conse- morning star.  In like manner, if we turn the
quently exhibit the motion of Mercury; the wheel machine until the index point to  any future
E H will turn the wheel E R about 1-12th round, months, or even succeeding years, the various asrepresentling the proportionlal motion of Jupiter; pects and positions of the planets may be plainly
and the wheel F G will turn the wheel F S about perceived.  When the planets are moved by tile
1-29.5th round, and represent the motion of Sat- winch in this machine, we see them all at once in
urn, and so of all the rest.                      motion around the sun, with the same respective
The foregoing figure (94) represents the appear- velocities and periods of revolution which they
ance of the instrument when completed.  Upon  have in the heavens.  As the planets are reprethe upper part of the circular box is pasted a zo- sented in the preceding positions, Mercury, Judiacal circle divided ilto 12 signs, and each sign piter, and Mars are evening stars, and Venus,
into 30 degrees, with the correspondinlg days of Saturn, and Uranus morning stars, if we suppose
the month.  Tihe wheelwork is understood to be the earth placed in a line with our eye and tihe
within the box, which may either be supported sun.
by a tripod, or with four feet, as here represented.   2. By this illstrument, the truth of the CoperniThe moon and the satellites of Jupiter, Saturu, and call or solar system is clearly represented. When
Uranus, are movable only by the hland. When the the planets are in motion, we perceive the planets
winch Wis turned, then all the primary planets Venus and Mercury to pass both before and beare made to move in their respective velocities. hind the sun, and to have two colljunctions.  We
The ball in the center represents the Sun, which is observe Mercury to be never more than a certain
either made of brass, or of wood gilded with gold. angular distance from the sun as viewed from the
By this planetarium, simple as its construction earth, namely, 27C, and Venus 470.  We perceive
may appear, a variety of interesting exhibitions that the superior planets, particularly Mars, will
may be made and problems performled, which may  be sometimes much nearer to the earth than at
be conducive to the instruction of young students others, and therefore must appear larger at one
of Astronomy.  I shall mention only a few of time than at another, as they actually appear in
these as specimens.                               the heavens.  We see that the planets cannot
1. When the planets are placed in their respec- appear from the earth to move with uniform velotive positions by means of an ephemeris or tile city; for when nearest they appear to move faster,
Nautical Almanac, the relative positions of those and slower when most remote. We likewise obbodies in respect to each other, the quarters of the serve that the planets appear from  the earth to
heavens where they may be observed, and whether move sometimes direct, or from west to east; then
they are to be seen in the morning before sunrise become retrograde, or from east to west, and beor in the evening after sunset, may be at once de- tween both to be stationary; all which particulars
termined.  For example, on the 19th of Decem- exactly correspond with  celestial observations.
her, 1844, the heliocentric places of the planets are For illustrating these particulars, there is a simple
as follows: Uranus, 2~ of Aries; Saturn, 8~ 24' of apparatus, represented by fig. 95, which consists
Aquarius; Jupiter, 70 4' of Aries; Mars, 120 45' of a hollow wire with a slit at top, which is placed
of Libra; the Earth, 270 46' of Gemini; Venus, over the arm  of Mercury or Venus at E.  The
290 48' of Virgo, Mercury, 70 53' of Pisces. arm D G represents a ray of light coming fromn
When the planets are placed on the planetarium
in these positions, and the eye placed in a line                       Fig. 95.
with the balls representing the Earth and the
Sun, all those situated to the left of the sun are                     E         F
to the east of him, and are to be seen in the evesning, and those on the right in the morning. In
the present case, Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter, and
Mercury are evening stars, and Mars and Venus
can only be seen in the r-erning.  Jupiter is in
an aspect nearly qua,'ise, or three signs distant
from the sun, and Uranus is nearly in the same
aspect. Saturn is much nearer the sun, and Mercury is not far from the period of its greatest eastern elongation.  Mars is not far from  being in a the planet at D to the earth at F.  The planets bequartile aspect west of the sun, and Venus is near ing then in motion, tilhe planet D,  as seen in the
the same point of the heavens, approaching to heavens from  tile earth at F, will undergo the
the period of its greatest western elongation, and  several changes of position which we have deconsequently will be seen before sunrise as a scribed above, sometimes appearing to go backbeautiful morning star. Jupiter and Uranus, to ward, and at other times forward.  Tlhe wire prop,
the east of the sun, appear nearly directly oppo- now supposed to be placed over Mercury at E,
site to Venus and Mars, which are to the west of may likewise be placed over any of thile other
the sun.  The phase* of Venus is nearly that of planets, particularly Mars, and similar phenomena
will be exhibited.
The balls which represent the different planets on this   This machine may likewise be used to exhibit
machine have their hemispheres painted black, with the the falsity of the Ptolemaic system, which places
white side turned directly to the sun, so that if the eye be the earth is the center, and supposes the still and
placed in a line with the earth and the planet, particularly                          For this at i o
Mercury and Venus, its phase in the heavens at that time,    the plan ets t o revolve around it.  For is   uas viewed with a telescope, may be distinctly perceived.   pose, the ball representing the Sun is remloved,




ON  ORRERIES.                                      148
and placed on the wire or pillar which supports prices of some instruments of this kind as made
the Earth, and the ball representing the Earth is by Messrs. Jones, 30 Lower Holborn, London:placed in the center.  It will then be observed " An orrery, showing the motions of the Earth,
that the planets Mercury and Venus, being both Moon, and inferior planets, Mercury, and Venus,
within the orbit of the sun, cannot at any time by wheel-work, the board on which the instrube seen to go behind it, whereas in the heavens ment moves being 13 inches diameter, ~4. 14s. 6d.
we as often see them go behind as before the sun. A planetarium, showing the motions of all the
Again, it shows that as the planets move in circu- primary planets by wheel-work with 1i/2 inch or
lar orbits about the central earth, they ought at three inch papered globes, according to the wheelall times to appear of the same magnitude, while, work and the neatness of the stands, from  ~7
on the contrary, we observe their apparent mag- 17s. Gd. to ~10 10s. Ditto, with wheel-work to
nitudes in the heavens to be very variable, Mars, show the parallelism  of the Earth's axis, the
for examlnle, appearing sometimes nearly as large motions of the Moon, her phases, &c., ~18 18s.
as Jupiter, and at other times only like a small Ditto, with wheel-work to show the Earth's diurfixed star. Again, it is here shown that the nal motion, on a brass stand in mahogany case,
planets may be seen at all distances from the sun; ~22 Is. A small tellurion, showing the motion
for example, when the sun is setting, Mercury of the Earth and Moon, &c., ~1 8s."
and Venus, according to this arrangement, might           HENDERSON'5 PLANETARIUM.
be seen, not only in the south, but even in the
eastern quarter of the heavens: a phenomenon   The following is a description of the most comwhich was never yet observed in any age, Mer- plete and accurate planetarium  T have yet seen.
cury never appearing beyond 270 of the sun, nor The calculations occupied more than eight months.
Venus beyond 480. In short, according to the For this article I am  indebted to my learned and
system thus represented, it is seen that the mo- ingenious friend, Dr. Henderson, F.R.A.S., who
tions of the planets should all be regular, and is known to many of my readers by his excellent
uniformly the same in every part of their orbits, astronomical writings.
and that they should all move the same way,   Section of the wheel-work of a planetarium for
namely, from west to east; whereas in the heavens showing with the utmost degree of accuracy the
they are seen to move with variable velocities, mean tropical revolutiols of the planets round
sometitnes appearing stationary, and sometimes the sun, calculated by E. Henderson, LL. D., &c.
moving from east to west, and from west to east:   In the section the dark horizontal lines repreall which circumstances plainly prove that the sent the wheelwork of the planetarium, and the
Ptolemiac cannot be the true system of the uni- annexed numerals the numbers of teeth in the
verse.                                         given wheel. The machine has three axes or arA planetarium such as that now described might bors, indicated by the letters A B C. Axis "G',"
be constructed with brass wheel-work for about the " yearly axis," is assumed to make one revofive gtlileas.  The brass wheel-work  of one lution in 365,242!236 days, or in 365 days 511.
which I long since constructed cost about three 48m. 49.19', and is furnished with wheels, 17, 44,
guineas, and the other parts of the apparatus 54, 36, 140, 96,127, 86, which wheels are all firmly
about two guineas more. The following are the riveted to said axis, and consequently they turn,
Fig. 96.
a        /'                  _ 4 w         30 ~,
round with it supporting perpen same time. Axles "CB"  is a                wheel  127of 22 teeth, to which is made fast
plafixture; it consists of a steel rod, on which a sys- awheel 67, both revolving togeter at the
tem ofr pairs of wheels revolve; tivs wheels 40         foot of axis ri wheel 67 drives a wheel
111,119,1pa22s ofb   83,els 239,le; t96,, 7 s 40      wheel of 77 teeth, which impels a wheel
ral wheels on this axismye,it o From           of 128 teeth on  axis A, and  causrries it to
several actions w    it is presumed, be readily        31 horizontal and is  with  the planea tube,re
On axis A, a system of wheels, furnished with            o    t     hed,
understood, viz:                                       which revolves over that of Mercury,
and ascends through the cover of the
planets. The wheels- On  the axis " a'r at the bottom is wheel  mac 47ine, and bears n arm  on which is
RY'  86, which turns round in 365 days 5h72. From    placed a small ball represeting this plt a-to
oaRIoD. 48m. 49.19s. This wheel impels a small        net in the time stated.




144                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
THE     The motion of the Earth round the              round the Sun in the above-mentioned:ARTH'S Sun is simply effected as follows: the          period (the period of Ceres to that of Juno
PER1OD assumed value of axis "C'? the "yearly           is as 130 is to 123: hence the wheels used)
axis," is 365 days 5h1. 48m. 49.19s.; PALLAS'S  The period of Pallas could not be dehence a system  of wheels having the  PERIOD. rived frnom  the solar year with sufficient
same number of teeth, or, at all events,        accuracy, and recourse was had to an
the first mover and last wheel impelled,        engrafted fraction on the period of Ce.
must bo equal ill their numbers of teeth.        res, thus: on wheel 130 of Ceres is made
In this machine three wheels are em-             fast a wheel of 122 teeth, which drives
ployed, thus: a wheel having 96 teeth is         a wheel of 81 teeth on axis B, to which
made fast to the yearly axis C, and of          is fixed a wheel 79, which impels a wheel
course moves round with it in a mean             of 119 teeth on axis A, and is furnished
solar year, as above noted; this wheel           with a tube which ascends, ard turns on
impels another wheel of 96 teeth on axis        that of Ceres, and supports a horizontal
B, and this, in its turn, drives a third         arm, which bears a small ball represelntwheel of 96 teeth on axis A, and is fur-        ing this planet, whichby virtue of the
iished with a long tube which revolves           above train of wheels is caused to comover that of Venus, and ascends above            plete a revolution round the Sun in 1681
the cover-plate of the machine, and bears        days 10h. 28m. 25.1s.
a horizontal arm which supports a small JUPITER's  The motion of this planet is derived
terrestrial globe, which revolves by virtue  PERIOD. from the period of a solar year, firom the
of said wheels once round the sun in 365         " yearly axis," thus: on this axis is made
days 5h. 48m1. 49.19s.                           fast a wheel of 44 teeth, which turns a
MnARS's   The revolution of this planet is effected     wheel of 94 teeth on axis B, to which is
PERIOD. as follows: a wheel of 140 teeth is made        riveted a small wheel of 20 teeth, which
fast to the yearly axis C, and drives on         impels a wheel on axis A  having 111
axis B a wheel of 65 teeth, to which is         teeth, which is furnished with an ascendfixed a wheel of 59 teeth, which impels         ing tube which revolves over that of
a large wheel of 239 teeth on axis A            Pallas, and bears a horizontal arm which
once round the sun in 686 days 22h.             supports a ball representing this planet,
18m. 33.6s.: this last mentioned wheel          which by the said train of wheels is
is also furnished with a tube which re-         caused to revolve round the Sun in 4330
volves over that of the earth, and carries       days 14h. 39m. 35.7s.
a horizontal arm bearing the ball repre-  SATURN'S'I'he periodic revolution of Saturn is
senting Mars, and causes it to complete  PERIOD. also taken from  the solar year, viz: a
a revolution round the sun in the period         small wheel of 17 teeth is fixed to the
named.                                          "yearly axis" near its top, and drives a
THE ASTE-  Tile period of Vesta is accomplished          wheel of 129 teeth on axis B, to which
aoIDs.  thus, viz: on the yearly axis C is made         is made fast a wheel of 49 teeth, which
fast a wheel of 36 teeth, which drives a         turns a wheel of 190 teeth on axis A,
VESTA'S wheel of 65 teeth, on axis B, to which           whose tube ascends and revolves on that
PERIOD. is fixed a wheel of 41 teeth, which im-         of Jupiter's tube, and supports an arm,
pels a wheel of 83 teeth on axis A once         having a ball representing Saturn and its
round in 1336 days Oh. 21m. 19.8s.; the          rings, and which by the train of wheels
tube of which last wheel ascends on that        is caused to perform a revolution round
of Mars, and, like the rest, bears an arm       the Sun ill the period of 10,746 days 19h.
supporting a ball representing this pla-        16m. 50.9s.
net.                                    URANUS'S  The revolution of this planet could
JUNO'S   For the revolution of Juno, the yearly PERIOD. not be attained with sufficient accuPERIOD. axis C is furnished with a wheel of 54          racy from the period of a solar year:
teeth, which impels a wheel of 50 teeth          the period is ellgrafted on that of' Saton axis B, to which is made fast a wheel        urn's, thus: a wheel of 117 teeth is
of 27 teeth, which turns a wheel of 127         made fast to wheel 190 of Saturn, and
teeth on axis A once round in 1590 days          consequently revolves in Saturn's period.
17h. 35m. 2.7s., and the tube of which           This wheel of 117 teeth drives a wheel
ascends oIl that of Vesta, and supports a       on axis B having 77 teeth, to which is
horizontal arm which carries a small ball       fixed a wheel of 40 teeth, which turns
representing this planet in the period           on axis A a large wheel of 173 teeth,
named.                                           whose tube ascends and revolves over
CEz.ES'S   The revolution of Ceres is derived           that of Saturn, and carries a horizontal
rERIOD. from the period of Juno, because wheel-         arm which supports a ball representing
work taken from the unit of a solar year         this planiet, which is caused to complete
was not sufficiently accurate for the pur-       its revolution by such a train of wheels
pose, therefore on Juno's wheel of 127           il tile period of 30,589 days 8h. 26111.
teeth is fixed a wheel of 123 teeth, which       58.4s. Such is a brief description of the
drives a thick little bevel sort of wheel        motions of this comprehensive and very
of 30 teeth on1 axis B: the reason of this       accurate machine.
small wheel being beveled is to allow its   The axis A, on  which  the planet tubular
teeth to suit both wheels 1 2 3. wheel 30 wheels revolve, performs a rotation ill 25 days
drives wheel 130 on axis A once round  10 hours by virtue of the following train of
in 1681 days 6h. 17m. 22.4s., and the wheels, 164+7  of 24 hours, that is, a pinion of
tube of wheel 130 turns on the tube of 14 is assumed to revolve in 24hours, and to drive a
Juno, and ascends in a similar manner wileel of 61 teeth, to which is fixed a pinion of
with the rest, and carries a horizontal 12, which turns the wheel 70 in the period noted;
arm supporting a small ball representing  to this wheel-axis it is made fast, and by revolvthis planet, and is caused to revolve ing with it exhibits the Sun's rotation.




HENDERSON'S PLANETARIUM.                                         145
DIURNAL   The machine is turned by a handle or REGISTRA-  The  planetarium   is also  furnished
HAN'D   winch, wl ich is assumed to turn round    TING   with a system  of wheels for registrating
in 24 hours, and from  this rotation of   DATES. dates for either 10,000 years past or to
24 hours a train of wheel-work is re-               come.  The arrangement is not shown
quired to cause the "yearly axis" C to              in the engraving (to prevent confusion),
turn once round in 365 days 5h. 48m.                but it might be shortly described thus:
49.19s., which is effected in the follow-           near the top of the yearly axis is a
ing manner, viz: the train  found by                hooked piece, e, which causes the tooth
the process of the reduction of contin-             of a wheel of 100 teeth to start forward
utous fractions is ~  1-482 1 v44      that         yearly; consequently, 100 starts of said
is, in the train for turning the Sun, the           wheel will cause it to revolve in 100
same pinion 14 turns the same wheel 61,             solar years; and it has a hand, which
and turns a pinion of 18 leaves, to which           points on a dial on the cover of the mais fixed a wheel of 144 teeth, having a             chine the years: thus, for the present
pinion of 2.3 leaves, which impels a large          year, this hand will be over the number
wheel of 241 teeth once round in 365.-              45.  This last-named wheel of 100 teeth
242236 days, or 365d. 5h. 48m. 49.19s.              has a -pin, which  causes a tooth  of
The last mentioned wheel of 241 teeth               another wheel of 100 teeth  to start
is made fast to the under part of the               once in 100 years; hence this last wheel
"yearly axis" C at D, the handle having             will complete one revolution in 10,000
a pinion of 14  leaves therefor, and,               years; and it is for this purpose the
transmitting  its motion  through  the              former index or hand  moves over a
above train, causes the yearly axis to re-          number yearly.  The second index will
volve in the same period.                           pass over a lnumber every 100 years; for
Planets' names.                Wheel-works             Tropical periods produc-  True mean tropical
ed by the wheel-work.  periods of the planets.
722  6            da. ho. m.  s.         da. ho. m. s.
Mercury................          of year       87. 23. 14. 36.  1    87. 23. 14. 36
85  27
Venus.47  128   it                                       224. 16. 41  31.  1   224. 16. 41. 36
127    77
The Earth........  Prime mover    96+-96+-96 "          365.  5. 48. 49. 19   365.  5; 48. 49
65  239
Mars.............                 * * * * *  140+  59   686. 22. 18. 33.  6   68G. 22. 18. 34
65   83
Vesta............                -   +' 36+- 41      1335.  0. 21. 19-  8  1335.  0. 21. 20
50  127
Juno.............     I I'    +7        "        1590. 17. 35.  2.  7  1590. 17. 35.  1
130
Ceras............    4   -3-1' 30 of Juno             1681.  6: 17. 22.  4  1681.  6. 17. 29
81  119
Pallas...........          *   12  279   of Ceres      1681. 10. 28. 25.  1  1681. 10. 28. 42
94  111
Jnniter............  44 20  of a year       4330. 14. 39. 35.  7  4330. 14. 39. 32
109  190
Saturn...........                  17  4 9  "          10746. 19. 16. 50.  9 10746. 19. 16. 52
Uranus.........                           of Saur77__73 1 0589.  8.  6. 58.  4 3059.  8. 26. 59
61 70
The Sun's rotation                -4__       of 24 hrs.   25. 10.  0.  0.        25. 10.  0.  1
The tropical period of thel.   144241              365.  5. 48. 48, 19   365.  5. 48. 49
Earth round the Sun.           14  18  23 
the present year, the second-hand  or              or to come, the various situations and
index will be over the number 18, and              aspects of the planets may be ascertained
will continue over it until the first index        by operating with this maachine, and this
moves forward to 99; then both indexes             for thousands of years without producwill move at one time, viz: the first in-          ing a sensible error either in space or
dex to O O on the first concentric circle          time.  This planetarium  wheel-work is
of the dial, and the second index to 19,           inclosed in an elegant mahogany box of
denoting the year 1900, and so of the              twelve sides; is about five feet in diamerest. By the ecliptic being divided in a           ter by ten inches in depth.  At each of
series of four spirals, the macline makes          the twelve angles, or sides, small brass
a distinction between common and leap              pillars rise, and support a large ecliptic
years, and indicates the common year               circle, on which are engraven the signs,
as containing 365 days, and the leap               degrees, and minutes of the ecliptic, the
year 366 days, by taking in a day in               days of the month, &c.  This mahogaFebruary every fourth year; thus, for              ny box with the wheel-work is supported
any given period for.10,000 years past            by a tripod stand three feet in bight, and




146                        THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
motion is communicated to the several lius, the celebrated astronomer of Dantzig, author
balls representing the planets by turning  of the Selenoqgrphia and other works, made many
the handle as before described. A plane-, observations on this planet about the years 1643,
tarium  of this complicated  sort costs 1649, and 1650, in which he appears to have obsixty guineas.                          tailed different views of the planet and its appendages, gradually approximating to the truth,
The foregoing is a tabular view of the wheel- but still incorrect. These views are repres Ylted
work, periods, &c.
In the month of October last year;'Dr. Hender-                    Fig. 97.
son made a series of calculations for a new planetarium for the use of schools. It shows with
considerable accuracy for 700 days the mean
tropical revolutions of the planets round the sun.    2  
Thile machine consists of a system of brass wheels
peculiarly arranged, and is inclosed in a circular
case three feet in diameter, the top of which has |
the signs and degrees of the ecliptic laid down onil
it, as also tile days of the months, &c. This
planetarium  costs only 45s., or, on a tripod stand,
table-high, 55s.: the machine is put in motion by            7         8          9
a handle on the outside.  To the teachers and
others connected with education, this planetarium
must be of great importance, for without a proper
elucidation of the principles of astronomy, that
of Geography must be but confusedly understood.
This planetarium is at present made by Mr. Dollold, 9 White Conduit Grove, Islington, London.
The Tellurion is a small instrument which
Thode Teurien  is a small instrument wit ahich  in figures 4, 5, 6, and 7. Fig. 4 nearly resembles
should be used in connection with the planetarium  two henispheres, one on each side of the globe
formerly described.  This instrument is intended  of Saturn. The other figures very nearly resemto show thle allnnual motiol of the earth, and the  ile the extreme parts of the ring as seesp through
revolution of the moon around it. It also ilius- a good telescope, but he still seems to have considtrates the moon's phases and the motion of her ered them us detached from each other as well as
nodes, the inclination of the Eartl's axis, the from  Saturn.  Figures 8 and 9 are views given
causes of eclipses, the variety of seasons,and other by Riicciolus at a period posterior to that in Which
phenomena.  It consists of about eight wheels, he supposed Saturn and his appendages in the
pinions, and circles.  A small instrument of this form  delineated in fig. 3. In these last delineadescription may be purchased for about LI 8's3, jtions the planet was supposed to be inclosed in an
as stated on page 143.                           elliptical ring, but this ring was supposed to be
fixed to its two opposite sides.
ON THE VARIOUS OPINIONS WHICH WERE ORIGIN-   Fig. 10 is a representation by Eustachius DiviALLY FORMED OF SATURN'S RING.            ni, a celebrated Italian optician at Bologna. The
shades represented on Saturn and the elliptical
The striking and singular phenomenon con- curve are incorrect, as this planet presents no
nected with the planet Saturn, though now ascer- such shadowy form.  The. general appearance
tained beyond dispute to be a ring or rings sur- here presented is not much unlike that which the
rounding its body at a certain distance, was a ring of Saturn exhibits, excepting that the upsubject of great mystery, and gave rise to nu- per side of the ring should appear covering a pormerous conjectures and controversies for a con- tion of the orb of Saturn; but Divini seems to
siderable time after the invention of the tele- have conceived that tle curve on each side was
scope by which it was discovered.  Though it attached to the body of Saturn, for when I-Huywas first discovered in the year 1610, it was gens published his discovery of the ring of Saturn
nearly 50 years afterward before its true form  in 1659, Divini contested its truth, because lie
and nature were determined.  Galileo was the could not perceive the ring through his own telefirst who discovered anything uncommon con- scopes; and he wrote a treatise on the subject in
nected with Saturn: through his telescope he opposition to Huygens in 1660, entitled ";Brevis
thought he saw that planet appear like two small- Annotatio in Systema Saturniurn."   Huygens
er globes on each side of a larger one; anld after immediately replied to him, and Divini wrote a
viewing the planet in this form  for two years, rejoinder in 1661. Fig. 11 is the representation
lie was surprised to see it becoming quite round, given by Francis Fontana, a Neapolitan Astronowithout its adjoining globes, and some time after- mer. This figure represents Saturn as having
ward to appear in the triple form.  This appear- two crescents, one onl each side, attached to its
ance is represented in fig. 1 of the following body, with intervals between the planet and the
engraving.  In the year 1614, Scheiner, a Ger- crescents. Fig. 12 is a view delineated by Gasman astronomer, published a representation of sendus, a celebrated French philosopher.  It reSaturn, in which this planet is exhibited as a presents the planet as a large ellipsoid, having a
large central globe, with two smaller bodies, one large circular opening near each end, and if this
oni each side, partly of a conical form, attached representation were the true one, each openin)g
to the planet, and forming a part of it, as shown would be at least 30,000 miles in diameter.  Figr
fig. 2. In the years 1-640 and 1643, Ricciolus, an 13, which is perhaps the most sillngular of tile
Italian mathematician and astronomer, imagined  whole, is said to be one of the views of this planet
he saw Saturn as represented in fig. 3, consisting given by Ricciolus.  It represents two globes,
of a central globe, and two conical-shaped bodies each of which, in the proportion they here bear
completely detached from  it, and published an to Saturn, must be more than 30,000 miles in
accounlt of it correspondinog to this view. HIeve- diameter.  These globes were conceived as being




ON SATURN'S RING.                                         147
attached to the body of Saturn  by curves or appear that they had any idea that this dark line
bands, each of which, in the proportion represent- was empty space separating the ring into two
ed, must have been at least 7000 miles in breadth, parts.  This discovery was reserved for the late
anud nearly 40,000 miles long. This would have Sir W. Herschel, who made numerous observaexhibited the planet Saturn as a still more singu- tions on this planet, and likewise ascertained that
lar body than what we have found it to be; but the ring'performs a revolution round the planet
no such construction of a planet has yet been  in ten hours and thirty minutes.
found in the universe, nor is it probable that such    Of late years, some observers have supposed
a form of a planetary body exists.                that the exterior ring of Saturn is divided into
It is remarkable that only two general opinions several parts, or, in other words, that it consists
should have been formed respecting the construe- of two or more concentric rings.  The following
tion of Saturn, as appears from these representa- are some of the observations on which this opintions: either that this planet was composed of ion is founded.  They are chiefly extracted from
three distinct parts, separate from each other, or Captain Kater's paper on this subject which was
that the appendage on each side was fixed to the read before the Astronomical Society of London.
body of the planet.  The idea of a ring surround-   The observations, we are told, were made in
ing the body of the planet at a certain distance the years 1825 and 1826, and remained unpubfrom  every part of it seems never to have been  lished from a wish on the part of the observer to
thought of until the celebrated Huygens, in 1655, witness the appearances again.  The planet Sat1656, and 1657, by numerous observations made urn has been much observed by Captain Kater
on this planet, completely demonstrated that it is for the purpose of trying the light, &c., for which
surrounded by a solid and permanent ring, which  the ring and satellites are good tests.  The illnstrunever changes its situation, and, without touch- ments which were employed in the present invesing the body of tlhe planet, accompanies it in its tigations were two Newtonian reflectors, one by
r-evolution around the sun.  As the cause of all Watson, of 40 inches focus and 61thl aperture,
the erroneous opinions above stated was owing to and another by Dollond, of 68 inches focus and
the Imperfection of the telescopes which were 6y4ths aperture.  The first, under favorable cirthen in use, and their deficiency in magnifying  cumstances, gave a most excellent image; the
power, this ingenious astronomer set himself to latter is a very good instrument.  The following
work in order to improve telescopes for celestial are extracts from the author's journal.
observations.  He improved the art of grinding    Nov. 25, 1825. The double ring beautifully
and polishing object-glasses, which he finished  defined, perfectly distinct all around, and the
with his own hands, and produced lenses of a principal belts well seen.  I tried many concave
nmore correct figure, and of a longer focal dis- glasses, and found that the image was much
tance, than what had previously been accom- sharper than with convex eyeglasses, and the
plished.  He first constructed a telescope 12 feet light apparently much greater.  Dollond, 259, the
long, and afterward  one 23 feet long, which best power, 480, a single lens, verydistinct.  asov.
magnified about 95 times; whereas Galileo's best 30, the night very favorable, but not equal to the
telescope magnified only about 33 times.  He 25th.  The exterior ring of Saturn is not so
afterward constructed one 123 feet long, which  bright as the interior, and the interior is less
magnified about 220 times.  It was used without bright close to the edge next the planet.  The ina tube, the object-glass being placed upon the top  ner edge appears more yellow than the rest of
of a pole, and connected by a cord with the eye- the ring, and nearer in color to the body of the
piece.  With such telescopes this ingenious artist planet.  Dec. 17.  The evening extremely fine.
and mathematician  discovered the fourth satellite With Dollond I perceived the outer ring of Saturn
of Saturn, and demonstrated that tile phenomenon to be darker than the inner, and the division of
which had been so egregiously misrepresented by  the ring all around with perfect distinctness; but
preceding astronomers consisted of an immense  with Watson I fancied that I saw the outer ring
ring surrounding the body, and completely de- separated by numerous dark divisions extremnzely
tached fiom  it.  His numerous observations and close, one stronger than the rest, dividing the ring
reasonings on  this subject were published  in about equally.  This was seen with my most perLatin ill 1659, in a quarto volume of nearly 100 feect single eyeglass power.  A careful examrinapages, entitled "1 Systema S&aturnium,  sire de can- tion of some hours confirmed this opinion.  Jan.
sis mirandeorumn Saturni Phenomenon, et Corznte 16 and 17, 1826.  Captain Kater believed that he
ejus Planeta  Teova," from which work the figures saw the divisions with the Dollond, but was not
and some of the facts stated above have been positive.  Concave eyeglasses found to be superior
extracted.                                        to convex, Feb. 26, 1826. The division of the
outer ring not seen with Dollond. On the 17th
ON THE SUPPOSED DIVISIONS OF THE EXTERIOR RING Dec., when the divisions were most distinctly seen,
OF SATURN.                     Captain Kater made a drawing of the appearance
of Saturn and his rings.  The p}:enomenna were
From the period in which Huygens lived until witnessed by two other persons cit the saine eventhe time when Herschel applied his large tele- ing, one of whom  saw several divisions in the
scopes to the heavens, few discoveries were made outer ring, while the other saw one middle division
in relation to Saturn. Cassiai, in 1671, discovered  only; but the latter person was short-sighted, and
the fifth satellite of this planet; in 1672, the third; unaccustomed to telescopic observations.  It may
and the first and second in March, 1684. In 1675, be remarked, however, that these divisions were
CSassini saw the broad side of its ring bisected  not seen on other evenings, which yet were coniuite round by a dark elliptical line, of which the sidered very favorable for distinct vision.
inner part appeared brighter than the outer.  In    It is said that the same appearances were seen
1722, Mr. Hadley, with his five feet Newtonian by'Mr. Short, but the original record of his obser-'.flector, observed the same phenomenon, and vatiolls cannot be found.  In Lalande's Astron,
perceived that the dark line was stronger next the my (3d edition, article 3351) it is said, "Cassinu
body, and fainter toward the upper edge of the remarked that the breadth of the ring was divided
ring.  Within the ring he also discovered two into-two equal parts by a dark line having the
belts across the disc of Saturn; but it does not same curvature as the ring, and the exterior por



148                          THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER
tion was the less light.  Short told me that he seen by Captain Kater.  It has been remarked
observed still more singular phenomena with his by Sir W. Herschel, Strave, and others, that the
large telescope of 12 feet. The breadth of the exterior ring is much less brilliant than the inteansm, or extremities of the ring, was, according to rior; and it is asked, May not this want of light
hiln, divided into two parts, an inner portion in the outer ring arise from  its having a very
without any break in the illumination, and an dense atmosphere? and may not this atmosphere
outer divided by several lines concentric with the in certain states admit of the divisions of the excircumference, which would lead to a belief that terior ring being seen, though, under other cirthere are several rings in the same plane."  De cumrnstances, they remain invisible?  The above
Lambre and Birt severally state that Short saw  observations are said to have been confirmed by
the outer ring divided, probably on the authority  some recent observations by Detcuppis at Rome,
of Lalande.  In Brewster's Ferguson's Astrono- who announced some years ago, that Satulrn's outer
my, vol. ii, p. 125, 2d edition, there is the follow- ring is divided into two or three concentric rings.
ing note on this subject: "Mr. Short assures us    Some of the observations stated above, were
that with an excellent telescope he observed the they perfectly correct, would lead to the conclasurface of the ring divided by several dark con- sion that Saturn is encompassed with a number
centric lines, which seem to indicate a number of of rings concentric with and parallel to each
rings proportional to the number of dark lines other.  But while such phenomena as described
which he perceived."                             above are so seldom seen, even by the most powerIn December, 1813, at Paris, Professor Quetelet ful telescopes and the most accurate observers, a
saw the outer ring divided with the achromatic certain degree of doubt must still hang over the
telescope of ten inches aperture, which was ex- subject; and we must suspend our opinion on
hibited at the exposition.  He mentioned this this point until future observations shall either conthe following day to M. de la Place, who observed  firm or render doubtful those to which we have
that "those, or even more divisions, were con- referred. Should the Earl of Rosse's great teleformable to the system  of the world."  On the scope, when finished for observation, be found to
other hand, the division of the outer ring was not perform according to the expectations now enterseen by Sir W. Herschel in 1792, nor by Sir J. tained, and in proportion to its size and quantity
Herschel in 1826, nor by Strove in the same year; of light, we shall expect that our doubts will be
and on several occasions when the atmospheric resolved in regard to the supposed divisions of the
conditions were most favorable, it has not been ring of Saturn.
APPENDIX.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE EARL OF ROSSE'S TELESCOPE.
THins telescope, the largest and most magnifi- This compound has a specific gravity of 8.8, and
cent that ever was attempted, reflects the greatest is found to preserve its luster with more splendor,
honor on the genius, the inventive powers, and  and to be more free from  pores than any other.
the scientific acquirements of its noble contriver, A foundry was constructed expressly for the puras well as on the elevated station in which he is pose of casting the speculum.  Its chimney, built
placed. With rank and fortune, and every cir- from  the ground, was 18 feet high, and 1612
cunmstance that usually unfit men for scientific square at the base, tapering to four at the top.
pursuit, he has set a bright example to his com- At each of its sides, communicating with it by a
peers of the dignity and utility of philosophical flue, was sunk a furnace 8 feet deep and 5t
studies and investigations, and of the aids they  square, with a circular opening 4 feet in diamemight render to the progress of science, were  ter.  About seven feet from  the chimney was
their wealth and pursuits directed in a proper erected a large crane, with the necessary tackle
channel.                                         for elevating and carrying the crucibles from the
Previously to his lordship's attempting the con- furnace to the mold, which was Jplaced in a line
struction of his largest, or "I Monster Telescope,"  with the chimney and crane, and had three iron
he had constructed one with a speculum of three  baskets supported on pivots hung round it; and
feet in diameter, which was considered one of the  four feet farther on was the annealing oven.
most accurate and powerful instruments that had  The crucibles which contained the metal were
ever been made, not excepting even Sir W. Her- each 2 feet in diameter,,/2 deep, and together
schel's forty feet reflector.  In the account of  weighed one ton and a half. They were of cast
this telescope  published  in  the  Philosophical iron, and made to fit the baskets at tihe side of the
Transactions for 1840, his lordship speaks of the  mold. These baskets were hung onJ wooden uppossibility of a speculum of six feet in diameter rights, or pivots; to one of these, on each side,
being cast. At that time it was considered by  was attached a lever, by depressing which it
some as little short of a chimera to attempt the  might be turned over, and the contents of the
construction of such amonstrous instrument; but crucible poured into the mold. The bottom  of
the idea no sooner occurred to this ingenious and  the mold was made by binding together tightly
persevering nobleman than lie determined to put layers of hoop iron, and turning  time required
it to the test, and the result has been attended  shape on them edgewise.  This mold conducted
withi conmplete success. The materials of which  the heat away through the bottom, anid cooled
this speculum  is composed are copper and tin, the metal toward the top in  infinitely  small
united very nearly in their atomic proportions, layers, while the interstices, though close enougl
namnely, copper 126.4 parts to tin 58.9 parts. to prevent the metal from  escaping, were sufl



APPENDIX.                                           149
cielltly open to allow the air to penetrate.  This tower over the house in which the speculum  is
bottom  was 6 feet in diameter and 512 inches groutnd, on the top of which is fixefd a pole, to
thick, and was made perfectly horizontal by means which is attached the dial of a watch; there are
of spirit levels, and was surrounded by a wooden  trap-doors which open, and by means of a tempoIrame.  A wooden pattern, the exact size of the  rary eyepiece, allow the figure of the dial to be
speculum, being placed on the iron, sand was well seen in the speculum  brought to a slight polish.
packed between it and the frame, and the pattern  If the dots on the dial are not sufficiently wellwas removed.  Each of the crucibles containing  defined, the grinding is continued; but if they
the melted metal was then placed in its basket, appear satisfactorily, the polishing is commenced
and everything being ready for discharging their It required six weeks to grind it to a fair surface
contents, they were at the same instant turned  The polisher was cut into grooves, to prevent thle
over, and the mold being filled, the metal in a abraded matter from accumulating in some places
short time safely set into the required  figure. more than in others; a thin layer of pitch was
While it was red hot, and scarcely solid, the spread  over it; it was smeared over with rouge
framework was removed, and ant iron ring con- and water, and a supply of it kept up until tile
nected with a bar which passed through the oven  machinery brought it to a fine black polish.  The
being placed round it, it was drawn in by means lengthl of time employed for polishing the threeof a capstan at the other side, on a railroad, when  feet speculum was six hours.*
charcoal being lighted in the oven, and turf fires    This large telescope is now completed, or nearly
underneath it, all the openings were built up, and  so. The tube is 56 feet long, including the speit was left for sixteen weeks to anneal.  It was culum  box, and is made of deal one inch thick,
cast on the 13th of April, 1842, at 9 o'clock in hooped with iron. On the inside, at intervals of
the evening.  Tile crucibles were ten hours heat- eight feet, there are rings of iron three inches in
ing in the furnaces before the metal was intro- depth and one inch broad, for the purpose of
duced, which in about ten hours more was suffi- strengthening  the sides.  The diameter of the
ciently fluid to be poured.  When the oven was tube is seven feet.  It is fixed to mason-work in
opened  the speculum  was found as perfect as the ground by a large universal hinge, which
when it entered it. It was then removed to the allows it to turn in all directions.  At 12 feet disgrinding machine, where it underwent that pro- tahce on each side. a wall is built, 72 feet long, 48
cess, and afterward was polished, without any  high on the outer side, and 56 on the inner, the
accident having occurred.                         walls being 24 feet distant from  each other, and
This speculum  weighed three tons, and lost lying exactly in the meridional line.  When diabout one-eightht of an inch in grinding.  Lord  rected to the south, the tube may be lowered  until
Rosse has since cast another speculum  of the. it becomes almost horizontal; but when pointed
same diameter four tons in weight.  He can now, to the north. it only falls until it is parallel with
with perfect confidence, undertake any casting, the earth's axis, pointinlg then to the pole of the
so great an improvement bas t~he ~formx   of mold  heavens.  Its lateral movements take place only
which he has imvented proved.  The speculum  from wall to wall, and this commands a view for
was placed onl aln equilibrium bed, composed of half an hour on each side of tile meridian; that is,
nine pieces, resting on points at their centers of the whole of its motion fiom east to west is limited
gravity.  The pieces wvere lined with pitch and  to 15 degrees.  At present it is fitted up in a ternfelt before the speculum  was placed on them. porary way to be used as a transit instrument;
The speculum  box is also lined with felt, and  but it is ultimately intended to connect with. the
pitched: this prevents any sudden change of tem- tube-end galleries machinery which shall give an
perature affecting the speculum  by means of the attomatol movement, so that the telescope sllal
bad conducting power of the substances employed. be used as an equatorial instrument.  All the
A vessel of lime is kept in connection with the  works coinecled with this instrument are of the
speculum  box  to absorb the moisture, which  strongest and safest kind; all the iron work was
otherwise might injure the mirror.  The proceSs  ast inl his lordship's laboratory by men instructed
of grinding was conducted under water, and the by himself, and every part of the machinery was
movimg power employed was a steam-engine of made under his own eye by the artisans in his own
three horse power.  The polisher is connected   eighborbood, and  not a simgle accident worth
with tihe machimery by meaus of a large rimg of  mentionilng happened during the whole p-roceediron, which loosely encircles it; and instead of img.
eithier tile speculum or the polisher being sta- The expense incurred by his lordship in the
tionary, both move with a regulated speed.  The  erection of this noble iplstlmelt, was  not less
ring of the polisher, and therefore the polisher team   twelve thousand pounds! beside the money
itself, hias a transverse and a longitudinal motion;  expended in the constrlc.ion of tile telescope of
it malleis 80 strokes ill tnhe ulilute, and 24a strokes three feet diameter.  Sufficient time has not yet
backward and forward for every revolution of the been afforded for making particular observations
mirror, and at tilhe same time 1 72th strokes nl witll this telescope; but froml slight trials which
te  0 ol have been made, even under unfavorable circumthe tlransverse direction. Tl e extent of thelatter stances, it promises important results.  Its great
is  -7-thls of the diameter of the speculum. The  superiority over every telescope previously consubstance made use of to wear down the surface structed, consists in the great quantity of light it
was emrery and water: a conmstant supply of these reflects, and the brilliancy with which it exhibits
was kept between the grinder and the speculum. objects, even when high powers are applied.  It
The grinder is made of cast iron, with grooves has a reflecting surface of 4071 square inches,
cut. lemngthwise, across, and circularly on its face. while that of Herschel's 40 feet telescope had
The polisher and speculum have a mutual action  only 1811 square inches on its polished surface,
upon each other: im  a few hours, by the help of
the emery and water they are both ground truly       The above description has been selected and abridsged
circular,.whatever may have been their previous from a small volume entitled "The Mionster Telescope,
defects.  The grinding is comitiinued  until the re- erected by lihe Earl of Rosse, Parsontown," and also from
defects. The grinding is ontinued until the re- the " Illustrated London News" of Sepltelnher 9th, 1843.
quired form of surface is produced, and this is as- In the volume alludedl to a mnore particular description will
certained in the following manner: there is a high  be found, accompanied with engravings.




15O~ -THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
so that the quantity of light reflected from  the ject.  Thus, then, we have all danger of the metal
speculum  is considerably more than double that breaking before it could be polished, overcome.
of Herschel's largest reflector. This instrument Little more, however, will be done with it for some
has already exceeded his lordship's expectations.  time, as the earl is on the eve of quitting Ireland
Many appearances before invisible in the Moon for England to resign his post at York as presihave been perceived, and there is every reason to dent of the British Association.  I look forward
expect that new discoveries will be made by it in with intense anxiety to witness its first severe
the Nebulei, double and triple stars, and other trial, when all its various appointments shall be
celestial objects.  The following is an extract of completed, in the confidence that those who may
a communication from  Sir James South on this then be present will see with it what man has
subject, addressed to the editor of the "' Times;"  never seen before.  The diameter of the large
"The leviathan telescope on which the Earl of metal is six feet, and its focus 54 feet; yet the
Rosse has been toiling upward of two years, immense mass is manageable by one iman.  Cornalthough not absolutely finished, was on Wednes- pared with it, the working telescopes of Sir Wilday last directed to the sidereal heavens.  The liam  Herschel, which in his hands conferred on
letter which I have this morning received from its astronomy such inestimable service, and on himnoble maker, in his usual unassuming  style, self astronomical immortality, were but playmerely states that the metal, only just polished, things."
was of a pretty good figure, and that with a   The following is a more recent account of obpower of 500 the nebula known as No. 2 of Mes- servations made by this telescope, chiefly extracted
sier's catalogue was even more magnificent than from  Sir James South's description, inserted in
the nebula No. 13 of Messier, when seen with his the Times of April 16th, 1845, and the " Illus.
lordship's telescope of three feet diameter and 27 trated London News" of April 19:
feet focus. Cloudy weather prevented him from        "The night of the 5th of March, 1845, was the
turning the leviathan on any other nebulous ob- finest I ever saw in Ireland.  Many nebule were
Fig. 98.
observed by Lord Rosse, Dr. Robinson, and my- well, but any other celestial object as it ought.
self.  Most of them were, for the first time since  To determine this point, the telescope was directed
their creation, seen by us as groups or clusters of  to Regulus with the entire aperture, and a power
stars; while some, at least to my eyes, showed no  of 800, and "I saw," says Sir James, "with insuch resolution.  Never, however, in my life did  expressible delight, the star free from wings, tails,
I see such glorious sidereal pictures as this instru-  or optical appendages; not indeed, like a planetary
ment afforded us.  Most of the nebule we saw I disc, as in my large achromatic, but a round
certainly have observed with my own achromatic;  image resembling voltaic light, betwveen charcoal
but although that instrument, as far as relates to  points; and so little aberration had this brilliant
mgniiifying power, is probably inferior to no one  image, that I could have measured its distance
in existence, yet to compare these nebule, as seen  from, and position with any of the stars in the
witll it and the six-feet telescope, is like compar- field with a spider's-line micrometer, and a power
i!,r, as seen with the naked eye, the dinginess of  of 1000, without the slightest difficulty; for not
the placnet Saturn to the brilliancy of Venus. The  only was the large star round, but the telescope,
rnost popularly known nebul, observed this night although in the open air, and the wind blowing
wv;re the ring niebuli in the Canes Venatici, or the  rather fresh, was as steady as a rock."
51;t of Messier's catalogue, which was resolved    "On subsequent nights, observations of other
into stars with a magnifying power of 548, and  nebulae, amounting to some thirty or more, rethe 94th of Messier, which is in the same constel-  moved most of them  from  the list of nebulae,
lation, and which was resolved into a large globu-  where they had long figured, to that of clusters;
atr cluster of stars not much unlike the well- while some of these latter, more especially the 5th
knowvn cluster in Hercules, called also the 13th  of Messier, exhibited a sidereal picture in the teleof Messier."  Perfection of figure, however, of a scope such as man before had never seen, and
telescope must be tested, not by nebulae, but by  which for its magnificence baffles all description
its performance on a star of the first magnitude. Several double stars were seen with various aperIf it will, under high power, show the star round  tures of the telescope, and with powers between
and Iree from optical appendages, we may safely  360 and 800; and as the earl had before told us
tako it for granted it will not only show nebulare  we should-before the speculum was inserted iu




APPENDIX.                                          151
the tube, in  consequence of his having been seen through a transparent moon, or as if the star
obliged to quit the superintendence of the polish- were between me and the moon.  It remained on
ing at the most critical part of the process-we the moon's disc nearly two seconds of time, and
found that a ring about six inches broad, reckon- then disappeared.  I have seen this apparent proing from the circumference of the speculum, was jection of a star on the moon's face several times,
not perfectly polished, and to that the little irra- but from the great brilliancy of the star, this was
diation seen about Regulus was unquestionably  the most beautiful I ever saw.  The cause of this
referrible.  The only double stars of the first class phenomenon is involved in impenetrable mystery.
which the weather permitted us to examine with    The following is a representation of the great
it were XI Ursr Majoris, and Gamma Virginis, Rosse telescope, along with part of the buildings
which I could have measured with the greatest with which it is connected. In the interior face
confidence. D'Arrest's comet we- observed on the of the eastern wall a very strong iron arc of about
12th of Malchl, with a power of 400. but nothing 43 feet radius is firinly fixed, provided with adjustworthy of notice was detected.  Of the Moon a ments, whereby its surface facing the telescope
few words nmust suffice.  Its appearance in my may be set very accurately in the plane of the
large achromatic of 12 inches aperture is known meridian.  On this bar lines are drawn, the interto hundreds of readers; let them  then imagine val between any adjoining two of which corresthat with it they look at the moon, while with ponds to one minute of time on the equator. The
Lord Rosse's six-feet they look into it, and they tube and speculum. including the bed on which
will not form  a very erroneous opinion of the the speculum  rests, weigh about 15 tons. The
nerformance of the leviathan.  On the 15th of telescope rests on a universal joint, placed on
March, when the moon was seven days old, I masonry about six feet below the ground, and is
never saw her unilluminated disc so beautifully, elevated or depressed by a chain and windlass;
nor her mountains so temptingly measurable. On and although it weighs about 15 tons, the instrumy first looking into the telescope, a star of about ment is raised by two men with great facility:
the seventh magnitude was some minutes of a of course, it is counterpoised in every direction.
degree from the moon's dark limb, and its occul- The observer, when at work, stands in one of four
tation by the moon appeared inevitable. The star, galleries, the three highest of which are drawn
however, instead of disappearing the moment the out from  the western wall, while the fourth or
moon's edge came in contact with it, apparently lowest has for its base an elevating platform, along
glided on the moon's dark face, as if it had been the horizontal surface of which a gallery slides
Fig. 99
from  wall to wall by a machinery within the will sometimes be elevated between 50 and 60 feet
observer's reach, but which a child may work. above the ground.  As yet, the telescope has no
When the telescope is about half an hour east of equatorial motion, but it very shortly will; and at
the meridian, the galleries, hanging over the gap no very distant day, clockwork will be connected
between the walls, present to a spectator below anll with it, when the observer will, while observing,
appearance somewhat dangerous; yet the observer, be almost as comfortable as if he were reading at
with common prudence, is as safe as on the a desk by his fireside.
ground, and each of the galleries can be drawn    The foregoing figure (99) shows a section of
from the wall to the telescope's side so readily, the machinery connected with this telescope.  It
that the,bserver needs no one else to move it for exhibits a view of the inside of the eastern wall,
him.                                             with all the machinery as seen in section. A is
The foregoing figure (98) represents only the the mason work on the ground; B, the universal
upper part of the tube of the telescope, at which joint, which allows the tube to turn in all directhe observer stands when making his observations. tions; C, the speculum  in its tube; D, the box;
The telescope is at present of the Newtonian con- E, the eyepiece; F, the movable pulley- G, the
struction, and, consequently, the observer looks fixed one; H, the chain from the side of the tube;
into the side of the tube at the upper end of the I, the chain from the beam; K, the counterpoise;
telescope; but it is proposed to throw aside the L, the lever; M, the chain connecting it with tile
plane speculum, and to adapt it to the front view, tube; Z, the chain which passes from  the tube to
on the plan already described (see pp. 88, 89, the windlass over a pulley on a trussbeam, which
&c.), so that the observer will sit or stand with runs from Wto the same situation on the opposite
his back toward the object, and his face looking wall: the pulley is not seen; X  is a railload, on
down upon the speculum; and in this position he which the speculum is drawn either to or from its




152                         THE PRACTICAL ASTRONOMER.
box: part is cut away, to show the counterpoise, pared by the individual himself for receiving the
The dotted line a represents the course of the  glasses.  The following are the prices at which
weight R as the tube rises or falls: it is a segment achromatic object-glasses for astronomical teleof a circle, of which the chain 1 is tile radius. scopes are generally 3old: Focal length 36 inches,
The tube is moved from wall to wall by tile ratchet diameter 2Vth inches, from  2 to 3',v guine.as.
and wheel at R; the wheel is turned by the handle  Focal length 42 inches, diameter 23/1ths inches,
O, and the ratchet is fixed to the circle on the  from  5 to 8 guineas.  Focal length 42 inches,
wall.  The ladders in fiont, as shown in the pre- diameter 33.yth inches, from   12 to 2') guineas.
ceding sketch, enable the observer to follow the  Focal length 42 inches, diameter 33ths inches,
tube in its ascent to where the galleries on the  fiom 25 to 3f) guineas.  Eyepieces, from 10s. 6d.
side-wall commence.  These side-galleries are  to 18 shillings.  The smallest of these lenses,
three in number, and each call be moved from  namely, that of 2y4th inches diameter, if truly
wall to wall by the observer after the lube, the  achromatic, may be made to bear a power of from
motion of which he also accomplishes by means  80 to 100 times in clear weather for celestial ohof the handle 0.                                 jects, which will show Jupiter's moons and belts,
I shall conclude the description of this wonder- Saturn's ring, and other celestial phenomena.
ful instrument in the words of Sir James South: The tubes may be made either of tin plates, papier
"What will be the power of this telescope  machL, or wood. Wood, however, is rather a
when it has its Le Mairean form [that is, when  clumsy article, and it is sometimes liable to warp,
it is fitted up with the friont view], " it is not easy  yet excellent tubes have sometimes been lmade of
to divine.  What nebulm will it resolve into stars?  it.  Perhaps the cheapest and most convenient of
in what lebule will it not find stars? how many  all tubes, when properly made, are those formed
satellites of Saturn will it show us? how many  of paper.  In forming these, a wool-en roller of
will it indicate as appertaining to Uranus? how  the proper diameter should be procured, and paper
many nebulw  never yet seei by mortal eye will of a proper size, along with bookbinder's paste.
it present to us? what spots will it show us on  About three or four layers only of the paper
the various planets? will it tell us what causes should be pasted at one time, and when suffithe variable brightness of many of the fixed stars?  ciently dry, it should be smoothed by rubbing it
will it give us any information as to the constitu-  with a smooth stick or ruler; after which another
tion of the planetary nebule? will it exhibit to  series of layers should be pasted on, aund allowed
us any satellites encircling them? will it tell us to dry as before, and so on until the tube has acwhy the satellites of Jupiter, which generally pass quired a sufficient degree of strength and firmniess.
over Jupiter's face as discs nearly of white lighlt, In this way I have, by means of a few old newssometimes traverse it as black patches! will it papers and similar materials, formed tubes as
add to our knowledge of the physical construc-  strong as if they had been made of wood.  If
tion of nebulous stars? of that mysterious class several tubes be intended to slide into each other,
of bodies which surround some stars, called, for the smallest tube should be made first, and it will
want of a better name,'photospheres'? will it serve as a roller for forming the tube into which
show the annular nebulm of Lyra merely as a  it is to slide.
brilliant luminous ring, or will it exhibit it as    An achromatic object-glass of a shorter focal
thousands of stars arranged ill all the symmetry  distance and a smaller diameter than any of those
of all ellipse? will it enable us to comprehend tile  stated above, may be fitted up as a useful astrono.
hitherto incomprehensible nature and origin of mical telescope when a better instrument cannot
tile light of tile great nebulm of Orion? will it be procured.  In the pawnbrokers' shops in Lon.
give us, in easily appreciable quantity, the paral- don and other places, an old achromatic tele.
lax of some of the fixed stars, or will it make  scope, with an object-glass 20 inches focal distance
sensible to us the parallax of the nebula them- and about 1  inch diameter, may be purchased
selves? filially, having presented to us original at a price varying from  15 to 20) shillings.  By
portraits of the moon and of the sidereal heavens, applying all astronomical eyepiece to such a lens,
such as man has never dared even to anticipate, if a good one, it may bear a power for celestial
will it, by Daguerreotype aid, administer to us  objects of 50 or 60 times.  If two plano-convex
copies founided upon truth, and enable astrono- glasses three-fourths of all inch focal distance be
mners of future ages to compare the moon and  placed with their convex sides near to each other,
heavens as they then may be with the moon and  they will form an eyepiece which will produce a
heavens as they were?  Some of these questions power on such an object-glass of above 50 times,
will be answered affirmatively, others negatively, which will show  Jupiter's belts and satellites,
and that, too, very shortly; for the noble maker Saturn's ring, the solar spots, and the imountains
of the noblest instrument ever formed by man  and cavities of the moon.  I have an object-glass'has cast his bread upon the waters, and will, of this description which belonged to an old telewith God's blessing, find it before many days.' "  scope, which cost me only 12 shillings, and with
which I formerly made somne useful astronormical
observations. It was afterward used as the tote.
HINTS TO AMATEURS IN ASTRONOMY RESPECTING   scope of a small equatorial instrument, and -with
TIIE CONSTRIUCTION OF TELESCOPES.         it I was enabled to perceive stars of the first and
second magnitude, and the planets Venus, Jupiter,
As there are many among the lower ranks of and Mars in the day-time.
the community who have a desire to be possessed    But, should suchl a glass be still beyond the
of a telescope which will show them some of the  reach of the astronomical amateur, let hIm  not
prominent features of celestial scenery, but who  altogether despair.  He may purchase a single
are unable to purchase a finished instrument at lens of three feet focal distance for about a couple
the prices usually charged by opticians, the fol- of shillings, and by applying an eyeglass of one
lowing hints may perhaps be acceptable to those  inch focus, which may be procured for a shilwho are possessed of a mechanical genius.         ling, he will obtain a power of 36 tirlos, which
The lenses of an achromatic telescope may be is a higher power than Galileo was able to apply
purchased separately from glass-grinders or opti- to his best telescope; and consequently, with such
cians, and tubes of a cheap material may be pre- al instrument, he will be enabled to pwiceive all




APPENDIX.                                         153
the celestial objects which that celebrated astrono- full moon; for 47" multiplied by 50 gives 2350",
mer first described, and which excited so much or 39', which is 8' more than the diameter of the
wonder at that period in the learned world; but, moon;'yet with such a power most persons would
whatever kind of telescope may be used, it is es- imagine that the planet does not appear one-third
seatially requisite that it be placed on a firm stand  of the size of the full moon.
in all celestial observations; and any common me-   The principal mode by which a person may be
ehanic can easily form such a stand at a trifling  experimentally convinced of the fallacy to which
expense.                                        I allude is the following: At a time when Jupliter
There is a certain optical illusion to which  happens to be within a few degrees of the moon,
most persons are subject in the first use of tele- let the planet be viewed through the telescope
scopes, especially when applied to the celestial with the one eye, and the magnified image of the
bodies, on which it may not be improper to make planet be brought into contact with the moon as
a remark.  The illusion to which I allude is seen with the other eye, the one eye looling at
this, that they are apt to imagine the telescope the moon, and the other viewing the magnified
does not magnify nearly so much as it really does; image of Jupiter through the telescope wheln
they are apt to complain of the small appearance brought into apparent contact with the moon;
which Jupiter and Saturn, for example, present then it will be perceived that with a magnifying
when magnified 160 or 200 times. With such power of 50 the image of Jupiter will completely
powers they are apt to imagine that these bodies cover the moon as seen by the naked eye; and
do not appear so large as the moon to the naked with a power of 200-when the moon is rnade to
eye; yet it can be proved that Jupiter, when appear in the center. of the magnified image of
nearest the earth, viewed with such a power, the planet-it will be seen that Jupiter forms a
appears about five limes the diameter of the full large and broad circle around the moon, appearmoon, and 25 times larger in surface. This ap- ing at least five times greater than the diameter
pears from  the following calculation: Jupiter, of the moon.  This experiment may be varied
when in opposition, or nearest the Earth, presents as follows: Suppose a person to view the moon
a diameter of 47"; the mean apparent diameter through a small telescope or opera-glass magnifyof tihe moon is about 31'; multiply the diameter ing three times, he will be apt to imagine, at first
of Jupiter by the magnifying power, 200, the sight, that she is not in the least magnified, but
product is 9400", or 156', or 20 36', which, divided rather somewhat diminished; but let him  bring
by 31', the roois's diameter, produces a quotient the image as seen in the telescope in contact with
of 5, slowing that this planet with such a power the moon as seen with the naked eye, and lie will
appears five times larger in diameter than the full plainly perceive the magnifying power by the size
moon to the naked eye, and consequently 25 times of the image.  It may be difficult, in the first inlarger in surface. Were a power of only 50 times stance, to look at the same time at the magnified
applied to Jupiter when nearest the earth, that image and the real object, but a few trials will
planet would appear somewhat larger than the render it easy








THE
S O L A R  S Y S T E M:
WITH
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS REFLECTIONS,
IN REFERENCE TO
THE WONDERS THEREIN DISPLAYED.








PRE F ACE
TIIE following work is chiefly designed for juvenile readers, and for those who have
hitherto acquired but a slender acquaintance with the general facts of astronomical
science.  With this view, the attention of the reader is, in the first place, directed to
the general aspect and the apparent motions of the heavens, in order that he may be
induced to contemplate, with his own eyes, the apparent movements of the celestial
vault, in all its variety of aspects, as beheld in different countries and at different
seasons of the year.  Without such observations, the student of astronomy can
never acquire a clear and accurate view of the economy of the solar system, and the
phenomena it presents; and, therefore, such personal observations are particularly
recommended to all the lovers of astronomical science.
This work is a different one from " Celestial Scenery," though in some points there
must necessarily be a certain coincidence. The statements of the distances, magnitudes, and general appearances of the planets, must necessarily be the same in both;
but the particular descriptions, remarks, and moral and religious reflections, are differento
A great variety of subjects likewise is introduced, which are not noticed in " Celestial
Scenery," such as the following:-the figure of the Earth-view of its surface, atmosphere, and the method of finding its dimensions-celestial phenomena arising from
the annual motion of the earth-the destinlation of the earth, and the final cause of its
creation-motions and aspects of the superior planets-general remarks on the solar
system-method of acquiring an approximate idea of a million of units —the doctrine
of Eclipses, with tables and descriptions of the most remarkable eclipses of the sun
and moon-descriptions of the seasons of the year, and their characteristics in different countries-Reflections, moral and religious-history of astronomy-explanation
of astronomical terms, &c. On these and various other topics, a considerable variety
of interesting facts and sketches will be found more or less illustrated.
One great object, which the author has uniformly kept in view, has been to lead the
minds of the young from the creature to the Creator, and to direct them to contemplate his attributes as displayed in the motions, magnitudes, and mechanism of the
heavens, and to render their views of creation subservient to their moral and spiritual
improvement, and to their preparation for a higher sphere of existence-an object
which should always be kept in view in our contemplation of the works of God.
(ii)








CONTENTS.,
INTRODUCTION.
PAGY.
(YOBJECT and sublimity of Astronomy. Appearance of the heavens to a common observer.
Objects of this science lead to sublime and interesting trains of thought-its relation to religion.
Tilhe Scriptures direct our attention to this subject. It is our duty to contemplate the works
of G od  Plan of the following work..............................................
CHAPTER I.
ON TtHE GENERAL ASPECT AND TIlE APPARENT MOTIONS OF THE HEAVENS.
Preliminary remarks..........................................................             11... - 11
SECTION I.
ON THE APPARENT MOTIONS OF THE HEAVENS DURING T'HE DAY.
Apparent movements of the sun, as seen at different seasons, and as viewed from different regions
of the globe. Sun's apparent annual motion-how observed. How the motions of the sun
appear in Southern latitudes and at the Poles. Stars above the horizon during the day, and
may sometimes be seen while the sun is shining..................1.................  11
SECTION II.
ON THE APPARENT MOTION OF THE HEAVENS DURING THE NIGHT.
General appearance of the starry heavens-how their apparent motions may be perceived.
Aspects of the stars in the southern and in the northern regions of the heavens. Positions
of the Great Bear at different seasons. Caution to be observed in making observations.  Position of the Pole and the Pole-star. Positions of certain stars and constellations in the
beginning of January. Appearance of the stars at the Equator and at the North Pole......  13
SECTION III.
CONCLUSIONS DEDUCED FROM THE PRECEDING FACTS AND OBSERVATIONS.
Earth appears sustained between two hemispheres of the heavens.  Rapid and astonishing
motions somewhere exist, either in the earth or in the heavens. Reflections on the power of
the Deity......................................................................        15
CHAPTER II.
ON THE FIGURE AND MOTION OF THE EARTH.
SECTION  I.
OW THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH, AND THE ARGUMENTS WHICH PROVE THAT IT IS NEARLY IN THE SHAPE
OF A GLOBE.
Preliminary remarks..................................................................  16
Opiniollns formerly entertained on this subject. Four arguments, derived from different sources,
particularly illustrated. Argument taken from an eclipse of the moon. Consequences which
flow from the globular figure of the earth. It is the best adapted to a habitable world. Discovery of the true figure of the earth, an important fact in the history of Providence.......  17
SECTION II.
ON THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH.
Motion actually exists. Rate of motion in the celestial bodies, were the earth at rest-rate of
motion, if the earth move, illustrated by a figure-which of these motions is most probable
(v)




Vi                                     CONTENTS.
and correspondent to the wisdom of the Almighty-a certain rate of motion would shatter
the universe to atoms.  No instance of a larger body revolving round a smaller.  Argtlrents
for the earth's motion derived from the wisdom of the Deity............................. 19
SECTION III.
REFLECTIONS SUGGESTED BY THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH AND HEAVENS.
At what rate we are carried through the regions of space during the hours of sleep, and from
one season of the year to another.  Rapid motions of the heavens. Original cause of all
motion. Scene of wonders which such motions present. Practical instructions deducible
from this subject.............................................  22
CHAPTER III.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SUN, OF THE INFERIOR PLANETS, AND OF THE EARTH AND MOON.
Introductory remarks...............................................................  23
SECTION I.
THE SUN.
Its general appearance and effects in the visible creation. Its magnitude illustrated, compared
with other magnitudes. Displays of the glory of the Creator. Nature and physical constitution of the sun. Description of the solar spots-delineation of some of them. Bright solar
spots. Conclusions respecting the constitution of the sun. Beneficial effects produced by
this luminary-displays the power and beneficence of the Creator-an emblem of the Sun of
Righteousness....................................................................  23
SECTION II.
THE  PLANET  MERCURY.
Arrangement of the planets in the solar system. Amplitude of their orbits. Orbits of comets.
Mercury-its distance, size, and the velocity of its motion-its motion and phases. Quantity
of light on its surface-its temperature-orbit elliptical-transits of-is probably inhabited... 2
SECTION III.
ON THE PLANET VENUS.
Its distance, magnitude, motion, rotation, etc. Discoveries made on this planet by the telescope.
Galileo and the Senators of Venice. Observations of Cassini. Schroeter's observations and
discoveries. Mountains on Venus. Apparent motions of this planet-its superior and inferior
conjunctions-description and delineation of its phases-periodical revolution-its transits,
etc. Reflections on the morning star, as emblematical of intellectual light and joy........   30
SECTION IV.
THE EARTH CONSIDERED AS A PLANETARY BODY.
(I.) General View of the Earth's Surface, Atmosphere, Magnitude, and Method of finding its
Dimensions.
Earth a body which reflects light in common with the other planets-its appearance from the
moon. Planets dark bodies in themselves.  General aspect of the earth's surface-magnitude
f its continents, seas, and oceans-its atmosphere, and the properties with which it is invested.
Dimensions of the earth-how ascertained.  Its circumference-mode of measuring it. Various
measurements of a degree of the meridian......................................  33
(2.) Proofs of the annual Motion of the Earth.
General considerations which render this motion highly probable. Demonstrative arguments.
Arguments derived from the aberration of light. Importance of acquiring correct views on
this subject in reference to our conceptions of the Divinity.............................. 36
(3.) Phenomena arising from the annual Motion of the Earth.
The sun will appear to move through the circuit of the heavens. Ecliptic explained. Apparent
motion of the sun, as seen from other planets.  Why we behold different clusters of stars at
different seasons.................................................................... 37
(4.) On the Destination of the Earth, or the final Cause of its Creation.
Matter exists chiefly for the sake of sentient and intelligent beilgs. The Creator's design in
the formation of man-arrangements made for his happiness-restriction in God's transaction




CONTENTS.                                         vii
with him. Fall of man from his state of primitive integrity-the mercy of his Creator
displayed. The promised Messiah, and preparations for his advent. Extraordinary events
which accompanied the sacrifice he offered. Proclamation of pardon and eternal happiness
to the inhabitants of the world. Reasons why this proclamation has been withheld from the
majority of the nations. Prospect of the regeneration of the world. Importance of studying
the material universe in connection with intellectual beings and moral truths. Population of
the earth. Numbers passing daily into the invisible world. Population which the earth is
capable of sustaining. Numbers of other living beings. Various other facts respecting the
earth.........................................................3....................      38
SECTION V.
ON THE MOON.
Hotions of the moon-illustrated by a diagram.  Phases and general appearances of this orb.
Illustrations of its phases. How the earth appears as seen from the moon. Proofs that the
earth shines upon the moon. Appearance of its continents and seas. Moon presents only
one side to the earth. Earth appears in a fixed position as seen from the moon. Moon's
distance, diameter, and other dimensions.  Telescopic appearances of the moon-its circular
plains-peculiarity of its mountain scenery-its depressions and cavities-its picturesque and
sublime scenery-delineation of certain portions of its surface-various astronomical facts in
relation to the moon-is probably inhabited-its beauty and utility in relation to our globe....  41
CHAPTER IV.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SUPERIOR PLANETS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
SECTION I.
ON THE MOTIONS AND ASPECTS OF THE SUPERIOR PLANETS.
Distinctions, in seven particulars, of the superior and inferior planets.  Apparent motion of
the superior planets as seen from the earth.............................................  47
SECTION II.
ON THE PLANET MARS.
Remarks on its name, and on the atrocity of war-its distance-period of revolution —position
in 1845 and 1847-its spots and rotation-inclination of axis-magnitude-telescopic appearance-atmosphere-polar spot-land and water-conclusions respecting its constitution...... 48
SECTION  III.
ON  THE  NEW  PLANETS.
Their situation in the system-history of their discovery-their magnitudes and distancestheir singularities and anomalies-supposed to be the fragments of a larger planet. Reflections
suggested by the state in which these planets now exist...............................50
SECTION IV.
ON THE PLANET JUPITER.
rts distance-revolution-magnitude, compared with that of the earth-rotation-rate of motioninclination of axis-direct and retrograde motions, etc.-present position-telescopic appearance-apparent magnitude with different powers. Its belts-their number and appearance
Conjectures respecting their nature-improbability of their being produced by winds, etc.different representations of them. Figure of this planet.  Quantity of light-its mass,
density, etc....................................................................
SECTION V.
ON THE SA'rELLITES OF JUPITER.
History of their discovery-form a system of revolving bodies, analogous to the solar systemtheir revolutions and eclipses-powers requisite for observing them-table of their magnitudes, periods, etc.-representation of their orbits-their utility in finding the longitudemotion of light-sublime phenomena they present to the inhabitants of Jupiter. Reflections
on the sublimity and motion of this planet, and on the Omnipotence of the Deity........... 55
SECTION VI.
ON THE PLANET SATURN.
its distance and rotation-its motion and present position-telescopic appearance-its magni.
tude-belts-figure-quantity of light-its satellites, and by whom  discovered.  Cassini's
teloscopes-Herschel's.  Powers requisite for observing these satellites.  Their periods of
revolution.  Sublime phenomena they present in the firmament of Saturn................  57
SECTION VII.
ON THE RINGS OF SATURN.
fhistory of their discovery, and conjectures formed respecting the phenomenon. Dimensions of
the rings, according to Sir J. Herschel — their solidity and area —their appearance from the




Tiii                                    CONTENTS.
different regions of the planet-four representations of them —their various aspects as viewed
through telescopes at different periods-their occasional disappearance-some of the uses or
designs for which they are intended. Supposed division of the outer ring. Reflections on
their grandeur, and the power of God................................................. 59
SE CT ION  VIII.
ON THE PLANET URANUS.
Former and present supposed dimensions of the solar system.  Herschel's telescopes and discoveries. Discovered Uranus-its size and distance-rate of motion-quantity of light and
heat. Its satellites-their period and distance-direction of their motions..................  62
SECTION   IX.
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
Whether other planets may exist within its range.  Order and harmony which prevail in the
systemin-unity and mutual relationship of the bodies which compose it. Unity of the Supreme
Being.  Illustrations of the distances and magnitudes of the planets. Summary view of the
solar system..........................................................            63
METHOD OF ACQUIRING AN APPROXIMATE IDEA OF A MILLION OF UNITS.        m
Difficulty of formling an accurate conception of such a number. Various illustrations. iMPethod
suggested by Mr. Martin of Chatham, illustrated by a figure. Incomprehensible nature of
the universe, as to distances and magnitudes, etc.......................................   65
CHAPTER V.
ON COMETS.
Meaning of the term.  How comets are distinguished from planets-length of their tails, and
opinions respecting them.  Form  of their orbits.  Account of some remarkable comets.
Comets of 1807 and 1811. Gambart's and Encke's cornets. Numbers of comets. Opinions
respecting them  in former ages. Whether they may come in contact with the earth.
Destination of comets...................................................               66
CHAPTER VI.
ON THE ECLIPSES OF THE SUN AND MOON.
Opinions respecting eclipses in former times. Nature of an eclipse, and the different kinds of them.  69
SECTION I.
ON THE ECLIPSES OF THE MOON,.
Cause of lunar eclipses. In what circumstances they happen. Figures representing the nature
of lunar eclipses. Facts in relation to them.  Their duration etc........................ 69
SECTION   II.
ON THE ECLIPSES OF THE SUN.
Nature of a solar eclipse, and when it happens.  Explanation of a diagram  illustrative of solar
eclipses. Various facts in relation to solar eclipses. Periods of eclipses. Darkness which
accompanied our Saviour's Crucifixion must have been supernatural. Account of a total
eclipse of the sun. Description of the phenomena which accompanied the total eclipse of
1724, as seen in England.  Total eclipses which will happen in future years.  Description
of a total eclipse of the sun, at Vienna, in July, 1842. Table of solar eclipses during the
present century.  Utility of eclipses..................................................  71
CHAPTER VII.
ON THE SEASONS, AND THIE DIFFERENT LENGTHS OF DAYS AND NIGHTS.
Succession of day and night. Seasons in the frigid, temperate, and torrid zones.  Characteristics
of the different seasons. Description of spring-of summer-of autumn-of winter.  Seasons
produced by the operation of simple principles.  Change of seasons illustrated by a diagram.
General remarks. Why our weather is coldest when the sun is nearest us. Such seasons as
we now enjoy are not the same as in the primeval state of man. Various moral reflections
in relation to the seasons.                                                              74.........................................  74
CHAPTER  VIII.
REFLECTIONS, MORAL AND RELIGIOUS, IN REFERENCE TO THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
Astronomy presents to view objects calculated to excite solemn reflections, and to raise our
views to the Great Creator.  1. The solar system  exhibits a striking display of Al-mighty
power. This power, thus displayed, lays a foundation for the hope and comfort of the
Christian. 2. This system  displays the wisdom and benevolence of the Creator. Various
instances of wisdom and goodness.  3. The facts it exhibits have a tendency to moderate the
pride of man, and to promote humility. The wisest and most exalted beings in the universe are characterized by humility.  Scriptural declarations respecting it. 4. Astronomy
affords a striking view of the condescension of God. 5. The studies connected with astronomy
tend to prepare the renewed spirit for the employments of the future world. Moral and
spiritual dispositions requisite. The first step to eternal felicity. The course to be prosecuted
in order to be fitted for Heaven-the blessed effects of prosecuting this course...............  7
APPENDIX.
I. New discoveries in the planetary system, 85. —I. Brief sketch of the history of astronomy,
88. —Ill Explanation of astronomical terms, 90.-IV. The telescope, 93.




THE
SOLAR SYSTEM.
INTRODUCT ION.
OF all the sciences which are the subject of  beings ever winged their flight across the bound]human study and investigation, Astronomy must aries of the firmament?  Can angels measure the
be admitted to be the most interesting and sub- dimensions of those heavens, or explore them
lime. It teaches us the motions, the magnitudes throughout all their departments?  Is there a
and distances of the heavenly -bodies-their diver- boundary to creation beyond which the energies
sified phenomena, the laws by which they are of Omnipotence are unknown, or does it extend
directed in their varied movements, and the grand  throughout the infinity of space? Is the, indesigns they are intended to fulfill in the vast mense fabric of the universe yet completed, or is
system of the universe.                        Almighty Power still operating throughout the
The objects with which this science is conver- boundless dimensions of space, and new creations
sant are so grand and marvelous- surpassing  still starting into existence?
everything that could have been imagined in the    Such views and inquiries have a tendency to
infancy of science-that they tend to enlarge the lead the mind to sublime and interesting trains
field of human contemplation, to expand to an  of thought and reflection, and to afford scope for
indefinite extent the conceptions of the human  the noblest energies and investigations of the
intellect, and to arouse the attention and excite human intellect. A serious contemplation of the
the admiration even of the most incurious and  heavens opens to the mental eye a glimpse of orbs
uncultivated minds. The vast magnitude of the of inconceivable magnitude and grandeur, and
heavenly bodies, so far surpassing what could be arranged in multitudes which no man can numconceived by their appearance to the unassisted  her, which have diffused their radiance on our
eye; their incalculable numbers; the immense world during hundreds of generations.  It opens
velocity of their motions, and the astonishing  a vista which carries our views into the regions
forces with which they are impelled in their of infinity, and exhibits a sensible display of the
career through the heavens; the attractive influ- immensity of space, and of the boundless operaence they exert upon each other, at the distance  tions of Omnipotence: it demonstrates the existof hundreds of millions of miles; and the impor- ence of an eternal and incomprehensible Divinity,
tant ends they are destined to accomplish in the  who presides in all the grandeur of his attributes
universal empire of Jehovah; present to the hu- over an unlimited empire. Amidst the silence
man imagination a scene, and a subject of con- and the solitude of the midnight scene, it inspires
templation, on which the soul of man might the soul with a solemn awe, and with reverential
expatiate with  increasing wonder and delight, emotions; it excites astonishment, admiration,
during an indefinite series of ages.           and wonder, and has a tendency to enkindle the
Even to a common observer, the heavens pre- fire of devotion, and to raise the affections to that
sent a sublime and elevating spectacle. He be- ineffable Being who presides in high authority
holus an immense concave hemisphere of un- over all the movements of the universe.  It
known  dimensions, surrounding the earth in  teaches us the littleness of man, the folly of pride
every region, and resting as it were upon the and ambition, and of all that earthly pomp and
circle of the horizon. From  every quarter of splendor with which mortals are so enamored
this vast expanse-when the shades of night have -and that our thoughts and affections ought to
spread over the earth —he beholds numerous soar above all the sinful pursuits, and transitory
lights displayed, proceeding onward in solemn  enjoyments, of this sublunary scene.
silence, varying their aspects at different seasons,   Such being the views and the tendencies of this
moving with different degrees of velocity, shin- science, it ought to be considered as bearing an
ing with different degrees of splendor, and all intimate relation to religion, and worthy the
calculated to inspire admiration and awe. Where- study of every enlightened Christian.  It has
ever he travels abroad, either on the surface of the been said, and justly, by a celebrated poet, that
land or of the ocean, this celestial vault still appears " An undevout astronomer is mad."  The eviencompassing this lower world; and, after travel- dence of a self-existent and eternal Being, whose
ing thousands of miles, it appears still the same, wisdom  is inscrutable, and whose power is unand seems to make no nearer an approach than  controllable, is so palpably manifested in the
when the journey commenced. ]While contem- arrangement and the motions of the celestial orbs,
plating this wonderful expanse with the eye of  that it cannot but make an indelible impression
reason and imagination, the mind is naturally led on every rational and reflecting mind.  Though
into a boundless train of speculations and in- the heavenly bodies have "no speech nor lanquiries. Where do these mighty heavens begin, guage," though they move round the earth in
and where do they end? Can imagination fathom  silent grandeur, and "their voice is not heard"
their depth, or human calculations, or figures, in articulate sounds, yet "their line is gone
express their extent?  Have the highest created throughout all the earth, and their words to the
(9)




10                                  INTRODU UTION.
end of the world"-proclaiming to every atten- characteristics of the ungodly,that while "the hark,
tive spectator, that "The hand that made them is and the viol, and the tabret, and pipe, and wine
Divine."  So that there is scarcely a tribe or are in their feasts,-they regard not the work of
nation on the face of the earth, so inattentive the Lord, neither consider the operation of his
and barbarous as not to have deduced this con- hands;" and consequently " he will destroy them,
elusion from a survey of the movements of the and not build them up."  It is therefore the incelestial orbs. " Men," says Plato, " began to cumbent duty of the young; of every professing
acknowledge a Deity, when they saw the stars Christian; and of every rational inquirer, not
maintain so great a harmony, and the days and only to study the facts, doctrines, and duties
nights throughout all the year, both in summer exhibited in the system of Divine revelation, but
and winter, to observe their stated risings and also to contemplate the manifestations of the
settings."  Another heathen philosopher, Cicero, Creator as exhibited in the system of creation.
thus expresses his sentiments on this point: "What They are both revelations of the same almighty
can be so plain and clear as, when we behold and  beneficent Being —emanations  from  the
the heavens, and view the celestial bodies, that same adorable Divinity; and the views and inwe should conclude there is some Deity of a structions they respectively unfold, when studied
most excellent mind by whom  these things are with reverence and intelligence, are in perfect
overned —a present and Almighty God. Which, harmony with each -other.  The study of both
he that doubts of, I do not understand why combined, is calculated to make the man of God
he should  not as well doubt whether there perfect, and " thoroughly furnished unto all good
be a sun that shines, and enlightens the world."  works."
The sacred Scriptures, in numerous instances;   In the following small volume, it shall be our
direct our attention to this subject. "The hea- endeavor to direct the general reader in the study
"ens," says the Psalmist, "declare the glory of of some of those objects which the heavens unfold;
God;" that is, they manifest his wisdom  and and we shall chiefly select those parts of astronomipower, and beneficence to the inhabitants of the cal science which are most level, to the compreworld;-" the firmament showeth forth," or pub- hension of those who have had little opportunity
licly declareth, "his handiwork."  "Day unto of engaging in scientific pursuits. In the preday uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth sent volume, it is proposed to confine ourselves
knowledge. There is no speech nor language chiefly to a description of the Solar System, and
where their voice is not heard."  In reference to the phenomena it exhibits, together with a few
that department of creation which astronomy instructions as to the best mode of contemplating
explores, it may be said with peculiar propriety, the apparent motions and the diversified aspects
in the language of Scripture, " The works of the of the firmament.  The discoveries which relate
Lord are great, sought out of all them that have to the sidereal heavens-the general arrangepleasure therein."  Throughout the volume of ment of the fixed stars, their distances and
inspiration, our attention is frequently directed to magnitudes —the facts which have been disthe contemplation of the heavens: "Lift up thine covered respecting new  stars -variable starseyes on high, and behold who hath created these double and triple stars-the Milky Way-the
things.-The everlasting God, the Lord, the Crea- different orders of the nebulte-and a variety of
tor of the ends of the earth, who fainteth not, other topics connected with such objects, will form
neither is weary; there is no searching of his materials for another volume similar to the present.
understanding.-He bringeth out their host by   In the meantime we may just remark, that all
number, and calleth them  all by names: by the the wonders we behold, both in the heavens above,
greatness of his might, for that he is strong in and in the earth below, demand our serious attenpower; not one faileth.-It is he that sitteth upon tion and devout contemplation. They are all the
the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants there- workmanship of that great and adorable Being in
of are as grasshoppers.-All nations before him  whom "we live and move;" who at first "spake,
are as nothing; and they are counted to him less and it was done;" who gave the command, and
than nothing, and vanity."-" Hearken unto this, the whole of this stately fabric of heaven and
O Job: stand still, and consider the wondrous earth started into being.  It is the same God who
works of God."                                 created the planets and the host of stars, and that
Hence it appears, that it is not to be considered conducts them in all their rapid motions; who is
merely as a matter of taste, or as a rational also "the God and Father of our Lord Jesus
amusement, but as an imperative duty, to con- Christ," and "the Author of eternal salvation"
template the works of the Most High, and espe- to all who obey him. All these works display
cially the manifestations of his power and God- his infinite power, his unerring wisdom, and the
head which the heavens display-that we may riches of his beneficence; and demand from every
derive more enlarged conceptions of his glorious beholder that tribute of praise, reverence, and
attributes, and be enabled to render to him  that adoration which is due to Him "who created all
tribute of adoration and praise which is due to things, and for whose pleasure they are and were
his name. For it is represented as one of the created."




CHAPTER 1.
ON THE GENERAL iTPECT, AND THE APPARENT MOTIONS OF THE HEAVENS.
PREvIous to entering on the study of astrono- for although the moon is frequently visible in the
mical science, and the phenomena of the solar day-time, yet she then appears with no greater
system, it is requisite that the young inquirer brilliancy than a small cloud of the same size,
should be directed to contemplate the general and is scarcely noticed by a common observer.
aspect of the heavens, and the apparent motions   The apparent movements of the SUN appear
of the different bodies which present themselves very different at different seasons of the year, and
to view in the regions of the firmament.  No one in different regions of the globe.  In describing
can enter with intelligence on the study of astro- these apparent motions, we shall suppose ournomy, or acquire an accurate idea of its ele- selves, in the first instance, in the latitude of fiftymentary principles, and of the arrangement and two degrees north, which is nearly the latitude of
motions of the planetary bodies, unless he has London and several other large towns in England.
been led to observe, with his own eyes, the ap- The sun's apparent motions in this latitude will
parent and more obvious phenomena and aspects be nearly the same as when he is viewed from
of the celestial orbs, as they present themselves Holland, Denmark, Scotland, Nova Scotia, Canato the view of any common and attentive specta- da, and the northern states of America.  Suppose
tor. For although the real motions of the hea- we begin our observations in winter, about the
venly bodies are, in many instances, very different 21st December, when the days in our northern
from  their apparent movements, and although  hemisphere are shortest.  In this case, turning
many of them  appear to move while they are our eyes to the south-east quarter of the sky, a
absolutely at rest, yet it is necessary tliat their little after eight o'clock in the morning, we shall
apparent motions and appearances should be accu- see the sun rising nearly on the south-eastern
rately inspected, in order that, in the progress of point of the compass, and gradually ascending
investigation, we may be enabled to determine the celestial vault. In about four hours, he comes
what bodies are really in motion, and what only to the meridian, or due south, the highest point of
appear to be in motion, in consequence of the his elevation at that season; after which he gradmotions of other bodies.  In order to direct the ually descends toward the west, and sets in the
untutored observer on this point, the following south-western part of the heavens, about four in
observations are stated.                          the afternoon, having described a comparatively
small are of a circle above the horizon. At this
time, when he arrives at the meridian, or the
SECTION   I.                      highest point of his diurnal course,.he is only
about fourteen degrees above the horizon.* If, after
ON THE APPARENT MOTIONS OF THE HEAVENS DURING this period, the point at which the sun rises be
THE DAY.                      observed, it will be found a little to the northward
every day, from the point at which he rose before.
IN the first place, let us consider the appearance On the 21st of March, the sun rises due east,
of the heavens as seen in the day-time.  Some- about forty-five degrees to the north of the point
times it happens for days, and even for weeks at which he rose on the 21st of December.  The
together, that the sky is overcast with an assem- time of his rising is exactly six in the morning;
blage of sable clouds covering the whole face of six hours afterward, he passes the meridian, at an
the firmament.  In which case no celestial orb elevation of thilty-eight degrees; and sets due
makes its appearance; but the light transmitted  west, at six o'clock in the evening.  At this time,
through the clouds and reflected from their under the day and the night are of an equal leIgth,
surfaces, indicates that some luminous orb, the namely, twelve hors each.
fountain of light, is above our horizon, and far   If again we view the rising sun on the 21st of
beyond the upper region of the clouds, though its June, we shall find that he rises near the northform and splendor cannot be perceived. At other east, forty-five degrees farther to the no  thward
times the concave of the sky appears of an azure than on  the 21st of March.  At this period, the
color, where scarcely a speck of cloud is to be sun describes a large circuit around the heavens;
seen-like a boundless desert, where no celestial rising fifteen minutes before four in the morning,
orb makes its appearance-as at the dawning of and advancing to an elevation of more than sixty
the morning, when the aurora maltes its appear- degrees at noon-day; after which he declines
ance in the east. This faint light gradually inl- toward the west and sets near the north-west
creases, rising higher and higher in its brightness,
a prelude of something still more grand and reful- * The circumference of the heavens, as well as that of the
gent.  The clouds near the horizon are tinged earth, is divided by astronomers into three hundred and
with  purple and vermilion, and the mountcain  sixty parts called degrees; consequently, the distance from
clothed with brightness.  At leng,  e.  the horizon to the zenith, or the point directly above our
tops are clothed with brightness.  At length, the heads, is ninety dlegrees, or the one-fourth of the circumdisc of the sun disengages itself from the horizon ference of a circle. When, therefore, the sun is said to
by degrees, until the whole of his orb appears to be elevated above the horizon fourteen degrees, it means,
the heat he has risen to an altitude little more than the one.
view, and ascends the h   eavens with majestic  gran- sixth part of the distance from the horizon to the zenith.
deur.  The sun is the only object which, during The apparent breadth of the sun or moon is a very littla
the day, appears conspicuous to the naked eye; more than half a degree.
(11)




12                                  THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
quarter of the heavens, about a quarter past eight sun thus describes is called the ECLIurTc, and ie
in the evening   The length of the day, at this divided into twelve signs, and three hundred and
time, is about sixteen and a half hours; and as sixty degrees.
his course during the night is not far below the    The apparent motions of the sun appear somehorizon, there is no absolute darkness during the what different, when viewed from different regions
absence of the sun; and his course may be traced  of the earth.  Were we placed in countries unby observing the motion of the twilight, or the der the equator, such as at Borneo, Sumatra, the
aurora, gradually proceeding to the northern point Gallipago isles, Quito, and other parts of Southt
of the heavens, and from that point to the north- America, the sun at noon would shine directly
east, where the solar orb again emerges from the from the zenith, at the time of the equinoxes, at
horizon.  After this period, the sun begins, every  which time objects would have no shadows. At
succeeding day, to rise in points nearer the south, all other times the sun will appear either in the
and to take less extensive circuits round the hea- northern or the southern quarter of the heavens.
vens, until the 23d of September, when he again During the one half of the year, lie shines from
rises on the eastern point of the horizon, and sets the north, and the shadows of objects fall to the
in the west, which is the time of the autumnal south: during the other half, he shines from the
equinox, when day and night are equal.  From  south, and the shadows of objects are projected to
this period the sun gradually verges to points of the north; a circumstance which can never octhe horizon south of the east, at the time of his cur in our country, or in any part of the temperising, and the days rapidly shorten, until he again rate zones. At the equator, too, there is a perpearrives near the south-eastern quarter of the tual equality of days and nights throughout the
heavens, where he is seen to rise on the 21st of year; the twilight is shortest, and the darkness
December.  Such are some of the apparent mo- of night rapidly succeeds the setting of the sun
tions of the sun, in our quarter of the globe,   Were we placed in southern latitudes —for exthroughout the different seasons of the year; and ample, at the Cape of Good Hope, New  South
every one who resides in the country has an op- Wales, or Buenos Ayres, in South America-inportunity, every clear day, of observing these stead of beholding the sun moving along  the
diversified movements.                           southern part of the heavens, from the left hand
Beside the motions to which we have now ad- to the right, as in our country, we should see him
verted, there is another apparent motion of the directing his course along the northern part of
sun, in a contrary direction, which is seldom no- the sky, from the right hand to the left.  In other
ticed by a common  observer. Every day the sun  respects, his apparent motions would nearly rehas an apparent motion fromn west to east, at the semble those already described, excepting that
rate of nearly a degree each day; and in the when the sun is highest at mid-day to us, he apcourse of a year, or 365 days, 5h. 48m., and 51s., pears lowest to the inhabitants of these countries;
he makes a complete circuit around the heavens. their winter happening at the time of our sumThis motion manifests itself chiefly by the appear- mar.  Were we placed in Lapland, Greenland, or
ance of the hIeavens during the night. If, in the other countries within the polar circle, the sun, in
morning, some time before sunrise, we view those winter, would be absent for weeks and even for
stars which are near the point of the horizon months together; and in summer he would shine
where the sun rises, in a week or two, we shall without intermission for a corresponding portion
find that the same stars are more elevated near of time; appearing every day to make a complete
the time of sun-rising than before, and farther circle round the heavens, but never descending
distant from him, indicating that he is moving  below the horizon during the lapse of six weeks
through the heavens toward the east, and leaving  or even three or four months.  Could we suppose
these stars as it were behind him.  If, again, in  ourselves placed at the north pole, the motion of
the evening, we mark those stars which are a the sun would present a different aspect from any
little above the point of the setting sun, we shall of those now described. On the 21st of March,
find that every evening they make a nearer ap- we should see a portion of the sun's (isce appear
proach to the place where the sun goes down; in the horizon after a long night of six months.
until, after a short period, they approach so near This portion of the sun would appear to move
this luminary as to be overpowered with his rays, quite round the horizon every twenty-four hours;
and can no longer he seen, still indicating that it would gradually rise higher and higher until the
the sun is approaching toward the east.          whole orb of the sun made its appearance.  As
Perhaps the best way of tracing this is to mark  the season advanced the sun would appear to rise
the different positions of the Pleiades, or seven higher and higher, until on the 21st of June, he atstars, with respect to the sun. About the middle tained the altitude of twenty-three and a half deof January, at eight o'clock in the evening, the grees above the horizon; after which his altitude
seven stars are seen nearly on the meridian, which  would gradually decline until the 23d of September,
observation should be noted down for the purpose when he would again appear in the horizon. Duof being compared with future observations.  On  ring the whole of this period of six months, there
the 1st of March, at the same hour, these stars is perpetual day; the stars are never seen, and.he
will be seen nearly halfway between the meridian  sun appears to go quite round the heavens every
and the western horizon, while all the other stars, twenty-four hours without setting, in circles nearat the sime elevation, will be found to have made ly parallel with the horizon.
a similar progress.  About the 15th of April, they    Such are some of the motions and aspects of
will be seen, at the same hour, very near the  the sun, as viewed at different seasons of the year,
north-western horizomlm; and every day after this, and from different parts of the earth. Let it be
they will appear to make a nearer approach to that carefully remembered that these motions are not
part of the heavens in which the sun appears, until, real, but only apparent.  While presenting all
being overpowered by the splendor of his rays, these diversified aspects and movements to spectathey cease to be visible.  From these and similar tors placed in different positions, it can be proved
observations, it will be easily perceived that the  that the sun is, notwithstanding, a quiescent body
sun has an apparent motion through the circle of in the center of the planetary system. By the rethe heavens,.and that the revolution is completed  tation of the earth round its axis from  west to
in the course..f  a year. The circle which the east every twenty-four hours, and by its revoluttM&n




APPARENT MOTIONS OF THE STARS.                                            13
round the sun every year, all the apparent mo- Iseen at midnight, or whether the same clusters
tions we have hitherto described are produced, are to be seen in summer as in winter  There
and completely accounted for, as we shall after- are thousands and millions of mankind who have
ward show, when we come to illustrate the evi- occasionally gazed oil the starry vault who could
dences which prove that the earth on which we give no reply to such interrogations.  Such is the
dwell is a moving body.                            apathy with which the most wonderful works of
When we view  tile sun pursuing his course God are viewed by the great bulk of mankind;
through the heavens in a clear and serene sky, although only a few days or hours of serious obhwe are apt to imagine that there are no other ce- servation would be sufficient to solve some of the
lestial bodies diffusing their rays above our hori- questions to which we allude.
zon.  This, however, is far fromn being the case.    In order to illustrate the apparent motions of the
In the full blaze of day, there are as many stars, heavens, let us suppose ourselves placed in a situaat an average, around us in the firmament, as are  tion which  commands an extensive view of the
beheld in a clear sky at the hour of midnight; but sky,aboutthebeginningofJaniuary,ateiglhto'clock
their light is overpowered by the more brilliant in the evening. At this period, on a serene evensplendor of the sun.  By means of equatorial te- ing, when the sky is destitute of clouds, a sublime
lescopes, which can be made to point to any par- and beautiful spectacle presents itself to view, as
ticular part of the heavens, all the larger stars of some of the most brilliant constellations are then
the firlnament may be seen even at noonday, while  above the horizon.  We behold a vast hemisphere
the sun is shining in all his splendor; nay, there  expanding over our heads, whose center we seem
is scarcely a star visible to the naked eye, during  to occupy, and which appears to rest upon our
night, but may be seen in this way during the horizon.  Above and around us, on every hand,
blaze of day, and its exact position in the heavens a multitude of brilliant orbs, of various degrees
pointed out.  During a total eclipse of the sun, of splendor, display their radiance.  But whether
when the moon interposes her dark body between  they are in motion or at rest, does not appear at
us and the sun, some of the planets and the larger the first glance.  We must make different obserstars hIave appeared as distinctly as at midnight; vations, and wait for some time until their mllotion,
but the moment the moonl has passed a little over or rest, be discovered.  To ascertain this point, let
the disc of the sun, and a glimpse of his beams has us fix on a particular star, or a cluster of stars,
shone out, their feeble light becomes undistin- and bring it in contact with a church spire, a
guishable, and they  are no longer  perceived. chimney top, the twig of a tree, or any elevated
Sometimes, too, it happens that stars have been  object, and our line of vision, and in a short time
seen from  the bottom  of deep wells and mines, we shall find it has moved onward to the west,
when large ones happen to pass near the zenith  while we have remained stationary in our posiduring the day, and tile planet Venus, when bright- tion.  Or, if we direct a common telescope to any
est, has frequently been seen with the naked eye, star, and fix the instrument in one position, in a
in the day-time when at no great distance from the few minutes the star will have passed from  the
sun.  Thlus it.appears that tihe sun passes through  field of view to the westward.  If we look at a
the heavens every day with stars all around him, star near the horizon in the west. in a few mialthough invisible to the unassisted eye-just as nutes it will sink beyond the limits of our view,
the moon, during night, is seen surrounded with  and disappear.  If we mark any particular star
stars, which the faintness of her light is not suf-  just risen above the eastern horizon, in an hour
ficient to overpower.*  Hence it happens that or-two it will be seen considerably elevated above
astronomers call trace the exact path of the sun  its former position, and every minute rising higher
among the stars every day, during his apparent and higher.  If we look at any bright star rising
annual circuit round the heavens.  They call tell due east about six  o'clock in tile evening, at
what stars are near and around the sun; what twelve, midnight, it will be on the meridian, or
clusters he is leaving behind him, to what other due south, at an elevation of thirty-eight degrees,
clusters he is approaching; what stars or planets and at six o'clock next morning, it will be seen
are near his margin, and what stars are behind  setting at the western point of the horizon.  In
his luminous globe, with as much accuracy as if like manner, any other star rising toward the east,
they were all visible to the naked eye, as at mid- north-east, or south-east, if carefully observed,
night.                                             will be found to rise gradually until it come to
the meridian, and then decline in a western direction, until it set either in the west, north-west,
or south-west.  If it rise ill the north-east, it will
S E C T I 0 N  I I.                 set in the north-west, and if it rise in the southeast it will set in the south-west; in the former
ON THE APPARENT MOTIONS OF THE HEAVENS DU- case describing a larger, and itn tile latter, a lesser
RING NIGHT.                     portion of a circle, it the sphere of the heavens.
The following are some varieties which may be
WHEN a careless observer, on a clear evening, observed in the apparent motions of the stars. If
gazes upon the firmament, he beholds a number you look toward the south, you will observe some
of shining points, some of them far more brilliant stars just appearing above the horizon, grazing
than others, dispersed throughout every region of this circle, as it were; but not rising above it, and
the sky; but he cannot tell whether they appear then vanishing.  If you observe a group a little
to move or to remain in a fixed position; whether to the east of the south, you will find them rising
they shift their positions with respect to each  above the horizon, making a small arch, and then
other; whether they rise and set; whether all the going down a little to the west of tile meridian.
stars visible at six o'clock ill the evening are also  If you mark another group rising nuch fartlher to
the east, you will find these describing a much
*The author has frequently seen, by tile equatorial tele. larger arch, and taking a much longer time before
scope, in the day-time, not only numerous stars of the first, they go down to the westward of the meridian,
second, and third magnitudes, in regions of the firmament If you now turn your face to the northern  art
at a distance fitom the sun, but has perceived the planet Ve.
nus, when immersed in the sun's effulgence, and when it of the sky, you will find some stars that just skim
was within a deglee of thle margin of that luminary.  the horizon, at certain times, near the north point,




14                               THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
and then gradually mount up to the top of hea- two pointers-from Dubbe, and in whatever pofol
yen, until they come nearly over head, and then tion this constellation may happen to be, these
descend, and again nearly touch the northern two stars always point to the pole-star, which is
horizon; and ascend again without ever disappear- the first bright star in a line with the pointers, at
ing, describing a complete circle above the hori- the proportional distance exhibited in the engrazon. Such are the bright stars Vega, Capella, ving; and by attending to this circumstance, the
and several others. Other stars that are higher pole-star may at all times be distinguished. Such
than these, when seen near the northern horizon, is the position of this constellation at eight o'clock
likewise describe complete circles in the sky, in the evening of the 1st of November. If now
without approaching the horizon; and these cir- we view this constellation, about eleven o'clock
cles gradually diminish, until at last you arrive at the same evening, or a few evenings afterward,
a star which seems scarcely to move from  the we shall find that it has moved considerably topoint where it is stationed-all the rest seeming ward the east, and to a higher elevation; and at
to circulate around it as a center. This is called two o'clock the next morning, it will be seen in
the Pole Star, which, to a common observer, the position represented at E, with the pointers
never seems to vary its position; and, in the lati- still directed to the pole-star.  At eight o'clock
tude we have supposed, is elevated more than in the morning, it will be seen at N, when it
fifty degrees above the northern horizon.  The will appear in the zenith, with the pointers pointtime occupied by the stars now alluded to, in ing downward toward the pole. At two o'clock
completing their circles, is about twenty-four in the afternoon, if it could then be seen, it will
hours, or, more accurately, is twenty-three hours, appear as represented at W, to the west of the
fifty-six minutes, and four seconds, and they all pole, and the pointers pointing eastward to the
finish their revolutions in exactly the same period polar star; and again, about eight in the evening
of time.                                       it will return nearly to its former position at S.
For the illustration of what has been now    Again, this constellation appears in different
stated, let us suppose ourselves to be viewing the positions, at the same hour, at different seasons of
northern quarter of the heavens, about the begin- the year. We have seen that, in the beginning
ning of November, at eight o'clock in the even- of November, at eijght o'clock in the evening, it
ing. At this time, the Great Bear, or Ursa Major, appears as represented at S; in the beginning of
will appear near the lowest part of its course, not February, at the same hour, it will appear as refar fiom the northern part of the horizon. I re- presented at E; in the beginning of May, as exfer to this constellation, because it is generally hibited at N; and in the beginning of August, at
known, even to common observers, and is some- the same hour, as represented at W.
times distinguished by the names of " the Plough,"   In order that none of my readers may fall into
andof "Charles's Wain."  That part of the con- any mistakes, from what has been now stated, I
stellation which is generally recognized, consists may be permitted to mention the following anecof seven bright stars, of which the four toward dote:-A  few years ago, I pointed out in the
the right form a kind of irregular square, and the heavens, to a lady of my acquaintance, the conthree stars stretching out from it to the left form  stellation of the Great Bear, and showed her how
a kind of irregular curve. In the following fig- she might mark its positions at different times, and
unre (fig. 1), this constellation is represented in its apparent revolution round the pole-star. About
four positions.                                 a year afterward, she told me she had carefully
made the observations to which I had directed
f;'ig. 1.                Iher, and found them to correspond to what I had
N                        stated. She appeared, however, to have paid no
attention to any other stars, but those of the
-/f Q      \Great Bear; and on putting several questions to
her on the subject, I found that she conceived of
/+  * i.  \      the motion of the Great Bear as if it had been
a huge monster pursuing its way through the
midst of the surrounding stars, as if they had all
been at rest, without apparently shifting their
position-somewhat like a huge animal pursuing
its way through a crowd, whilst every individual
w*   of the crowd remained nearly in the same position.
dE Now, that my readers may not fall into the same
Afire+ ~ mistake, let it be carefully remembered that all
the stars in the neighborhood of the pole have the
same apparent motions and revolutions as the:\;   /     Great Bear, all moving in concert, but some of
them describing larger, and others smaller circles,
around the polar point, and all completing their
revolution in the same time, namely, in twenty
four hours.
Having represented the pole-star in the center
~iics                   Iof the engraving, to prevent mistakes, it may be
Immediately above the letter S, in the lower proper to mention, that this star, although, to a
part of the figure, are two stars, forming the right common observer, it appears in a fixed position,
side of the square, the uppermost of which is is not exactly in the polar point: it is at present
called Dubbe, and the lower one Merak. They one degree and thirty-two minutes from the north
are about five degrees distant from  each other, pole of the heavens, and revolves around it every
and are most frequently known by the name of day in a circle of about three degrees in diameter.
" the Pointers," because they always point toward This motion may be perceived by placing a telethe pole-star.  The pole-star is represented in the scope in a fixed position, and directing it to this
central part of the figure; it is about twenty-nine star, when we shall find that, after an hour ot
degrees-or nearly six times the distance of the two, it will have moved out of the field of view




POLAR STAR.                                         15
there is no star exactly at the polar point, and the stars would appear to rise and set, and none
this is called the polar star, because it is the near- of them would describe circles above the horizon,
est bright star to the north pole of the heavens. as some ot them appear to do in our northern reIt forms the tip of the tail, or the extremity, of gion. The north pole, which in our latitude, is
Ursa Minor, or the Lesser Bear, which likewise at a high elevation, would appear in the northern
consists of seven stars, arranged very nearly in the point of the horizon, and the south pole would, at
shape of the Greater Bear, but in a reverse order. the same time, be visible in the opposite quarter
This constellation, which is much nearer the pole of the heavens.  In our latitude, we cannot perthan Ursa Major, may be seen revolving around it, ceive above two-thirds of the stars which may be
in the same manner as we have described above, seen in the firmament; but, at the equator, all
but the stars of which it is composed are much the visible stars of heaven may be perceived
smaller, and not so easily distinguished as those During the space of twenty-four hours they all
of Ursa Major. When the Great Bearis at itslow- pass along above the horizon. The one-half of
est position, as at S (fig. 1), the square of the them, indeed, cannot be seen on account of tilhe
Lesser Bear is considerably to the westward, and light of day, but, in the course of a year, they are
the four stars, of which it is composed, are di- all visible.  Were we placed in Van Dieman's
rectly above the tail of the Great Bear, at the Land, or at the Cape of Good Hope, we should
distance of about twenty degrees, as at A.      behold multitudes of stars which are never visible
Let us now suppose ourselves contemplating  in our latitude, and the constellations of the
the southern, eastern, and western parts of the Great and Little Bears, Cassiopeia, and other
heavens, about the beginning of January, at nine clusters, would be no longer visible. Could we
o'clock in the evening. At this time we shall see take our station at the north pole of the earth,
the seven stars, a very little to the west of the the stars would appear neither to rise or set, nor
meridian, and at a very high elevation. Next to yet to stand still. All the stars visible from this
this cluster, on the east, but a little lower, isAl- point would appear to move round the heavens
debaran, or the Bull's Eye, a ruddy star of the above the horizon, in parallel circles, every twenfirst magnitude, in the constellation of Taurus. ty-four hours; and all that could ever be seen in
South by east of Aldebaran, and considerably such a situation might be perceived every hour
below it, is the splendid constellation of Orion, and minute, in a clear sky, when the sun is abdistinguished by four bright stars forming an ir- sent. But, from this point, only one-half of the
regular square, or parallelogram, in the middle firmament is visible, and none of the stars belong..
of which are three bright stars in a straight line, ing to the other half ever rise above the horizon.
at equal distances from each other. This is one
of the most splendid constellations in the heavens,
and is distinguished by almost every common ob-S E C T I O N    III.
server by the three stars now mentioned, which
form  the belt of Orion, or what Job calls "the
AND OBSERVATIONS.
bands of Orion," and are sometimes known by
the names of "the three Kings," "the Yard,"    AN intelligent spectator, after having observed
and "the Lady's Elwand."   South-east from  the various aspects of the heavens above described,
Orion, at a low elevation, is the star Sirius, be- will naturally inquire —Whence come those stars
lonigs:g to Canis Major, or the Great Dog, which which are seen gradually emerging from the eastis considered the most brilliant fixed star in the ern horizon?   Whither have those stars gone
heavens.  North-east from  Sirius, at a higher which have sunk beneath the western horizon?
elevation, is Procyon, a bright star in Canis Minor And what becomes of those stars during the light
or the Little Dog. North from  Procyon, at a of day, which shine with so much splendor during
much higher altitude, are the bright stars Castor the shades of night?  A little reflection on the
and Pollux, belonging to the constellation Gem- subject will soon suggest, that the stars which are
ini. If, then, three hours after having made these seen rising above the eastern horizon, come from
observations, or about midnight, we view the face another hemisphere of the heavens, which is inof the heavens, we shall find a considerable alter- visible from  the point on which we stand, anlt
ation in the positions of the stars and constella- which we are apt to imagine is below the hemitions to which we have referred.  The seven sphere which we behold above us; and when they
stars will then be found to have moved halfway set in the west, return to that hemisphere again;
between the meridian and the western horizon, and that the reason why the stars are not visible
followed by Aldebaran, which is then a consider- during the day, is because their light is overable distance past the meridian to the westward. powered by the more vivid splendor of the sun.
The constellation Orion is likewise westward of We are also naturally led to conclude, from such
the meridian, and the bright star Sirius, which appearances, that the world in which we dwell is
was formerly in the south-east, is now nearly due suspended in empty space, and is surrounded on
south. Procyon, and Castor and Pollux, which, all sides, above and below, by the expanse of the
at nine o'clock, were a great way toward the east, firmament, in which the sun, moon, planets, and
are, at midnight, not far from  the meridian, and stars appear to perform  their diversified motions
at a much higher elevation. All which circum- and revolutions. Another conclusionwhich may
stances show that the various clusters of stars, in be deduced from  the preceding observations, is,
the eastern, southern, and western portions of that the whole sphere of the heavens performs an
the heavens, have a regular and uniform apparent apparent revolution round our world; carrying, as it
motion from east to west.                      were, all the stars along with it in the space of twenSuch are some of the general appearances of  ty-four hours. Whether this motion be real, or
the heavens, as viewed in our northern latitude; only apparent, requires to be determined by certain
but, il several other quarters of the globe, their rational considerations, and from the harmony and
aspects will appear somewhat different.  Were order which appear to be characteristic of the works
we placed under the equator, in the island of Su- of the Creator; to which subject we shall particumatra, or about Quito, in South America, we larly direct our attention in the following chapter
sllhould behold all the stars in the firmament pro-   In the meantime, we may remark, that such
ce;ding in their courses from east to west. All general views of the motions of the starry firma



16                               THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
ment as we have already taken, have a tendency    It does not require a scientific knowledge of
to expand the intellectual faculties, and to elevate astronomy in order that the mind may be im
the mind to the contemplation of some Great In- pressed with sentiments of admiration at the
visible Power, by which such mighty movements movements which appear throughout the uniare conducted. When we behold the vast concave verse. For the works of God, when conteanof the slay, with all its radiant orbs, moving in plated in any point of view, or on any theory, or
majestic grandeur around our globe, an idea of hypothesis we may form, appear, like himself
Sublimity and almighty energy irresistibly forces wonderful, magnificent, and  incomprehensible.
itself upon the mind, which throws completely  The motions to which we have chiefly alluded,
into the shade the mightiest efforts of human  are either in the earth or in the heavens. If these
power,-so that the most stupendous machines motions really exist in the heavens, the mind is
ever constructed by human art can afford no as- overpowered with astonishment at the idea of
sistance in forming a conception of that incom- thousands and tens of thousands of vast globes of
prehensible Power, which sustains and carries light, at immense distances, every day revolving
forward in their course thousands of spacious around us with amazing velocity.  If the motion
worlds. The shining orbs which the firmament chiefly exist in the earth, then we are still overdisplays are evidently placed at an immense dis- whelmed with wonder at the idea of a globe contance from the earth, and consequently are bodies taining two hundred millions of square miles,
of an immense size; and if the apparent motions with its mighty continents and oceans, and its
to which we have adverted were real, the swift- numerous population, whirling around its axis
ness with which they would fly through the re- every day, at the rate of a thousand miles an hour,
gions of space would exceed all human calculation and in its course round the sun, flying with a veand conception. But whether these motions be locity of eleven hundred and thirty miles every
real or apparent, we find motions actually existing minute! There is no alternative but that of adamong the orbs of heaven which astonish and mitting either the one or the other of these mooverpower every rational and contemplative mind. tions; and whatever view we take of this subject,
The very circumstance, that motions so sublime or in whatever light we contemplate the phenoappear in the expanse of the firmament, is a de- mena of the heavens, we are almost irresistibly
monstrative proof that motions of a wonderful led to exclaim, "Great and marvelous are thy
and incomprehensible nature exist somewhere; works, Lord God Almighty!" "Who can utter
and the ideas of majesty, of grandeur, and of om- the mighty operations of Jehovah!" " The Lord
nipotent energy, which, this single circumstance God omnipotent reigneth!"  The idea of a Being
is calculated to inspire, are such as irresistibly to who thus incessantly displays such am.Azung cue.s
lead the mind to the contemplation of a Being  gies demands from all his intelligent opr. u~ g
whose perfections  are incomprehensible, and  tribute of reverence and adoration, of g:a1itaa':
whose "ways are past finding out."               and praise.
CH APTE R II.
ON THE FIGURE AND MOTION OF THE EARTH.
S E C T I O N   I.                declares that the works of his Creator are unworthy of his contemplation; and consequently, that
ON THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH, AND TIH   ARGU- he deserves to remain in ignorance of the mofs
W5ENTS WHICH PRaOVE  THAT IT IS N~EARILY IN THE  sublimne objects of creation, and of the most glorinSHAPE OF A GLOBE.                             ous manifestations of the Divinity.
IN the preceding chapter, we have given a de-   Before proceeding to a particular description
scription of the principal motions which appear of the planetary system, it is requisite that we
in tile heavens, both by day and by night.  Every  should acquire clear and definite views of the
one, however illiterate, who has a desire to study  figure and motions of this earth, on which we
"the wonderful works of God," has an opportu- reside; without which the general frame of the
nity, if he please, to observe most of the motions universe, and the order and arrangement of the
and phenomena to which we have adverted, pro- solar system, cannot be appreciated or undervided he live in the country, or in a spacious stood.
street or square. Those who live in the narrow    For a long period, during the dark ages, and
and dirty lanes and courts of London, Liverpool, the infancy of science, the world in which we
Manchester, and other populous cities and towns, dwell was considered as the largest body in the
have no scope for making such observations, un- universe.  It was supposed to be an immense
less they occasionally retire to the open fields; plain, diversified with a few inequalities, caused
and hence it is that the inhabitants of such places by the mountains and vales; and that it stretched
seldom know anything of the general aspects either out in every direction to an unlimited extent, and
of the earth or of the heavens. It is, however, the  was bounded on all sides by the sky. What was
incumbent duty of every man, and particularly of below this immense mass of land and water, alnd
every Christian, to contemplate, with an eye of in- how  it was supported, none could tell; though
telligence and devotion, the operations of the Most some of the Christian fathers strenuously asserted
High, in order that he nmay be enabled to "praise  that the earth was extended infinitely downward,
Him for his mighty acts," and "according to hisex- and established upon several founldations.  Such
cellent greatness." A nd the man who will not give  were the absurd and foolish opinions of those who
himself the trouble of occasionallydevoting ainhour viewed the system of nature through a false  meor two to such studies and observations, virtually  dium, and who were ignorant of the facts and




FIGURE OF THE EARTH.                                         17
principles of modern science.  It is only within  nearly on a level with the ocean, with thie  xcep.
the period of the last three hundred years that tion of the ranges of elevated mountains.
the true figure and dimensions of the earth have    What has been now stated may be illustrated
been accurately ascerfained.  This figure is now  by the following  figure (fig. 2), in which the
found to be that of an oblate spheroid, very convex surface of the globe is represented.  At D
nearly approaching to the shape of a globe, or a person is represented as standing oni tilhe top of
sphere.  That this is in reality the form  of our a tower; and from that elevation he is enabled to
world willappear from the following considera- see both the topmast and the hull of the ship E;
tions.                                            which is evident, because right lines can be drawn
1. When, on a calm  day, we take our station  without interruption from  the eye, both to the
on the sea-shore, we shall perceive that the sur- topmast and to the hull. Whereas a line drawn
thie of the water is not quite plane, but a little from the eye to the hull of the ship F, which is
convex, or rounded; and if we happen to be on at a greater distance, is intercepted by the convex
one, side of an arm of the sea, two or three miles surface of the water interposing, and consequently
broad, if we place our eyes near the water, and  the hull is invisible; but a line drawn from  the
look toward tile opposite coast, we shall plainly  eye to the higher parts of the vessel shows that
see the water elevated between our eyes and the the topmasts are visible, because  light, when
op)posite coast, so as to prevent our seeing the ob- passing  through  the same  medium, flows in
jfects which are near the edge of the water.  If  straight lines from  every object.  In conformity
we make thile same experiment on a lake of two  with what has been now stated, we find that the
or three imiles in extent, a small boat near the higher the eye is placed, the falrtler will the.
end of the lake may be seen by a mall who is at view  be extended.  From  a lofty mountain we
some bight above the water; but if we lay our obtain a much more distant and extensive proseye near the surface, the view of the boat will be pect than from  the plain below; and hence it is
intercepted by the convexity of the water, which  common for sailors to ascend to the top of the
slhows that the lake is a small segment of a globe. ship's mast, when they wish to descry objects at
2. When we view a ship taking its departure the greatest distance; as from  such an elevation
from  the coast in  any direction, as it retires they  can  discover land, or other ships, at a
from  our view we may perceive the masts and  greater distance than when they stand on deck.
rigging of the vessel when the hull has disappeared, and has sunk, as it were, beyond the                           Fig. 2.
boundary of our sight. First we lose sight of the
hull, then of tile suils, and, last of all, of the topmast. On the other hand, when a ship is approaching the shore, the first part of it which is
visible, when at a considerable distance, is the
topmast; as it approaches nearer, the sails begin
to be seen; and last of all the hull gradually
comes within the limits of our sight-but the                  /__
vessel will pass over several miles of the sea, from  A
the time of our first perceiving the topmast until
the hull appears. In order to make such observations with accuracy, it is requisite that a telescope should be used. What is it, then, that prevents the hull of a ship from  being perceived.when its topmasts are visible?  It is evidently the
round, or convex surface of the water rising up,
as it were, or interposing between our eye and
the lower part of the ship, when it has receded a
certain distance.  Now, as such appearances are
observed on every sea and ocean on the face of
the earth, it follows that the ocean at large is a convex surface, ora portiol of a globe; and if the ocean  On the other hand, were the surface of the sOem
be globular, so also is the land-Dnotwithstanding  a level plain, as represented  in fig. 3, the aptllat the hills and mountains form a few inequalities pearances would be very different.  A line miglht:
ou its surface —for the portions of the land are all be drawn from  any object situate upon.it, as thiFig. 3.
ship D, to the eye, whether it were placed high or I whether the eye were high or low. Thelargesti
low, at A or at B.  In this case, any object upon i and not the highest, objects would be visible at
the earth or sea would be visible at any distance i the greatest distance.  The topmast of a shlp
which was not so great as to make the appearance would first disappear, and the hull, as being the
of it too faint or small to be perceived.  An  largest body, would be longest visible; but this.
object would be visible at the same distance is contrary to all experience.'The-a considerse
VOL. II- 40




18                                THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
tions now adduced are, therefore, clear and de- always invisible in this country; and if we go
cisive proofs that the earth is not an extended  still farther south, the constellations of the Great
plain, but a globular body; and it is astonish- Bear, Cassiopeia, and other stars visible ill our
ing that such a conclusion was not generally  northern sky, will entirely  disappear; which
drawn until a few centuries before the present age. could not happen if the earth were a plane in that
3. That the earth is round from east to west, direction; for, in this case, all the stars of heaven
appears from actual experiment; for many navi- would be visible in every point from  the north
gators, by sailing in a westerly direction, have pole to the south.
gone quite round it from east to west. They have    4. Another corroborative proof of the earth's
set sail from  England, crossed  the Atlantic, globular figure is this: in cutting for a canal, in
rounded Cape Horn, sailed along the Great Pacific  order to have the water on a level, certain allowocean to the northern coasts of New Holland, ances require to be made for the earth's rotuncrossed the Indian sea, and passinlg the Cape of  dity. The slope requisite to be made on this
Good IHope, have again arrived, by traversing the account is about eight inches in the mile, thirtyAtlantic, to the port whence they set out. This two inches in two miles, and so on, increasing as
experiment therefore shows that the earth  is the square of the distance.  If the earth were a
round from  east to west; but it does not prove plane, no allowances of this kind would be requithat it is also round from  north to south; for it site, in order that the water in a long canal might
has never been actually circumnavigated in that stand on a level.
direction, on account of the obstruction caused    5. The phenomena exhibited in eclipses of the
to navigation by the immense masses of ice with- imoon present to the eye a clear demonstration
in the polar regions. Had we therefore no other that the earth is of a spherical form. It is well
proof of the earth's rotundity than this, we might known that an eclipse of the moon is produced
be apt to suppose it somewhat resembling the by the intervention of the body of the earth beshape of a cylinder. But that the earth is in  tween the sun and the moon, which can only
reality round from  north to south, appears fiom  happen at the time of full moon, in which) case,
the following circumstances. When we travel a the shadow  of the earth falls upon the moon.
considerable distance from north to south, or from  This shadow is found in all cases, and in every
south to north, a number of new stars succes- position of the earth and moon, to be of a circusively appear in the heavens in the quarter to lar figure, or the segment of a circle, as the whole
which we are advancing, and many of those in  shadow cannot be seen at one time. Thus, let
the opposite quarter gradually disappear.  For A B [fig. 4] represent the moon while an eclipse
example, in sailing toward the south, when we is going on, and C D the shadow  of the earth,
approach the equator the brilliant constellation  which is much larger than the diameter of the
called the Cross makes its appearance, which is moon. In every stage of the progress of an
Fig. 4.
eclipse, the curve A B of the earth's shadow is be carried forward in the direction to whichn their
distinctly perceived passing along the disc of the heads point, and the power to be continued, they
moon. But the entire shadow of the earth is not would never meet through all eternity. The same
seen, because there is no bright object on which  may be said in reference to the persons supposed
the whole of it can fall; only that part of it to be placed at C and D. It also follows, that,
which covers the moon being visible.  But since could we suppose a hole bored through the center
this shadow always appears a portion of a circle, of the earth, commencing at the point where we
it proves, incojntestably, that the whole mass of now stand, and extending to the opposite side, it
land and water, of which the earth is composed, would terminate at our antipodes, and would rueais nearly of a globular form.                    sure nearly eight thousand miles. It likewise folIf, therefore we admit that the earth is of a glo- lows that this globe of land and water is either
bular form, it necessarily follows that it may be suspended in empty space, oris moving round its
inhabited on. all sides, and consequently, that those axis every day, or flying with immense velocity
who live on the opposite side of the globe must round the sun every year. Whichever of these
have their feet pointing toward our feet, and their suppositions we hold to be true, a wonderful and
heads pointing in an opposite direction.  Thus,  sublime idea is conveyed to the mind.  If we sup.
in fig. 2, the person standing at A has his feet pose the earth at rest in empty space, we have
pointing to the feet of the one standin *at B, and their presented to view a rlobe-coutaiiling 264 mu liouta
head s pointing to regions of space directly opposite; of cubical miles, and weighing at least, 2,200,00O
and therefore if by any motive power, they wcre to 000,000,000,000,000, or more than two tqlnsana




ADVANTAGES OF THE GLOBULAR SYSTEM.                                    19
trillions of tons-resting upon nothing-suspended ledge of its magnitude and dimensions; and on
in the midst of infinite space, and surrounded by  our knowledge of its magnitude, depends our.
the immense bodies of the universe, with no ma- knowledge of the distances of the sun and moon;
terial support but the invisible arm  of Omnipo- and on our knowledge of the distance of the sun
tence, poising its immense mass of continents and depends our knowledge of the respective distances
oceans, and preventing it from  sinking into the of the planets, and the extent of the solar system;
depths of infinity. If we suppose it to be turning  and on our knowledge of the 6xtent of this sysround its axis, and revolving at the same time, tem, depend our conceptions of the distances of
round the sun, then we have presented to view a the fixed stars, and of the vast magnitude and exstill more astonishing idea-a globe, of the huge tent of the material creation; and on our views
dimensions now stated, with its numerous popula- of the immensity of the universe, depend the ention, flying through the spaces of immensity, larged conceptions we are now enabled to form of
without intermitting its speed a single moment, at the attributes of that Almighty Being from whorn
the rate of sixty-eight thousand miles every hour. we derived our existence, and whose "kingdom
So that there is no view we can take of the works ruleth over all."  Had the first linkl of this chain
of the Almighty, in which we are itot irresistibly  -our knowledge of the figure of the earth-been
excited to wonder and admire.                   wantieng, we should have remained in ignloranc(e
We may here also remark, that the globular of all the important consequences, now stated,
figure of the earth is evidently the best adapted to which have resulted from this discovery-so iltia habitable world. It is the most capacious of all mately connected are all the branches of useful
forms, and contains the greatest quantity of area knowledge, both human and Divine.
in the least possible space. It is the best adapted    Had mankind always remained ignorant of this
to motion, both annual and diurnal, every part of important fact, the circumnavigation of the globe
the surface being nearly at the same distance from  would never have been attempted; vast portions
the center of gravity and motion. Without this of the habitable world would have remained unfigure, there could have been no comfortable and known and unexplored; the interoourses which
regular alternation of day and night in our world, now subsist among the various tribes and nations
as we now enjoy; and the light of the sun and  of mankind could not have been carried on; the
the mass of waters could not have been equally  tribes of the greater portion of the heathen world,
distributed. Had the earth been of the figure of  and the countries in which they reside, would
a cube, or pentagon, or of any other angular form, have been unknown; no extensive missionary ensorne parts would have been comparatively near terprises could have been carried forward; the
the center of gravity, and others hundreds or thou- knowledge of "the salvation of God" could not
sands of miles farther from it. Certain countries have been communicated to all the nations that
would have been exposed to furious tempests, dwell upon the face, of the earth, according to the
which would have overturned and destroyed every  predictions of ancient prophesy; and our ideas of
object: while others would have been stifled for the majesty and grandeur of the great Creator and
want of currents and agitation of the air. One Redeemer of men would have remained as low
part would have been overwhelmed with water, and contracted as in the dark ages, when it was
and another entirely destitute of the liquid ele- considered, even by ecclesiastics, as a heresy anol
ment; one part might have enjoyed the benign  a crime to maintain that the earth is round like a
influence of the, sun, while another might have globe, or ball, and that it may be inhabited on all
been within the shadow of elevations a hundred  sides. But now, inconsequence of the knowledge
miles high, and in regions of insufferable cold. In we have acquired on this subject, the way is preslhort, while one country might have resembled a pared for the accomplishment of the Divine purparadise, others would have been transformed into  poses and predictions in relation to our race; our
a chaos, where nothing was to be seen but barren- knowledge of creation and the perfections of its
ness and desolation.  But the globular figure Author, is extended; the path to future improve.
which the Creator has given to our world prevents ment and discovery is laid open, and everything
all such inconveniences and evils, and secures to  now appears, notwithstanding many obstacles, to
us all the advantages we enjoy from the equable  be hastening onward to a glorious consummation.
distribution of light and gravity —of the waters
of our seas and rivers, and of the winds and motions of the atmosphere. Hence it is that all the             S E C TI  N  I I
bodies of the planetary system  are either spherical, or spheroidal bodies; nay, all the great bodies   ON THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH.
in the universe, so far as our knowledge extends,
are found to be of a globular figure; and in this   IT is presumed that, in the times in which we.
arrangement the wisdom and intelligence of the live, there are few persons who have any doubts
Almighty Creator are clearly to be perceived.   that the world in which we dwell is nearly of the
In short, the discovery of the globular figure of figure of a globe, especially when this position
the earth constitutes an important fact in the his- can be proved by so many sensible demonstrations.,
tory of Divine Providence, without which some But there are still many who can scarcely be
of the grand designs of the Creator, in reference convinced that it is moving along with immense
to our world, would not have been accomplished. velocity through the regions of space, in company
It was in consequence of a knowledge of this fact with the other planets. On this subject, therefore,
that the continent of America was discovered,and  we shall now offer a few considerations, tending
the blessings of civilization, science, and Chris- to prove that the world we inhabit-however
tianity conveyed to that region of the earth. On a steadfast it may appear to the eye of sense-is, in
knowledge of the true figure of the earth the art of reality, a moving body, and that all its inhabitants
navigation depends: and in consequence of this, are carried forward with avelocity far greater than
the greater part of the world has been explored, any motions we see around us.  There are two
and the way prepared for carrying the tidings of different motions considered as connected with the
salvation to men of all nations, through faith in earth:-one, by which it is viewed as turning
the crucified Redeemer. On the knowledge of round its axis every twenty-four hours: and anthe true figure of the earth depends our know- other, by which at wings its flight round the sun




20                                      THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
once every year,  In the meantime, s shall chiefly  cle C E, and the circle I L with a still greater ve.
illustrate those arguments by which  its diurnal locity in proportion to its greater distance from
motion may be demonstrated.                          the center of motion, A B.
1. In the first place, there is one thing of which    Let us consider, then, what would be the rate
we are all certain, that motion does actualty exist, of motion of some of the bodies ill the heavens,
either in the earth, or in the heavens.  We every I whose distance from  the. earth is known.  The
day behold the sun apparently moving from  the  sun is ascertained to be ninety-five millions of
eastern  toward the western horizon.  We find, miles distant from  the earth, and, consequently,
likewise, all the stars in the firmamnent apparently  were he to move roun(l the earth every day, as ihe
moving in a body round the earth, in tlhe course  appears to do, he would move along a circurnieof twenty-four hours, and ill the manner described  rence of 597 mrillions* of miles every day; that
in the preceding pages. Such observationls, which  is, at the rate of above twenty-four millions of
every one has it in his power to  nake, clearly i miles in an hour, 414,000 miles in a miinute, and
show, that there is motion somewhere, and tile  6900 miles every second.  Again, the planet Uraquestion is-Does this apparent motion really exist I nus, at its nearest distance fro:n the earth, is moro
in the heavens, or is it the motion of the earth  tian 1700 millions of miles distant; and cousethat produces this appearance?  Let us suppose, quently the cilcumference of its orbit is more than
for a moment, that it is the earth which lmoves. ten thousand six hundred millions of miles. If thereWhat, then, will be the rate of its motion, in turn-  fore this planet were suppesed to move round the
ing round its axis, to produce the apparent revo-  earth c very day, its motions would be at the rate
lution of the heavens?  For, if the earth really  of 445 millions of miles in an hour,-seven milmove round its axis from west to east, the heavens  lions four hundred and twenty thousanid miles in
will, of course, appear to revolve arounid us from   a minute,-and  one hundred and twenty-thlree
east to west.  The rate of this motion will depend  thousand  six hundred  and seventy-seven miles
upon the magnitude  of the earth.   Now, we every second.  Again, the nearest fixed stars are
know that the earth is a globe, somewhat more  kntown not to be withiln 2),000,000,000,009, or
tlhan 24,000 nmiles in circumference; and, conse- twenty billions of miles from the earth; and colnquently in turning rounld every twetly-four hours, sequently their daily circuit round our globe would
some portiotis of its surface must mlove at least a  measuire more tihan 1~25,000,000,000,000, or one
thousand miles every hour.  This is a motion far huntdred and twenty-five billinits of miles; that
more rapid than has ever been produced in the  is, at the rate of fourteent  hundred millions of
smallest bodies by human art; and, therefore, it miles ii thle space of a single second, or the inmay appear incredible to some. that such a meo- terval of time which the pendulunm of a common
tion can exist ii a globe of such vast dimensions as clock takes in mnoving fromn one side to the other!
the earth.   But, if such persons deny that tile lSters, at distances a hundred ti'aes greater-of
earth thus moves, then they must cdlrtit that the whiich tlere are many such in our firmameit —heavens rtmove.  There is no alternative; for mo- wLould  dmove with a rapidity a lhuldlred tines swifttion actually exists, either in the one or in the  er; atnd those still farther remioved fromn us in
other.  Now, if the motion is to be considered as the dtpths of inrem.isity, with a velocity far excxxi ting in the heavens, let us co)nsider what tlte ceedimng either human or angelic complrelhension;
rate of this motion  must necessarily be.  If a  yet all the stars of heaven appear to move rounld
small globe of 18 inches diameter, were supposed  olr giobe every twenity-four hours.  If the ciircla
to perform a revolution round its axis in two se- C D f1 (fig. 5) represent thle supposed diurnal orconds, anid a globe of 2000 yards, or 72,000 inches  bit of the sun; F G Hi that of Uranus; and I K L
in diameter, to finish a rotatioti in tile same time, M  that of somne of thle fixed stars; thllen it is evithis larger glohe would move with a velocity four dent, that inl proportion  to the distance of the
thousand times greater tthan the other.  In fig. body from  the earth will be tile velocity of its
5, if A B, in the center represent the earth, thiue  inotion, if it be supposed to move round the earth
every day.
Fig. 5.                           If, therefore, there be any reader disposed  to
K                           reject the motion of the earth, because it appears
incomprelhesible, lie srtust necessarily adinit of
motions tesln hundred thousaid times greater and far
more icicorm prehenlsible, more especially whleln we
{ G          7~6~h          consider that thle bodies ili the heavenls to which we
have alluded are incomparably greater thani this
globe of earth  oLn which we stand,-the planet
Uranus being more than eighty times, aild the sun
more than thirteen hundred thousaiid tinmes larger
than the earth, aind the fixed stars, at an average,
F   C    A        B   E    H              as large as the sun.  Such a rate of motiolt, in
L   such a mil11ber of niagnificent Iutnitaries, appears
altogether overwlielminlg, aind, I t;sy add altogether incredible.
The question then which we have to decide is,
which oif tile motions to whlicth we have referred
is mnost probable —the motions of the earth, or of
the heavens?  Is it really necessary thlat the whola
* lf the circle C D E represent the circle which the sun
apparently lescribes in revolving round the earth, P C, its
UM                          distance from the center of' the earth, represent 9e)5,0o0,o0
of miles, and the diameter of tile circle C E 196,C(o0,0C0;
if the circle C E revolve round it its a certain, and, as the proportion of tile diameter of a circle to its cir.
time, and the other two circles revolve around it cmumference is nearly as 7 to 22, the circumference of the
isu n's circle, C D E will be about 597,000,t000of miles, tltrouga
in the same time, it is evident that the circle F H  which he behooved to travel every day, if the earth were at
must revolve with a quicker motion than the cir- rest.




MOTIONS OF THE EARTH.                                         21
universe, composed of sun, moon, planets, comets, volve, with such an inconceivably rapid motion,
stars, and nebulm, should move round our globe  around so inconsiderable a ball as the earth; and
with such astonishing velocities, in order to pro- much less that the whole universe should revolve
duce the alternate succession of day and night? around it every day.  Were the earth not revolvReason tells us that it is not. We know that the  ing around its axis every day, there would be an
Almighty does nothing in vain, but employs the  infraction of all the laws which govern the sysmost simple means, in order to accomplish the  tem of universal nature; and therefore it is absomost astonishing and important ends.  The suc- lately necessary to admit its motion, in order to
cession of day and night can be accomplished by  direct our views, and to produce conviction of the
a simple rotation of the earth on its axis, which  unity of design, and of the harmony of creation.
will completely account for all the apparent diur-   4. The last argument I shall mention in the
nal revolutions of the celestial bodies. This we meantimne, and which I consider as demonstrative
find to be actually the case with the other planets on this subject, is this-that if the earth were at
of tlie solar system.  The planet Jupiter is four- rest, and all the heavenly bodies revolving around
teen hundred  times larger than the earth, and  itwith dreadfully rapid motions, it would confound
moves round its axis in less than ten hours, at the all our ideas of the wisdom and intelligence of the
rate of 28,000 miles an hour. which is a velocity  Deity.  Wisdom is that perfection of an intellitwenty-eight times greater than that of the earth, gent agent. which enables him  to proportionate
supposing it to move round its axis. The planet one thing to another, and to devise the most apSaturn is nearly a thousand times larger than our propriate means to accomplish important ends.
globe, and it revolves round its axis in ten hours We should reckon that person foolish in tile exand a half, at the rate of 24,000 miles an hour, in  treme who should construct, at an enormous exthose places situate near its equator.  To a specta- pease, a huge piece of machinery for carrying
tor placed on these planets, the heavens would ap- round a grate, and the body of a large building
pear to revolve around him  every ten hours, as *to which it is attached, for the purpose of roasting
they appear to us to revolve every twenty-four a small fowl, fixed in the center of its motions;
hours, but with an apparently more rapid mrotion; instead of making the fowl turn round its differwhile he himself might suppose, as we are apt to  ent sides to the fire. Were the inhabitants of
do, that he is actually at rest. The earth, there-  London or any large town, to attempt to construct
fore must be considered as revolving round its machinery to make the whole city move round ia
axis, in accordance with the arrangements of the a circle, carrying a lamp near the center to throw
other planets of the system  to which it belongs; light and heat over a ball of only one inch in diaand to supnpose otherwise, would be in opposition  meter, when the same purpose could have easily
to all the laws which govern the material universe, been effected by making the ball itself turn round
and would distort all our ideas of the harmony  its axis; we should not hesitate a moment in proand order of the works of the Creator.           nouncing such a scheme as a display of consur2, Anotller consideration which demonstrates  mate folly. But none of these schemes would be
the diurnal motion of the earth is this: that such  half so preposterous as to suppose the vast unia rate of motion it the heavenly bodies, as has verse to move round so inconsiderable a globe as
now been stated, though it might be within the tile earth, to produce the alternate succession of
limits of Divine power to effect, would soon shat- day and night, when the same object can be effectter the material un.ieerse to atoms, and reduce crea- ed by the earth's simply revolving around its axis.
tion to a chaos.  Were a ball of soft wood to be Such a device, therefore, cannot form  any part
projected from a cannon, at the rate of 800 miles of the arrangements of Infinite Wisdom.  Can
per hour, in a few moments it would be reduced  we suppose for a moment that what would be
to splinters; and hence the forage and other light considered as the consummation of folly in mansubstances projected from  a piece of ordnance  kind, is clharacteristic of the plans and operations
are instantly torn to pieces. What then might be of the Divinity, or that the great Source of etersupposed to.be the consequences, were a body im- nal wisdom  is to be leveled below the most foolpelled through the ethereal regions with a velocity  ish of mrnen?  Such a thought call never be adof a hundred thousand millions of miles in a mi-  mitted by any of his intelligent offspring, in relanute, as multitudes of the stars bellooved to be, tion to Him who is designated " THE ONLY WISE
were the earth at rest in the center of the uni-  Gon," who "is wonderful in counsel, and excelverse?  It would undoubtedly reduce to atomns  lent in working," and "who hath established the
the most compact bodies in creation, although they  world by his wisdom, and stretched out the heaven
were composed of substances harder than ada- by his understanding."  If it could be proved
nault.                                          that the earth is at rest, and the whole universe
3. Another corroborative argument in support in motion around it, I should scarcely admit that
of the motion of the earth is this. that there is no  the world was framed by that all-wise Being
instance known in the universe of a larger body re- whose character is delineated ill the sacred Scripvolving around a smeller.  We do not find such  tures, whose wisdom as far transcends that of man
planets as Jupiter and Saturn revolving around  as the heaveins are high above the earth.
their satellites, or moons; but all those satellites    I have been somewhat particular in exhibiting
which are much smaller than these planets, per- the arguments which prove that the earth is a
form their revolutions around them, as the center moving body, because, in some minds, there is a
of their motions.  The earth, which is fifty times great hesitation in admitting this fact, and in
greater than the moon, does not revolve around  others, a disposition to receive it Dmerely on the
het, but that nocturnal luminary regularly re- testimony of other men, without understanding
volves around the earth. The sun does not revolve  the foundation on which it rests; and because
around the planets Mercury and Venus-wwhich are  right views and conceptions of such facts lead to
thousands of times less than that luminary-but right conceptions of the operations and the attrithey invariably revolve around him  as the cen- butes  of that almighty Being whom we profess
ter of light and intfluemnce. As the sun is one to adore. I shall take an opportunity of stating
million three hundred thousand times larger than  the arguments which prove the annual motion of'
the earth, it cannot therefore be supposed for a the globe round the sun, when we come to do
moment, that such an enormous globe should re- scribe the earth considered as a planet.




B22'ITHE SOLAR SYSTEM.
SECTION   III.                      Some of the comets have been found to move
more than eight hundred thousand miles in the
REnFIcrIONS SUGGESTED BY THE MOTIONS OF THE  space of an hour; and some of the fixed stars,
EARTH AND HEAVENS.                 though apparently at rest, are moving with a velocity of many thousands of miles an hour. In
WaE have now endeavored to prove to the intel- short, we have every reason to believe that there
ligent reader, that the world in which we dwell, is not a globe in the universe, nor a portion of
with  all its continents, islands, oceans, and its matter throughout creation, but is in rapid and
nunlerous population, is continually revolving  perpetual motion through the spaces of infinity,
around its axis to bring aboit the returns of day  supported by the arm of Omnipotence, and fuland night. It is also flying with a still greater filling the designs for which it was created.
velocity around the sun, to produce the various    If we inquire into the original cause of these
Changes of the seasons.  What an august and  motions, lwe shall find that no other cause can be
sublime idea does this suggest for our occasional assigned but the fiat and the power of that omnicontemplation! While we are apt to imagine we  potent Being who at first said, 1" Let the universe
are sitting in absolute rest in our apartments, we appear," and it started into being. As matter did
are in reality whirling round toward the east at not make itself, so neither can it move itself; its.
the rate of hundreds of miles an hour; and are, motion must commence, and can only be contiat the same time, carried through the regions of nued every moment, by the power of that almighty
space with a velocity of sixty-eight thousand  Being who brought it into existence.  lHe alone
miles every hour; so that during every moment, who existed from eternity, whose power is unconor every pulse that beats within us, we are carried  trollable, and whose wisdom  is unsearchable, is
nearly twenty miles from  that portion of space the original Source of all motion, as he is the
we occupied before. When we lie down to sleep  Source of all life and animation.  By his omnipoin the evening, we are seldom aware that, during  tent arm the planets were at first launched into
our seven hours' repose, we have been carried  existence, and impelled in their swift career, and
along through the space of four hundred and  the motion at first communicated, is every moseventy thousand miles! When, amidst the gloom  ment continued by the incessant agency of the
Of winter, we look forward to the cheering scenes same almighty Power. Were that Power to withof spring, we must be carried forward more than  draw its energy, or thfe subordinate means by
a hundred millions of miles, before we can enJoy  which it is appointed to be continued, the universe
the pleasures of that season; and when spring  would  soon run into confusion, and creation
arrives, we must be carried through the voids of be transformed into a chaos.  But God, who
space, hundreds of milliolns more, before we can  "stretched out the heavens, and laid the foundaenjoy the fruits of harvest.  During every breath  tions of the earth," hath appointed them a decree
we draw, and every word we speak, we are carried  which they cannot pass, and they continue to this
forward in our course thirty, forty, or fifty miles, day, according to his ordinances, for all are his
Unconscious of the rapidity of our flight; but the servants. Psalm cxix. 91.
motion is not the less real, because we do not feel   What a scene of wonders is presented to view
it. What should we think if we beheld one of when we contemplate the motions incessantly
the largest mountains in Scotland flying through  going forward throughout creation!-that thouthe atmosphere, across the island of Great Britain, sands of globes, much larger than our world, are
with a velocity which would carry it from John-  winging  their flight with  unremitting speed,
o'-Groat's to the Land's End, a distance of seven  through'the regions of immensity, at a rate which
hundred  miles, in seven  minutes?  It would, overwhllelms the human imagination! What an
doubtless, excite universal wonder and atlonish-  astonishing idea does this convey of the energies
ment.  But this is not one-teiith part of the velo- of the Eternal Divinity, who at first launched this
city with which the great globe of the earth, and  earth and all the pl;lnetary globes from his powerall that it contains, flies through the boundless ful hand!  He only 1"spake, and it was done;"
regions of space. Were we placed on a fixed  and for thousands of years such motions have
point, a thousand miles distant from  the earth, I been continued without intermission! Well may
and beheld this mighty globe, with all its magni-  we exclaim, with the inspired writers, " Who can
ficent scenery and population, thus winging its by searching find out God?" —c' Who can utter
flight around the sun, and carrying the moon  the mighty acts of the Lord? who can show
along with it in its rapid career, such a spectacle  forth all his praise?"
would overwhelm us with astonishment inexpres-    There are certain practical instructions which
sible, and even with emotions of terror, and  may be deduced from this subject.  The power
would present to view a scene of sublimity and  of God, as displayed in the motions of the earth
grandeur beyond the reach of our present concep- and heavens, teaches us that nothing can be too
tions. To angels, and other superior intelligences, hard for Jehovah, and that all the declarations of
when winging their flight from  heaven to earth, his word, however wonderful and inexplicable to
and through distant worlds, such august scenes mortals, shall, in due time, receive their full acmay be frequently presented.                     complishment.  We are assured, by the declaraAlthough the heavens do not in reality move  tiln of the sacred oracles, that a period is approachround the earth, as they appear to do, yet there  ing when all the millions of the human race,
are thousands of globes in the celestial regions whose bodies are now putrefying in the grave,
whose real motions are more swift and astonish- and all the succeeding generations of men until
ing than even those to which we have now re- the close of time, shall be reanimated from  the
ferred.  The planet Venus moves in its orbit with  tomb, and arrayed in more glorious forms than
a velocity of eimrhty thousand miles an hour; they now wear. We are also assured that this
Mercury at the rate of one hundred and nine  globe, on which we now reside, is destined to unthousand miles an hour; and the planet Jupiter, (lergo an important and universal change, when
which is one thousand four hundred times larger its elementary parts "shall melt with fervent
than the earth, at the rate of nearly thirty thou- heat," and " the earth also, and the works that
sand miles an hour, carrying along with it in its are therein shall be burned up," as to their present
course, four globes, each larger than our moon. constitution and aspect, and that a new arrange



DESCRIPTION OF THE SUN, ETC.                                       23
ment will take place, in reference to the habita- with velocities of a hundred thousand miles in
tion to be allotted to the righteous.  We perceive thle short space of an hour, must be more than
no symptoms of such changes at present; we adequate to accomplish all the glorious scenes
have nlever seen any of the dead rise to life, after and transformations predicted in the records of
their bodies had mingled with the dust, and the the Christian revelation.  The Christian may
ashes of some of them  been scattered by the therefore rely with unshaken confidence on all
winds over different regions of the sea and land; the "great and precious promises" contained in
and therefore doubts are apt to arise in the mind, the Scriptures of truth, which are given forth by
whether such wonderful transformations hre pos- Him whose faithfulness is established in the very
sible to be effected.  But all such doubts are at heavens, and who "keepeth covenant and mercy
once dispelled, when we consider the perfections with them that love him and keep his commandof Jehovah as displayed in the structure, and par- ments to a thousand generations," and therefore
ticularly in the movements of the universe, which cannot fail of ultimately receiving their full acafford us a sensible demonstration, that notlhing, complishment.  Well, therefore, may the believer
however inexplicable to us, can be beyond the in Christ exclaimrange of Omnipotence.  Therefore, we may rest
assured that, when the timne appointed in the doe-      "If my immortal Saviour lives,
cree of Heaven arrives, that power whichi carries          Then my immortal life is sure:
cele.,.1.. 1   IHis word a firmn foundation gives;
tihe earth and all tile celestial orbs in their rapid      Here let me build and rest secure.
motions through the sky, shall be exerted in reanimating all the generations of mankind, now           "Here let my faill unshaken dwell:
sleeping ill the tomb; in producing a most won-           ltsmovable the promise stands;;:sleeping  i. the tomb ilproucing a ost wo-Nor all the powters of earth and hell
derful change in thile aspect of this terraqueous          Can e'er dissolve tile sacred bands.
globe; and in causing " new heavens and a new
earth" to arise, wherein righlteousness shall dwell      "Here, O my soul, thy trust repose!
forever.  For that power which carries thousands           If Jesus is fur ever mine,
Not death itself, that last of foes,
of vast globes through the regions of immensity,           Shall break a union so divine."
CHAPTER III.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SUN-OF THE INFERIOR PLANETS-AND OF THE
EARTH AND MOON.
WHEN we take a particular survey of the starry  logy; namely, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
heavens, we find that the stars, in general, never Saturn.  The other five were discovered by means
shift their positions from each other.  They ap- of the telescope, within the space of tile last
pear to move round us in one compact body, as seventy years.  They are named Vesta, Juno,
the figures of the constellations do on a celestial Ceres, Pallas, and Uranus.  By a careful investiglobe, when it is turned round its axis; but the gation of the motions and other phenomena of
stars belonging to one constellation never move these bodies, astronomers have ascertained that
toward those of another, nor clhange their dis- they all move round the sun as the center of their
tances from each other.  If we direct our atten- motions; and, along with the earth, and nineteen
tion to the stars of the Great Bear, for example, smaller globes, form one grand and harmonious
(see fig. 1), we shall find that, at all hours of  system, with which we who live on the terrathe day and night, and at every season of the queous  globe are intimately connected.  The
year, they present the same definite figure, and central orb which enlightens these moving bodies,
the same relative position to each other, without and by its influence preserves them in harmony
any sensible variation of distance or magnitude; and order, is the same suns that enlightens our
and the same may be observed from  one year to  day, and diffuses life and animlnation among all
anothler.  Hence, they are usually denlominated  the animal and vegetable productions of our
"the fixed stats."  But when we observe the globe.  These bodies, although they sometimes
heavens with still more accuracy anld minuteness, appear in different and even opposite regions of
we shall occasionally perceive a few bodies, hav- the heavens, occupy but a very small space, as to
ing the appearance of stars, which, when care- the range of their motions, compared with that
fully watched, for a few weeks or months, will be which is occupied by the fixed stars. The whole
found shifting their positions withs respect to the assemblage of these moving orbs, including the
surrounding stars.  In most cases, their motion  earth, is what is generally denominated THE
is toward the east, but not unfrequently toward  SOLAR SYSTEM, of which we shall now proceed
the west, and, at certain times, no motion can be to give a general description, beginning at the
observed for a considerable number of days. Tie center of the system, and proceeding to the differbodies which are thus perceived to change their ent planets as they lie in order.
positions among the stars are called PLANETS;
whichl word signifies " wandering stars."
There are ten orbs of this description which
have been traced in the heavens, and whose mo-                   SE C T I ON    I
tions have been accurately ascertained.  Only five                  THE  SUN.
of these bodies are visible to the naked eve: the
other five can be seen only with telescopes.  The    THE sun is the grand center and animating
five planets visible to the unassisted eye were  principle of the planetary system, around which
known to the ancients, who gave them the fol- all the planets revolve, at different distances, and
lowing names, derived from the heathen mytho- in differenit periods of time; and by whose attract



24                                 THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
ing!nfluence they are retained in their respective two hundred and seventy-five years-without the
srbits  From this source they all derive light and least intermlission —or more than double the time
heat, and all the other influences requisite to fit which has elapsed since tile Mosaic creation,
them for beiing habitable worlds.                before thle whole surface of this immlense globe
Amongall tleobjectsofthlevisiblecreation,there could be, in this rapid manner, surveyed. The
is none whose beauty is so much admired, and magnitude of this luminary may also be illustrawhose bellign influence is so generally appreciat- ted from  tile following comparison: The earth
ed, as the sun.  Every day this glorious orb visits contains about two hundred and sixty-four thouus with his cheering beams, dispels the shades of sand millions of cubical miles; tile planet Jupiter
night, and diffuses joy and animation among all is fourteen hundred times larger than the earth;
the tribes of sensitive existence; without whose Saturn is about a thousand times; and Uranus
powerful energy, our world would soon become a about eighty times larger than the earth: yet the
dark and shapeless chaos, without life, order or sun is found to be more than five hundred times
enjoyment. But the splendor of this luminary, larger than those planets, and all tile othler planets,
and the benefits it confers, are so common and so moons, and comets of the solar system. taken
regularly continued, that we are apt to view them  together.
with indifference; and we seldom  contemplate,   If it be asked why the sun appears so small to
with tile eye of an enlightened understanding, the our eyes, if it is indeed so immense a globe,. it is
wonderful nature of that globe on which sur- easily answered, that this is owing to its immense
rounding worlds depenid for all the comforts and distance from our world.  This distance is no less
beneficial agencies they enjoy.  To the vulgar than ninety-five millions of miles,-a distance of
eye, the solar orb appears only like a flat lumin- which the mind can form only a very inadequate
ous circle of a few inches diameter; and telre conception..  It may be  somewhat illustrated.,
are thousands of mankind who consider it in no however, as follows: A cannon ball, at its utmost
other light than as a brilliant lamp, of no great speed, when it leaves the mouth of a cannon, is
size, hung up in the firmament to give us light calculated to fly at the rate of about five hundred
by day, and to enable us to prosecute our daily miles an hour; but it would requlire snch a moving
labors. Even minds of a Inore elevated and re- body-though flying continually with this veloflectinsv cast have seldom entered into all tlhe sub- city-twenty-one  years and twvo hundred and
lime ideas connected with the nature and proper- forty-five days before it could  reach the sun.
ties of this august luminary; and it is questionable This may be further illustrated by motions with
whether the greatest astronomer now existing is which we are more famrliliar.  Suppose a steamcapable of forming a conception of the magnitude carriage to set out froml the earth iii the direction
and sublimity of the solar orb, corresponding to of tile sun, and to move, without initermlission, at
its vast extent and its real grandeur, as the soul, the rate of four hundred and eightly rmiles every
and center, and connecting principle of mighty day, it would require five hundred  and forty-seven
worlds.                                          years before it could traverse tile space which inOf the msaqnitude of this stupendous globe tiervenes between us and that distant luminary.
arithmetical numbers can scarcely convey to us Holw wond!erful, theni, that the sun, at such a disan adequate idea; but we may, in the first place, tance, should exert his attractive power upon tim
state its dimensions in numbers. Its diameter, or earth-fructify the soil-raise tides in the oceana line passing through its center from  one side to and diffuse light, and heat, and color, and auimae
another, is found to be 880,G)0 miles. Its circum- lion, over all its regions! And not only so, but
ference, or a line goinig quite ro"nd it, is 2,764,600 even on the remotest planet of tile system, at tihe
miles. Its surface contains 2,432,800,000,000 of distance of eighteen hundred millions of miles,
square miles; that is, more than twelve thousand  similar influences are produced by tile agency of
times the number of square miles on our globe. this august luminary!
Its solid contents comprehend 356,818,739,200,-    Are we startled at the vast distance and dimen000,000 or three hundred and fifty-six thousand  sions of the solar orb which we have now staled?
billions of cubical miles; that is, 1,350,000 times and are we apt to doubt whether the representathe number of solid miles which the terraqueous tions we have given be accordant witli fact? We
globe contains; so that were one million three ought to consider that He wlho made tilhe sun, and
hundred and fifty thousand globes as large as the adorned him  with the splendor he exhibits, is
earth to be compacted into one globe, it would "THE LORD GOD OMNIPOTENT," tile extent of
only equal the size of the sun!  Sonme of these whose power and wisdom  none call comprelend;
dimensions may be somewhat illustrated as fol- and that the sun required to be of such a magnilows: Suppose a person to move round the sun's tude to give stability to the system of which he is
circumference at the rate of forty-five miles every the cenlter; and, according to the laws he hati
day, it would require more than one hundred and impressed upon the material world, to retain sursixty years before the circuit could be completed. rounding worlds in tile paths prescr1ibed  them,
Suppose one were to traverse the whole surface and to dispense to them all those influences which
of this luminary, so as to pass over every square they require.  If we are astonished at tihe magnimile oin its surface, at the rate of sixty miles a tude of the sun, how  must our admiraition b
day, itwould require more than ahundred millions raised when we consider tlhat this globe is only
of years before such an object couldl be accom- one out of millions of similar globes which exim
plished.  It is stated that tile splendid view from  in the universe!  For every star thlit adorns our
Mount Ecna coomprehends a circle two hundlrend firmament is, on good grounds, concluded to be a
and forty miles in diameter, containilg 45,240 sun, no less spacious and luminous than that
square miles.  Now this is only the fifty-three which enlightens our day; and has, doubtless, a
millionth part of the surface of'he sun; so that retinue of planetary globes revolving around it, as
more thani fifty-three millions of landscapes, such the center of light and influenle.
as beheld from  tile top of Etna, must pass before   Nature and physical constitution of the Sun.-Of
us ere we could contenmplate a surface as exten- the real nature of this luminiary we have hitherto
sive as that of the sun. Were we to suppose acquired but very imperfect coniceptions.  But
every such landscape to occupy two hours in the simtce the invention of the telescope, our knowcontemplation, it would require twelve thousand ledge of its constitution has been somewhat ena




TiE  SUN.                                               25.arged.  We no longer view tMe sun as a ball of  gether dissipated, and others to  have  changed
liquid (i'e, as had sometimes been supposed, but as their shape and relation to surrounding spots, in
a solid body, composed of different materials, inll which they formerly appeared.  We, have seen
which wonderful processes are going forward on  spots of nearly 2000 miles in diameter vanish in
an extensive scale, for preparing and perpetuating  the course of twenty-two  hours:  and, onil the
that light and heat which are destined to. cheer other hand, oil a late occasion, we beihld two
end illuminate surrounding worlds.  When the spots, each of them  larger than  the earth, and
sun is viewed by means of a telescope, spots of  containing  at least three  hundred millions of
various kinds are  perceived  upon  its surface. square miles, which were formed inear the center
These spots appear first on its eastern margin, of tile solar disc, where no trace of theni was seenr
when they appear niarrow and somewhat obscure; forty  hours before; which circusnstances sihow
they move gradually onward to the cenliter of the tilhe amazing rapidity willth which  these mighty
disc, when they appear largest and  most dis- masses are formed, and again rendered invisiior
tinct; afterw ard they proceed toward the western  to tih sight. 1T  he portioins of thile stin's surface
linib, where thley again appear narrow  and oh-  where the spots most h'equently appear, are tuose
scure; and after a period of about thirteen days, which  lie a'ijacnt  to its equatorial regions; no
from  their first appearance oni tihe eastern edge,  spots beiiig ever seen near its northiern or soutihern
they disappear from  thie western limb; and, in  poles.  in some years, these spots have beei very
many  cases, they  again appear on the easterin  numerous, and seldoic a week has passedl witlout
limb, after the same period of thirteen days.  put a few of theinm  having  been seen, wiile in other
tiey are frequently somewhat chainged ill their years, comparatively few have been visible.
aspect before they  reappear;  ani, in nisinerous'IsTese spots, as to their general appcara:nce, reinstances, after disappearing  from thei suns   st-  semble a dark nucleus, surrounded with a pjenumern boundariy, they are never asgaiu visible in tile bra, or belt of a lighter shaide.  This pen u ibbra   is
same shape; but otlher  spots, at uiimertain intervals,   generally of a shape ncearly corresponiding to that
are seen diversifying the solar disc; thoulh not of the daik nucleus, or cecntral spot. This fiainlter
unfreque ntl yscarcely a si ngle spot is to be se'in over belt is plainily perceptible in tihe larger spots, acid
the whcole surface of the suin.   The spots appear-  wheni very high powers are applied to the telebig narrower anid less distinct oni tile eastern and  scope, the ulsbra are also visiJle in tihe smnaller
western linbs, is uowing  to our viewing olbliquely  spots. Tlhe followiig representationcs will convey
these parts of tihe sun's sn'fce.   The conclusio, s a ge nceral idea of the  iheuome a ol tie solar spots
to be deduced from these circumstances are,/st,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~  gnrl da ftlepeoie1
to be deduced fiom 1nahee circumstances are, lt, lFig. 6 represents tile smore coninamon appearance
that tile suit is a globe, and not a flat surface, as of these spots-a dark central part surrouncided by
It appears to the naked eye, otherwise the spots a fainiter shade.  Figs. 7, 8, 9, represent tie apwould appear equally large and distinct on every  pearaiices of certain spots wlhichi exiiibit a briglht
part of Iits surface.   Ud. IThat this lumiinarv  jspot, or figure, in the miidst of tihe dark nucleus.
moves rounid its axis in the same direction as thic  Fig. 10 shows a spot, ill which  various dark spots
rotation of the planets; for its spots do not shift are surounded by one commion  penumsccbra; figs.
their places on its disc, but are carried along with  11,12, spots of ditferent shapes; figs. 13, 14, large
tile whole body of the  suan.  Tle time of tie ap-      ots accompanied or surrounided with dark spots
parenit revolution of these spots is 27 days, 8 hours; of a mnuch smaller size.'This is a very commseon
but thIe risI period of the scun's rotation  is 25 days, phenomenon: it is seldom that anly large spots are
9 hours, 56 minutes; and therefoire, the places seen   without  being accompanied   witi  a variety
about tihe sun's equator move at tIhe rate of four of small spots of different sizes, frequently asthousandc five  hlndred and thirty-two miles an  suming tihe appearance of a tail to the large spot.
hour.-                                               Fig. 15, represents tihe appearance    ansid progress
The solar spots are of all sizes, and of different of a single cpoi, from  tic  time it appears oi the
shgapes  their size is from    ticTt-t to -ii-th of the  sun's eastern limb until it arrive at tile center of
d~ite Ihsmlettile disc.  As thie sus moves round asi axis which
ml n's diamoter.  The smallest of those spots which
is not perpendicular to the ecliptic, but hinlined
can lie distinctly  seen, are nearly a thousand miles is   t prpediclr   to ti  ecliptic,  t iiclied
in dianietes-.  Shots, tics onsl-fiftieth  part of tie  seven anid a half diegrees from  tihe perpendicular,
so the spots move in a line deviating from thle
diameter  of the sun —whiich we have frequently  so ti   spots maova icc a hui e du viatiig lrocc  tis
ecliptic, aisd  perpendicular  to  tice sun's  axis.
seesnc-ars 1.7,690 sashes ia diameter, or more thain
doible the1         i diameter of tis earth; and if tic  apot  ltius, in fig. 16, A B represents the ecliptic; D C
double the diameter of the earth; and if the spot its axis perpendicular    toit; G H-1 the axis of tile
be considered only as a plaie, and somewhat cir-   S  a rpdic                   it p    i  taio    ic
cular, it will contain more than two hundred asnd   scn, aroud wici it pegfoscs iotatioc,  davias
forty-three thousand square miles, which is con-  tisg cevess asd a caif degrees fioso D C  tic axis
draby ore tisadsqearea  tics ahicoh  ta- of tihe ecliptic.  iThe spots therefore  move in a
sidebly   ore than the area of tile    terr- line E F or K L, which is at right angles with tihe
queous globe; and yet sometimes a spot of this axis of tme su.
vast size will disappear in a few weeks, and not         esie  ti  da   spots whose phenomea w
unfrequently in a few days.  Sometimes not a             e desed,                spots w   he     ia 
hiave now described, thiere are spots whtichi have a
single spot is to be seen on tihe solar disc for weeks  b       dsn ed    ear           ai  hich   i 
bright and  mnotled appearance, and which it is
and even for months togetiher; at other times, we difficult, in most cases, to distinguish froom  tics
have seen above one hundred sp'ots of all sizes dis- general body of the s.   hey  are  iefly  to be
parsed  over the face of the scn at one time.  In  gen ersi body of the  ss.'cey are chiefly to be
seen when they first appear on the eastern marsuchi cases, there are generally five or six large gin of the sun, and whien they approach near tihe
spots, such as that alluded to above, accompanied  weten  limb; but they are sedo                ever se
westerni limb; but they are seldiomr or~ never seen
with ten, fifteen, or twenty smaller spots; but,   ar t   middle of the disc.   hey   are   ost
after disappearing at the sun's western limb, it is near te middle of the disc.  They are most
seldoit they come round again in t   same  generally seeni in connection with clusters of the
seldord e lat they come   pround    again in tbae same dark spots, and when they are first seen near the
order as before. Some appear to have been alto- eastern limb, they frequently indicate that dark
easterma hicac, thiey f~equecathy imidicate thiat dark
spots are about to make their appearance.'IThey
Ths is found by dividing the circumference of the sun=  appear like luminous ridges, acd plaissy imdicate
2,764,600 miles, by the number of hiours in which the rota. tat t   s  is  ot a soot  urce, but is divertion is perm,"oried, namely 610 hours, and the quotient is the    e  th   evio  a    o  - 
rate of motion per hour.                             sifted with elevations and depressions, or, in otcer




26                                THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
words, with mountains and vales of a stupendous gradual, the breadth of the nucleus and umbra
sizo, otherwise we could not perceive them at the dilating at the same time; and its decrease is gradremote distance at which we are placed. But ual in the same manner. 4. The nucleus, when on
what these bright ridges, or corrugations, are-  the decrease, in many instances, changes its figwhether immense luminous clouds, or solid bodies ure by the umbra encroaching upon it; and thus
-or what purpose they serve in the operations it sometimes happens that the nucleus is divided
which are going forward in this luminary, we are into two or more nuclei. 5. The exterior boundunable to determine.                           ary of the urnbrwe never consists of sharp angles,
The following is a summary of the phenomena but is always curvilinear.  6. The nucleus vanof the solar spots. 1. Every spot which has a ishes sooner than the umbra.
dark nucleus has also an umbra surrounding it.   The conclusions which have been drawn from
2. The boundary between the nucleus and um- the phenomena now described, in reference to the
bra is well-defined.  3. The increase of a spot is constitution of the sun, are as follows: That the
6          7         8             9             10
11             12                  13                    14
15
16
C  
central part of the spots is beneath the level of be considered as an immense solid ball, snot alt'
the sun's surface, or, in other words, that the gether unlike the earth and the other Planets
spots are excavations in the body of this lumi- and there is no great improbability in supposing
nary, and that the umbra, or shade, which sur- that it is fitted for being the habitation of sensirounds it, is the shelving sides of this excavation  tive and intelligent beings, with constitutions
in the luminous matter. According to this view, adapted to the situation; and that it may constithe nucleus is nothing else than the dark and tute the most glorious habitation connected with
solid body of the sun appearing through the the solar system. But whatever may be the real
openings of a luminous atmosphere which sur- nature and constitution of this luminary, it is evirounds this mighty globe. According to Sir WV. dent, from the rapid and extensive changes which
Herschel's estimate, this atmosphere is not less are frequently happening both among the bright
than 1840 miles, and not more than 2760 miles in and dark spots, that there are forces of prodigious
depth. This he regards as the outermost coating power in continual operation, producing the most
of the sun, or his visible surface; and under this i astonishing effects, in a short space of time, somesuperior stratum, he conceived there is another, times in a few hours or minutes, on the surface
more dense and highly reflective which throws or in the luminous atmosphere of this great cenback the light of the upper regions, and that this tral body. And such changes are, doubtless, nelower atmosphere constitutes the umbra of the cessary for preserving the present constitution
spots, and that the dark central parts of the spots, of the sun-for enabling him to diffuse light and
or, the nuclei, are part of the solid matter of heat-and to act as the soul of surrounding
which the sun's body is composed. In accordance worlds.
with such views, the internal part of the sun may    This magnificent luminary is the grand source




THE SUN.                                              27
of light, and heat, and color to this earth, and to zle us with excessive brilliancy, nor scorch us
all the planetary globes, with their rings and  with excessive heat, nor freeze us with insuffersatellites, which belong to our system.  By its able cold; but to produce an illumination and a
energy and influence, it cheers, adorns, and ani-  temperature suited to the inhabitants of every
mates a retinue of mighty worlds; directing their clime.  The man who can contemplate this glomotions, and preserving them  all in the paths rious object, and feel all the beneficial effects of.
prescribed them, so that none shall wander fronm  its influence, without the least emotion of gratitheir cours-, or interfere with others.  It is the tude, reverence, and adoration, scarcely deserves
central bond which unites the moon to the earth; to enjoy tile beneficence of his Creator.  Let us,
the satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, to then, " give thanks unto the Lord-to him  that
their respective primaries, and all the other planiets made great lights-the sun to rule the day: for
in one grand and harmonious system.  On our his mercy endureth forever." And as tihe sun englobe, the benign effects of the sun are inu- lightens, cheers, and fructifies our globe, and dismerous and powerful.  He is not only the source tributes benefits wherever he shines; so let us
of illuminatiou, but of all that beautiful diversity  likewise, according to our power and opportiniof coloring which adorns every terrestrial land- ties, exert all our energies in inparting blessjings
scape. Both the earth and sea-the lowest deptlis to our brethren of malnkind.  As he daily sheds
of the ocean, and the darkest cavern-feel the his benign influence around the world; as hie rises
effects of his powerful agency.  All animated  for the benefit of the ungrateful and the unjust,
beings rejoice in his presence: when his rays dis- as well as for the good and the righteous, so let
pel the shades of night, millions of the insect our beneficence  be displayed toward men of
tribes awake and sport in his beams, the birds all characters and nations, that we may prove
salute him with their melodious concerts, every- ourselves to be " the children of the Most High,"
thing that breathes feels the effect of his influence; who, without distinction of persons, distributes
man watches for the morning and rejoices at blessings without number, arong all the ranks
hiis approach; for "truly the light is sweet, and of sensitive and intelligent existence.
a pleasant thing it is for the eyes to behold the    Notwithstanding the numerous benefits which
sun. "   Tle vegetable tribes likewise feel his the sun dispenses to all the inhabitants of our
energy: he gives circulation to the sap in plants globe, it is a melancholy trutli that the greater
and trees; he causes the blossoms and leaves to part of its population is still inivolved in intellecshoot; the hills and vales to be covered  with tual darkness and moral debasement, " being alienverdure, and the fruits of tile earth to ripen to a ated from the life of God thirough the ignorance
golden harvest, for supplying the wants of man  that is in them."  In this respect, it may still be
and beast.  Without the influence of this lunii- said,,as in ancient times, that darkness covers the
nary, darkness and all its gloomy accompani- earth, and gross darkness the majority of the
ments would forever involve this lower creation; people who inhabit it.  While the sun diffuses its
all the beauties which now  adorn the face of  splendor around them, their minds are shrouded
nature would be swept, away, the birds would in a midnight gloom, into which "the light of
cease their warblings, the flowers  would  no the knowledge of the glory of God," as it shtines
longer be decked with the gayest colors, nor shed  " in the face of Jesus Christ," has never penetheir rich perfumes.  Life, activity, and anlima- trated.  Before all thle effects of light —material
tion would soon cease; and the earth, ere long, and mental-can be fully felt, the Sun of rightwould be transformed into a hideous chaos.         eousness rmust arise on the nations "with healing
Can we reflect on the grandeur and magnitude  iu his beams," to diffuse knowledge, joy, and salof this luminary, and the manifold beneficial vation.  His influences are as necessary to our
sffects which it produces on our world, without true happiness as those of the materlial sun to our
raising our thoughts to Him who at first launched  external comfort and existence.  His Spirit irrathis vast globe from  his almighty arm, and still diates the darktest understandings, purifies the. most
sustains it in all its energies!  In all our surveys debased affections, and diffuses gladness and conof the system of nature, it becomes us to raise solation wherever thie light of Divine truth shiiues
our views fiom the effect to the cause, from  the into the heart.  And as the rays of this spiritual
creature to the great Creator, and to give to Sun are diffused by tile truths of revelation, it is
Him  "the glory due  to hiis name."   Th'is is our duty to disseminate these truths as extensively
not only a duty inculcated in Scripture, but is as possible among all the kindreds, and families,
in full accordance  with the  dictates of true and tribes, that dwell upon tihe face of all the
philosophy; which declare, that every phenome- earth.  Wherever the natural sun shines, the light
non, and  every effect in the  universe  should  of Divine truth should be made to shed its inflube traced  up to a cause adequate for its pro- ence and its luster, until light shall spring up to
duction.  Amid what cause could produce such  those who sit in darkrness and the shadow of death;
a stupendous luminary, but  that Beinig who  until "the glory of the Lordshall coverthe earthexisted ftom eternity, whose power is uncoutroll- and all flesh see the salvation of God."
able and illimitable, and whose " kiingdom  ruleth
over all?"   In  the formation of this spacious
globe we behold a display of Omnipotence which
overwhelms our conceptions, and which shows                       SECTION  II.
us that nothing, however amazing and incompreliensible, call be beyond tile limits of God's           THE  P L A N E T  1M ERCURY.
power to accomplish. Inl the numerous beneficial
agencies produced by the sun, we have a display    HAVING given a general description of tihe sunof his beneficence, an evidence that the happiness which is the center of tile planetary orbs, around
of his creatutes is one of the main objects of his which they all perform their revolutions, at differareating power, and that " his tender mercies are ent distances and in different periods of time, we
over all his works."  " The day is thine; the shall now proceed to give a brief description of
night also is thine; thou hast prepared the light what is most inlterestinug in the pheiornena of the
and the sun."  He hath placed our world at such  different planlets, beginning with that which is
a distance from  this luminary, as ineither to daz- nearest tile center, and proceeding, in order, to




28                                   THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
those which are most distant.  The order ill which  These bodies are distinguished by their dim, dusky,
the orbits of the planets lie from the sun is repre-  and ruddy light, and the long tails, or trainls of
sented in the following small diagram.  The pro-  light with which they frequently make their apportional distances of the planets from the center  pearance. Sometimes they are visible to the naked
cannot be distinctly represented, unless upon a  eye, anld make a pretty splendid appearance; but
diagram of very large extent. In this small figure, numerous bodies of this description pass near the
the middle point represents the position of the  center of our system, which are only visible by
sun.  The inner circle next the point which rep-  means of telescopes, and  numbers, doubtless,
which are never distinguished even  by astronomers, except when by chance they happen to direct
their telescopes to those portions of the hleavens
in which they are  moving.  From  Decemrber,
1843, to September, 1844, no less than  three
comets were discovered, but not one of them was
visible to the uniassisted eye.
Having  made these preliminary remarks respecting the general arrangement of the planets
and comets, we proceed to a brief description of7~t~~~~~~ t   r L i  f iThe planet ilercu ry.  This planet, as already.   noticed, is the nearest to the sun; at least, no
t  planets, nearer this luminary have yet been discovered, though it is not improbable that one or
two may exist withlin the orbit of Mercury.  Its
name signifies  " the swift messenger,,"     and, in
point of fact, it is the swiftest moving planet in
the solar system, its rate of motion beinlg, at an
average, one hundred and  nine thousand  eight
hundred  miles an hour, or one thousand  eight
hundred and thirty miles in a minute; but its rate
of mnotion is somewhat different in different parts
resents the sun, is the orbit of Mercury, the near-  of its course, as it moves in anl elliptical orbit.  Its
est planet to the sun; the second circle represents  distance from tile sun is about thirty-seven milthe orbit of Venus; the third that of the Earth;  lions of miles, and it performs its revolution
the fourth that of Mars; the next circles, which  around that luminary in eighty-seven days, twencross each other, represent the orbits of the lately  ty-three hours, and twenty-five minutes.  As to
discovered planllets: Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas. magnitude, this planet ranks among tile smaller
Beyond these, the next circle represents tile orbit bodies of tile system.  Its diameter is three thouof Jupiter with his satellites, and next to that tile  sand  two hundred miles, its circumference ten
orbit of Saturn.  The outermost circle is that of  thousand and fifty-three miles, and  its surface
Uranus, somletimes distinguished by the names of  contains  above  thirty-two  millions of square
Hersche!, and the Georgium  Sidus.                    miles, which is considerably les, than the habitThese orbits appear very small, as delineated  able parts of our globe.  Were',,/' to compare its
in this diagram; but they are in reality so im-  size with that of the sun we sT:isld find that it
rnensely large, that the mind can scarcely form   would  require  nearly  twentyIw-Jo  millions of
any adequate conception of them.  The orbit of globes of the size of Mercu.r  to fiorm  a globe
Mercury, which is the smallest, is more thani two  equal to that of the sun.*
hundred and thirty-two millions of miles in cir-    This planet always appear.  to move in the
cumference.  Were a steam  carriage to move  neighborhood of the sun.  It iJver appears above
round it at the rate of twenty miles an hour, it twenty-nine degrees distanti frm  lbns sun, and
would require more than one thousand thfree hun-  frequently at tlhe period of it,/ gieatest elongations
dred and twenty-four years before it could com-  it is not above sixteen or se',/;nteen degrees from
plete the circuit; yet the planet itself moves  that luminary.  On thi'~ ar,; nut, it is difficult to
around it in tile short space of eighty-eight days. be distinguished by tile nsh.sl'd eye, unless near the
The 6rhit of Uranus, the most distant planet of periods of its greatest elri,;rations.  The time bethe system, is eleven thousand three hundred mil-  tween its greatest elong;ali ins from the sun, varies
lions of miles in circumference, and three thou-  from  one hundred and tix  to one hundred and
sand six hundred millions in diameter.  To move  thirty days.  When it iiJ at its greatest elongation
round  this circumference, at the rate of thirty  east of the sun, it is seen in the evenings, at a low
miles an  hour, would require above forty-two  elevation, not far from  the point where the sun
thousand nine hundred years, or more than seven  sets.  When it is west of the sunl, it is seen ini the
times tile period which has elapsed since the crea-  morning not far from  the point of sunrise.  The
tion of Adamn; while the planet itself moves round  most favorable seasons for observing it are the
it in eighty-four years.  So that all the arrange-  spring and autumn, as it is in a higher declination
meits of the Divine Being are conducted on  a  at those seasons than in winter, and the twilight
scale of magnificence, astonishing to mortals, and  is not so strong nor so long continued as in s-.rncorresponding to the infinite majesty and grandeur
of Him  "who stretched out the heavens by his            This is estimateds in the following manner — e- r.,m
understanding."                                      parative bulks of spheres are to each other as t.,- tbhs of
The ilarrow  curve, on the left hand of tihe  their dliameters; therefbre,divide the cubes of,' trliamefigure, crossing the orbits of the planets, repre-  ters by each other, al(l the quotient shows tt t n-,mler of
times the one is contained in the other. In', -;,resent in.
seits a portion of the orbit of a comet.  Tile  stance, multiply the sun's diameter, 880,000 sAles, twice
comets move in all directions through the solar into itself, and divide the product by the cub. cff the diame.
system, and their orbits consist of long narrow  ter of Mercury, 3200 miles, and the quotient will give the
ellipse!s, or ovals, some of  vhtichl extend  far be- number of times that the sun is larger tllan Illis planet.
Thus the cube of 880,01i0 is 681,472,000,0)0.000,0.)0, whiich
yond tile orbits of the most distant planets, where  divided ly 32,768,000,600 the cube of Mercury"s diameter
they sometunes remain for a long series of years. =21 millions and five-sixths, nearly.




TRANSJrS OF MERCURY.                                           29
mer. When viewed by the naked eye, it appears it is nearly twenty-nine degrees distant.  Its ec.
to emit a very white light; and those who would  centricity, or the distance of the sun fromn  the
wish to get a view of this planet, when it may be center of its orbit, is above seven millions of
seen, slhduld inspect an almanac, or ephemeris, miles; which is about the one-tenth part of the
where the times of its elongations are distinctly  diameter of its orbit; and this orbit is inclined to
stated.*  Whetn viewed with a telescope it ap- the ecliptic, or the plane of the earth's orbit, in
pears, in the course of its revolutions round.the  an angle of seven degrees, so that it is sometimres
sun, to pass through all the phases of the moon, this number of degrees above the level of' the
sometimes appealing as a half-moon, sometimes  ecliptic, and at other times as much below it. T'he
as a, crescent, and at other times with a gibbous density of this planet is greater than that of any
phase. When it appears of a half-moon or cres-  other planet of the system.  It has been estimated
cent phase, its enlightened  side, like that of the  to be nearly twice thle density of the earth, thait is
mooin, is always turneid toward the sun, which  about nine times the density of water, or nearly
proves that it is inlitself a dark body, and derives equal to that of lead.' Such conclusions are deall its light from  that luminary.  On account of  duced from  the laws of gravitation, by which all
its nearness to the sun, few discoveries have been  the planets are directed in their motions.
made on its surface by the telescope.  It has been    Transits of Mercury.-At certain periods, this
observed, however, that when it appears as a cres- planet is observed to pass across the sun's disc,
cent, one of its horns is truncate], or cut off at like a small dark spot.  This can happen only at
the point, by which the period of its revolutions  the time of its inferior conjunction with the sun
round its axis has been determined, which is sup- -when it is nearest to the earth-when its enposed to be accomplished in twenty-four hours  lightened side is turned toward the sun, and its
anid five minutes.  This truncature is doubtless dark hemisphere is turned directly toward the
the effect of elevations and depressions on its sur-  enrth; and when the earth, Mercury, and the sun
tice; and hence, some astronomers have concluded  arle nearly in one straight line. This passage of Merthat mountains of considerable elevation exist on  cury across the solar disc is called its transit, and
Mercury, one of which is calculated to be eight f is considered  by astronomers as an interesting
Eniglish miles in perpendicular altitude.  It is phenomenon.  If the orbit of this planet were in
supposed, likewise, that it is enveloped with an I tile same plane with that of the earth, it wouli
extremnely dense atmosphere.                      I transit thle sun's disc at every inferior conj u nction,
Iln consequence of its nearness to the sun-   or three or four times every year. But as its orbeing nlearly three times nearer than the eairth —   bit is inclined to the ecliptic, a transit call happen
the quantity of light is nearly seven times greater only when it comes to the inferior co njunction,
than what we receive; and the sun wil appear to  at the time when it is at or near its nodes, or the
a spectator ii that planet about seven times larger  points where it crosses the ecliptic, and when the
than  to us —which circumstances will cause a earth is in the same longitude, and this occurs
more brilliant luster to appear on all the objects I onily at intervals of several years.  The last vision the surface of this planet than appears on the  ble transit previous to 1845, happened in 1832:
sceniery of our globe. Such eyes as ours would I another happened in November, 1835, but was
be unable to sustain so dazzling a brightness, un- invisible inl Britain, as the sun was set before its
less their pupils were contracted to the diameter commencement.  A visible transit likewise ocof one-fiftieth of an inch.  That the quantity of I curred on May 8th, 1845, which began  at 19
heat is in the same proportion, or severn times  mlinutes past 4, P. M., Greenwich time, and the
greater than onl the earth, is an opinion by no  planet arrived near the center of the disc at 35
rlreans probable.  It is more probable, from marny  minutes past 7, P. M.; but before the planet's egress
circumsta;nces connected with our own globe, and  from  the sun's western limb, the sun set to the
from  a variety of experiments which have been  inhabitants of this country. The next visible
made on the sulbject of heat, that the sun's rays  transits of Mercury will happen at tilh following
may be modified in their action by the niature of  periods: 1848, November 9th; 1861, November
the atmosphere, and tile constituent elemenits of  12th; 1868, November 5th; 1878, May 6th.  The
which  the planet is composed.  It is probable  other transits, during the present ceiltury, in 1881,
that sensible heat depends chriefly on the distril)u-  1891, and 1894, will be invisible in Britain and
tion of the substance of caloric, or the principle  other European countries, but will be seen in sevof heat, on the surfaces and throughout the atmo- eral parts of North and South America, and the
spheres of the planets, in different quantities, ac- islands of the Pacific Ocean.
cordiig to tile different situations they occupy in    This planet, notwithstanding its comparative
the solar system; so that it is possible thlere may  smallness, forms a portion of the Divine empire,
be no more sensible heat felt on the surface of  and is capable of containing a population larger.Mercury than on the surfmce of the earth, or than even that of our globe.  Though diminutive
even of Saturn, or Uranus.                         in its appearance, and seldom seen by the inihabMercury revolves in an elliptical orbit, which  itants of the earth, we can' scarcely doubt that
is more eccentric than the orbits of the other there are to be found on this planet millions of
planets except Juno and Pallas.  T'his is the rea- sentient and intelligent beings-perhaps far supeson whiy, at some of its greatest elongations. it is rior in dignity to man-with constitutionis fitted
only sixteen degrees from the sun; while at others, for that sphere in which Providence has placed
them, and with mental powers which qualify them
to know, to love, and to adore their great Creator.
The Chrisltianr lmanneac, published by the "t Religious  For it may be considered as an axiom, that the
tract Society," wvill aflobrdl sufticient information on such
points, ani on various other topics connected with astrono. material universe was cremted, and is still premny, andl the motions andl aspects of the heavenly orbs, es. served in existence, chliefly for the sake of sensitive
pecially unrler the head Phenomena. This almanac is pib-'. and intellectual natures, to afford thein the means
lisheil at the low price of sixpence, contains about 84 closely  of happiness, and to give them a sersible risplay
printeil pages, and a vast quantitv of usefil information onl
science, religion, philanthropy, domestic economy, acts of of the character and attributes of tire Etenral
Parliament, and a variety of other interesting topics.  Divinity.




80                                THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
the discoveries he had made, and particularly the
SEC TION   III.                    appearance of Venus, which was then near the
point of its greatest elongation from the sun.
ON THE PLANET VENUS.                 One senator after another belleld  the  planet
through the telescope, and all were surprised that
NErr to Mercury, in the order of the system, more than half of its hemisphere was obscurea;
is the planet Venus. To the naked eye it appears that it did not appear round, as mostof the other lheathe most beautiful and splendid star in the hea- venly orbs, butinclining to a crescent, with pointsf
vens, and has been distinguished both in ancient or horns, at its opposite sides. Upon this Galileo
and modern times as the morning and evening proceeded to show how this phenomenon furnished
star, because in one part of its course, it makes a demonstrative proof of the Copernican system
its appearance, in the west, in the evening, before of the universe. That night was fatal to the
any other star is visible; and, in another part of ancient systemrs maintained in the schools; and
its course, it appears in the east in the morning, from that period, the true system  of the world
ushering in the dawn, and giving notice of the began to be recognized by all intelligent and unapproach of the rising sun. Its distance from the prejudiced minds, and, in the midst of every opsun is reckoned at sixty-eight millions of miles, position, to be extensively propagated through
being thirty-one millions of miles from the orbit the world.
of Mercury, and about twenty-seven milliotis of   After the telescope was improved, and its length
miles from  the earth at its nearest approach to it. and magnifying powers increased, more particuAt this distance it is nearer the earth than any  lar observations began to be made on the surface
other celestial body can approach, the moon only of Venus. Cassini, an Italian astronomer, with
excepted. In respect of seaqgnitude, it is found to instruments of a large size, on October 14th,
be. 7800 miles in diamrneter, or very nearly the 1666, at 5h. 45m., P. M., saw a small bright spot,
size of our globe. Its surface contains one hun- near the section between the darkl and bright side
dred and ninety-one millions of square miles, and of the planet; at the same time he noticed two
the quantity of light it receives from  the sun is dark oblong spots nearer the other side of the
nearly double of that which falls upon the earth, disc, as represented in fig. 18. On the 20th of
on account of its greater nearness to the sun, so April, 1667, in the morning, a little before sun.
that that luminary will appear from  its surface rise, he perceived, on the disc of the planet, then
twice as large as it does to us. From a variety half enlightened, a bright spot near the section and
of observations which have been made on this toward the lower horn; and nearer to the northern
planet, it appears that it has a rotation on its axis, horn he saw a darkisll oblong spot, as representwhich is accomplished in the period of 23 hours, ed in fig. 19; and after sunrise, he perceived that
21 minutes; and as the period of the earth's rota- the bright spot was advanced considerably from
tion is 23 hours, 56 minutes, its day is, of course, the southern horn; and from this and several sub.
35 minutes shorter than ours.                   sequent observations, he had a plain proof of the
Discoveries made on Venus by the telescope. —The rotation of the planet, which lie afterward deterfirst time the telescope was directed to this planet mined to be in the space of somewhat more than
was in the year 1610, by the celebrated Galileo, twenty-three hours. For many years after this
who had just a little before coiistructed one of period, we have few recorded observations of these
the first telescopes.  The chief discovery he then spots; and, indeed, they are very difficult to be
made was, that this planet, in the course of its perceived, on account of the extreme brilliancy
revolution round the sun, passed through all the which this planet exhibits, and the undulations
phases of the moon, sometimes appearing as a of the atmosphere, when viewed at a low altitude
crescent, or like the moon when three or four in the evening. The best time for viewing 4the
days old, sometimes lilke a half-moon, and at other surface of this planet is in the day-time, when it
times with a gibbous phase, or like the moon  is near the meridian, by means of large equatorial
three or four days before the full. That thie pla- telescopes.
net presents such phases to our eye is a plain    M. Schroeter, a late celebrated German astronoaproof that it does not move round the earth as its mer, made a variety of observations onl this planet,
center of motion, as the ancients supposed, but from which hlie has deduced several important conround the sun, in an orbit which lits within the clusions.  He discovered the twilight of Venus,
orbit of the earth. For if it moved in an orbit or the stretching of a faint light beyond the semiexterior to that of thie earth, it could never present circle which oughtto be alone directly enlightened,
to us either a half-moon or a crescent phase. At as shown at fig. 20, where the cusps or horns
the period to which we allude, the greater part of seem  to stretch into the dark hemisphere.  He
the learned had adopted the vulgar opinion which deduced from this, and other observations, that Veso long prevailed, that the earth is at rest in the nus has an atmosphere of considerable extent, the
center of the universe, and that all the planets densest part of which is above three miles high.
revolve around it.  It was objected to the Coper- A similar conclusion was deduced by a variety of
nican system, which supposes the earth to be one observers in different places, when viewing ith
of the planlets —and which  had been recently transit of this planet in 1761. At the timhe whenl
broached-that if this were the case, the planets the planet entered oni the sun's disc, and when it
Mercury and Venus would appear with all the was about to emerge from the eastern limb, a faint
phases of the moon. This was fully admitted; penumubra or dusky shade was seen surrounding
but it could never be exhibited to tile organs of the planet, which indicated an atmosphere of convision before the telescope was invented   When siderable hight.  M. Schroeter likewise detected
Galileo had published this and several other dis- several mountain ridges, and elevations of great
coveries, the senators of Vealice, who were most magnitude on the surface of Vealus. Such elevaof them eminent for their love of learning, invi- tiomns are ascertained from the length of their sha.
ted this astronomer to come, and in their presence dows. He estimated the perpendicular hight of
make a trial of his new instrument. He com- one of these mountains to be ten and a half Eng.
plied with their request; and, on a fine, clear, and lish miles, and of another no less thaln nineteen
serene evening, mounted his telescope oil the miles.  Although these elevations so far surpass
tower of St. Mark, and showed them several of the hight of the highsest mountains on our glbe[




PHASES OF VENUS.                                                31
yet such estimates are not to be considered on this  prospects far more extensive and sublime than we
account as improbable.  For, in nature, there is can at present conceive.
an infinite variety, and every planet differs from      Apparent 7notions of Venus.-Were the planets
another in its arrangements. Such lofty elevations viewed  from  the sun, the center of the system,
will add to the sublimity of nature on the surface  their motions would appear nearly uniform, and in
of this planet, and will afford, from their summits, one direction, from west to east. But when viewed
from the earth, or any other planet, their motions  c the planet is said to be at its greatest western
appear very irregular, and in different directions, elongation fiom the sun, when it appears ill its
and sometimes they appear to make a pause in  greatest brightness as a morning star.  In passing
their course.  Hence the apparent motions of the  from c to d, and from d to e, its motion is (lirect,
planets, as viewed from  the earth, are said to be  or from west to east.  At e is the point of its sueither direct, retrograde, or stationary.  This may  perior conjunction, when it is again nearly in a
be illustrated in the apparent motions of Venus, line with the sun, and when its full enlightened
and what is here stated of this planet will equally  hemisphere is turned toward the earth.  But at
apply to the motion of Miercury.  Thus, in fig. this point it is tile whole diameter of its orbit, or
21, let S represent the sun, E the earth, and a, b, one hundred and thirty-six millions of miles farc, d, e, f, g, h, the planet Venus in diffferent parts  ther from the earth than when  it was at a, arid
of its orbit, as seen from the earth at E. When it therefore appears smaller near this position than
is at a, it is said to be in its inferior conjunction  when only the onie-fourth of its enlightened  side
with the sun, because it is then nearly in a line  is seen.  From  e to f, and from f to g, the motion
with the sun; and were it visible, it would be seen  is still direct; from g to h, it is again stationary,
nearly in the same part of the heavens as the sun. and from h to a retrograde.
But at this time its dark hemisphere is turned to-    In regard to the phases of Venus we may add
ward the earth, and therefore is invisible unless it the following remarks.  When the plainet is at e,
at its superior conjunction, if it could thien be
Fig. 21.                         seen,? it would present a full enlightened herni.
sphere.  As it moves from  e to j; it gradually
comes into view as  nll evening star, and at first,/-lo~ 7   @av                       appears very low  near tile point of the horizon
~/  "O']iJ/'tt      \             where the sun sets.  Its motion appears slow on
account of its distance fiom  the earth, and it is
sometimes two or three monthls, after passing the
point of its coirjunction, before it becomes distinctly visible to tile naked eye.  When it coinres
to the point f it exhilbits a gibbous phase, as seenl.  /',!        \        \  by the telescope.  As it nmoves onward toward y,!          I [                    its apparent size increases, and its gibbous pl-ase, * - iE E:                  gradually declines to that of a half-moon.  At g
X~,            \ - \:;.{        xit appears like a half moon inclining to a crescent.
k,           /.';  /  /   About this point of its orbit is the period of its
q 9   vrt~x   /? c ~               "greatest brilliancy, and in certain years, when  il
*'WX  /        sz       \ f,  O..~  I    this position, it nmay be seen in the day-time by the
naked eave.  At the point h, it appears of a cres-'It las been fieq.nently asserted by astronomicri writers
that this planet caannot be seen at its superior conjunction.
lbThe.thor of this volume, howsever, in the couerse of lhis o-.
servations on the heavenly bodies in the day-timne, hld all
oportunity on the 2d o- October. 1843, of seeinc this ilianet
within a few minutes of the time of its superior cofljnnction,
e lwhen it was only 58 minntes, or less than 1 degree ft'om the
sun's mlargin. it was viewedl with a three-feet-lnnl-a-hallf
should happen, as it sometimes does, to pass across  achrorrlatic telescoee, m rg nif yinr.,  ires, ane;lealred
the disc of the sun.  In moving from a to b, its  rounil anti perflectly listinct, thoug'hi partly irrmersedi in the
motioni is retrograde, or toward the west. In mov-  srrir rrryS. This circrnlstanre proves that ttre s irce of
ing from b to c, it.appears stationary, because the  Venus reflects the solar rays swith peculiar brilliancy, more
thian that of any other planet. For a more particular account
talngent line, or visual ray b i, will rppear for some  of this observation, see "Edinburgh New PlrilosophicM
time to coincide with the orbit of the planet.  At  Journal " for January, 1844.




82                                    THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
cent form, and while moving from hto a, the point I this planet, and its gradual increase of appares
of its inferior conjunction, its crescent becomes  size from  the period of its superior coniunnctioa
more slender, but at the same time more expansive,  to its inferior.  Fig. 22 is its pliase as a foll enuntil it appears like the crescent of the nmoon  lightened hemisphere, and its proportional size
when she is less than two days old. At a the dark  when compared with fig. 30, which represenlls it,
side of tile planiet is turned toward the earth, and  when lsearest the earth at its inferiorconjiunction.
consequently invisible.  The period employed in  At this time it is five times nearer, and consepassing throLgh these changes, from e to a, is about  quently five times larger in diameter, and twentynine montlls and a half.  In passing through  the  five times larger in surface than it appe-ars at its
other semicircle from a to b, c, d, e, it becomes a  superior conjunction.  Figs. 23, 24, 25, represent
morning star, and, a few days after the conjunc-  different degrees of its gibbous phlise; 26, its
tion, is seen in the east preceding the rising sun.  half-moon phase; 27, 28, 29, its crescent plhase;
In proceeding from  a to b and c, its apparent mo-  where it will be seen, that as thle breadth  of tho
tion is rapid, and it presents a crescent phase; at  crescent-dirninishes, its expansion and length inc it appears like a half-moon, and in the remnain-  crease, as it is then approaching nearer the earth.
ing part of its course to e its phase is gibbous,  Fig. 30 represents its dark side turned toward us
until it arrives at the superior conjunction, when  at the inferior conjunction.  In moving from  the
it again presents a full enlightened hemisphere.  inferior to  the superior conjunctioiin, it passes
The time employed in moving fi:om  the inferior  through all these phases in a reverse order.  First
to the superior conjunction is, as formerly, about it appears as 29, then as 28, and until it arrives at
ainie months and a half.                              the phase fig. 22.
The following figures represent the phases of    We shall state only the following additional fact
30
respecting this planet.  The period of its revolu- portance in astronomy, British astronomers will
tion round the sun is in 224 days 16 hours, durisng  doubtless, be sent to observe it in those countries
which time it accomplishes a course of 434 mil- where it will be visible.
lions of miles, at the rate of eighty thousand mit!es    Thlis beautiful planet, distinguished from all the
an hour.  Its orbit is inclined to the ecliptic in an  other stars by its superior brilliancy, is occasiomangle of three degrees twenlty-three minutes and  ally alluded to by the sacred writers, as the " son
a half, and the eccentricity of its orbit is less than  of the morning"is"    the day sta-r," and " the bri ght
half a million of miles, or about the 1-276th of and morning star:" emrlblematical of the Redeem-ei
its diameter.  On the ground of certamin observa- of malikind, givinlg light to the world after a ollg
tions, it has been supposed that it is attended with  night of superstition and darkness, and  of its
a satellite; but such a body, if it exist, is seldom  cheering influence on the minds of sitfuol men,
seen, anid therefore its existence is considered  as when tile "day star" from on hibh hath! arisen in
iiuncertain.  In its elongations. it never removes their hearts. When viewing thei brigit lttiolinaries
farther from the sun than fiom  forty-five degrees  of the sky, and especially tile mornlling star, and
to fortv-seven degrees.  If its enlightened  side  when we consider the beautiful order and arrangea-sre  turned toward us wheni it is nearest the earth,  rment of these orbs, the placid  influences they
it would present a surface twenty-five times larger diffuse, and the  harmony with which all their
than it generally does and shine with the splendor movements are performed, a contemnplative minid
of a small m0oon; but, at that time, its dark side is can scarcely refrain from contrastimng   such scenes
turned to the earth.  To an inhabitant of Venus, with tlhe darlkness and disorder wiich prevail in
Mercury will appear as a morning and evenling  the moral world.  While  the suni  difises his
star, with more splendor than it does to us; and  splendor by day, and the moon and the stars shed
the eartlh, when nearest to Venus, will shine forth  their mild radiance by nirght, it is still necessary
with a splendor nearly ten times greater tlan either to the happiness of our world that iitellectual
Jupiter or Venus does to us.  This plamnet, like  light and sacred joy should be diffused over the
M5ercury, sonietimes makes a transit across the mninds of its inhabitants-of which the light of
disc of the sun.  The last transit happened in  these luminaries is designed to serve as ans emblem.
1769. and the next will take place onl December Whein the momruing star makes its appearanee neat
9, 1874, at eight minutes past four, A. m., which  the eastern imorizoin, it is a sigin that tihe sun will,
will he invisible in Britain, anid in most European  ere long, arise, and that the darkness of 1inrght will
countries; but, as it is a phenomenon of gre-at im- soon be dispelled.  When  the " day star'" -%res




THE EARTH.                                             33
on the benighted mind, it intimates that gloom  at other times with a full enlightened hemisphere.
and darkness, with all their miserable accompani- Were we placed on the surface of Venus, we
ments, formerly brooded over it: but now that the should behold the globe on which we live appearlight of Divine truth has begun to irradiate the ing in the azure sky like a large, bright star, as that
darliness, it is a sign that this light will still in- planet appears to us when all evening or morning
crease, and shine "more and more unto the per- star; and the moon, which appears so large in our
feet day," until at length it blend itself with the firmament, would be seen only like a very small
glories of the celestial world, where the " sun shall star, very near the earth, and constantly moving
no more go down," where the Lord God shall be around it. At certain times, the earth would apanr everlasting light, and where the days of dark- pear nearly tell times larger than Venus does to us,
ness and "mourning shall be ended."               and would present the appearance of a small brilliant moon. Were we placed on the planet Mars
which,is much farther from the sun than Veinus
SECTION  IV.                       the Earth would appear alternately as a morning
and evening star, exhibiting different phases, as
HE EARTH: CONSIDERED AS A PLANETARY BODY. Venus does to us, but with a less degree of size
and splendor.  It might not, perhaps, shine with
(1.)-General view of thle Earth's setrface, atmo- so much brilliancy as Venus, but it would probably
sphere, magnitude, and method of finding its di- appear with a luster similar to that which Mars
menssions.                                      presents to us.  Nor need it be wondered at that
the earth should appear as a luminous body from
IT may seem strange to some readers that this such distant positions; for we have demonstrative
world on which we reside should be considered a proof that Venus, Mars, and all the other planets,
planetary orb; as, at first view, it appears to bear though they appear like shining orbs, are in reality
no resemblance to any of the orbs that appear in dark bodies like the earth, and have no light of
our nocturnal sky.  The planets, as they are seen their own but what they receive from  the sun;
in the heavens, by the unassisted eye, appear only and it is only when the portions of their sides
as comparatively small points of light; whereas which are enlightened by the sun are turned to us
the earth, from whatever point it is viewed, ap- that they are seen in the heavens.  On some ocpears the largest body our eyes can anywhere be- casions, the dark side of Venus is completely
hold, and when we traverse its surface, either by turned toward the earth, and then she is invisible;
sea or land, there appear no boundaries to its di- and sometimes, when in this position, has been
mensions.  From  the positions in which we are seen, like a dark spot, to pass across the face of
permitted to view  any portion of the earth-  the sun. These and other circumstances demoneven when we ascend several miles above its sur- strate that the planets are in themselves dark be.face a_ balloons-it exhibits no luminous aspect dies, and shine only by reflection; and consesuc' as that which the celestial bodies present; so quently that the earth, though a dark body, with:
that, at first view, we might be apt to suppose appear to shine at a distance by reflecting the solar:
that no similarity can exist between our sublunary  rays which fall upon it, as the moon does to us.
world and the orbs of heaven. Beside, the celes-   We have already proved, that, as a planet, the,
tial orbs are apparently in rapid motion from one  earth turns round its axis every twenty-four hours;.;
region to another, while the earth, as a whole, and, in the sequel, we sihall endeavor to show tha;t
appears to be at rest in the center of the celestial it also moves round the. sun in co.mpany with the:,
motions. Whether we sit in our apartments, or other planets.  In the meantime, we may take i;n
walk in the fields, we feel no motion in the solid  brief view of the surface of our globe, which, inr
earth which supports us, and are apt to imagine that some of its features, may, perhaps, resemble those:
tile portion of thie globe onwhich we dwell remains of some of the other planetary worlds.
invariably in the same point of infinite space. We    When we cast our eyes around us, and. take C:.
perceive no. motions connected with our world but general survey of the surface of the earth, thouthose which are produced by the rivers, the ocean, sands of objects present themselves to tile view:,'
the atmosphere, and subterranean concussions, and  which demand attention.  One of the most obvi,those which are the result of the various processes ous and common arrangements which we behold.
of tile arts —the flux aind reflux of the sea-the  in almost every country, is the verdant covering;
flowingstreams —the roaring cataracts —the stormy  of the earth, which is formed by an assemblage ofwinds —the waving forests-the ships moving on herbs, plants, shrubs, and trees of various shades,,
the face of the deep-and the steam-carriages, which diversify the landscape, and refresh the orwith their hundcreds of passengers flying along the gans of vision; for there is no color so pleasing,,
railway course.  There is not, perhaps, one out of and which refreshes the eye somuchas the various:.
a thousand of the earth's inhabitants that has the shades of green.  When we enlarge the circle of
i'east conception that-beside every other move- our view by traveling through different countries,.
ment of which he is susceptible-he  is carried  we behold objects of a more grand and ragnifialong through the regions of infinite space with  cent description; ranges of mountains, hundreds,
the rapidity of thousands of miles every hour. of miles in length, with their summits rising above
Yet this is a fact which is not merely probable, the clouds, presenting a scene of rugged graLndeur
but certain, and call be demonstrated to, the con- and sublimity; rivers, rolliing their vast masses of
viction of every one who is willing and qualified  waters, in courses of hundreds or thousands o.
to enter isto such investigations.                miles toward the ocean, in which they are absorbCould we take our station on the surface of the ed; the ocean itself, in its numerous windings,,
moon, we shoutld behold the earth hanging like a spreading its immense sheet of waters over more
great globe in thee firmament, appearing with a sur- than half the globe, rising and subsiding at certain
face about thiirteen tihles larger than the moon  intervals, and forming a medium  of communicagoes to u1, and tmurningm round its different sides to lion between the most distant regions of the globe.
Pur eye-sometimes preselltinig the view of Ame- In various regions of the earth, we behold expare.
ca and the Pacific Ocean, and at other times, sive lakes and inland seas diversified with nunmeAsia, Africa, Europe, and the Atlantic-sometimes rous islands, lofty and abrupt precipices, capes,
appearing like a large crescent, or half moon, and and promontories, dashing cataracts, ulnfathlomahbi&
VOL. II.-41




34                                 THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
caverns, rapid whirlpools, avalanches hurling down specified, there are numerous extensive portions
the declivities of lofty mountains, the icebergs of of land dispersed throughout the ocean, such as
the polar regions, the luxuriant scenes of the tor- the islands of Madagascar, Sumatra, Borneo, New
rid zone, and numerous volcanoes surrounded with  Guinea, Great Britain, Ireland, and hundreds of
smoke, and pouring forth from their craters, ashes, others.
flames, red-hot stones, and streams of melted lava   Between the two large continents now stated,
on the surrounding regions.                      lie two immense bands of water, which are called
When we contemplate our globe in its largest the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans.  The Pacific
and most general features, we find its surface di- is at least 11,000 miles from  north to south, and
vided from  north to south by two large bands of 10,000 miles in breadth from  east to west.  The
earth, and two still larger bands of water, which Atlantic is about 3000 miles broad from east to
exhibit a somewhat irregular appearance, present- west, and more than 10,000 miles in length from
ing a number of wavings and indentations, and a north to south. It lies between the western shores
great difference of breadth in different places. of Europe and Africa, and the eastern shores of
The first band of earth is the Eastern Continent, America. The Pacific occupies the whole range
comprehending Europe, Asia, and Africa, the between the western coasts of America and the
greatest length of which is in a line beginning eastern coasts of Asia, occupying nearly the oneabout the northern part of Tartary, and extending half of the globe. The relative positions of these
to the Cape of Good Hope, or from A to B, fig. continents and oceans will be seen by an inspec31, which line measures about 10,000 miles from  tion of fig. 31, where it may be noticed that the
north-east to south-west.  This body of land con- projections of the eastern side of the American
tains thirty-six millions of square miles, forming continent nearly correspond with the indentations
nearly one-fifth of the surface of the terraqueous of the western side of the eastern continent; so
globe. The other band of earth is the Western that, if we could conceive the two continents
Continent, which comprehends North and South brought together, they would nearly correspond,
America.  Its greatest length is in a line from  so as to form one compact continent, with two or
the mouth of the river Plata, in South America/, three small gulfs between them.  The following
to the land beyond Hudson's bay, or from C to D. are nearly the dimensions of the different oceans.
This line measures eight thousand miles; and the The Pacific covers eighty millions of square miles;
whole of this continent contains fourteen millions which is far more than the extent of all the dry
land on the face of the earth.  The Atlantic
Fig. 31.                     covers twenty-five millions; the Indian ocean,
thirteen millions; the Southern ocean, twenty-fivo:~)                       millions; the Northern ocean, five millions; the
Mediterranean, one million; the Black Sea, 170,000 square miles; the Baltic, 175,000; the North
Sea, 160,000. And if, as La Place has estimated,
the tides demand an average depth of three miles,'~ /  # a-   i 44    1*   \\   the whole ocean will contain 450 millions of cubic
miles.  The whole surface of the ocean, then,
contains about 149 millions of square miles, which!* f'l~, | | 2 | 858S   |   is more than three times greater than the surface
b   4     _iof the land, which contains only forty-nine milw.r~o  ~           ~lions of square miles.
Around this -vast body of land and water the
Creator has thrown an atmosphere, or body of
air, which is as essential to the existence and comIa',~~~~~~ ~fort of the living beings that dwell on its surface,;tP/tt ~~e~      i as any other arrangement respecting our world.'..                      The denser part of this body of air extends to the
hight of about forty-five miles above the surface
of the earth, but its density gradually decreases
OCa/.   d                       in proportion as we ascend into its higher regions;
tJ/1a.,,^!{C'//~lll t~  |and at a certain hight it is unfit for respiration
0. I A xis    \\     jand giving play to the animal functions.  This
atmosphere, though  almost impalpable to our
senses, is now ascertained to be a compound substance, composed of two very different and almost
6ItS~ _               R } opposite substances, as to their qualities.  One of
a lt i     its ingredients, which forms about four-fifths of
ll~:t1 b     Ithe whole atmosphere, is of such a nature that no
fire will burn in it. and if man or other animals,~,  X i    /  breathe it, life is almost instantly extinguished.
0 Jt,~ |.  The other ingredient, which forms only one-fifth'\   tjitG    P  /,t   | of the atmosphere, is the principle of combustion,
and produces the most rapid and splendid deflagration of all combustible substances, and even a
steel wire, made red hot, if plunged into this species of air, will take fire and burn with the utmost
of square miles, being little more than one-third brilliancy.  Animals might breathe it for some
of the western continent. South-east of the west- time without much annoyance; but it would soon
ern continent is a large body of land, which may waste the functions of the animal system   It is
be considered as a third continent; namely, New  by an admirable combination of these two oppoHolland, which is 2400 miles in length, and 1809) site principles that the air we breathe is constiin breadth, and contains nearly three millions of tuted; and in this combination, the wisdom  and
square miles.  Beside the bands of earth now  goodness of our beneficent Creator is clearly ma



THE EARTH.                                             35
nifested; for had these principles been combined  the earth to obtain its exact measure.  Mountains,
in a very different proportion, pain, suffocation, rivers, seas, and oceans, and many other obstacles
or death might have been produced in all animals would be continual impediments illn his way, and
that breathed it.  It is in this atmosphere that the would soon put an entire stop to his progress, and
birds fly, and the clouds are suspended-where  the attainment of his object. But, notwithstandrain, hail, and snow are formed —where a portion  ing such difficulties, man, by the exercise of his
of the ocean, of the seas, and of the rivers, is rational powers, and the knowledge he has accontinually ascending, to form those clouds which  quired of the positions and motions of the heawater and fructify the earth-it is the medium  in venly bodies, has been enabled to determine, to a
which whirlwinds rage, and lightnings flash, and very near approximation, the exact dimensions of
thunders roll; and were it swept from the earth, or his earthly habitation, without putting himself to
were its constituent principles materially changed, the trouble of traveling to the most distant reevery living being would soon disappear from all glons, or even removing from the land of his nathe regions of earth, air, and sea. Were the Crea- tivity.
tor disposed to destroy the human race on account   When the earth was ascertained to be nearly
of their transgressions, he has only to extract one of a globular figure, and when the method was
of the ingredients which compose the atmosphere discovered of finding the distance of any place
which surrounds us, and the awful catastrophe is from the equator,* or, in other words, its latitude,
at once accomplished; so that, in his " hand is a foundation was laid for finding the circumferthe soul of every living thing, and the breath of ence, and other dimensions of the globe.  Every
all mankind."  But his forbearance, in this re- circle, or every circumference of a sphere, whespect, is a palpable evidence that he is " slow to ther great or small, is divided into three hunanger," "merciful and gracious," "abundant in dred and sixty equal parts.  This number, three
goodness," and that 1" his tender mercies are over hundred and sixty, is arbitrary, and any other
all his works."                                   number, such as four,hundred, six hundred, or
In regard to the magnitude of the earth, it may  one thousand, might have been fixed'apon; but
be stated that its circumference, or a line going  mathematicians, in most countries, have fixed
quite round it, measures about 24,912 miles; and, upon three hundred and sixty as the number of
of course, its diameter, or a line passing from one degrees or divisions in a circle; because, in the
side to another through its center, measures 7930  first place, it was formerly supposed to be about
miles,* and the number of square miles on its the number of days in a year, and in the next
surface is about 197 millions.  It has been ascer- place, because it is a number that may be divided
tained, by various experiments and measurements, into halves, quarters, and eighths, without fraethat the earth, strictly speaking, is not exactly of tions.  Now, in order to obtain the dimensions of
the shape of a globe, but of an oblate spheroid, the earth, it was only necessary that one degree
being somewhat flattened at the poles, and having  on its surface should be accurately measured in
its polar diameter about twenty-six miles shorter order to obtain the whole circumference.  To
than the diameter passing through the equator. accomplish this, we must draw a meridian line
But the difference is so small, compared with the -that is, a line that runs directly north and
whole bulk of the earth, that though a spheroid south, at any place we make choice of for the
were constructed of the exact shape of the earth, first station. and find the latitude or hight of the
and fifteen feet in diameter, it could not be distin- pole at that particular place. We must then proguished by the eye from a common globe.           long the meridian line, either northward, until
To some ieaders it may appear somewhat strange we come to a place where the latitude is exactly
that we should speak with so much confidence of one degree more-or southward, until it is one
the bulk and dimensions of the world we live in, degree less than at the first station.  We must
which has never yet been completely explored; then measure the distance between these two
and they may, perhaps, wish to know  how it is places, in miles, leagues, yards, or any other
possible to determine its magnitude, figure, and known measures; and then we obtain the number
other properties and relations. It must be con- of miles, etc., contained in one degree, or the
fessed that to measure the earth, and determine  three hundred and sixtieth part of the earth's cirits magnitude, and its exact figure, is one of the cumference; and the number of miles, etc., conmost wonderful enterprises which has ever been  tained in one degree, being multiplied by three
undertaken by man.  How shall a creature, only  hundred and sixty, gives the whole circumference
six feet high, whose longest measures are yards, of the earth.  And when the circumference is
poles, and chains, be able to traverse every region  obtained, the diameter may be found by the rule
of this great world, and measure its dimensions? given in the preceding note (p.35).  And when
His stature and his longest measures are, when  the circumference and diameter are known, the
compared with the whole earth, but as a grain of number of square miles on its surface, and the
sand to a range of mountains.  Beside, there are number of cubical miles in its solidity may be
portions of the earth which have never yet been  obtained by an easy calculation.  But although
reached either by sea or land; and although he one degree accurately measured would determine
were to carry his measuring lines along with him, the dimensions of the earth, yet more accuracy
and extend them  to furlongs, miles, and leagues, is obtained by measuring three, five, eight, or ten
yet he could not go round the circumference of degrees, as has been done by several European
nations.
* As the circumference of a circle or globe is found by    On the general principle now stated, Mr. Richmathematicians to bear a certain definite proportion to the ard Norwood, in the year 1635, attempted to find
diameter-when the one is known the other is easily deter. the circumference of the earth by measuring a
rlined by calculation. The proportion of the circumference meridian line between London and York.  He
of a circle to its diameter is nearly as 22 to 7-more accurately as 3.1416 to 1. Therefore, if we multiply the circumference by 7, and divide the product by 22, we obtain the I   The equator is a great circle of the earth, equally disdiameter, nearly. And if we multiply the diameter by 22, tant from the north and south poles, and divides the globe
and divide by 7, we obtain the circumference. But we ob- into two equal parts called the northern and southern hemi
tain the result more accurately by multiplying the diameter spheres. From this circle the latitudes of places are countby 3.1416, in order to obtain the circumference; and by di- ed, either northward or southward. It is represented by the
viding the circumference by 3.1416, to obtain the diameter. line E Q, in fig. 31.




36                                   THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
took the sun's altitude when in the summer sol- in the center of the system, and tilhe sun and the
stice both at London and York, with a sextant of  planets revolving around it, as was formerly supeight feet radius, and by that means found the  posed, the planets would be at certain times at
difference of latitude between these two cities to  very different distances from the sun; and consebe two degrees and twenty-eight minutes.  He  quently, in one part of their orbits, they would
then measured their distance, in as exact a man-  be scorched with superabundant heat, and in anner as possible; and having taken into the account other part frozen with insufferable cold.  But
all the turnings and windings of the road, with  from the center of the system the emanations of
the ascents and descents, he reduced it to an arc light and heat can be equally distributed to all the
of the meridian, and found it to contain 12,849  planets, whether primary or secondary; and thd
chains; and this distance being compared with  whole presents to view asystem of harmony and
the difference of latitude, gave  5,209  chains, order.
or 367,200 English feet to a degree, which is    The following summary of arguments on this
equal to sixty-nine and a half miles and four- point-did  our limits permit us to explain and
teen poles, and which was considered as a near illustrate themr-would appear demonstrative to
approximation to the truth, according to which  every one who is acquainted with the subject.
the circumference of the earth would be about 1. The planets Mercury and. Venus are observed
25,035 miles. Since his time, various admeasure- to have two conjunctions with the sun, but are
ments have been made of different parts of the  never in opposition to that luminary, that is, they
earth's surface, from  which its extent has been  are never seen in the east, or opposite part of the
still more accurately ascertained.  The French  heavens, when the sun has just set in the west,
have measured a nimeridian line extending from  Now this circumstance could not possibly happen,
Dunkirkl to Formentara, an island in the Mediter- unless the orbits of these planets lay within the
ranean, an extent of about eight degrees; and a  orbit of the earth.  If they revolved around the
trigonometrical survey, for the same purpose, earth as a center, as the ancients supposed, they
under the direction of the British Government, might frequently be seen in opposition to the sun.
has lately been extended  over Great Britain. 2. The greatest elongation, or distance, of MerFrom  all the admeasurements hitherto made, it cury from  the sun is twenty-nine degrees; and
appears that, on an average, a degree of the ruer- the greatest elongation of Venus, or the distance
idian may be reckoned at sixty-nine and one-fifth  to which it ever recedes from  the sun, is fortyEnglish miles; which makes the circumference of  eight degrees, which correspond exactly with the
the globe 24,912 miles.  It may just be noticed  distances assigned  them  in the system; but if
further, on this point, that, as the earth is not an  they moved round the earth as a center, they
exact sphere, but a spheroid, a degree of latitude  would sometimes be seen one hundred and eighty
must measure more in the polar regions than near degrees from  the sun,-a  circumstance which
the equator.  From  actual measurements, it has  was never observed either in ancient or modern
been found that a degree of the meridian in Lap-  times.  3. The planets, IMars, Jupiter, and Satland, measures six and a hall' English furlongs urn, and all the other superior planets, have each
more than a degree at the equator.                 their conjunctions with the sun, and oppositions
to him, which could not be unless their orbits
2.-Proofs of the cannul motion OS the Earth.    were exterior to the orbit of the earth.  4. In the
arrangement of the planetrs-according to the
We have formerly denonstrated  the diurnal system which places the sun ini the center-they
rotation of the earth, which causes the appearance  will all be sometimes much nearer the earth than
of the rising and setting of the sun, moon, and  at other times; and, consequently, their brightness
-tars. We now proceed to state very briefly some  and apparent diameters will be proportionally
of those considerations or arguments by which it greater at one period than at another, which coris proved that the earth revolves round the sun, responds with every day's observations.  But ecas the center of the system, once every year.      cording to the system which places the earth ill
In the first place, there are certain general con-  the center, their apparent magnitudes should alsiderations that render it highly probable, if not ways be, the same, whieh} is contrary to fact; the
certain, that the earth must have a mnotion round  planet Mars, for instance, being in one part of its
the sun.  If we admit the annual motion of tie course, five times nearer the earth  than  in anearth, then all the phenomena of the heavens, and  other, and consequently appearing  twenty-five
the apparent irregularities of the planetary mo-  times larger in surfi;ce.  5. All the planets, in
tinus are completely accounted for, and the whole  their movements through the heavens, are seen
system  presents a scene of unity, harnmony, and  sometimes to rmove toward the east, sometimles
order, worthy of the perfections and the plans of  toward the west; and at certainl points of their
Him  who is 1"the only wise God," —who " ath  orbits, they appear fixed for some time in the
established the world by his wisdoml, and hath  same position; all which diversities of apparelt miostretched out the heavens by his understanding."  tion are the necessary results of the earth's annulal
Whereas if the earth be supposed at rest in the  motion, and are completely accounted for, when
center of the system, the order and harmony of  the sun is considered as the center of the system,
the solar system  appears completely destroyed, and the earth as revolving between the os-Sits of
the motions of the planets present an inextricable  Mars and Venus.  But they are altogether inexmaze, their phenomena cannot be accounted for plicable, on the supposition that the earth is at
on any rational principles, and no evidence of  rest in the center of the system.  6. When the
wisdom call be traced in the arrangements of the  planets Mercury and Venus are viewed through
system  to which they belong.  Again, tire sun is good telescopes, they are found to assume different
the fountain of light and heat for irradiating and  phases, in different  parts of their orbits, somnecheering all the planets and other moving bodies titnes appearilfg gibbous, sometimes like a half
of the system, and therefore it is necessary that moon, and at other times like a crescent, or a full
this luminous orb should be placed in the center, enlightened hemisphere-as formerly explained;
from which position alone its rays can be distri-  which could never happen, if they revolved round
biated in proper proportions to' all the worlds  the earth as their center, and if the earth were not
mhliiti l'eVOiv'e around it. IWere the earth at rest placed in an orbit exterior to that of Venus. But




ANNUAL MOTION OF THE EARTH.                                          37
such phases are the necessary result of this posi- moon, planets, comets, and stars-in other words,
tion of the earth in the solar system.  7. The law  the whole universe —revolving around us every
discovered by Kepler;, that "the squares of the day, with motions so rapid as to exceed all calcupe:iodic times of the revolutions of the planets lation and comprehension; or if we suppose the
are ill proportion to the cubes of their mean dis- planets moving backward  and forward without
tances from the sun," is a law which is established  any order, and presenting  in  their motions a
on the most accurate observations, and by which  series of looped curves and mazes without any
all the planets, both primary and secondary, are  marks of design, and exhibting a scene of inexregulated.  For example, Venus revolves round  tricable confusion; we should scarcelybe led to enthe sun in 224 days, and the earth in 365, and the tertain high and honorable conceptions of the wismean distance of the earth from the sun is ninety- doin of Him who formed such arranugements; for
five millions of miles.  Hence, as the square of  the marks of Divine intelligence, oil such suppo365=133,225, is to the square of 224=50,176, so  sitions, would nowhere appear.  Whereas, in the
is the cube of 95,000,000=857,375,000,00t,000,-  true system  of the universe which science has
000,000,000 to a fourth number, which is the cube laid open, the marks of wisdom and intelligence,
of the mean distance of Venus from  the sun. harmony and design, are everywhere apparent,
And if the cube root of this number be found, it and present a scene of operation worthy of tilhe
will give about sixty-eight millions of miles for perfections of Him who "established the world
her real mean distance.  But this law, which ap- by his wisdom," and whose " understanding is
plies to all the heavenly bodies without exception, infinite."  Hence the necessity of acquiring coris completely set aside and destroyed, were the rect views of the works of creation and provisun and planets to be considered as moving round  deuce, and of the arrangements which exist in
the earth as the center of their motions. In short, reference to our world, and to the universe around
were we to suppose the earth at rest in the center us; for upon stch views our conceptions of the
of the planetary system, the motions of all the great object of our adoration will, in a great
-planets would present a seenls of inextricable measure, depend.  When, therefore, we obey the
confusion- a scene of such disorder and confu- Divine command and "lift up our eyes on high,
sion, as would puzzle not only man, but the most and behold the wonders of Almighty Power,"
intelligent archangel to account for, and to explain  and "stand still and consider the wonderful works
in consistency with the perfectionls of a Being of of God," we are to contemplate them, not through
infinite wisdom and intelligence.*                the mists of ignorance, or vulgar prejudice, nor
The most complete and sensible demonstration  with the vacant stare of a savage; but with the
of the annual motion of the earth is furnished biy  eye of a Christian philosopher, and through the
Dr. Bradley's discovery of "the aberration of the light which modern science has diffused over the
light of the fixed stars."  In endeavoring to de- wonders of creation; and the more we contemotermine the annual parallax of the stars, he dis- plate them  in this light, the more clear and excovered that they are not motionless, but that, pansive will our conceptions be of the attributes
during the time the earth takes to traverse its of the s" high and lofty One who inhabiteth eterorbit, such of them as are in a plane perpendic- nity," and who presides over all the movements
ular to  this orbit, appear to  describe circles. of the universe.
This is the phenomenon called " the aberration
of light," which is found to be the motion of  (3.)-P7henlomena   arising from the annual motion
light combined with the progressive motion of                       of the earth.
the earth in its orbit, which causes the stars to
bIe seen in a different position  from  what they    In the first place, if the earth revolve around
would  be if the eye were at rest.  But as the  the sun once every year, it is evident that the sun
explanation of this phenomenon would require will appear to make a revolution rouiid the heasomle minute details, and several figures for its vens in the same period.  In fig 32, let S repreillustration, and as it might not be understood by
general Leaders, we will defer ill the meantime
from entering upon any further statements.  We                            G
may just remark, that the fact of the aberration
of the stars exhibits the motion of the earth to
our senses as clearly as if, from a fixed point in
the heavens, we actually beheld it pursuing its
course through the ethereal regions.
It is of importance that we acquire clear and
convincing views on this subject, in order that
we may entertain correct and honorable conceptions of the perfections of the Creator, and of the
wisdom and intelligence displayed in the arrange- H       D
mnents of his works.  For. in all cases, we judge                                          F
of the character and perfections of the designer
and workman from the qualities and perfections
which appear in their works.  If we view  the
works of the Almignty through a distorted medium, we shall be apt to entertain incorrect and
distorted views of the attributes of Him who designed and formed them. If we view the earth
as at rest in the center of creation, and the sun,
Those who would wish to see a full illustration of the
above arguments are referred to " Celestial Scenery, or the              E
Wonders of the Planetary System Displayed;''[Vol. II,
Book 2, of this edition,] where these and several other argu- sent the sun at rest in the center, and A  3B  D
ments are illustrated in minute detail, and by reference to the earth in four positions; and let us suppose the
engravings.                                       earth to move in the order of the letters A B C D;




38                               THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
it is evident that when the earth is at A, the sun  is at A, the sun will appear at noon at G, and cIDwill appear in that part of the heavens where the scure all the stars in the hemisphere F G H;
stars at G are situate.  When the earth has whereas at midnight the point of the heavens E
moved to B, the sun will appear to have moved will be in the meridian. and all the stars in the
to the stars opposite H; and in like manner, other hemisphere F E H will be visible. Three
when the earth has moved to C, the sun will ap- months afterward, when the earth comes to the
pear opposite to E; and when it has moved to situation B; the sun at noon will be seen at H,
D, the sun will appear at F; after which it will and all the heavens G H E will be day, illuniagain appear at G, when the earth has moved to nated by the sun; and over all the other half E
A. And as the earth revolves around the sun F G, the stars will shine at night. Consequently,
in the orbit A B C D, so the sun will appear to a the stars in the quarter F G will now.be visible,
spectator on the earth to describe the circle in the which in the former position were obscured by the
heavens E F G H. Hence it is that we see the sun, and those in the quarter H E, formerly vlsisun gradually proceeding in his course round the ble, will become obscured by day-light. In like
concave of the sky from west to east at the rate manner, when the earth is at C, the heavens H
of nearly one degree every day, through the E F will be day, and F G H night, where all the
twelve signs or constellations of the zodiac; and stars which were obscured, when the earth was
at the end of a year, he returns to the same at A, will now be visible. And, lastly, when the
point from which he set out. Hence also it earth is at D, the stars and constellations in the
follows, that if the plane of the earth's orbit hemisphere E F G, will be obscured by the light
be imagined to be extended to the heavens, it of the sun, and those on G H  E will be visible
would cut the starry firmament in that very during the night. Hence, every one who is accircle in which a spectator in the sun would customed to look at the heavens will have observsee the earth revolve every year, while an inhabi- ed that the bright constellation Orion, the brillitant of the earth would observe the sun to go ant star Sirius, which follows it, and the Pleiades,
through the same circle in the same space of or seven stars, which are visible in the southern
time. This circle is called the Ecliptic, or the part of the firmament during winter and the apapparent path of the sun through the heavens. proach of spring, are never seen during the sumAnd, although the path  of the sun, and the mer months, because the sun is then illuminating
particular stars he is passing along, cannot be that portion of the heavens where they are situate;
seen in the day-time, yet, from  observing the but they may be seen in the day-time by means
stars that are directly opposite to him at night, of equatorial telescopes.
we can tell at any time what particular stars
the suln is passing along in every part of his (4.)-On the destination of the earth, or the final
The  nhabitants of all the other planets willcause of its creation.
The inhabitants of all the other planets will
perceive similar motions in the sun as we ob-   In the creation of the material universe, the
served, but performed in different periods of time, Creator must have had some grand designs ill
according to the times of their annual revolu- view, beside the mere  formation of immense
tions.  For example, an inhabitant of Jupiter globes of matter and setting them  in motion.
would see the sun apparently revolving around and arranging them into systems. In so far as
him, describing a circle in the heavens in the we are able to penetrate, it appears demonstrable
space of twelve years. This circle would not be that matter exists chiefly, if not solely, for the
exactly the same as our ecliptic, because the orbit sake of sentient and intellectual beings.  This
of this planet is somewhat inclined to the orbit evidently appears to have been the chief design
of the earth; but it would pass very near it. for which our globe was created; and we have the
In the course of one of our years the sun, from  strongest reason to conclude that this was the
Jupiter, would appear to pass through only a main end for which all the other planetary globes
twelfth part of the circumference of the hea- belonging to the solar system  and to other sysvens. The sun fiom Saturn will appear to move tems, were brought into existence. Hence it is
In another circle in twenty-nine years and a half; declared in the sacred oracles, when reference is
and a spectator inu Venus will see the sun moving made to the formation of our globe, "God formIed
in a circle different from  all these, with greater the earth and made it;-he created it not in vain;
apparent rapidity, in the space of seven and a he formed it to be inhabited;" which evidently
half months. All these apparent motions of the implies, that to have created it without the design
sun arise from the real motions of the respective of its being inhabited, would have been an inplanets.                                        stance of folly inconsistent with the perfections
In the next place, the annual revolution of the of Him whose wisdom and intelligence are infiearth shows the reason why we behold one set of nite; and the same reasoning will apply to all the
stars in our firmament at one season of the year, other planets, which appear to be furnished with
and another set of stars at a different season. every accommodation adapted to sensitive and inFor example, in our latitude, the stars, and con- tellectual enjoyment.
stellations which are seen  during  the winter   In peopling the earth and other globes with inmonths, in the south, are altogether different from  habitants, the Creator evidently intended to give a
those which are seen in summer; and those stars display of his perfections to beings capable of conwhich surround the pole in the north, and which templating it, and to promote their sensitive and
never set, if they are below the pole in winter, mental enjoyment.  The happiness of his creathey will be seen as far above the pole in summer. tures must have been one grand design which the
At the equator, where all the stars rise and set, Creator had in view, when he breathed into them
the stars which appear in the middle of winter the breath of life, and made them rational and im-are all completely different from those which are mortal beings.  Accordingly, we find that when
seen at the same hour in the middle of summer. man was at first placed upon this globe, everyThis is easily explained by the preceding diagram  thing that was beautiful to the eye and the imagi(fig. 32), in which the earth, in four situations in nation, and pleasant to the taste, was prepared for
ts orbit, appears half enlightened and half in his accommodation and comfort.  The waters
the dark, representing day and n.ght. When it were separated from the dry land-the earth was




DESIGN IN ITS CREATION.                                        39
adorned  with  verdure- rivers  and  refreshing endowed with rational faculties, and formed after
streams flowed around him to increase his pleas- the Divine image, acting in this way, to be found
ures-trees, and plants, and flowers of every form  among all the other worlds of the universe.  And
and hue diversified and embellished the landscape. were we not accustomed to witness such infernal
Light was formed, and celestial luminaries ap- passions and atrocities, and to behold men glorying
pointed to diffuse its radiance-a canopy was in that which is their shame, we should be filled'
thrown around his habitation adorned with thou- with utter astonishment and wonder that such
sands of shining orbs, to elevate his contempla- horrible actions should be perpetrated  on each
tions to other provinces of his Creator's do- other by brethren of the same family, children of
minions-every plant and tree yielding delicious the salme Father, and beings destined to an imnfruit was provided to gratify his taste, and afford mortal existence.
him sustenance; and all the inferior ranks of sel-   But the benevolent Father of all did not intend
sitive existence were placed under his dominion. that this moral derangement should be universal
One chief design of the Almighty, in these ar- and perpetual.  As soon as man had fallen froma
rangements, was to show man his dependence, to  his allegiance to his Maker he displayed his charmake him an adorer, and a being capable of know- acter as a God of mercy, and ready to forgive.
ing and honoring his Creator and bountiful Bene- He declared that the seed of the woman should
factor. He gave him a law which implied supreme  bruise the head of the serpent-that an illustrious
love to his Maker, and obedience to his will; and Messenger, invested with Divine power and auas an external sign of his obedience he said to thority, should be sent into the world at a proper
him: " Behold all the trees of the garden in which time, to repair the ruins of the fall; "to finish
I have placed thee; of every one of them  thou  transgression, and to make an end of sins;"-to
mayest freely eat-only thou shalt forbear eating  bear the sins of many, and make "intercession
the fruit of the tree of knowledge."  This reserve for the transgressors."  Preparatory to the advent
-which has been so frequently objected to-did  of this Divine Messenger, certain families were
in reality constitute the chief glory of man. None selected in which the knowledge of the true God
of the inferior animals knew their origin or their might be preserved-a certain nation, before whom
Beiefactor, they could give no testimony of grati- astonishing  miracles had been  displayed, was
tude, nor could they exhibit any shadow of reli- chosen as the depository of Divine revelationsgion.  Man alone was elevated to a rank, and en- a ceremonial worship was instituted, prefigurative
dowed with faculties so as to know to whom  he of the events and blessings of Messiah's reign;
is indebted for all his enjoyments-and he alone prophets were raised up to announce the coming
was taugllt to express his gratitude to the Giver of the great Deliverer, and the glorious results of
of all good! This constituted the true glory of his administration —the events of Divine Proviman, and his superiority over all the other tribes dence toward the nations were overruled and diof sensitive existence. It was a great and honora- rected in such a manner, as to bring about the
ble prerogative conferred upon him  to he able to advent of the promised Messiah ill all the circumobey his Benefactor, and to adore the hand which  stances which prophets foretold, and which God
had loaded him with blessings: and therefore it had appointed; and, when the predicted period
was proper that a visible emblem of his obedience, had arrived, a retinue of celestial messengers was
or the contrary, should be continually before his dispatched from heaven to earth to announce the
eyes.  The supreme Creator stood in no need appearance of " the Son of the Highest," of the
either of the fruit of a certain tree, or of the increase of whose government there should be no
opinions or sentiments of mall respecting it. But end, and to proclaim  "glory to God in the highest,
it was fit that mall should make anl express pro- and on earth peace, good-will toward men." And
fession of his gratitude and veneration: and there- when this Deliverer appeared on the public theafore the sole exception which God made in his ter of the world, he exhibited the most convincing
first transaction with manl, was at once the me- proofs of his Divine mission by the most astonisihmorial of his gratitude, and the public expression  ing and beneficent miracles, displaying his power
of his piety and submlission to the divine will.    over the laws and the elements of nature-the
-But we know that man did not remain in his spirits of darkness and the disorders of the human
primeval state of innocence and happiness, but by  frame-" healing all manner of sickness and dishis disobedience " brought death into the world, ease;" causing the deaf to hear, the blind to see,
and all our woe."  For proof of this position, we the lame to walk, and the tongue of the dumb to
have no need to enter into long trains of reason- sing-raising the dead to life, and recalling the
ing, or even to appeal to the records of revelation. departed spirit from the invisible world.  And, at'rhe fact of man's fall and disobedience is written length, when the great Sacrifice for the sils of
on the whlole history of our world from tile earliest men was about to be offered, a series of the most
ages to the present time.  For what does the his- august and striking supernatural events attended
tory of all nations chiefly record?  It presents to  its accomplishment-the sun was clad in black,
our view littic else than wars and commotions, con- the heavens were arrayed in sackcloth, darkness
tentions, and animosities, and 5" garments rolled for three hours covered the whole land, the vail
ins blood."  One nation rising up against another, of the Jewish temple was rent in twain from the
carrying fire and sword, and all the engines of de- top to the bottom, the earth trembled and shook,
Struction into a peaceful territory-laying waste the rocks rent asunder, the graves were opened,
provinces, burning cities, turning fruitful fields and many bodies of saints that slept in the tombs;nto a wilderness, and slaughtering, with diaboli- arose to life.  On the third  morning after this
cal fury, thousands and tens of thousands of their solemn scene, the 1" Prince of Peace" arose victofellow-men.  This has been one of the chief em- rious from  the grave, showed himself openly to
ployments of all tile tribes and nations that have. competent witnesses of his resurrection; and aftsrever dwelt on the face of the earth; and this fact,` \vard, rising above the confines of this earthly
of itself, is a sufficient proof that man is no longer ball, winged his flight on a resplendent cloud,
ill his primeval condition of paradisaical inno- attended by myriads of angels, through distant
cence and rectitude, but is fallen from his high  regions which "eye hath not seen," and entered
estate, and his glory turned into shame.  We  into heaven itself, there to " appear in the presence
trust there is not another instance of creatures of God for us."




40                                 TTHE SOLAR SYSTEM.
In consequence of these astonishing and benevo- poses of Divine Providence shall have been fulfilled
lent arrangements, all men, everywihere, are now  in regard to the present state of our globe, its concommanded to repent, with the full assurance stitution shall be changed, its elementary parts
that they shall obtain pardon, peace, and recon- dissolved; and "new  heavens arid a new earth"
ciliation, and every blessing requisite for their shall arise wherein righteousness shall forever
happiness in the present world and in the life to dwell.  Such is the destination of our world, and
come.  For thus runs the message of the- Most such are the arrangements vwhich its Creator rhas
High to all the children of men: "God so loved made in reference to its inhabitants.
the world, that he gave liis only begotten Son,   Some readers may, perhaps, be disposed to say,
that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, "What ihas all this theological dissertation to do
but have everlasting life."  " Whom God hath set with astronomy? we do not see that it has any
forth to be a propitiation through  faith in his connection with a description of the solar system."
blood, to declare his righteousness for the remis- On this point we beg leave to differ from!l such
sion of sills." " This is the record, that God hath  objectors.  What is the material universe, when
given to us eternal life, and this life is in his Son."  separated from  its reference to the Creator, and
These announcements are made to all the inhabi- its relation to intelligent beings?  A mere matants of this world, however vile, and however chille, which displays nothing but uncontrollable
atrocious the deeds they may have committed-  power acting at random, without the least trace
to the ferocious warrior that has slaughtered  of wisdom, benevolence, or rectitude.  To view
thousands, and to those who have long wallowed  the planetary system, or other systems, as consistin the mire of depravity and licentiousness, as ing merely of a number of large globes, wheeling
well as to those who have manifested some exter- round their axes, amid round their sunis, in certain
sal decency of conduct.  For He who is exalted  periods of time, is to overloolk some of the grandas a Prince and a Saviour " is able also to save est and most interesting objects of astronomy.
them  to the uttermost that come unto God by  To suppose all the orbs of heaven to be self-existhim."  And if we believe the record of God, and ent and self-moving is absurdity and atheism: and
rest upon it as the declaration of a faithful Crea- to suppose the Creator to have formed them merely
tor, we shall endeavor "to abound in all the fruits as so many august and splendid pieces of maof righteousness"-to cultivate love toward God chinery, without any relation to iiitellectual iiaand toward mnan-" to add to our faith virtue, tures, is inconsistent with every idea we ought to
knowledge, temiperance, patience, brotherly kind- form of the attributes of the Divinity.  The reness, and charity," and every other Christian dis- lation of the material system  to intellectual beposition and virtue which will tend to prepare us ings ought, therefore, to be conlcected with astrofor the intercourses and employments of that nomnical iiivestigations. We know  not, indeed,
higher sphere of existence where all is peace, and  the physical and moral characteristics of the inharmony, and love.                                habitants of Venus, Jupiter, or otlher planets; but
One reason why the benevolent arrangements we know, for certain, that if thley le in a state of
which have been made for the happiness of manl  primeval innocence and happiness, they obey the
have been so long kept hid from the greater part two grand principles of the law prescribed to the
of the world, and moral evil has been permitted to  inhabitants of our world"-u  Love to their Creator,
abound, doubtless is, that an extensive and im- and love to one another," without tlle observance
pressive display might be given of the dismal and  of which precepts, true happiness cannot be emnmiserable consequences which necessarily flow  joyed in any world in the uiiverse, and tile whole
from  refusing allegiance to the Most High, and  material creation would be nothing  else than a
from aviolation of his laws-to serve as awarning  boundless Pandemonium.  We know that these
not only to the inhabitants of our globe, but to  precepts have been generally violated in our world;
the inhabitants of other worlds of the necessity  and hence the wars, devastations, insurreetions,
of submitting to the will of the Supreme, and of systems of oppression and iniquity, anid othel
the inevitable disastrous effects which flow fromrt  evils, which have produced so much misery and
the prevalence of moral evil.  For if the funda- wretchedness among the populatioii of our globe,
mental laws of heaven-love to God and to man — And shall it be considered as improper and unwere to be reversed, or universally violated, misery  philosophical, that, in describing the material fawould pervade the whole moral universe, although  bric of the world, those arrangements which the
it consisted of millions of worlds; and happiness Ahlighty has formed for the regeneration of socould never be enjoyed by any rank of intelligent ciety, anid the  happiness of the human race,
existence.  But, however dismal a scene may  should be occasionally adverted to and detailedi
have been presented to view, in the ages that are We must demur to such a sentiment.  Philosophy
past, we are assured that a period is approaching  has been too long dissevered from  its connection
-foretoldl by inspired prophets-when the world  with religion —to which it ought ever to be allied;
shall be regenerated, when " wars shall cease even  and it is now high time that every department of
to the end of the earth;" when violence and op- human knowledge should be studied in connection
pression and all unrighteousness shall be under- with the moral arrangements of the Almighty,
mined and destroyed; whena "thule kingdoms of  the renovation of the world, and the eternal desthis world shall become the kingdoms of our Lord, tiny of man.  The scienIces, when disjoined from
and of his Christ;" when1 " every one shall sit such connections, lose the greater part of their
under his vine and fig-tree," without the least value, and can be considered as useful only in
fear of annoyance; when "the earth shall be reference to the concerns of this world, and the
full of the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters transitory duration of the life of man.  Whereas,
cover the sea," and "clihe Lord God will cause  when studie-d with right views, anld in all their
righteousness and praise to spring forth before all legitimate connections and relations, they bear alm
the nations."  Then the antipathies of nations intimate relation to the Divinity, to the progress
shall be destroyed; " the earth shall yield her in- and expansiomn of the human nlind to other worlds,
crease;" its desolate wastes shall be cultivated, and to the scenes and employments of an immorand its ruins restored, and all people "shall dwell tal existence.
Ia a peaceable habitation anid in sure dwellings,   In reference to the earth, we shall now only
aud in quiet resting-places."  And when the pur- state the following circumstances; The number




THE MOON.                                           41
of inhabitants which people the earth at one time called its sidereal year. With regard to the denis estimated at eight hundred millions-of these, sity of the earth, it is found to be about five times
five hundred millions are reckoned to Asia; fifty- denser than water; so that could we suppose five
eight millions to Africa; forty-two millions to  globes as large as the earth composed of water,
America; and two hundred millions to Europe. suspended at one end of an immense balance, and
Of these assemblages of human beings, twenty- the earthl at the other, they would nearly counterfive millions die every year, sixty-eight thousand  poise each other.
every day, two thousand eight hundred and fifty
every hour, and forty-seven every minute; so that
at almost every pulse that beats within us, an immortal being is passing from  time into eternity,               SECTION  V.
from  this visible anra material world to another              ON T H E M 00 N.
scene of existence-a solemn and important consideration to every one of us who must shortly    THE moon is the nearest of all the celestial
follow, in our turn, the generations that have bodies to the earth, and is its constant attendant
gone before us. If we reckon thirty-two years as during its revolution round the sun.  It belonrgs
the average period for a generation, as has been  to that class of bodies called secondary planets, or
generally done-at the enld of which period the  satellites. A primary planet is one which revolves
whole human race is renewed, with a few excep- around the sun as its center: a secondary planet
tions; it will follow, that one hundred and forty- is a body which revolves around a primary planet
six thousand two hundred mnillions of human be- as its center of motion, and is at the same time
Pings have existed on our globe, since its present carried along with its primary around the sun.
arrangernent commenced, reckoning 5849 years   M1otiot2s of the Aoon. —The moon has an apfrom the formation of Ada.m to tle present time. parent motion round our globe every (lay, someBut if we make our estimate according to the what similar to that of the sun. She rises in an
Samaritan and the Septuagint chronology, 7256  easterly direction, and, after a certain number of
years are to be reckoned from Adam to the present hours, sets in the western quarter of the heavens;
time; and consequently, if mankind had never this motion is not real, but only apparent, and is
died, there would have been, at present, on the caused by the diurnal motion of our globe from
surface of tile globe, 182,800,000,000: that is, west to east. The real motions of the nmoon are
one hundred and eighty-two thousand eight hun- as follows:-In the course of 27 days, 7 hours,
dred millions of human beings. Whether the  and 43 minutes, the moon malkes a progress
earth would have furnished subsistence for such  through the ecliptic, or round the whole heavens,
a population is left to Malthusians and political from west to east, and returns to the same stars
economists to determine. But it appears, in point from which she set out. This is called her tropicof fact, that the Creator never intended that such  al revolution.  The period from one new moon to
a number of the human species should remain oni  another, or from one conjunction with the sun to
the earth at one time, in its presenst state; though  another-which is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes,
it might easily be shown, that were all the habit- and 2 seconds, is called her synodic revolution.
able parts of the globe properly cultivated, it The reason why these periods are different is
would support at least sixteen thousand millions this: at new noon, the sun and moon are in the
of human beiLgs, or twenty times the number same part of the heavens: but by the time the
that now exist on its surface, while each family  moon has returned to that point-namely, 27
would have an estate of twelve acres of land for days, 7 hours, 43 minutes-the sun hlias proceedits support. But the inferior tribes of animals are  ed, in his apparent course through the heavens,
far more numerous than the amount of all the  twenty-seven degrees farther to the east, and is
huma.n inhabitants that have ever dwelt oni the  still going on, and the moon has to overtake him
earth, from Adam to the last new-born child. At before she can be again in that position which is
a rude calculation, the inferior tribes connected  called new moon.
with the air, the waters, and the dry land, at one    Fig. 33 exhibits some of the motions of the
time, cannot amount to less than thirty billions moon in relation to the earth and the sun.  The
of living beings; which is 164 times the number
of all the human beings that have ever appeared                      Fig. 33.
on the earth.  As one instance out of many of                           M
the immense numbers of certain species of animals, we may mention what Mr. Wilson states,
ill his "(American Ornithology," that a single                            
flock of the migratory pigeon of the United States
was found to be about a mile in breadth and 240
miles in length-having occupied four hours in
passing across the country; which flock, by a
moderate calculation, was estimated to contain l
two thousand two hundred and thirty millions,          2
which is nearly three times the human population              mC
of thle globe.
We may just farther make the following statements in reference to the earth. In its course
round tihe sun, it moves in an elliptical orbit, the                                     M
longer diameter of which is 3,236,000 miles greater tian the shorter, and consequestly it is nearer
the sun at one season of the year than at another.
l'he time of its annual revolution is 365 days, 5
hours, 48 milnutes, 49 seconds, which is called the
tropical year; but the time it takes in moving
froln a fixed star until it returns to it again is 365  small circle in the center, S, represents thle sun
days, 6 hours, 9 minutes 12 second%, —which is the circle A B C D. the cartlf's orbit and the earth




42                                 THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
in four different positions. The smaller circle M  a delightful and magnificent spectacle, calculated
n o, represents the orbit of the moon in its course  to arrest the attention of every eye, and to inspire
round the earth.  Around this orbit she moves, the soul with emotions of sublimity. But she does
in a period somewhat less than a month, at the not remain long in her full orbed luster; she grarate of 2300 miles an hour.  But while she is dually loses a portion of her brightness, by prethus carried, monthly, around the earth, she is senting to us a part of her dark hemisphere.
also carried forward along with the earth, in its She again appears for a few days in a gibbous
revolution round the sun. For example, while phase; afterward she assumes the appearance of
the earth has moved from B to A, the moon has a half moon, and then that of a crescent whose
made more than three revolutions round the earth, horns are now turned toward the west. In this
and at the same time has. moved, along with the position she is seen only in the mornings before
earth, nearly one hundred and fifty millions of sunrise; and in a few days afterward, she is in
miles, or the fourth part of the earth's annual conjunction with the sun,when her dark side is
circuit; so that the moon's motion through space again turned toward the earth. All these changes
is much more rapid than that stated above, and  are accomplished in twenty-nine days and a half.
cannot be estimated at less than 70,000 miles an    These phases are more particularly represented
hour. When the earth is at B, in the position  in fig. 34, where S represents the sun, E the earth,
marked 1, and the moon at M, the enlightened  and A B C D F G H I the moon in different parts
side of the moon is turned to the dark side of the of its circuit round the earth, with its hemisphere
earth, and the moon is in the position we call full turned toward the sun fullyenlightened.  When
moon, the whole of its enlightened surface being  the moon is at A, its enlightened side being turned
then turned toward the earth.  When the earth  to the sun, its dark side is turned toward the earth,
is at D, and the moon in the position marked 3, and were it then visible, it would appear as at K,
the dark side of the moon is turned toward the in the outer circle; but it is never visible in this
earth, and she is consequently invisible.  This is position, except at the time of an eclipse of the
the position of new moon. In the manner now  sun, when its body, either in whole, or in part, indescribed, does the moon revolve round the earth, terposes between us and the sun. This is at the
and is carried along with the earth round the sun, period of new moon.  When the moon has moved
from one year and one century to another; and from A to B, a portion of its enlightened surface
has done so ever since she was appointed to give is then turned to the earth, and it appears as a
light to the earth, and " to rule the night."  And  crescent, as represented at L; when arrived at C,
since she is acted upon by two forces-the attrac- the one-half of its enlightened hemisphere is turned
tion of the earth and the attraction of the sun, to the earth, and it appears in the form of a half
which sometimes act in opposite directions-her moon, as at M; when arrived at D, it presents a
motions are very irregular; which renders it somewhat difficult and tedious to calculate her precise                   Fig. 34.
position in the heavens at any particular moment
of time.
Phases and general appearances of the Moon. —
The sun always enlightens one half of the moon;                         o
and sometimes the whole of this enlightened side  
is turned toward the earth, when she appears a                  -
round luminous orb: but this happens only in one
point of her orbit.  At all other parts of her
course, only a portion of her enlightened hemisphere is seen from the earth; and in one particular position in her orbit, her enlightened side is  1' "A
altogether invisible.  When she is at the change,
or the period of new moon, she is invisible; both
because she is in the same part of the heavens as
the sun, and because the whole of her dark hemisphere is then turned to the earth.  After this it      T
is generally two days, or more, before any part of
her enlightened surface is visible. About the third
day after the change, she is seen in the western sky,     x
at no great distance from the point at which the sun
set, and then appears under the form of a slender
crescent, with its horns pointing toward the east.
Next evening, about the same hour, she will have
moved about thirteen degrees farther to the east,
and her crescent will appear to have increased
somnewhat in breadth. Every succeeding night 
she will appear to have moved still farther to the
east, while her crescent is still increasing in breadth
and luminosity, until about the eighth day from  gibbous phase, as at N; and when arrived at F, it
the change, when she appears in the form  of a shines in all its splendor as a full moon, as (tt 0.
half moon. She is then about ninety degrees from  After this period it gradually declines, first to a
the sun.  After this period, still proceeding east- gibbous phase, as at P; next to a half moon, as at
ward, she assumes a gibbous phase, until she ar- R; then to a crescent, as at T; after which it arrives at the period of full moon, when her whole rives at its former position at A, the period of new
enlightened  hemisphere is turned  toward us; moon; when it is again invisible.
which happens on the fifteenth day after the time    How the earth appears to the inhabitants of the
of the new moon, when she is in opposition to the Moon. —We have now  seen the cause why the
sun, or one hundred and eighty degrees distant, moon presents so varied appearances to the earth;
and rises about the time when the sun sets. On a let us now consider how the earth itself will aucloudless night, she then displays to ever) beholder pear as viewed from the surface of the moon. Could




THE MOON.                                            43
we take a view of the earth from one of the moun- arising from the circumstances now stated.  (See
tains, or plains, of the moon, we should find that it fig. 31, p. 34.)
exhibits the same changes or phases, that the moon    The moon always presents the same side to the
d.oes to us, but in a reverse order. For when, at new  earth, so that we never see its opposite hemisphere.
moon, the dark side of the moon is turned toward This circumstance proves that she turns round
us, the whole of the enlightened hemisphere of her axis in the same time she takes to move round
the earth is then turned toward the moon. And  the heavens.  If the moon had no motion round
as the hemisphere of our globe is thirteen times her axis, we should see both her hemispheres in the
larger than that of the moon, it willpresent inthe course of every revolution she makes round the
lunar firmament a shining orb as large as thirteen  earth.  Whether the other side of the moon be
of our full moons, and will therefore, diffuse a less adapted for reflecting light than that which is
considerable degree of luster in the absence of next us, or whether it be equally diversified
the sun.  That the earth shines with a full en- with mountains, caverns, and plains, we have no
lightened face upon the moon at the period now  opportunity of determining; though, reasoning
stated, will appear from  the preceding diagram, from analogy, we may conclude that the arrangefig. 34.  At A, the moon is in conjunction with ments of nature in that hemisphere are notessenthe sun, as seen from the earth, and its dark side tially different from those we perceive in the herniis turned toward us; but it will be perceived that, sphere presented to our view.
at that time, the enlightened side of the earth, E,   There is a peculiar appearance which may be
is completely turned toward the moon, so that noticed, that the earth will present to an inlabiwhile she is invisible to us, our globe appears in  taut of the moon, and it is this —that from  ally
its full orbed majesty and brightness to the lunar particular spot on the lunar surface, the earth will
inhabitants.  On the other hand, when the moon appear in a fixed position in the heavens, without
is at F, when it is full moon to us, the dark side any apparent motion.  To those who live in the
of the earth, E, is turned toward the moon, and is middle of the hemisphere next the earth, the earth
consequently invisible to the inhabitants of the will appear as a large globe in the zenith, or point
moon, being then nearly in the same part of the directly above their heads, sometimes appearing
firmament as the sun. When the moon is in- as a half moon, a crescent, or a full enlightened
creasing to us, the earth is diminishing in its illu- hemisphere, and sometimes invisible, but always
minated surface to the moon. When the moon is in the same position.  The only motion they
at B in its increase, the earth appears as at P; will occasionally perceive is the earth's rotation,
when she appears as a half moon as at M, the which they will observe as the different colntinents,
earth apears a half moon in the decrease, as at islands, and oceans of our globe present themnselves
R; and when she increases to a gibbous phase as in succession.  Those who live near the margin
at N, the earth has decreased to a crescent, as at of the moon's hemisphere next the earth, will see
T; so that the phases of the earth, as seen from I the earth near the horizon, and it will never appear
the moon, are exactly opposite to those of the from such places in a more elevated position il
moon as seen from the earth.                      the heavens. Those who live in intermediate posiThat the earth actually shines upon the moon, tions will behold the earth at higher or lower eleand illuminates its surface as the moon does that vations, according to their distance from the cenof the earth, is proved from the followingcircum- Iter of the hemisphere. All these appearances
stance.  On the second or third day after new  necessarily result from  the circumstance that the
moon, when she appears as a slender crescent, we moon always presents the same side to the earth,
perceive a faint light on the dark part of the and to account for such phenomena will be apt
moon which is not enlightened by the sun, so that to puzzle the lunar astronomers.  Hence, it necesthe whole hemisphere of the moon is visible-one  sarily follows that those who live on the opposite
part faint, and the other bright.  This is percep- hemisphere of the moon will never see tile earth
tible even by the naked eye, but it appears pretty  nor enjoy its light.  From  the central parts of
vivid through the telescope when a small power that hemisphere, ai astronomer-who had heard
is applied, so that many of the principal spots of of the remarkable celestial phenomenon to be
the moon mlay be distinctly perceived.  This may  seen in the other hemisphere-would  have to
betermed tle "'moonlight of the moon," as the earth  travel more than 1700 miles before he could see
is then shining upon its surface with nearly a full  the earth emerging from the horizon; and in orenlightened hemisphere.  This light on the dark  der to behold it in its full luster, shiling directly
side of the moon gradually decreases, as the en- from  the zenith, Ihe would have to travel 1700
lightened part of tile moon increases, because the miles farther, or 3400 miles in all. We presume
enlightened portion of the earth is at the same that there are few  terrestrial astronomers who
time diminishing, so that its effect is not much would grudge to undertake such a journey were
perceived after the period of half moon.  It has they to behold a resplendent moon hlangimng in the
been sometimes observed that a brighter reflection vault of heaven in another hermisphere, which is
proceeds from  the moon when the continental altogether invisible in his native counltry. Sir J.
parts of the earth are opposite to her than when  Herschel, in order to explore the starry regionsin
the Atlantic or Pacific ocean is in the same posi- the southern hemisphere, undertook a voyage to
tion. There is less light reflected from  the sea the Cape of Good Hope, where he remained for
thamn from the land upon the moon, and therefore years, and brought home some interestinig pieces
it is natural to suppose tihat when the hemisphere of intelligence from the starry regions.
of the earth which contains Europe, Asia, Africa,    Distance and magnitude of the Moon. -The
and New vHolland, is shining upon the moon, moon, though the ilearest celestial body to the
a considerably greater quantity of light will be earth, is still at a considerable distance.  This disreflected on her surface than when the Pacific tanceis reckoned to be, at a medium, about 237,000
ocean, which covers nearly half our globe, is di- miles, or about thirty times the diameter of our
rectly opposite to her.  In the course of the diur- globe, which is determined from its horizontal panal rotation of the earth every part of its surface rallax, or the angle formed by a line drawn from
in succession will be presented to the moon; and the center, and another line drawn from  the surtherefore it will appear to a lunar inhabitant with face of the earth. As the moon, however, moves in
different degrees of brilliancy, at different times, an elliptical orbit, she is sometimes more than 240.



414                               THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
000 miles distant, and sometimes considerably less square miles,or about one-third of the habitabl,
than 237,000. Small as this distance is, compared Iglons of our globe, and were it peopled as densely as
with that of the other planets, it would require England, it wouldcontain a population amounting
nearly 500 days, or about sixteen mont.hs, for a to four thousand two hundred millions, which is
steam-carriage to move over the interval which more than five times the population of the earth.
separates us from the lunar orb, although  it were The  circumference of the moon is 6848 nmiles
moving day and night at the rate of twenty miles and, therefore, if a railroad were formned around it,
every hour.  Although the apparent size of the its inhabitants could travelcompletely round their
moon is equal to that of the sun, yet the diffelrence world in the course of fourteen of our days, at the
of their real bulk is very great; for it would re- rate of twenty miles an hour; and the journey
quire more than sixty-three millions of globes of could be so arranged that they might enjoyuinthe size of the moon to form a globe equal in mag- terrupted moonlight from the earth ill one part of
nitude to that of the sun.  The reason why the it, and uninterrupted sunlight during the othersun appears so small, when he is in reality so large an advantage which we can never enjoy in our
a globe, is this-that he is removed ninety five terrestrial region.
millions of miles from the earth, which is nearly   Telescopic appearance of the Moon.-When the
four hundred times farther than the moon. The moon is viewed with a good telescope, tile lunar
diameter of the moon is 2180 miles, whiclh islittle surface presents a very interesting and diversified
more than the fourth part of the diameter of our appearance. Mountains and plains, caverns  and
globe, and consequently, in point of solidity, it is insulated rocks, hilils and plains of alm,)st every
only the forty-ninth part of the bulk of the earth. shape, diversify every portion of the surface of the
]Ifts surface, however, contains fifteen millions of moon. It is evident almost at first sight, that the
Fig. 35.
~_~-        _     =-~
— H
-S-~-;~= _~=~ _===
moon is diversified with inequalities of surface, hundred miles in diameter, orin length and breadth.
and has lofty eminences and deep vales, when we They present a darker and more somber appearview her surface with a powerful telescope, when  ance to the eye than the other parts of the lunar
she appears ill the formn of a crescent or of a half surface, and in many instances, they contain, here
moon; for then we perceive the boundary between  and tllere, deep cavities.  They were formerly
the dark and enlightened side-not a straight line considered as seas, or large collections of water,
or a regular curve, as it would be if the moon  but there appealrs no evidence that seas, or any
were a smooth surface-but jagged and uneven, large collection of waters, exist on the surface of
somewhat like the edge of a coarse saw.  Within  the moon. Besidethese large plains, there are nuthle dark portion of the moon, adjacent to this merous circular plains of a lesser size, of all diboundary bright points appear, somewhat like stars, mnensions, from two or three miles to thirty miles
which are evidently the higher tops of the lunar in diameter, surrounded with a circular ridge of
mountains, enlightened by the sun before his rays mountains, as with a wall or rampart. These are
can reach the valleys, just as we find that in our to be found in most regions of the moon, and they
globe, when the sun is rising, his beams gild the  form a peculiar feature of her surface altogether
mountain tops, while the plains and valleys are different from what obtains on our globe.  2. The
still in the shade. Shadows of different dimen-  moondisplaysa great varietyof mountain scenery.
sions, too, are to be seen in various palrts of the In the first place, there are chains of mountains,
enlightened portion of the moon, indicating both which run in a right-lined direction, not altogether
elevations and depressions.                    unlike those which exist on our globe.  The lnost
The mountainous regions of the moon are ar- remarkable range of this kind is that called the
ranged in a very different form from those of tile Apennines, which traverses a portion of tile lunar
earth.  There are, indeed, some mountain ranges  disc from north-east to south-west, which may be
on the lunar orb somewhat resembling our Alps, seen to advantage about the time of half moon,
and Apennines, and Andes; but one of the dis- and a day olr two afterward. It rises with a pretinguishing features of the moon consists in huln- cipitous and craggy front, from a large plain called
dreds of circular ranges of mountains surround- the snare imbrium, extends to a great length, and,
uing plains of the same shape. The following are in some places, rises to the perpendicular hight of
a few of the characteristic features of the lunar four miles. This is most precipitous on the side
surface. 1. Plains of various extent and peculi- of thle plain, and gradually slopes off with its hunarities Some of these plains are more than one dreds of peaks to the opposite declivity, resenm




THE MOON.                                            45
ling in some degree our Andes and Himalayas.   From  what we have now briefly stated, it is
In the next place, there are insulated mountains, evident that an immense variety of picturesque
or peaks, or mountains in the shape of a sugar and subilmoe scenery is presented to view on the
loaf, which rise directly from  the plains, and are surface of tile moon, and could we conceive ouraltogether unconnected with any ridge or group selves standing on some of her lofty peaks, her
whatever.  Some of these are several miles in circular mountain ridges, or on the summit of her
perpendicular altitude, and their shadows thrown central mountain, we should  behold  a much
opposite to the sun are as distinctly seen through
the telescope as the shadow  of a gnomon on a                         Fig. 36.
sulln-dial.  They bear a certain resemblance to the
Peak of TeneriCfe, and Adam's Peak in the island
of Ceylon.  But in the third place, the chief features of the mountain scenery of the moon consist ill those circular ranges of mountains which
occupy nearly one-half of the lunar surface, and
are dispersed in all directions.  In some cases,
they appear like a wall of sixty, one hundred, or           - _-'___
one hundred and fifty miles in circumference, surrounding  circular plains of corresponding extent.                      _
In other cases they are from five to ten or twelve
miles in diameter; and in maniy instances there is
a central mountain of a considerable elevation,
which rises from the center of the circular plain.'There is nothing similar to these arrangements in                     Fig 37
any part of our terrestrial system.  The lunar
mouintains, according  to Schroeter's  measurements, ale of all sizes, -from three hundred feet to five                         -
miles in perpendicular hight.  3. Another singular feature of the moon's surface consists in those
nunlerous depressions or cavities, which appear on                            R
almost every part of her disc.  These cavities are
circular, and bear a certain resermblance, in shape,                          _
to an egg-cup.  A  high annular ridge, marrked
with lofty peaks and small cavities, generally encircles them, an insulated mountain frequently                         Fig. 38.
rises in the center, and sometimes they contain
smaller cavities of the same nature as themselves.
These hollows are most numerous in the southwest parts of the moon, and from this cause it is        ^
owing that that portion of tile lunar surface is                        /__
more brilliant than anyother portion of the moon;
these cavities, along with the mountainous ridges
which encircle them, reflecting a greateir quantity
of light than any other part of the lunar regions.                                       -
As to their dimensions, they are of all sizes, from                         _
three miles to fifty miles in diameter at their orifices, but they generally decrease imn breadth toward the bottom.  Their depth varies from about                        Fig. 39.
one-third of a mile to three miles and three quarters below the summits of the mountains which
surround them; but in all cases the internal depth
of the cavity is much lower than the general surface of the moon. Of this feature of the lunar
surface we have no examples in any part of our  t
globe; but we have reason to believe, from the
variety which exists in nature, that not one world
in the universe exactly resembles another in its
particular arralngements.
Thi  following figures will perhaps convey a
rude idea of some of the objects on the lunar sur-                  -f
face now  described. Fig. 35 is a view  of the
brilliant spot called Aristarchus, which is situate
in the north-east quadrant of the moon's surface,
where the shadows of some of the circular cav-                      -
ities anid also the shadows of the mountains may 
be perceived. Fig. 37 is the spot called Hevelius,
which contains an annular cavity, and a broken  greater extent of prospect, and an assemblage of
elevation somewhat resembling an egg. Fig. 38 more grand and sublime objects than is presented
represents a cavity surrounded by a circular range to our view in any of our terrestrial landscapes.
of mountains, with two central mountains in the The best time for viewing all the varieties of
middle of the plain, in which the shadows of one scenery on the moon's surface, with a telescope,
side of the circular range and of the central  is about the period of half moon, or two or three
mountains may be seen. Fig. 39 shows another days before or after it, at which times the shadows
mnagnified portion of the moon's disc, exhibiting  of the lunar mountains and cavities are longest
several circular plains, cavities, and other varieties and most distinct.  At the time of full moon,
of the lunar surface.                             many of the objects described above cannot he




46                                THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
perceived, as the sun then shines perpendicularly constructed by the Earl of Rosse, however distinct
upon the moon's surface, so that the shadows of and beautiful a view it may exhibit of the mounthe different objects cannot be distinguished. The tains and vales, rocks and caverns, on the lunar
following  additional particulars respecting the surface, will never be able to show us its inhabitmoon may be stated.                            ants, although they had bodies five hundred times
1. The length of a lunar day is equal to nearly larger than those of the inhabitants of the earth.
fifteen of our days, and the length of the night That telescope has seldom been used with powers
the same, so that a day and night in the moon exceeding eight hundred times; but although a
is equal to twenty-nine days and a half, or one power of two thousand times could be put upon
lunar month. On the hemisphere next the earth, it with distinctness, it would make the moon apthere is moonlight nearly all the time the sun is pear no nearer to us than one hundred and twenty
absent; but in the other hemisphere, in the ab- miles, at which distance a living being, although
sence of the sun, there is no light but what pro- a hundred feet high, could not be beheld. For,
ceeds from the stars and planets. Were a lunarian with such a power, a space on the moon's surface
to travel, at the rate of ten miles an hour, in a one hundred and eighty-three feet in diameter
direction at right angles to the moon's axis, he could only be perceived as the smallest visible
might keep pace with the moon's rotation, and be point. Beside, we ought to consider that when
enabled to live in perpetual sunshine.  92. The we view objects on the surface of the moon, we
light of the moon has been computed to be 300,- do not view them  in perspective, as we view ob000 times less intense than that of the sun, when jects on the surface of the earth, but only obtain
shining in an unclouded sky; yet its utility is con- a bird's eye view, as we do of objects on the sursiderable, and when the full moon shines in its face of our globe, when viewed from a balloon
splendor, it throws a cheerful, though mild light, suspended in the atmosphere, in which case, when
over the surrounding landscape. 3. The nearer we look down upon a group of human beings, we
the moon is to the periods of new and full moon, perceive only the length and breadth of their
the greater is her velocity in her orbit; and the heads and shoulders.
nearer she is to the quadratures, the slower she    There is a possibility, however, of tracing the
moves. When the earth is in its perihelion, or operations of sensitive, or intelligent beings, in
nearest the sun, which happens in the winter, the the lunar orb, although we can never expect to
periodical time of the moon is greatest; and when trace the forms or motions of its inhabitants.
the earth is in its aphelion, which happens in Were a vast number of persons in different parts
summer, the periodical time of the moon is the of the world to devote themselves to a particular
least. 4. The mean inclination of the moon's survey of the moon-were different portions of
orbit to that of the earth is five degrees, nine its surface allotted to different individuals as the
minutes. 5. The eccentricity of her orbit is 12,- object of their particular research-were accu960 miles. 6. The moon in all probability is rate observations made, and frequently repeated,
surrounded with an atmosphere, but it is evidently on every mountain, hill, cavity, cliff, and plain,
a very small one, and of extreme tenuity; and no and every change and modification in the particuclouds or vapors appear to exist in it. It is stated lar spots and their localities carefully marked and
as having been distinctly perceived during the an- represented in a series of delineations, it might
nular eclipse of May,.836, when just before the lead to some certain conclusion both as to the
rims of the two bodies met, the light of the sun physical constitution of the moon, and as to
was seen to shoot through the moon's atmosphere, whether any of the observed changes proceeded
mollified into twilight.  Schroeter calculates its from the operations of living agents. If an obhight at 5742 feet.                             server in the moon, with such a telescope as Sir
There can be little doubt that the moon, like William Herschel's, or that of the Earl of Rosse,
the earth on which we dwell, is a world replenish- had observed the city of Babylon, when in its
ed with inhabitants. Matter appears to have been splendor, and afterward when reduced to a desert,
created chiefly in subserviency to mind; and it as it now is, he must have observed a change in
is highly improbable that the Creator would leave the locality where that famous city once stood,
a globe containing a surface of fifteen millions of indicative of the operations of intelligent, or at
square miles altogether destitute of sensitive and least, of sensitive, or living agents. And had he
intellectual beings, especially when we behold its viewed the dense forests of America before civilsurface diversified and adorned with such a vast ized nations took possession of that country, and
assemblage of picturesque and sublime scenery, were he now to take a view of the eastern states of
and when we consider that every department con- North America, in their present state of cultivanected with our globe is peopled with sentient tion, and since the great cities of New York, Bosbeings of every description.  Although seas and ton, and Philadelphiawere reared, a striking differrivers and a dense atmosphere are not to be found ence between the present and the former state of
connected with the lunar orb, and although some that country would doubtless be perceptible. For,
of its arrangements are different from those of if an extent of only one hundred and eighty-three
the earth, yet these circumstances form no valid feet, or sixty-one yards, would be perceptible by
objection to the moon being inhabited, for the a telescope magnifying two thousand times, much
Creator can in all cases adapt the inhabitant to the more would the extent of a large city, such as
nature of the habitation provided for him, as he New York, be distinctly visible, as a prominent
has adapted the birds for winging their flight and well-defined object. Now, if changes simithrough the air, the fishes for gliding in the lar, or analogous to these, could be traced onil the
waters, and man and quadrupeds for traversing surface of the moon, it would lead us to form
the dry land.                                   some certain conclusions in relation to the operaIt has frequently been a subject of inquiry, tions of intelligent agents, and consequently, that
Whether the inhabitants of the moon may ever such beings actually exist on the lunar surface.
be discovered by the inhabitants of our globe? But such observations as those to which we alNotwithstanding the  improvements that have lude would require not only to be specific and
been made on telescopes in modern times, we minute, but also to be continued for a length of
lhave no expectations that such a discovery will years-perhaps a century or more-before any
ever be made. Even the large telescope lately striking changes could be expected to occur.




THE SUPERIOR PLANETS.                                        47
Dr. Olbers was fully of opinion, from the obser- to our globe, and her light and motions are of
vations he had made, "that the moon is inhabited high utility to its inhabitants.  I-low  cheerless
by rational creatures, and that its surface is more and uncomfortable, in many cases, would be our
or less covered with a vegetation not very dissimi- nights, were it not for the mild radiance which
lar to that of our earth."  It has formed a sub- the lunar orb dispenses in such  regular and
ject of speculation with some, whether it might agreeable vicissitude!  To  the  mariner, while
be possible to correspond with the lunar inhabit- plowing his course through the stormy deep; to
ants by symbolical representations.  If they be the plowman, "plodding his weary way;" to
mathematicians, it has been conceived that the the peasant, pursuing his course through moors
erection of geometrical figures on some extensive and morasses after nightfall; to the shepherd,
plains on our globe, on a scale of vast extent, tending his fleecy charge by night; to travelers
might be recognized by the inhabitants of the in foreign lands; and to the missionary in pagan
moon, as a signal of correspondence, and that countries, when returning at midnight from his
they might erect similar figures in return.  But sacred labors; the moon, in her various stages, is
it is highly questionable whether the design of always a most cheerful and welcome visitant.
such figures would be appreciated, or whether She throws a mild and silvery luster over the
they would be visible to the eyes of the inhabit- forests, the mountains and  the. vales, and we
ants.  Many a look, we may conceive, will be behold a new picture of terrestrial objects, which
directed to our globe by the lunar inhabitants, is more delicately shaded, and disposed into softer
and much wonder will doubtless be expressed at lights than that which is displayed under the
such a large globe hanging over their heads, ap- blaze of the meridian sun-a scene which leads
parently immovable, excepting a rotation round  the pensive mind to pleasing reflections, and to
its axis; and much speculation, will, without solemn contemplation.  By her attractive ilfluquestion, take place among them  as to whether ence, she sways the ocean, and perpetuates the
such a globe as ours be inhabited.  But it does regular returns of ebb and flow, by which the
not appear to be the design of the Creator, in the liquid  element is pieserved from  putrefaction,
meantime, that the inhabitants of our globe and and the inhabitants of the islands and continents
those of the moon should become acquainted, or from  infection and disease. And, although her
that any direct correspondence should take place brightness is not the same at all seasons, and
between different worlds.  And therefore, we though she is sometimes absent from our nocturmust wait with patience until the scenes of a nal hemisphere, yet, in her absence, we enjoy,
future life shall unravel the mysteries, and dispel on a clear evening, a more extensive prospect of
the darkness which now hangs over the history, the starry regions, and of those remote spaces of
the population, and the transactions of other worlds. creation  where  suns unnumbered  shine, and
Whatever may be the peculiar circumstances of  planets and comets run their solemn  rounds.
the beings that people other globes, we know that Let us then be grateful to our beneficent Creator,
they are all under the care and superintendence  who, in this as well as in all his other works,
of Him who is infinite in wisdom, power and in- has displayed his infinite wisdom, and his untelligence; whose "kingdom ruleth over all," and bounded goodness; and let us in unison with the
whose "tender mercies are over all his works." inspired writers, praise the name of tite Lord,
But, whatever opinions we may entertain re- who hath appointed " the moon to rule by night,"
specting the inhabitants of the moon, certain it is as an evidence of his fatherly care, and of his
that she forms a beautiful and l noble appendage mercy, which " endureth forever."
CHAPTER IV.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SUPERIOR PLANETS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
SECTIO N   I.                     inferior planets always appear to move in the
neighborhood of the sun, never removing beON  THEE MOTIONS AND ASPECTS OF THE SUPERIOR  yond forty-eight degrees of that luminary, the
PLANETS.                     superior planets may be seen at all distances from
the sun, and even in the opposite quarter of the
THE planets Mercury and Venus, whose mo- heavens. 4. The superior planets never can aptions and phases we formerly described, are called  pear to transit the sun's disc, as Mercury and
inferior planets, because they revolve round the Venus have been seen to do at different periods.
central luminary in orbits which are included  5. The superior planets never appear in the form
within the orbit of the earth, and consequently  of a crescent, or of a half moon, as the two innearer the sun than the earth is. The superior ferior planets are found to do in certain parts
planets are those whose orbits are without that of of their orbits. They always appear with a
the earth, and, of course, at a greater distance round face, when viewed with a telescope, except
from  the sun.  The superior planets are Mars, Mars, which sometimes appears with  a slight
Vesta, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Astrma, Jupiter, Sa- gibbous phase. 6. A superior planet can only
turn, and Uranus.  They are distinguished from  be in conjunction with  lhe sun, when the sun is
the inferior planets in the following respects:-l. between the earth and the planet; whereas an
They come to our meridian at midnight, which  inferior planet may be in conjunction with the
the inferior planets never do. 2. They are some- sun, when it is between the sun and the earth.
times seen rising in the east, when the sun is 7. There are also certain peculiarities in reference
setting in the, west; a circumstance which never to the direct and retrograde motions of the supehappens to Mercury or Venus.  3. While the rior planets, and the points in which they appear




48                                   THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
stationary, different from  thoso of the inferior to K among the stars, which is its direct motion
planets.  All these circumstances clearly show  through the heavens, or from west to east; so that
that the path of the earth round the sun is in- when the earth is at D, the planet will appear at
eluded within the orbits of the superior planets; m, and when tile earth is at c, it will appear at K.
that we occupy a station that is never very far But while the earth moves through c B A to A, it
removed from the center of their orbits, and that will appear to return to N, having a retrograde
we see these planets ill a direction which  is motion from east to west: so that when the earth
nearly that in which the sun's rays enlighten  is at n, it will appear to be at Mi, and when the
them.                                              earth is at A, it will appear to have returned back
Apparent -motions of the superior Planets as seen  to N. When the earth is either at A or c, the
fromn the Earth.-The superior planets are retro- planet will appear stationary for a few days. The
grade when seen in opposition to the sun, that is, direct motion is very slow from  N to K, because
they appear to move from east to west, or contrary  the earth has to move, during its continuance,
to the order of the signs of the zodiac; and their through the large part of its orbit A D C; but the
motion appears direct, or from west to. east, when  retrograde motion, firom  i to N, is performed in
in conjunction with the sun.  The following dia- much less time, because the earth, while it congram, fig. 39,* will illustrate some of the motions tinues, has to move only from c to A.
and aspects of these planets.  Let the central   We have supposed the planet at rest, in order
circle s represent the sun, A a  c D the orbit of the to avoid complexity in the illustrationl; hut the
appearances will be the same, whether we.conFig. 39.*                      ceive the planet at rest or in motion; only the
time in which the direct and retrograde motions
are performed will be different when we view the
planet as in motion.  Jupiter, Saturn, and all the
other superior planets have similar direct and re-.
trograde motions tand stationary positions.  They
all retrograde whest in opposition, and for some
time before and after it; but they differ greatly
age       /  \          as to the time of its duration.  It is more rapid
and extensive in the case of Mars than of the
other planets which are farther distant from the
sun.  It may just be further stated, that the times
F' -//ci —-     of the conjunctions, oppositions, direct and retrograde motions, and also of the stations of the superior planets depend upon the combinations of
their motions in their orbits with the mnotion of
the earth in its orbit; and this combination causes
all the apparent irregularities which appear in the
motions both of the superior and inferl;or planets.
But all the planets, if viewed from the sun, the
center of their motions, will appear to move without interruption  in the same direction; only
moving somewhat more slowly in their Aphelion,
and more swiftly in their Perihelion.*
earth; E F G H the orbit of a superior planet, suppose that of Mars, and K M N O P R a portion of
the starry heavens. When the earth is at D, and
Mars at E, the planet, as seen from the earth at D,               S E C T I  N.
will appear inl the same part of the heavens as the          GN THE  PLANET MAltS.
sun, or in conjunction with  him. When the
earth is at B and the planet at c, it is then said to    THIs is the first of the superior planets next to
be in opposition to the sun;, for the sun is then  the earth.  Its name, which was agiven by tihe
seen in the direction s r, while the planet is seen ancients, signifies " the god of war," which apin the direction c M. Icn this case, the planet is pears to have been given on account of its ruddy
nearest to the earth, and in the case of Mars, it is or fiery appearance, and because the astrologers
only fifty millioins of miles distant from us. But imagined it to be a promoter of war and bloodwhen the earth is at  iand Mars at G, the planet is shed.. It is rather unfortunate, that the narnes of
the whole.  diameter of the earth's orbit, or one the planets, as well as of the celestial constellahundred and ninety millions of miles farther dis- tions, should all be derived from  heathen mythotacit, and consequently, at that time, two hundred  logy, and from  the superstitious and idolatrous
and forty millionls of miles from the earth. Hence views of the ancients.  It ill comports with thli
it happens that this planet appears about twenty- peaceable study of astronomy that a god of war
five times larger in the one ease than in the other. should be supposed riding in his fiery chariot
When farthllest distant from the earth, it appears through the heavenls, and brandishiing his sword
like a small star; but when nearest us, it appears over the nations to excite them to diabolical connearly as large as Jupiter or Venus, but with a tests.  It presents a melancholy and degrading
more ruddy aspect.  These circumstances clearly  picture of human nature, that in all- ages war has
prove that Mars does not move round the earth  produced its horrid massacres and devastations
as its center of motion, as the ancients supposed, among every kindred, and in every clime, and
but round the sun, and that, too, in an orbit which  that men should have imagined that a celestial
includes the earth's orbit within it.
The cause of the direct and retrograde motions   * The Aphelion is that point of the orbit of the earth, or
of the superior planets will likewise appear from   of any other planet, which is farthest from the sLin; and the
f. 39.e  Supipose   the  earth at Aw aced  ears at f, Perihelion is that point in the orbit of a planet which is
fig. 39.  Suppose  the earth at A, and Mars at E.,
t13,,,.     (., n fl ~~inearest to the sun. As the planiets move is ellil)tical orbits,
while the earth is moving through the part of its they must, of course, be at different distances from the gun
orbit a D c, the planet will appear to move from N i in different parts of tieir orbits.-See Appendix, No. I11.




THE PLANET MARS.                                            49
deity was appointed to preside over its infernal formed in the same direction, namely, from west
operations, and to "urge the foes to battle."  It to east.  Its axis is inclined to the plane of the
will be to the eternal dishonor of the human ecliptic at an angle of nearly sixty degrees, or
character, that ever such malignant exploits were about thirty degrees from the perpendicular.  Of
engaged in, in our terrestrial sphere.  In modern  course there must be different lengths of days
limes, it is an indelible disgrace to nations, who  and nights in different regions of this planet; and,
designate themselves as civilized and enlightened, likewise, a diversity of seasons, somewhat similar
that such a mode of settling disputes between to what we experience on our globe.
states and empires should be resorted to as that of    This planet, as to size, ranks among the smaller
warfare.  It is glariiigly unchristian; it is inhu- bodies of the solar system.  Its dimensions are as
man and atrocious; it is a violation of the funda- follows:-Its diameter is found to be about four
mental laws which unite the moral universe; it thousand two hundred miles-which is little more
is accompanied with almost all the evils which  thtan half the diameter of our globe.  Its surfaco
can afflict humanity; it is subversive of the contains above fifty-five millions of square miles,
wealth and prosperity of nations; and it must be which is several millions more than the number
highly offiensive to the Creator, who has so curi- of square miles on the habitable parts of the
ously constructed the human frame, and formed  earth.  Were its whole surface composed of land,
man "after his own image," that such an exqui- and were it peopled in the same proportion as
site structure should be cut and slashed and de- Belgiumn-three hundred inhabitants to a square
stroyed by those who are partakers of the same mile-it could contain a population of sixteen
nature.  In short, it conveys an absurdity in the thousand five hundred millions, or more than
very idea of it;.for it never can decide on which  twenty times the present population of our globe;
side of a disputed question justice and right are so that this planet, though comparatively a small
to be found; and it degrades man, who is endowed  one, may rank higher than even our world in reswith high intellectual powers, to a level with the pect to the number of sensitive and intellectual
inferior animals-with the bear, the lion, and the beings it may contain. This planet, like the earth
hyena, that have no other mode of settling their and several other planets, is of a spheroidal figure,
disputes but by physical force. Scarcely any- its polar diameter being about two hundred and
thing call be more degrading and monstrous, in sixty miles shorter than its equatorial.
beings furnished with moral faculties, and en-   When viewed with good telescopes, spots of
dowed with reason and intelligence.  But it is various forms have been discovered on the disc of
needless to say that the planet Mars, though some- Mars.  It was, however, more than fifty years
what more ruddy than the other planets, has no after the invention of the telescope, before any
influence whatever over such barbarous and ma- discoveries were made on the surface of this
lignant exploits.  It sweeps along in its course planet, or any spots could be seen to determine its
through the heavens, in unison with the other rotation.  Cassini, an Italian astronomer, about
bodies which composs the solar system, in obe- the year 1666, was among the first who perceived
dience to a universal law, and displays, in its mo- several dark spots on the surface of Mars; and
tions, its Creator's power and wisdom.            Dr. Hooke, in England, and Campani, at Rome,
The distance of this planet from the sun is one about the same time, made similar observations.,
hundred and forty-five millions of miles, and the It was found that all the features wvhich the planet
circumference of its orbit about nine h.undred exhibits at any moment, gradually disappeared in
millions of miles.  The distance of its orbit from  twelve hours and twenty minutes, at the expirathat of the earth is fifty millions of miles; and, tion of which time it exhibits an entirely different
at the time of its opposition to the sui, it is about appearance; and, by continuing to observe its disc,
this distance from the earth-which is the nearest the former features were seen to come successiveapproach to the earth which any primary planet ly into view-and thus was its revolution round
can make, the planet Venus only excepted.  It its axis ascertained, and the period of it accurately
accomplishes its revolution round the sun in six determined. Sonme observers have remarked that
hundred and eighty-seven days, or about one year these spots do not always appear well-defined1 and
and ten mlonths, which is at the rate of fifty-four that they frequently change their formr; but that
thousand miles an hour-a rapidity of motion some of them continue always the sanme.  It apwhich affords a striking idea of the omnipotent pears probable that clouds exist in the atmosphere
energies of the Creator. But before it can return of Mars, and that these, being occasionally interto the same relative position in regard to the sun, posed between the eye of the observer and the
or, in other words, fromn one conjunction or oppo- surface of the planet, may cause the changes of
sition to another, it occupies a period of seven appearance which have been observed.  It is adhundred and eighty days-that is, two years and  reitted by all astronomers that an atmosphere, or
fifty days.  It is only at the period of its opposi- body of air, of considerable density and extent,
tion, when it is nearest the earth, and a short surrounds this planet; for it is found that small
time before and after it, that this planet makes its stars, as they approach the edge of its disc, suffer
most splendid appearance, almost rivaling Jupiter a gradual diminution in brightness, before they
in its luster; and therefore, before we can again disappear, by the interposition of its body; and
see it with the same degree of luster, a period of this obscurity of a star, when seen in such circumtwo years and fifty days, at an average, must stances, must arise from its being viewed through
elapse.  It was in this position in June, 1843; a dense medium  connected with the planet. The
again in August, 1845; and again in October, circumstance, therefore, of an atmosphere around
1847.  This is the most eligible period for observ- Mars, combined with the fact that it has a revoluing the surface of Mars through telescopes, and, tion round its axis, to produce the alternate suelikewise, for observing its direct and retrograde cession of day and night, forms a strong presumpmotions.  From spots which have been observed  tive proof that this planet is an inhabited world,
on thle surface of Mars by the telescope, it was 1 and destined to afford existence and happiness to
determined that it makes a revolution  round numerous orders of beings.
its axis in twenty-four hours and nearly forty    There is an intensely white spot which has beea
mninutes-which is only forty-four minutes longer long observed around the pole of Mars, when,
than the diurnal rotation of the earth, and is per- emerging from darkness, it first receives the sun's
VOL. I.1-42




60                                THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
light; and this gradually diminishes in magnitude schel's observations on this planet, made with a
and brightness until the pole again withdraws it- twenty feet reflecting telescope.  He says that,
self from the sun; and as regularly and certainly  on account of the clearness of its atmosphere, he
re-appearing, when the same pole emerges from  has been enabled to observe, with perfect distinctthe cold and darkness of its winter.  For as the ness, the outlines of continents and oceans; that
axis of Mars is inclined to its ecliptic, or the the land on its surface is distinguished by a red
plane of its orbit, one of its poles is deprived of hue, which imparts to the planet the ruddy apthe solar light during eleven months, or one-half pearance it has when viewed by ordinary ieleof its year, in the same manner as the north pole scopes, and which its light exhibits to the naked
of our globe is in darkness fiom the end of Sep- eye. This redness he ascribes to a quality in the
tember to the 21st of March.  Now, it has been  prevailing soil, like that which our red sandstone
supposed that, during this long winter of eleven districts would exhibit to an observer contemialetmonths in the polar regions of Mars, these regions ing the earth from the surface of Mars. The seas
are covered with snow, which is the cause of the of this planet, he observes, have a greenish hue,
white appearance about the poles, when these altogether resembling the color of our own. These
poles emerge from  darkness; and, after long ex- spots, however, are not always to be seen equally
posure to the sun's rays, during the other eleven  distinct, because of the varying transparency of
months, when the sun is shining upon them with- the atmosphere; but when they are distinctly seen,
out interruption, these polar snows are gradually  they always present the same appearance.  The
dissolved, so as to leave the naked soil of that following are some of the telescopic views which
region exposed to view.                          have been taken of this planet.  Fig. 40 is one
The following are the results of Sir John Her- of the views taken by Sir J. Herschel with his
Figs. 40-43.
twenty feet reflector. The dark portions are con- ler's Laws," were discovered. These laws, which
sidered to be water, and the white spaces land-at we may afterward notice, lie at thel foundation of
a is the white polar spot described above. Fig. modern astronomical science, and give precision
41 is one of the views given by Sir W. Herschel, to its principles.
which presents the appearance of a portion of a
sea, with a gulf running up into the land.  Fig.
42 is a view of Jupiter given by Maraldi, which                S   C T ION  I II.
he observed in 1704, and, by means of the prominence marked b, he determined the period of ro-            ON  THE NEiW  PLANETS.
tation.  Fig. 43 is a view  of Mars, which we
have several times observed about the time of its   WITHIN the limits of the present century, four
opposition to the sun.                           new planetary bodies have been discovered, none
From  the whole of what has been low stated  of which was known to former astronomers.
respecting this planet, the following conclusions They are named Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas.
may, with a high degree of probability, be deduced  They are all situate beyond the orbit of Mars,
-that it is environed with an atmosphere of con- and within that of Jupiter, and presentl a variety
siderable extent, in which clouds probably exist; of singular anomalies; but, as thev are all invisithat the dark spots are water, or seas, which re- ble to the unassisted eye, and can never be noticed
fleet a much less proportion of the solar light than by common observers, we shall give only a brief
land, and probably cover about one-third of its sketch of their history, and their magnitudes and
surface; that a variety of seasons, somewhat simi- motions, so far as they are known. From the in.
lar to ours, must be experienced in this planet, but terval of nearly three hundred and fifty millions
of a much longer duration; and that it bears a of miles which lies between the orbits of Mars
more strikiing resemblance to the world in which  and Jupiter, it was long conjectured, as high!ly
we dwell than any other planet of the solar sys- probable, that some undiscovered planet either
tem.  It was owing to observations made on this exists, or had existed, in some part of this vast
olanet by the famous astronomer, Tycho Brahe, region, so as to present something like proportion
And to the records of his observations having fall- in the arrangements of the systerl, when comen into tile hands of Kepler, that the three great pared with the distances which intervene between
Jaws of.planetary motion, genexalytermed "Kep- I the orbits of Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and




THE NEW PLANETS.                                          51
Mars. This conjecture may be considered as environed with a dense atmosphere.  The planet
having been in some degree realized by the dis- Ceres is 263 millions of miles from the sun, and
covery of four small bodies, situate in orbits at finishes its revolution in four years, seven months,
no great distance from each other, at an average and ten days. Its real diameter is estimated at
of about a hundred millions of miles beyond the 1624 miles, so that its surface will contain more
orbit of Mars.                                   than eight millions of square miles; but its atmoHistory of their Discovery.-The first of these sphere is reckoned at about 675 miles in hight.
bodies which was discovered, was the planet Ceres. It is of a slight ruddy color, and appears like a
It was discovered at Palermo, by Piazzi, a Sicilian star of the eighth magnitude.  The planet Pallas
astronomer, in the constellation Taurus, on the is distant from  the sun about 263 millions of
1st of January, 1801-being the first day of the miles, or about the same distance as Ceres, and
present century-and within the limits of the completes its revolution  in four years, seven
next seven years, all the other three bodies were months, and one-third of a month, which is within
discovered. After being lost for some time, itwas a day of the time of the revolution of Ceres.
re-discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, after a Schroeter, a German astronomer, considered this
series of unwearied observations-when its mo- planet as the largest of the four, and he estimated
tions and position in the, system were determined  its diameter to be 2099 miles, and consequently
-since which time, its place in the heavens can  nearly the size of our moon. It presents a ruddy
always be ascertained.  Only fifteen  months aspect, and  is surrounded with  a nebulosity,
elapsed, after the discovery of Ceres, when Dr. somewhat like Ceres, but not so extensive.  It is
Olbers, on the 28th of March, 1802, discovered distinguished from  all the other planets by the
the planet Pallas. The planet Juno was discover- very great inclination of its orbit to the plane of
ed on the first of September, 1804, at the observa- the ecliptic, which is no less than thirty-four detory of Lilienthal, near Bremen, by Mr. Harding, grees thirty-seven minutes.
while he was endeavoring to form  an atlas of all   These four planets present to our view certain
the stars near the orbits of Ceres and Pallas, with  singularities and anomalies, which, at first view,
the view  of making further discoveries.  The appear incompatible with the harmony and proplanet Vesta was discovered on the 29th of March, portions which we might suppose originally to
1807, by Dr. Olbers, who had previously discover- have characterized the arrangements of the planeed Pallas. He had previously conjectured that tary system.  1. Their orbits are in general more
the three small celestial bodies, lately discovered, eccentric than those of the other planets; in other
were merely the fragments of a larger planet, awords, they move in longer and narrower ellipses.
whbch had been burst asunder by some internal The eccentricities of the orbits of Juno and Pallas
convulsion, and that several more might yet be amount nearly to one-eighth part of the transdiscovered between the orbits of Mars and Jupi- verse axes of their orbits; whereas the eccenter. On this hypothesis he concluded that, as tricities of the orbits of Jupiter and Uranus are
these fragments must all have diverged from the only the one forty-third part, and that of the
same point, they ought to have two common earth, one hundred and nineteenth.  Hence it
points of reunion, or two nodes in opposite re- follows, that Pallas and Juno will sometimes be
gions of the heavens, through which all the plane- 129 millions of miles farther from the sunt at one
tary fragments must sooner or later pass. One period than at another.  2. Their orbits have a
of these nodes he found to be in the sign Virgo, much greater degree of inclination to the ecliptic
and the other in the constellation of the Whale-  than those of the other planets; that of Pallas beand it was actually in the Whale that Mr. Harding ing no less than thirty-four degrees and a half,
discovered the planet Juno.  Therefore, with the which is twenty-seven times greater than that of
intention of discovering other fragments of the Jupiter.  3. They revolve nearly at the same
supposed planet, if any should exist, Dr. Olbers mean distance from the sun.  The mean distance
examined three times every year, all the small of Juno is 254,000,000; of Ceres, 262,903,000, and
stars in the opposite constellations of Virgo and  of Pallas, 262,901,000 of miles; while in the case
the Whale-and his labors were crowned with of all the other planets, many millions of miles,
success, by the discovery of a new planet, in Vir- sometimes amounting to hundreds, intervene bego, to which he gave the name of Vesta.           tween their orbits.  4. They perform  their revoThe magnitudes of these bodies, on account of lutions in nearly the same periods.  The period
their comparatively small size, and the difficulty of Juno is four years, four months and a half; of
of measuring their apparent diameters, have not Ceres, four years, seven months and a half; and
yet been accurately determined.  The following of Pallas, four years, seven months and a half;
is a brief summary of what has been ascertained  whereas the periods of the old planets differ very
respecting their distances, motions and magni- considerably from each other: that of Mars being
tudcs.  The planet Vesta, which was last dis- less than two years; that of Jupiter, twelve years;
covered, is considered as the nearest to the sun. of Saturn, nearly thirty years; and of Uranus,
Its distance from that luminary is reckoned to be eighty-four years. 5. The orbits of some of these
about 225 millions of miles, and it revolves about planets cross each other.  This is a very singular
the sun in 1325 days, or in three years, seven and unaccountable circumstance in  regard to
months and a half, moving at the rate of 44,000 planetary orbits, and cannot possibly happen in
miles an hour. Some have estimated its diameter the case of the other planets, or any of their satel-.
at 276 miles, and if so, it will contain 229,000 lites.  This is represented in the following diasquare miles on its surface.  But it is probable, gram, fig. 44. The orbit of Vesta crosses the
from  a variety of circumstances, that it is con- orbits of the other three, and therefore it is a pos.
siderably larger in size than what is here stated. sible circumstance that a collision might take
The distance of Juno from the sun is 254 millions place between Vesta and these three planets at the
of miles, and it accomplishes its revolution in four points of intersection a and b; and were it ever
years and one hundred and twenty-eight days, at to happen, the consequences would be dreadful to
the rate of 41,850 mniles an hour.  Its diameter is both planets.
estimated by certain German astronomers, at 1425    Within a very short period, a new planet has
English miles.  It is of a reddish color, and is been discovered by Mr. Hencke, of Dreisen, in
free from any nebulosity, and is supposed to be Prussia.  It appeared like a star of the ninth inag



52                                    THIF, SOLAR  SYSTEM.
nitude, in a place where, before, there was none. In its distance and period of revolution, Astrwa
This discovery was made on the 8th of Decem- agrees most nearly with Juno, in inclination with
ber, 1845.  Its place on December the 14th, as Vesta.
found by Professor Encke, of Berlin, at six hours    The discovery of this planet affords a strong
twexty-eight minutes, was, right ascension, 64  corroboration of the hypothesis which supposes
that the four new planets formerly discovered,
Fig. 44.                     originated from  the disruption of a large planet
which formerly moved between Mars and Jupiter
Such a catastrophe is involved inla great mystery;
and yet, without supposing it to have taken place,
we can scarcely account for the peculiarities of
these planets, which form  anomalies in the solar
system.  It is not improbable that other bodies,
originating from the same source, may yet be
discovered.
Such anomalies and singularities, in the case
of these lately discovered bodies-so very different
8      from the arrangement of the other planets-hava
opened a field for speculation and inquiry. It has
been supposed, on somewhat plausible grounds,
that these planets are only the fragments of a larger
planet which had been burst asunder by some
immense eruptive force proceeding from its interior parts.  This hypothesis accounts in a great
measure for the anomalies and apparent irregularities to which we have alluded, particularly for
the intersection of their orbits, and for the fact,
deg 4 min. 53 sec. At thirteen hours, 34 min. 55  that the planets are not round, as is indicated by
sec., its right ascension in time was 4 hours, 16  the instantaneous diminution of their light, when
min., 2 sec. Declination north, 12 deg. 39 min. they present their angular faces. It has also been
53 sec.  At fourteen hours, 33 min. 27 sec. supposed that the smaller fragments thatmayhave
Right ascension in time, 4 hours 16 min. Decli- escaped at the time of the disruption, may account
nation north, 12 deg. 39 min. 52 sec. Its motion  for some of the meteoric stones which at different
was retrograde, and its daily amount, as deter-  times have fallen from  the higher regions upon
mined from the observations, 8 hours apart, was, our globe.
in right ascension, 14 min. 21 sec.  In declina-    Whether we consider the present peculiarities,
tion, its motion was quite insignificant.  This positions and motions of these planets, as accormoving body was afterward observed in England  dant with the state in which they were originally
by Messrs. South, Airy, and others; and from  created, or whether we view them  as the effects
their observations and those of foreign astrono- of some tremendous shock or disruption, there ap-.ners, it has now been determined to be a planet pears to be something sublimely mysterious and
belonging to the solar system, to which the name  worthy of attention in the physical-not to say
Astrma has been given.                           moral-arrangements of the Almighty, in the state
From the notes of Astrwa's position given by  in which these bodies are now found.  If they
Encke and Schumacher, M. Faye, a French as- were originally arranged in the position and order
tronomer, has calculated the elements of its orbit. in which they now appear, they present an anomaThey are as follows:-                           ly, a want of proportion and harmony, to whatever
Deg. Min.     appears elsewhere throughout the whole range of
Epoch, 1845, Dec. 14,.......    71  13.6      the system.  And, if their present phenomena be
Longitude of ascending node,  135  14.6       the effects of some dreadful concussion. the fate
Inclination................     6   1.2      of the beings that inhabited the original planet
Semidiameter of orbit,.......26,024           must have been involved in the awful catastrophe
Movement.................direct.             We need not be much surprised, although such an
Period of sidereal revolution, 4 years 2 months.  event should have taken place, nor should we con
sider it as inconsistent with what we know of the
It appears, therefore, that Astrea has a certain  physical and moral government of the Almighty.
relation to the four minor planets, revolving be-  For all event somewhat analogous happened to
tween Mars and Jupiter, which were discovered  our own globe, at that period when " tihe cataracts
about the beginning of the present century. This  of heaven were opened, and the fountains of the
relation will appear at once when their elements  great deep were broken up," when a flood of waare compared, as in the following statement:-    ters ensued which covered the tops of the loftiest
mountains, transformed the earth into a boundless
Mean dist.  Mean period    Inclination of   ocean, and buried the myriads of its population
from the sun.  in days.        orbit.    in a watery grave.  And we profess to believe
Vesta....2.3678       1325       70   8'  9" that a period is approaching when the great globe
Juno.... 2.6690       1592      13    4    9   we inhabit shall undergo a tremendous change,
Ceres....2.7672       1681      10   37  26   and its elementary parts be dissolved, when tha
Pallas,... 2.7728     1686      34   34  55   aerial "' heavens shall pass away with a great noise,
AstrEa,....2.6024     1521        6    1   2   and the elements shall melt with fervent heat, the
earth also, and the works that are therein shall be
In the element of distance, that of the earth  burned up."
from the sun is taken as a unit. The distance of    All the parts of the material system  are liable
AstrRea from the sun is to that of the earth as to change; and we have no  reason to conclude,
2.6024 to 1.000, or in round numbers as 26 to 10. that, throughout the future periods of duration
It follows that Astraea revolves round the central the earth is the only globe in the universe whose
luminary at the distance of 247,000,000 miles. present constitution and aspect shall undergo an




THE PLAN'ET JUPITER.                                        53
Important change. As it is probable that the work of a velocity of twenty-eight thousand miles an hour,
creation is incessantly going forward throughout which is twenty-seven times more rapid than the
dfferent regions of immensity, so it is highly proba- earth's rotation, by which the inhabitants at the
ble that nu merous changes and renovations are tak- equator are carried along at the rate of 1037 miles
ing place in those departments of creation which an hour. The rotation of this planet was first de.
have long existed, in order to present new scenes termined about the year 1665, by Cassini, by oband new manifestations of the perfections of the serving the gradual motion and revolution' of a
Creator to the view of the intelligent universe. For spot which appeared to move from one side to anthe whole system of creation appears to be in in- other of its disc, and returned again to the same
cessant motion; there is not an orb in the firma- point in nine hours and fifty-six minutes, and as
ment, among all the millions it contains-whether the spot was evidently connected with the body
great or small-but is in rapid and perpetual mo- of the planet, the conclusion was evident, that the
lion through the vast spaces of infinitude, and, in planet itself turned round its axis. Hence we
tiie course of ages, these movements, conducted by learn, that there is an alternate succession of day
certain laws, under the direction and superinten- and night on Jupiter, analogous to that which we
dency of the Supreme, may produce changes and experience on the earth; but the days and nights
revolutions which will add to the grandeur of the are much shorter than ours, and the sun and the
material universe, and excite the admiration of the moons which belong to this planet, together with
intelligent system. He only is immutable who ex- the whole frame of the heavens, will appear to
isted from  eternity past, who gave birth to all move around it with a much greater rapidity than
created beings, whose presence fills the immensity what appears from our terrestrial habitation.
of space, and of whose years there shall be no   The axis of this planet being nearly perpendiend. And throughout all the regions of space, so cular to the plane of its orbit, it cannot have the
far as the material creation extends, his moral go- same variety of seasons as the earth and Mars
vernment is exercised, in a thousand different Its inclination, however, is three degrees, five mi-'modes, corresponding to the rectitude, the wisdom   nutes, which will produce a slight change of seaand the benevolence of hischaracter, andthecon- sons both in the polar and equatorial regions.
dition of the intellectual beings he has formed. Had the axis been as much inclined to the orbit as
For wherever power, wisdom, and intelligence are in the case of the earth, the. polar regions would
displayed, there also must all the other perfections have been deprived of the light of the sun for
of the Almighty be in incessant operation; and nearly six years without interruption.  And alhence we are informed, that "he doth according to though the light and heat of these regions cannot
his will in the army of heaven" as well as among be so great as in other parts of the planet, yet'the inhabitants of the earth."                 there are many ways unknown to us, by which
the All-wise and Beneficent Creator may render
every region of this globe a comfortable habitation for both sensitive and intelligent beings.
SE C TI ON  IV.                       The apparent motion of this planet, like.hat
of Mars, formerly explained, is sometimes direct,
ON THE PLANET JUPITER.               sometimes retrograde, and sometimes stationary.
Its retrograde motion commences or finishes when
THIS planet is the largest body connected with it is at a distance from the sun, which varies from
the planetary system, the sun only excepted.  It 1131. to 116/  degrees. The are which it deis situate about 232 millions of miles beyond the scribes in this case varies from 9 degrees, 59 miorbit of Pallas, 350 millions beyond the orbit of nutes, to 9 degrees, 51 minutes, and its period of
Mars, and 495 millions from  the sun. When duration fiom 116 days, 18 hours, to 122 days, 12
nearest the earth, it is 400 millions of miles distant hours. Its apparent motion through the signs of
fiom us, and when in the remotest part of its or- the zodiac is, at an average, at the rate of a little
bit from the earth, it is 590 millions of miles dis- more than thirty degrees in a year.  It is at pretaut.  Notwithstanding this immense distance, sent (April, 1846), near the beginning of the sign
owing to its great magnitude, it appears the most Gemini, and will be in opposition to the sun on
brilliant star in the heavens next to the planet the 3d of December, about which period it rises
Venus. Its revolution round the sun is accom- near the time of sunset, in a direction nearly
plished in four thousand three hundred and thirty- north-east, and will be seen shining in all its splentwo days and a half, or about 11 years, 10 months, dor, in a clear evening, until five or six o'clock
and 17 days, during which it performs a circuit the next morning. During the following years,
of more than three thousand millions of miles, at it will be somewhat more than a month later,
the rate of more than twenty-nine thousand miles every year, before it arrive at its opposition: but
an hour. Its diameter is no less than eighty-nine it will be a conspicuous object in the heavens, duthousand miles; its circumference two hundred  ring the winter evenings, for several successive
and seventy-nine thousand miles, and its surface years; and as it is the most brilliant planet in the
twenty-four thousand eight hundred and eighty heavens-with the exception of Venus-it is easily
millions of square miles, which is more than one distinguishable from all the surrounding stars by
hundred and twenty-six times the area of our its superior luster.
globe.  But as globes are to each other as the'lhis planet, when viewed through a good telecubes of their diameters, and the cube of Jupiter's scope, presents a very splendid and interesting apdiameter is 704,969,000,000,000 miles, and the pearance, especially when its moons are arranged,
cube of the earth's diameter is 498,677,257,000; two on each side, at nearly equal distances friom
divide the cube of Jupiter's diameter by that of the planet and from each other. When a magnithe earth, and the quotient will be 1413; showing fying power of above a hundred times is used, its
that Jupiter, as a solid globe, is one thousand four surface appears much larger than the full moon
hundred and thirteen times larger than the eartl. does to the naked eye.*  The most striking apThis huge planet moves round its axis in the space pearance on the surface of this planet is a series
of nine hours and nearly fifty-six minutes; which
I Those who are not accustomed to view the heavenly
Is a more rapid rotation than that of any of the bodies through telescopes, are apt to imagine that they are
other planets. Its equatorial Darts will move with not nearly so much magnified by the instrument as theyxcai



54                                    THE SOLAR SYSTEM
of darkish stripes, which run across its disc paral- rangement of the clouds floating in itsatmospherP,
lel to its equator, which are generally denominated  such as we observe in the appearance of its belts.
its belts.  They were first discovered by Fontana,    This is an opinion which very generally pre.
and two other Neapolitans, about twenty-five  vails among astronomers; but we do not think
years after the invention of the telescope.  They  that it will fully account for the phenomena of
were afterward  more particularly  described by  the belts, or that it is consistent with the idea of
Cassini, who  was enabled  to view  them  with  a habitable world.  For if the trade-winds in Jamore powerful telescopes.  Their number is va- piter were increased, in velocity and force, twentyriable-sometimes eight have been seen at one  seven times greater than our trade-winds-which
time, and sometimes only one or two have been  is admitted by those who hold this opinion-then
distinctly visible.  Their general appearance for their violence would be such as to drive everything
several years past, as viewed with telescopes mag- belfore them  along the surface of the planet, and
nifying from  one hundred to one hundred and  there would  be no possibility of living  beings
eighty times, is as follows:-two dark belts,one  moving in opposition to such rapid currents.  It
on each side of the planet's equator, and two fainter  is reckoned that, in a high gale, the wind moves
ones, one at each pole, somewhat broader than the  at the rate of about thirty-eight miles an hourequatorial belts. SirJames South states, that when  multiply this number by twenty-seven, and the
he was making observations with his twelnty-feet product, 1026, will give the velocity of a gale in
achromatic telescopes, with powers of 252 and346, Jupiter, in the same time.  Now, it has been
he perceived Jupiter " literally covered with belts."  found, that a West India hurricane, blowing at
These belts, though generally parallel to each other, the rate of a hundred miles an hour, has blown
are not always so-for a portion of a belt has  heavy cannon out of a battery, torn up trees by
been seen in an oblique position to the rest.  At the roots, and carried huts, sheds, and  human
certain times the belts have continued without beings to a considerable distance through the air.
sensible variation for six or eight mouths, and, ac- What, then, would be the force of a gale moving
cording to some observers a new  belt has been  at the rate of a thousand miles an hour?  And,
formed in the course of a few hours.                 much more, what would be the force of a hurliIt has been a subject of much speculation and  cane in Jupiter, moving at the rate of two thousand
conjecture among astronomners, as to the views  seven hundred miles an hour?  On such a globe
we should entertain respecting the nature of these  as ours, it would overturn and demolish everybelts, and the causes which operate in producing  thing upon its surface, so that our strongest and
the changes which occasionally take place among  most stately buildings could not possibly resist its
them.  Whatever opinion we may form  on this  force.  Such a state of things appears altogether
point, it is pretty evident that the dark stripes or inconsistent with the idea of a comfortable habitbelts are the real body of the planet, and the  ation either for sensitive or intellectual beings. It
bright spaces between them are either clouds in  is much more consistent with the imperfection of
its atmosphere, or circular zones, liable to varia- our knowledge, at once to acknowledge our ignotions, which surround the planet at a certain dis-  rance, and to wait for future discoveries on this
tance from its body.  Some have insinuated that subject, than to broach opinions which lead to
the changes among these belts are owing to great such consequences.
physical convulsions occasionally taking place on    Tlhe following figures represent different views
the surface of Jupiter-an opinion altogether imn-  of the belts of Jupiter.  Fig. 45 represents one of
probable.  Others suppose that the bright streaks  the views taken by Cassini, in which about eight
are the external surface of masses of clouds dis- or nine belts appear, some of them  somewhat
posed in rows, and that such a disposition of  broken and irregular.  Fig. 46 represents another
clouds might be produced  by prevailing winds view, in which there appears an oblique belt formblowing in a direction parallel to the equator of  ing a connection with two adjacent belts, as if it
the planet.  They have been compared to our were a fluid running from the one into the other.
trade-winds, which are considered as the necessary  Some have attempted to trace a resemblance in
effect of the earth's diurnal rotation, combined  the changes of the belts and spots to what would
with the influences of the solar Theat upon the  appear upon the disc of the earth, viewed  at
tropical belt of the earth; and that the rapid diur- such a distance as would bring it to the size of
nal motion of Jupiter will cause the trade-winds  Jupiter.  It is supposed  that the  great ocean,
in that planet to have a permanence, force and  which environs our globe, would  resemble the
range, which would produce a distribution and ar- principal belt of Jupiter; the Mediterranean, one
of the broken belts; the Caspian Sea, a large spot;
ly are. With a power of one hundred times, most persons some of our largest islands, the bright spots seen
would imagine that Jupiter appeared much less than the  in the belts, as in fig. 45; and the clouds stretched
mrion to the naked eye; and yet it may be proved that such  r d tch ngeablo
a power presents this planet to the eye with a diameter of
about twice  that of the apparent size of the moon. Tie  belts.  But such views are more fanciful than
mean apparent diameter of Jupiter is thirty-eight seconds, accordant with the observed phenomena of this
which, being multiplied by one hundred, the magnifyving  planet, and we must wait for further discoveries
power, produces three thousand eight hundred secocdswh cl  before we come to acy decisive conclusions on this
is equal to sixty-three and one-third minutes. No-, the
mean apparent diameter of the moon is thirty-one minutes, subject.  Perhaps the Earl of Rosse's great teletwenty-six seconds, the double of which is sixty-two minutes, scope, which is now in use for celestial observafifty-two seconds, which is less than the apparent size of Ju-  tioss, may be the means of throwing some frthier
piter when magnified one hundred times. But, when in op-      this 
position, Jupiter's apparent diameter is forty-seven and a
half seconds, and conseqluently, at such a period, this planet correct views of the belts, spots, and otlher plienowill appear still larger. In order to produce full conviction  mena  of this planet.  It has already resolved cerof the accuracy of the above statements, an observer should  tain nebulm into stars, which were formerly supview Jupiter, when in the immediate viciuity of the moon,                         Fig. 4   represents a
and, looking with one eye through the telescope, and with  posed to be uresolvable.  Fig. 47 represents a
the other at the moon, endeavor to make the image of Jupiter telescopic view of Jupiter and his four satellites,
in the telescope to coincide with the moon, and he will then when two of them  happen to be on each side of
clearly perceive the proportion of their apparent magnitudes. his disc.  The belts, as represented in this figure,
From what has been now stated, it appears that a magnifying power of fifty times will make the disc of Jupiter appear are nearly similar to what they have appeared for
as large as the moon to the naked eye.               several years past.




THE SATELLITES OF JUPITER.                                    55
We may just mention the following additional of Jupiter, weigh 2 pounds, 4 ounces, 8 drams.
particulars respecting this planet:-Notwithstanld- The eccentricity of its orbit, in mliles, is 23,810,inlg the brilliancy with which it appears in our 000, and tile inclination of its orbit to the eclil)tio
nocturnal sky, its light, derived fiom  the sun, is is 1 degree 19 minutes.  In the firmament of Ju27 times less than what falls upon the earth; and piter, no planets will be visible to such eyes as
the diameter of the sun, as seen from Jupiter, is ours, excepting Saturn and Uranus. An observer,
only 6 minutes, 9 seconds, or about one-fifth of placed on this planet, would have no suspicion
the diameter the sun appears to us. The figure  that such a globe as our earth had an existence in
of this planet is that of an oblate spheroid- the universe-all its fanlcied splendors and its
the equatorial being more than six thousand proud inhabitants are as much unnoticed and unmiles larger than the polar diameter. Its density, known as the smallest animalculie in a drop of
compared with that of water, is as 1' to l —il  water to the unassisted eye. To hiis saltellites,
other words, it is somewhat denser than water. Jupiter will appear as a large and resplendent
Althouglh  it is one thlousand foulr hundred times moon in their firlament, filling  a considerable
larger thlan the earth in bullt, yet it would wighl portion of tile sky; fromn the surface of the first
only three hiundred and twelve globes of the saue satellite it  i appear above a thonsaud  times
size and density as our globe. Its mass, as corn- larger than the moon does to us, aid will, in suepared witsh tret of the sun, is as 1 to 160,7039. A  cession, present to it all the diversified phases of
body weighing  ule pound at the equatorial sur-the moon-a crescent, a gibbons phase,  a halfface of A e earthl, would, if removed to the surface mooi, and a full enlightened hemisphere.
Figs. 45, 46, 47.
A______ _           _______
47.                          ~              _________
-~~~~ — ~ ~ ~ ~ -~-~
3~~~- -he
~ —-----.~ —
S E C T I 0 N  V.                making his appearance, and, applying his instruTHE 5TELLTE5 O  JUPTER.   meat to that planet, he perceived three small
brig'ht stars very near it, two on the east side and
Tuis planet is accompanied by four satellites, one on the west. These he took to be fixed stars
or muons, which revolve around it in different at that time; hut, happening the next night to
periods of timne. The discovery of these revolv- view them again, lhe saw them all three on tlim
lug bodies was among the first enterprises accome- wvest side of Jupiter; which made him greatly
plished after the iinvention of tihe telescope; they wonder liew thils could be, for it was an event
were first discovered by Galileo, an Italian as. quite incousistent w-itlh the theory of the planets
tronoiner, in the begi nning' of the year 1610. In and fixed stars. On the teinth night he saw but
his book, entitled " Sidereas Nuncius," he gives two, and both on the east of Jupidter; on the
us a particular account of their discovery, and eleventh also he saw but two, and bothi on the
the nuomerous observatoions he made ois their same side; but one of these was twice as large as
motions and relative positions, accompanied with the otiser —and, hence, he was sure they were not
sixty-four figures of their various aspects at dif- the samse lie saw the night before. On the thirferent times. Ons the 7ths of January, 1610, in tecnth night, viewing them again, he satw four of
the evening, while observing the stars with his these small stars, three on the west side of Jupinewly-iivesited telescope, he perceived Jupiter ter, and one on the east side, all nearly in a straight
------ _-~==
g~ ~~~~~~~-tI —-=z;~-=;-_= = —— ~ ----
~-~= —-=~_~_~
47j
S E C T I O N  V.     making his appearan —,=cad  plig  i ls-l
~~ —Y-~-men t  tht  lant h  prceve  tl] e sal
0N ~ ~      -- THESAELITS  F UPTE.                     i
— rur^_~~~~l=lt sarsver nea lt tw  onthe astsld an
tI-IX pallt isaccmpaied  y ful  atelts  oneon he  les. Tesehetoos   befixd sar
or lrselons~, wi-ch eov r=="- it ill different that time; blhpe-il h ex lgt
periods ot tiltle. The d;-~-~iscvr o hservl-viwthmagi, = swthmal hreoi 
illgl~odiswasamolgth~firsLLterp —~Lss-o-  ws sd o uitr wih aehi -e-l
[ECIS                     a      p      llrticrnCOlto  theiis apaacoer, andlevellth  als he sa bu wo nd th       th
tile  ltlllerols oservaionshe mde Ol th ir h same s side; bunea of, ths was twie east large as
mtiosadrelatv pOitllS, as ccompallied wit fothr satlldt, hene, o he wast surse h to th ey wiere not
sit-olr fgres of~ thsllc rtvaliou aspects at indif-~reth satial hie; saw, thpening ht befoe Oil1th thi
frelltc~ o timres. O-l the 7tlly of Jtnua ry,11,ieenthlligl viewin them again, he saw fou lltre cufli
the bdevening whleobevng the sistetarprs wihhi heesnalstlthe o h west side of Juptr hc aehmg~apihiewly-   iillveled tLieleuscope, is, he. pecie   uiter ter, and bone  on the east sie allnearly in 3   triht




~50                                   THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
line.  On the fifteenth, he beheld all the four on  its disc; and the transits of their shadows across
the west side of the planet, nearly in a straight  the face of Jupiter, which appear like dark spots
line, and at equal intervals from Jupiter and fromr  on a bright grounld-all which phenomena may
eachl other.  These were all he could ever dis-  be perceived by  means of powerful telescopes.
cover; and, by constantly observing their situa-  When they pass across the disc of Jupiter, and
tion and changes, found that they were not fixed  project a shadow on its surface, this produces a
stars, but moons, or secondary planets, revolving  solar eclipse to all those places over which  the
about Jupiter in the same mannler as the primary  shadow  passes.
planets revolve about the sun.  The  telescope    It has been concluded, from  observations made
with which thlese obseirvtions were made magni-  by Sir WV. Herschel and others, that the satellites
flied about thirty-three times.                       of Jupiter always turn the same face to tlie planet,
These satellites form  a system  of revolving  and mrake one rotation on their axis during one
bodies, somewhat similar to the great system  of revolution round the planet-which corresponds
the sun and primary planets.  As the sun is the  with  what we find in  the case of our moon,
center of the primary planets, so Jupiter is the  which, as formierly noticed, always turnls tle same
immediate central body around which the satel-  hemisphere to the earth.  The following  table
lites revolve; but vwhile  these revolutions are  shows the magnitudes of these bodies, their times
going forward, the. satellites are at the same time  of revolution, their distances from  Jupitey in
carried along with Jupiter in his course round the  miles, and the duration of their eclipses:sun.  The satellites are governed  by the sanme                 Diameter   ist. from   Times of liuration
laws as the primary planets; they describe equal                ill Miles.   Jupiter.  PRevolution. ofEclipse.
areas inl equal times; and have the squares of their  Ist satellite, 2,508  260,000 1d. 18h. 2~Sm. 2 hours.
periodical times proportioned to the cubes of their  2d           2,068     420,000 3  13  14'A  3
mean distances from  the planet.  They revolve  3d                3,377      G70,000  7  3  43   2_
from  west to east, in the same direction as the  4th             2,890    1,18,000 16 16  32   5
moon and the primary planets-and in  planes    The fourth satellite is about three times the bulk
very nearly, though not exactly, coincident with  of our moon, and all the satellites taken together
the equator of the planet, or parallel to its belts. are equal to nearly thirteen of our moons.  The
Accordingly, we see their orbits projected very  number of square miiles on the surfaces of all the
nearly into straight lines, in which they appear to  satellites is above ninety-five millions.  Fig. 48
oscillate to and fro, sometimies passing before Ju-  shows the orbits of the four satellites, though not
piter, and casting shadoxws on his disc, and some-  in the exact proportion of their distances firom Jutimes disappearing  behind  his body, or being  piter-the fourth satellite being nearly double the
eclipsed by his s!iadow at a distance from it. It
has been established, frorm  observation, that 247                         Fig. 48.
revolutions of the first satellite, 123 revolutions
of the second satellite, and 61 of the third satellite, are performed exactly in tile same number of
days.  It has been found, by La Place, that "the
epoch (or m-cean longitude) of the first satellite,
minus three tirmes that of the second, plus two
times thiat of the third, is exactly equal to a semicircle, or 180 degrees."  From  this it follows,
that the first three satellites  of Jupiter can never
be eclipsed at the sae timie; for, if tlis were possible, the lonisiiudre of three satellites would  be
equal at the tiine of their eclipse, which is imepos-   a                                              c
Bible.
These  satellites suffer nuimerous eclipses in
their revolutions rosund Jupiter.  The Iirst three
suffer an eclipse every tisire they are in opposition
to the sun.'1'he fiist is inl opposition every fortytwo anid a half hours, anid conseqsuentlv  suffers
about eighteen ectipses every imonth. The seconid
and  third  likewise  sutfier a variety of eclipses
every month; but the fourth satc llite frequently
passes its opposiiioni withlout being inivolved in                         -
the shadow of' Jupiter, as its orbit ihas a greater
degree of inclination to the orbit of Jupiter, than
those of the othlier sat.ellites.  During  tihe year
1845, there happened 174 visible eclipses of the
first satellite, 88 of the, seconid, an ed 45 of the
third-beside those which are  invisable on  account of Jupiter's nearnless to the suni.  Whereas
the fourth satellite did not suffer a single eclipse  distanice of the third.  When a satellite moves
(luring the year 1846.  These satellites may be  through  the part of its orbit a b c, wlich is far5seen with a telescope rnmarlifyinlg about twenty-  thellst distant from  the eartht-lcich is sl uplosed
five or thirty tines; but, in order to see thIeir  to be placed in tie direction E-it appears to nmove
eclipses to advantage, thie telescope sholld be fnr-  from  west to east; but wlen it movesI throli gh
nishied with powvers of 100 or 200 times.  Thle  the other portioin of its orbit, c d a, it applears to,ircumstanc es to be chiefly observed, in reference  move firom east to west.  But, as our' eye. is n.early
to the satellites, are, their eclipses-that is, their  on a level with the plane of the orbits cf  these
entering into the shadow  of Jupiter, when they  satellites, their motions  appear to be perforlned
suddenly disappear, or their emersion fiom  it;  nearly in straig'ht lines.  Thcough their enlightentheir occultations or disappearance bheilind the  ed sides are almost constantly turned toward the
body of tile planet; their transits or pasdge across  eartsh, yet they present all tile varied phases of




THE PLANET SATURN                                         57
the moon to Jupiter himself-sometimes appear- dred and sixty miles in a minute, and flying
ing as crescents, sometimes as half moons, and through the regions of the heavens at the rate of
sometimes shining with full enlightened hemi- nearly thirty thousand miles every hour, carrying
spheres.                                        along with it four revolvinlg worlds in its swift
The eclipses of these satellites have been found career, and continuing this rapid course, without
of great utility in determining the longitude of intermission; from  one century to another, for
places on the surface of our globe, in a manner thousands of years —and we behold a.scene, calmuch more accurate and easy than was known culated to fill every reflecting mind with admiraprior to their discovery. They also led to the dis- tion and astonishment.  While  contemplating
covery of a sublime and unexpected fact, namely, such a scene, can we forbear raising our thoughts
the motion of light, and the rate at which it is to that Almighty Being, who at first formed this
propagated through the regions of space.  It was mnighty globe, and launched it from  his powerfound that a difference of sixteen and a half min- ful arm, and whose incessant energy sustains
utes existed between the times when the eclipses it in its swift career from  age to age?  Here
were seen when Jupiter was nearest the earth, we behold a demonstrative proof that "power
and when he was farthest distant; and it was con- belongeth unto God;" that " his greatness is uneluded that light requires this space of time to searchable;" that " all inations before ihim are as
fly across the earth's orbit, which is one hundred  nothing;" that there is none like unto Jehovah,
and ninety millions of miles in diameter, and, nor any works like unto his works; that He
consequeintly, that light moves with a velocity of " doth great thilngs, and unsearchable," and " marabout one hundred and ninety-two thousand miles velous things without number."  And here we
every second. This conclusion has been fully have palpable evidence to confirm  our belief that
confirmed by Dr. Bradley's discovery of the aber- there can be nothinig beyond the power of Jehoration of the light of the fixed stars.         vah to accomplish, and that we may rest secure
The four umoons, which accompany this planet, that all the promises and predictions of his word
must exhibit many curions and sublime phenome- shall, in due time, be fully accomplished, to the
na to its inhabitants, as they perform their noctur- eternal happiness of all those who put their trust
nal courses through their firmamnent.  Sometimes in Him: " For the Lord God omnipotent reigneth,
they will be seen eclipsing the sun, and, at other his kingdom ruleth over all;" and his faithfulness
times, the stars, and sometimes eclipsing each dis established " in. the very heavens."
other. Sometimes two, three, and even all the
four will be seen shining in the heavens in one
bright assemblage-one, perhaps, in the form of
a crescent; one with a gibbous phase; one like a              S E C T I 0 N  V I.
half moon; and the other with a full enlightened
hemisphere; one moving comparatively slow, and           O N T HE P L AN ET S ATU R N.
another rushing rapidly through the sky, and
leaving all the others behind it; one under a total   TinIS planet is situate at nearly double the diseclipse, another entering into it, and a third emerg- tance from the sun as the planet Jupiter-an iming from it. These, and many other celestial phe- mense interval of 410 millions of miles intervennolena, must be hIigily interesting and gratify- ing between the orbits of these planets, although
ing to the astronomers and all others in that far next to each other in the order of the system. Its
distant world.  The celestial scenes exhibited from  distance from the sun has been estimated at 906
the satellites themselves will be no less interesting millions of miles; when nearest to the earth, it is
and sublime. From the surface of the first satel- 811 millions of miles distant from us; and, when
lite, the globe of Jupiter will appear like an irn- most remote, it is distant above a thousand milmense body in the firmament, above a thousand  lions of miles. It takes nearly thirty years to
times the size that the moon appears to us, and perform  its revolution round the sun —during
filling a large portion of the sky; and it will ex- which period it moves round a circumference o.
hibit, in the course of twenty-one hours, a cres- nearly five thousand seven hundred millions of
cent, a half moon, a gibbous phase, and a full en- miles, at the rate of twenty two thousand miles
lightened hemsisphere, with all the variations of every hour. Its period of rotation was for a long
the belts which diversify its surface. Beside, the time, unknown; but Sir W. Herschel, from  ohappearances of the other three moons in its firma- serving the motion of some spots on its surface,
ment will be higlhly interesting. Atcertain times, at length ascertained that it turned round its axis
one of these moons will coDme so near the first in the space of ten hours, sixteen minutes, and
satellite as to appear three times larger than the nineteen seconds.
moon does io us, and, at other times, it will ap-   When viewed by the naked eye, this planet
pear sixteen times smaller than in its former posi- presents the appearance of a nebulous star, of a
tion; and a variety of other phenomena will be dull leaden color, which would lead one, at first
presented, which it would be too tedious to de- sight, to imagine that it could present no very
scribe —all which will present to view objects of interesting appearance, even through a telescope;
overpowering, grandeur, far superior to what we and, as its motion is slow, it is hardly distinguish
behold in our nocturnal sky.                    able from  a fixed star. Its motion being slow
OnI the whole, the planet Jupiter, as accom- compared with that of most of the other planets.panied with his satellites, presents to our view an — if it be once recognized in the heavens, by any
object of surpassing grandeur and sublimity, when observer, near any large stal, it will be found,
we contemplate the vast magnitude of this mag- from year to year, making only a slow progress
rificent globe, anti the velocity with which it to the eastward from  that point.  Its apparent
fiies throughi the regions of space.  Let us con- motion in that direction, in the course of a year,
ceive, if we are able, a globe, fourteen hundred  is little more than twelve dlegrees, or less than tlhe
times the size of our world, with a surface capa- moons moves in twenty-four hours.  Hence, if
ble of coiitaining a number of inhabitants, eight we perceive this planet in any particular point of
thousand times greater than the present popola- the heavens this year, about the same timne next
tion of our globe; let us conceive such a globe year it will appear only about twelve degrees
revolving round its axis at the rate of four hun-  farther to the east. In the year 1846, Saturn




68                                 TTIE SOLAR SYSTEM.
might be seen rising on the 5th of July, about 10 pallied with a more numerous train of attendants
o'clock in the evening, in north latitude 52 de- than any of the other planets.  No fewer thanir`
grees, near the south-eastern part of the sky; and  seven large moons have been discovered moving
in 1847, about twelve days later, or about the 17th  around this mighty orb to diffuse light over its
of July, he might be seen rising at the same surface in the absence of the sun, and to diversify
hour, nearly in the same point of the horizon: the scenery of its firmament.  It was nearly half
thus the time of his appearance in the evening, a century after the invention of the telescope,
from year to year, may be readily traced by any  before any of these satellites were discovered.
commlon observer.                                  The first of these bodies which was discovered
Notwithstanding the dull appearance of this was that which is the sixth in the order of displanet to the naked eye, when viewed through a tances from  Saturn.  It was discovered on the
powerful telescope, it presents a more singular 25th of March, 1655, by Huygens, a celebrated
and magnificent appearance than any other body Dutch astronomer.  In his work, entitled "Sysconnected with the solar system; and were it as tema Saturnitin," published in 1659, he gives us
near us as Mars, or even as Jupiter, it would pre- an account of sixty observatiolls-each accomsent a splendid aspect even to the naked eye. The panied with a figure —which he made on the
ancients, who first traced the motion  of this various positions of this satellite in respect to
planet, could form  no idea of the grandeur of  Saturn; in order to determine that it was a revolvSaturn, and of the system with which it is con- ing body which performed a circuit around Satnected; and their astrologers, on account of his urn as a center.  These observations were made
pale, leaden hue, accounted him  as a cheerless, with a common refracting telescope, twelve feet
unfortunate planet, and as shedding a malign in- long, which magnified about sixty-eight times,
fluence upon the inhabitants of the earth.  But but had not power nor light sufficient to show
after ages of darkness and superstition had rolled  the rest of the satellites.  It was not until the
away, the telescope, which has unfolded to us the year 1671, that any other satellite was discovered:
wonders of the heavens, was invented, and, by  in that year Cassini, a French astronomer, discothe help of this inoble instrument, a system  of vered the seventh satellite, or the most distant
revolving bodies was discovered around this planet, from  Saturn, which is next in brightness to the
and a piece of celestial mechanism  disclosed to  sixth; and in 1672, the same observer discovered
view, more wonderful and magnificent than any  the fifth satellite.  Fourteen  years afterward,
other object within the limits of our system-the namely in 1686, he discovered  the third and
existence of which we could never previously  fourth; and ii making these observations lhe used
have anticipated.                                  telescopes of more than a hundred feet in length:
In magnitude, this planet nearly approximates though he tells us that afterward he could see all
to the size of Jupiter.  Its diameter is estimated  the five satellites with a telescope only thirtyat seventy-niue thousand miles; its surface con- four feet long, which could bear a magnifying
tains nineteen thousand six hundred millions of power of only about one hiundred and twenty
square miles; and its solid contenlts amount to  times.*  No other satellites were discovered until
two hundred and sixty-one billions, three hundred  more than a century afterward; when Sir VW.
thousand millions of cubical miles.  It is, conse-  Herschel erected at Slough, near W indsor, his
quently, nearly a thousand times larger than our large forty feet reflectinig telescope.  On the first
globe.   With powerful telescopes, four or five day this telescope was fit for observation, namely
belts have been discovered on its surface, which  oi the 28th of August, 1789, the second satellite
are broader and less strongly marked than those of was discovered; and soon after, the same uniwearJupiter, and are not subject to  the variations led observer discovered the first, by means of the
which appear in Jupiter's belts-and therefore it same instrument.  These satellites cannot all be
is probable that they form pernmanent portions of seen but by means of powerful instruments.  The
tilhe globe of Saturn, indicating  that there is a sixth and seventh, or the two outermost, may be
diversity of surface oil this planet; but wiether perceived by telescopes magnifying from  eighty
land and water, or any other substance, is to us to one hundred times; but the two innermost,
unknown.  Its figure, like that of Jupiter, is a discovered by Herschel, are the most difficult obspheroid —the proportion of the polar and equa- jects to be perceived throughout tile whole range
torial diameters being nearly as eleven to twelve; of the solar system, and have seldom  or never
consequently  the  equatorial diameter is 6700 been seen with a less instrument than a twenty
miles longer than tfne polar.  The quantity of feet reflector, and eighteen inches aperture.  It
light it receives from  tile sun is only the one- has been remarked, that the seventh satellite, or
ninetieth part of what we receive; but this potr- the most distant from  Saturn, is sometimes not
tion of lighlt is equal in effect to the light which  visible in the eastern part of its orbit, and that it
would be reflected from a thousand full moons Iappears to grow dimmer and dimlmer as it recedes
of the size of that which is connected withl our I from  its primary.  This has been accounted for
world.  Tile density of this planet is less than  by supposing that it is sometimes covered with
that of any other planlet ill tile system.  It has spots, and at other times free of thelem, or, if the
been calculated, on physical principles, that a ball spots be permanent, that it has a rotation round
of cork equal in size to Saturn would nearly  its own axis. Tile following are the periods of
counterpoise it, that is, would be nearly of the  the sidereal revolutions of these satellites, and
samne weight; so that its specific gravity is less their distance from Saturn  in miles.  The first
than half the weight of water.  Notwithstanding, satellite, or that nearest to Saturn, performs its
it is possible that the  density of the materials revolution in twenty-two hours and a half, at the
onl its surface may be as great as those sub- distance of 120,1000 miles from  the center of the
stances which form tlhe upper crust of our globe;
stances   iicfor tie  uppercrustf our gbe;   * The long telescopes here alluded to —which were vary
and its density, instead of increasing toward the difficult to manage, and required great dexterity and ad.
center, as is the case with the earth, may gradu- dress in using them —are now entirely superseded by the
ally decrease from its surface to its central parts, invention of achromatic and reflecting telescopes, which
so that the materials near the center may be as             a tigh power, with a comparativelv short length
of tube; an achromatic telescope, 5 feet long, may carry a
light as air.                                      magnifying power superior to that of a cor.a.-on refraotinag
The satellites of Saturn.-This planet is accom- telescope a hundred feet in length.




SATELLITES OF SATURN.                                        59
planet, and only 18,000 miles from  the edge of soon after he had presented his newly invented
the ring.  Of course, this satellite will move telescope to the heavens, was the first of mortals
round the visible hemisphere of Saturn's firma- who caught a glimpse of this singular appendage
ment in little more than eleven hours.  The to the globe of Saturn: but on account of the
second satellite resolves round the planet in one i want of sufficient power in his telescope, he did
day and about nine hours, at the distance of 150,- l not recognize the nature of the object he was
000 miles. The third satellite performs its revo- contemplating.  From what he could discern, ha
lution in one day twenty-one hours and a quarter,  nimagined that Saturn consisted of three globes —a
at the distance of 190,000 miles.  These three larger globe in the middle, and two small globes,
satellites are all much nearer to Saturn than our one on each side, and all the three nearly touchmoon is to the earth; and as they are undoubtedly  ing each other. After viewing this phenomenon
larger than our moon, they must present a large I for the space of two years, he was arliazed, at the
and splendid appearance to the inhabitants of end of this period, to find the middle globe left
Saturn.  The fourth satellite completes its circuit quite alone, and the two smaller globes to have
in two days, seventeen hours and three quarters, at I disappeared; but after a period of about a year he
the distance of 243,000 miles,or a little more than again caught a glimpse of them, when they conthe distance between the earth and moon. The tinned visible for about fourteen years in succesfifth satellite finishes its periodical revolution in sion. Nearly half a century elapsed before the
four days, twelve hours, fifty-five minutes, at the true nature and form of this extraordinary phenodistance of 340,000 miles. The sixth requires a menon were discovered. During this period many
period of fifteen days, and twenty-two hours and were the strange conjectures which were formed
three quarters, and revolves at the distance of respecting it. Some astronomers thought that
788,000 miles. The seventh, or outermost sat- the two small globes stuck to the mioidle globe,
ellite, requires sevelity-nine days and about eight others that they were separated from  it.  Some
hours to complete its revolution, and its orbit is thought that the phenomenon consisted of one
2,297,000 miles from  the center of Saturn, or longish body, or ellipsoid, and that it was perforamore than nine times the distance between the ted with a very large hole, or opening on each
earth and the moon. The orbits of the six inte- side. Some imagined that two bodies, each of
nior satellites are nearly circular, and very nearly  the form of a crescent, were connected with the
in the plane of the ring.  The orbit of the body of Saturn, and one placed on each side; and
seventh approaches nearer in coincidence with  some that the phenomenon consisted of an ellipthe ecliptic.                                    tical ring, but that this ring was attached to the
These satellites, like those of Jupiter, undergo  globe of Saturn, above and below. Hnygens, in
frequent eclipses; but on account of their great his "'Systema Saturnium," presents us with fourdistance from  the earth, these eclipses are not teen engravings of the various forms which cliffrequently observed. It is evident that such a ferent astronomers had conceived respecting this
numerous assemblage of moons revolving around  appendage to the globe of Saturn, some of which
this planet at different distances and in different are very curious, and almost ridiculous, yet, in
periods of time, will present a most beautiful, some cases, indicating considerable ingenuity of
variegated, and sublime appearance in the heavens conception.  It was not until about the years
of Saturn; especially when all the seven satellites 1655 and 1656-forty-six years after the invenhappen to appear at the same time above the tion of the telescope-that the real nature and
horizon.  Then one will appear as a full moon, figure of this singular phenomenon were discovanother as a crescent, and another with a half  ered by Huygens.  This ingenious mathematician
moon, or a gibbous phase-one entering into an and astronomer, in order to settle the disputes on
eclipse, and another emerging from  it-the two this subject, resolved in the first place, to improve
inner satellites, on account of their nearness to the art of grinding object-glasses, so as to increase
the planet, presenting the largest discs, and the the magnifying power of telescopes; and in this
most splendid appearance, and moving with great he succeeded so far as to make some that magnivelocitv in their orbits, rapidly passing the other fled two or three times more than those which
satellites, at different rates of motion, and leaving  had been previously in use. With a telescope
them behind in their courses. On the surface of twelve feet long, and another, twenty-three feet
Saturn itself, a curious effect will be produced, in length-which would magnify nearly a hunand a diversified scene presented.  The shadows dred times-and, after a lonlg series of observa.
of all objects will be projected in different direc- tions, he demonstrated the true cause of those
tions by the different satellites, according to their surprising phenomena, which had puzzled all prerelative positions in the heavens.  One satellite ceding astronomers, and showed to a certainty
will project the shadow of an elevated object that Saturn is surrounded withl an immense ring,
toward the east, another will project it toward  which is entirely separated fiom its body by an
the west; a third will make it fall toward the interval of many thousand miles, and that the
north; and in a variety of other directions, accord- diameter of the ring, in proportion to the diaming to the number of satellites above the horizon, eter of the planet, was as 9 to 4.
and the positions they occupy in the firmament;   Since the time of Huygens, it has been discoand the swift motion of the first two satellites will vered that this circular arch, which surrounds
cause the direction of these shadows rapidly to Saturn, is composed of two concentric rings,
change. In addition to all this variety of celestial separated by an interval of nlearly two thousand
scenery there is the grand spectacle produced  miles. The following are the dimensions of these
hy the magnificent rings with which the planet is rings, as calculated by Sir J. Herschel, from  the
encircled-which we will now endeavor to describe. measurements of Professor Striive, made at Dorpat-by means of the superb micrometer attached
to his great telescope:-Exterior diameter of tho
S E C T IO N  V I I.                exterior ring, 176,418 miles; interior diameter of
ON THE RINGS OF SATURN.                 ditto, 155,272. Exterior diameter of the interior
ring, 151,690; interior diameter of ditto, 117,339.
THESE rings form  one of the most wonderful Equatorial diameter of the body of Saturn, 79,objects connected with the solar system. Galileo, 160. Interval between the planet and the interior




60                                     THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
ring, 19,090.  Interval between the two rings, powerful telescopes, are highly interesting and
1791.  Thickness of the rings, 100 miles.  These  beautiful; but the appearance of the rings is not
dimensions are considered by some as rather too  the same at all times. When seen to the greatest
small. Sir W. Herschel, and all the astronomers advantage, they appear as represented in fig. 50,
who preceded himn, estimated the exterior diameter where they assume the appearance of ellipses, or
of the exterior ring as above two hundred thou- ovals, with the planet in the center, and on each
sand miles; and Sir John Herschel himself admits, side of the planet the dark space or interval be
that " the interval of the rings above stated is
possibly too small."  Still the dimensions here                   Figs. 49, 50, 51,52.
stated convey to us a most astonishing idea of the
magnitude and grandeur of those magnificent
rings which encompass the globe of Saturn.  Sir
W... Herschel, by means of several protuberant 
points connected with the ring, discovered that it
has a swift rotation around the globe of Saturn,
which it accomplishes in about ten hours and a    49
half-which, reckoning its circumference, aecording to the lowest dimensions, at 554,234 miles, is
a velocity of about nine hundred miles every  lmiinute.
This double ring is evidently a solid body, as
appears by its throwing a well-defined shadow
upon the body of the planet, on the side nearest
the sun, and onl the other side receiving the shai -
dow of the planet itself,-which is seen, at certain    50 B
times, by means of powerful telescopes. It is
everywhere at least twenty thousand miles distant
from the surface of the planet, and yet it is carried along with it in its annual revolution round
the sun; and, therefore, if it were not a solid body,
it would either fly off from  Saturn., or its centrifugal force, caused by its rapid rotation, would
dissipate all its parts, and disperse them around 5
the body of the planet.  These rings contain, onl
all their surfaces taken together, an area of more
than twenty thousand millions  of square miles,
which is more than a hundred times the area of
our globe.  They, therefore, contain ample space
for the accommodation of thousands of millions
of inlhabitants.
In consequence of the immense size of these
rings, and the large space they will occupy in the    5
heavens, they will present a magnificent spectacle
from those regions of the planet which lie under           _
their enlightened sides, particularly those places
which are situated not far froni the planet's equa-     -_                                 -
tor. They will appear as vast arches, spanning
the firmament from one part of the horizon to the tween the interior ring and Saturn. The division
opposite, and holding an invariable situation among between the rings is indicated by a dark line which
the stars.  They will not be visible at the poles of seems to go round the ling, which is the empty
the planet, oil account of the convexity of the space by which they are separated.  It is only
globe of Saturn interposing between them and the once in fifteen years, however, that the rings apobserver; but, near the polar regions, a segment of pear so open as here represented; and sometimes
the iigs will appear, presenting a brilliant ap- they are altogether invisible as seen from the earth.
pearance in the horizon. Advancing from  these This happened in October, 1832; and after being
region!s toward the equator, they will appear to visible for some time, from  December, 1832, to
span thie lheavens, like brilliant arches of different April, 1833, the ring again disappeared for two or
degrees of magniitude, until, approaching near the  three months.  During this time the only indicaequator, they will appear in the form of complete  tion which was given of its existence was the shasemiicircies.  Fig. 49 presents a rude sketch of dow of the ring, which appeared like a dark belt
the r ingsj as they will appear from such a position, across the body of the planet. At present (1846),
togetlior with a partial view of the nocturnal fir- the rings appear much narrower than what is remasuenit of Satnris.  But ino pictorial representa- presented in the figure, though the dark space betion, however ample the scale, can convey even an  tween the planet and the ring is distinctly visible.
approximate idea of the august and splendid ob- In 1847, the ring will appear still narrower-in
jects which must diversify. and adorn the noctur- the beginning of that year, it will appear nearly
hal sky of Saturn.  For, beside the rings, which  as in fig. 51, like a line of light on each side of
will form the most striking and magnificent spec- the planet, but without any apparent opening of
tacle, there are seven  moons, three or four of the ring; in thle beginning of 1848, it will entirely
which generally diversify the celestial hemisphere, disappear, and, in this case, the thin edge of the
appea.ring in different positions, and with different riing is turned toward the earth, and the planet apphases; and, sometimes, the whole seven satellites pears as if it were entirely divested of its magnimay be beheld in one bright assemblage. pursuing  ficent appendage, and to move solitary among the
their different courses among the stars, and rapidly  stars.  About July ul  August, of the same year,
shiftinie their positions and aspects.            the ring will again appear, through good telescopes,
The views of Saturn and the rings, obtained by  as a fine thread, or line of light, on each side of




RINGS OF SATURN.                                            61
the planet; and, in 1849, the opening of the ring  tended to subserve; namely, to form a habitation for
and the dark space between it and the planet, will numerous orders of intellectual beings. Wherever
be distinctly visible.  During the years 1850 and matter exists in our world, we find it peopled with
1851, the ring will appear still more expanded, different orders of animated existence; and thereuntil toward the end of 1854, when it will appear fore it would be absurd to suppose that the celesfully expanded, as in fig 50; and, during the other tial bodies-formed by the same All-wise and AIseven years and a half, it will gradually contract mighty Being-should be altogether destitute of
until about the end of 1861, or the middle of 1862, inhabitants.  The quantity of surface on the rings
when it will again become invisible.              is more than twenty-thousand millions of square
The phenomenon of the disappearance of the miles, being more than a hundred times the area
ring takes place at intervals of 14 years and 9 of the whole terraqueous globe, and consequently
months, and happens when'the planet is in 170 contains ample space for the accommodation of
degrees, and 350 degrees of longitude, or in the myriads of inhabitants; and it is highly improba20th degree of Virgo, and the 20th degree of Pisces. ble from what we know of the plans of infinite
The sun shines on the one side of this ring  wisdom, that such a space should remain forever
during a period of nearly 15 years, and the regions as a barren desert, without contributing either to
of the planet, that lie under the dark side, suffer a sensitive or intellectual enjoyment. The scenery
solar eclipse, under its shadow, during the same of the heavens as beheld from  the rings, would
period. But there is no doubt that this apparent even be more grand and diversified than that which
defect is compensated, not only by the light of is beheld from  the surface of Saturn, and would
the satellites, but by other arrangements, with  afford to intelligent natures a striking display of
which we are unacquainted.  This planet, with its the perfections of their Creator.
rings, would exhibit a more splendid and interest-   We may just farther state, in relation to this
ing apearance through our telescopes, could we planet, that several late astronomers are of opinion
view the rings, not obliquely, but as standing at that the outer ring of Saturn is divided into severight angles to our line of vision, as represented ral smaller rings.  Captain  Kater states, in a
in fig. 52. This represents the real position of paper sent to the "Astronomical Society," that
the rings in respect to the planet;'but our eye is on December 17th, 1825, with a reflecting telenever so much elevated above the plane of the scope of six feet six inches focus, "he saw the
rings as to view them in this manner; it is never outer ring of Saturn, separated by numerous divielevated more than 30 degrees above the planes of sions, extremely close, one stronger than the rest,
the rings, so that we never see the rings more dividing the ring about equally. Professor Quetefully expanded than what is represented in fig. 50. let, at Paris, likewise states, that, with the achroHad our limits permitted, we might have in- matic telescope of tell inches aperture, " he saw
quired into the ends for which these rings were the outer ring divided;" and Decuppis, at Rome,
formed by the Almighty Architect, and the designs is also said to have observed the same phenomethey are intended to accomplish in the system of non.  Mr. Lawson, an ingenious astronomer, at
Saturn. But, in consequence of the great distance  Bath, who has lately erected a splendid achroAt which we are placed from  this planet, and of matic telescope, twelve feet long, states, that with
our ignorance of many of the plans of the great some of its higher powers, he has several times
Creator in his arrangements of the universe, we observed several divisions on the ring of Saturn,
ore unable fully to appreciate all the designs he If this magnificent arch is not merely double, but
intended to accomplish, either in this, or in other even treble, or quadruple, it presents a still more
parts of his operations. There is one object, how- wonderful idea to the mind, especially if each of
ever, that these rings were evidently intended to the rings have a distinct and separate rotation
accomplish; namely, to throw a light on the re- round the planet.  But as the divisions alluded to
gions of the planet in the absence of the sun-to  have not been perceived by other observers in the
serve the purpose of a thousand moons —to pro- most favorable circumstances, we must suspend
duce a diversified and sublime scenery in the noc- our opinion on this point, until more minute and
turnal sky of Saturn, and to display the glory and extensive observations be made, either to disprove
magnificence of the Creator. They evidently ma- or to confirm those which we have now stated.
nifest his power in the amplitude and greatness   In concluding our reflections on this planet, it
of their dimensions, in the vast quantity of matter is almost needless to remark, that the planet itself,
they contain, and in the amazing rapidity with with all the celestial scenes connected with it,
which they revolve around the planet-and his wis- presents to the mind an object of surpassing
dom in nicely balancing and proportionating every  grandeur and sublimity.  Let us suppose ourminute circumstance in their construction and selves stationed within a few thousand imiles of
arrangement, by certain laws, so as to prevent them  this planet-a station which some superior inteleither from flying off from the planet in its swift ligences may occasionally occupy-from  such a
career, or from falling down upon its surface, and position, the globe of Saturn, the rings, and the
producing a complete derangement of the whole satellites, would appear to fill the greater portion
fabric of this mighty globe-and likewise in pre- of the visible heavens. Let us then conceive this
serving them  in their exact position, and proper planet-a thousand times larger than the earthmotions, without variation from age to age. They  flying before us at the rate of twenty-two thoumay likewise be intended to teach us in what a sand miles an hour, carrying along with it stuvariety or modes, inscrutable to us, the Creator pendous rings, five hundred thousand miles in cirmav bring into existence numerous worlds, en- cumference, and these rings revolving round the
compassed with celestial machinery and arrange- planet with a velocity of nine hundred miles every
ments altogether different from anything we have minute, and seven other spacious globes, larger
hitherto contemplated-which  may lead us to than our moon, wheeling their rapid courses, at
conclude that, in other systems, and around other different distances around the planet and its rings
suns, worlds may exist diversified with celestial -let us endeavor to stretch our imagination to
scenery, of which we find no traces throughout the utmost, to represent such a scene as nearly
the whole range of our planetary systemn.         as possible to the reality, and suppose ourselves
But, beside these general designs, we conceive, as spectators-how  grand  and  cverwhelhnilag,
there is another important end these rings are in- and almost terrific, would be the amazing spec



62                               THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
tacle!  Amidst the emotions it would excite, we by the astronomers of the seventeenth century
could only exclaim, " GREAT AND MARVELOUS ARE were very difficult to manage, and required long
THY WORKS, LORD GoD ALMIGHTY!" —" Thy right exposure to the cold air of the evening, and their
hand, O Lord, is become glorious in power!"- attention was chiefly directed to observations on
"Who can utter the mighty acts of the Lord!"-  the planetary bodies which were then known.
"The Lord God Omnipotent reigneth!"  Is it Few observations, comparatively, were made on
possible to sepa ate such scenes and operations the fixed stars, so as to ascertain the varieties
from the idea of an eternal and Almighty intelli- which exist among them, the changes to which
gence, who formed, and arranged, and set in mo- they are subject, or the moving bodies that may
tion, such stupendous machinery? Could chance, beo found in the stellar regions; and hence, in
or the fortuitous concourse of atonms, have ever part, the reason that so few discoveries were made
produced such a portion of celestial mechanism, during that period.
and preserved it unimpaired in all its relations   The appearance of the late Sir William  Herand movements, from age to age?  Such an idea schel, as an observer of the heavens, formed a new
is fraught with the grossest absurdity that ever era in the history of astronomy. This illustrious
entered the human imagination. If a Divine su- astronomer having viewed the heavens with a
perintendent over creation did not exist, the whole two-feet Gregorian telescope, which he had borframe of universal nature would long ere now have rowed, was so much interested with the instrubeen unhinged, and the universe, with all its splen- ment, that he commissioned a friend in London
did orbs and mighty movements have been trans-  to purchase for him one of a larger size. The
formed into a chaos, and scattered throughout the price, however, being more than he anticipated,
regions of infinitude. And, " since a God there is, and more than he could afford, he resolved to atthat God how great!" His power is irresistible, his tempt the construction of one with his own hands;
wisdom is unsearchable, and his agency pervades and in this he succeeded. A five-feet Newtonian
the immensity of space.  To refuse to submit to reflector, which he completed in 1774, was the
his laws and his moral government must, there- commencement of that brilliant series of discovefore, expose us to the most dismal consequences. ries and improvements which he afterward effectFor thousands of means are within the range of ed. While residing in Bath he had been engaged
his wisdom and intelligence by which the rebels for a year and a half in making a regular survey
against his authority may be arrested and pun- of the heavens, when on the evening of the 13th
ished; and his power to execute his purposes no of March, 1781, he discovered, among other stars
created beings can control.  "The mountains one of unusually steady radiance; continuing to
quake at him, and the hills melt, and the earth is watch it, lie found, after several observations, a
burned at his presence. Who can stand before perceptible change in its position, although its
his indignation?"  "The pillars of heaven trem- motion with relation to the other stars was very
ble and are astonished at his reproof."  Happy  slow. Having sent an account of this observathey who have this Almighty Being as their father tion to Dr. Maskelyne, the astronomer royal, it
and their friend, "who do his commandments, was at first supposed to be a comet, but soon afterhearkening unto the voice of his word."  For all ward it was ascertained beyond a doubt that it
the glories of creation, and all the resources of the was a new planet which had, in all former ages,
universe are at his disposal to contribute to their eluded the. observation of astroIlomers.  For this
nowledge and felicity, while ages numerous as discovery the Royal Society conferred upon Herthe drops of ocean are rolling on.               schel the honorary recompense of Sir Godfrey
Copley's medal; and he named the planet Georgium Sidus, in honor of his majesty king George
the Third: but the continental astronomers disS E C T I O  N   V I I I.           tinguished it by the name of Herschel, in honor
O N  T H E  P L A N E T  U DOA N u    S.   of the discoverer; and it is now more generally
known by the name of Uranus.  Soon after this
UNTIL near the close of the last century, Saturn discovery, Herschel was taken under the patronwas considered as the remotest planet from  the age of his majesty, and rewarded with a pension
sun, and his orbit as forming the outermost boun- of ~300 per annum. He removed to Slough, near
dary of the planetary system.  But, since the dis- Windsor, where, in 1789, lie erected his large
covery of Uranus, the diameter of the system  is forty-feet telescope, by which he was enabled to
doubled, and the area of the space it comprehends make further discoveries.
is four times the dimensions formerly supposed.   The planet Uranus is not visible to the naked
Instead of all area of twenty-five thousand millions eye, and requires a certain degree of magnifying
of square miles-its former supposed dimensions-  power to render it visible as a very small star.
it now comprehends at least one hundred thou- We have seen it in this way with a power of twelsand millions of square miles; throughout every  ty times, but it requires a power of at least two
portion of which the influence of the great central hundred times to make it appear like a wellluminary extends, and likewise as far beyond as defined visible disc. Its real magnitude, however,
the erratic comet pursues its distant course. It is considerable,-being no less than thirty-five
is somewhat strange that, from the time of Huy- thousand miles in diameter, or more than eighty
gens and Cassini, when telescopes were brought times the size of our globe. Its surface contains
to a certain degree of perfection, until near the three thousand eight hundred and forty-eight mil
close of the eighteenth century (a period of more lions of square miles,-which  is seventy-eight
thfan a hundred years), no new discoveries were times the area of all the habitable portions of the
made in the heavens, when the number of those earth; so that this apparently small body, wlhich
who cultivated the science of astronomy was in- had remained unnoticed for thousands of years,
creased, and the science itself had received many adds considerably to the quantity of matter forimprovements. But the mind of man has a pro- merly supposed to belong to the solar system.
pensity to indolence when not stimulated by For it contains a mass of matter, as to bulk, more
worldly gain, and certain difficulties to be en- than twenty times larger than what is contained
countered tend to discourage and impede its pro- in Mercury, Venus, the Earth, the Moon, Mars,
gress.  The long and unwieldy telescopes used I Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas.  Its distance fror4




GENERAL REMARKS.                                             63
the sun is about double that of Saturn,-being no perhaps to teach us, that in other systems arrange.
less than eighteen hundred millions of miles.  To  ments may exist very different from those we exreach the nearest point of its orbit, a cannon ball, perience in the system to which we belong.
flying from the earth in that direction, at the rate
of five hundred'liles an hour, would require a
period of three hundred and ninety years.  It                  SECTION  IX.
moves round the sun in the space of eighty-four
years. in an orbit eleven thousand millions of       GENERAL REBMARKS ON THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
miles in circumference; at the rate of fifteen
thousand miles an hour.  The inclination of its   SucH is a brief description of the principal pheorbit to the plane of the ecliptic, is 46 minutes, nomena connected with the planetary bodies which
28 seconds.                                      compose the solar system.  We have no reason,
From the immense distance at which this planet however, to conclude that all the planets belongis placed from the sun, we might be apt to irna- ing to our system have yet been discovered. Were
gine that there will be a great deficiency of light a planet of double the maghitude of the Earth reand heat on its surface.  Phe quantity of light it volving between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn,
receives from the sun is about three hundred and it would be altogether invisible to the naked eye,
sixty time less than what the earth receives; for and might revolve for thousands of years without
the quantity of illumination enjoyed in any planet being observed by the inhabitants of our globe,
is in an inverse proportion to the square of the unless astronomers were to make a minute surdistance of the luminous body that enlightens it. vey, with powerful telescopes, of the whole range
The quantity of light on Uranus-notwithstanding  of the zodiac in which most of the planets are
its great distance from the sun-will be equal to found to mote, along with portions of the celeswhat we should have, were three hundred and forty- tial regions on either side of it. If the inhabiteight full moons continually shining on our globe ants of Jupiter and Saturn have no better eyes
at one time. But the pupils of the eyes of the in- than ours, and no artificial helps to vision, they
habitants of this planet may be so constructed as to must be altogether ignorant that such a globe as
take in telln or twenty times the quantity of light the earth exists in the universe, nor will they ever
which our eyes would receive, were we placed in  obtain a glimpse of either Mars, Mercury, or
that distant region. And as to sensible heat, it does Venus.  Considering the distance that intervenes
not appear that this depends on the distance of a between Jupiter and Saturn, it is not at all ir.planetary body from the sun; but on the nature probable that one or more planets may exist in
of its atmosphere, and the substances on its sur- the interval; and since no less than 900 millions
face on which the rays of light and heat fall. of miles intervene between the orbits of Saturn
Every part of our globe may be considered as at and Uranus, several planets, much larger than the
an equal distance from the sun, and yet there are earth, may revolve in those regions, which the
all the varieties of temperature experienced from  keen eyes of astronomers have never yet detected,
twenty degrees below zero in the frozen regions Even within the orbit of Mercury a planet may
of Greenland, to a hundred degrees above it, in exist, which we may never be able to discover, on
the scorching climes of the torrid zone.  On the account of its nearness to the sun, being at all
top of the Andes, in South America, there is the times immersed in the effulgence of the solar rays.
most intense cold, and perpetual snows; while in Our views of the universe and its arrangements
the plains below excessive heat is felt under the are only beginning to open and expand; but in
rays of a tropical sun, while only a few miles in- the ages to come, if art and science still advance,
tervene between the respective localities.  At any  objects of which we have no conception at present
rate, we may rest assured that, throughout all the may be disclosed to view, even within the bounds
regions of the universe, the Creator has displayed  of the planetary system.
his wisdom and goodness in adapting the struc-    Throughout the whole of this system we perture and constitution of the inhabitants to the na- ceive order and harmony prevailing without interture of the habitation he has provided for them.   ruption.  While the planets are prosecuting their
In consequence of the great distance of this courses with amazing velocity, and moving onplanet, no discoveries have been made on its sur- ward in their respective spheres without a moface; no spots have been seen to indicate a rota- ment's pause-while their attractive forces on each
tion, and therefore the period of its revolution  other sometimes produce slight perturbationsround its axis is unknown. But the same illus- while one sometimes interposes between the sun
trious astronomer who first detected it, soon after and another, and casts a transient shade over its
discovered no less than six satellites which revolve surface; yet no disorder or confusion ever occurs
around it. The following table contains a list of throughout the system: every orb finishes its rethese satellites, with their distances from Uranus, spective circle of revolution in exactly the period
and their periods of revolution.                 of time in which it has been performed for thou1st, orl nearest     Period.         Distance,    sands of years; no one ever interrupts the course
to Uranus,   5d. 21h. 25m.    230,000 miles. of another; no satellite ever forsakes its primary,
2d,              8  17    1       )298,000        in the course of its rapid movement; but the
3d,             10  23    3       348,000        laws of motion originally impressed upon all the
4th,            13  10  56        399,000         bodies of the system  continue to operate as they
5th,            38   1  48        777,000        have done from  the beginning.  These circum6th            107  16   40    1, 57,708         stances evidently demonstrate the existence of a
6th,        107  16  40    1,597,708          presiding Intelligence, who at first formed and
It is somewhat remarkable, that these satellites, arranged this magnificent system, and who every
nstead of moving from west to east, or in the di- moment sustains it in all its movements.  It
rection of all the other planets and satellites, have would be easy to show —if this were the proper
their orbits nearly at right angles to the ecliptic, place for it-that unless an Immaterial Power
and move in a direction from east to west.  These continually re-excited  motion  in the material
are exceptions to the general laws of the planetary  universe, all motion would stop in a very short
system which it is difficult to explain.  But they  time-perhaps in less than an hour-except that
oceur at the farthest limits of the solar system, the planets would run out in right-lined directions;




64                                  THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
and then nothing would ensue but confusion, of a circle one hundred and sixty-four feet in dia
darkness, silence, and chaos.  For matter of it- meter for its orbit; Venus, a pea, on a circle cf
self can pursue no end, obey no law, nor change two hundred and eighty-four feet in diameter;
the direction of its motion. If, then, a presiding  the earth, also a pea, on a circle of four hundred
Divinity is continually exerting his attributes, and thirty feet; Mars, a rather large pin's head,
impressing every part of that universe to which on a circle of six hundred and fifty-four feet;
he gave existence, we cannot deny his title to Juno, Ceres, Vesta, and Pallas, grains of sand, on
supreme dominion; and, if so, we must acknow- orbits of from a thousand to a thousand and two
ledge that all praise, adoration, submission, and hundred feet; Jupiter, a moderate-sized orange,
obedience are due to Him who hath created all on a circle nearly half a mile across; Saturn, a
things, and for whose " pleasure they are and small orange, on a circle of four-fifthls of a mile;
were created."                                   and Uranus, a full-sized cherry or small plum,
It may likewise be remarked, that amidst all upon the circumlference of a circle more than a
the varieties which characterize the planetary sys- mile and a half in diameter."
tem, there are evident marks of unity and mutual   From this illustration it appears, that an orrery
relationship.  The distances of the planets from  to represent both the proportional distances and
the sun, vary fromn thirty-seven millions to one the proportional magnitudes of the sun and planets
thousand eight hundred millions of miles.  The would require to be more than a mile and a half
quantity of light that falls on the surface of Mer- in diameter, and nearly five miles in circurlfercury is two thousand four hundred times more ence; and, in this case, scarcely any of the
intense than that which falls on Uranus.  In point planets would be visible from  the center.  Our
of magnitude some of the planets are several thou- common orreries and planetariums call exhibit
sand times larger than others; and as to the times only the relative motions of the planets, and the
of their revolutions, their periods vary from  order in which they are placed from each other
eighty-eight days to eighty-four years. Some in the system; but they can present no accurate
have one accompanying moon, soine have four, or comprehensive idea of their proportional dissome have seven, and others are destitute of such  tances or magnitudes; and the balls which repreappendages.  Yet a family likeness pervades the sent the sun and planets being so small, and
whole. The figure of all the planets is nearly  placed so near each other, have a tendency to
the same; they are all either globes or spheroids; produce erroneous conceptions.  The comparathey all move round their axes, and round the tive distances and the comparative mnagnitudes
same central luminary, producing an alternate  can only be separately exhibited on a small scale.
succession of day and night, and, inl most in- The following is a simple method by which wo
stances, a variety of seasons. Most of them, if have frequently exhibited the proportional disnot the whole, are environed with atmospheres; tances of the planets. Provide a smtll square
and on their surfaces, mountains and plains, hills rod about eight feet long, at one end of which
and vales, have been descried, and the law of gravi- place a ball or other object to represent the sun.
tation pervades and governs the whole. One sun  At two inches from  the sun's ball, place a ball
enlightens every member of this system, whether to represent Mercury; at three inches and a half,
primary or secondary; and although this luminary  Venus; at five inches, the earth; at seven inches
appears to one planet seven times larger than to and a half, Mars; at thirteen inches, Ceres, Pallas,
us, and to another a hundred times smaller, yet it Juno, Vesta, almost close to  each other; at
serves all the purposes of a sun to diffuse that de- twenty-five inches, Jupiter; at forty-seven inches,
gree of light and splendor and benign influence  or about four feet, Saturn; and at eight feet,
which is requisite for the comfort of each respec- Uranus.  These proportions will convey an aptive planet.  These and other circumstances plain- proximnate idea of the relative distances of the
ly indicate that ONE Supreme Mind contrived this planets from  each other and from  the sun; and
system  of moving bodies, and superintends, di- if wax tapers were placed instead of the balls, and
rects, and governs the whole.  For two or more lighted, these comparative distances might be exsupreme beings-whose plans and purposes might hibited to a large audience.  The proportiona,
clash-could never be the parents of that harmony  magnitudes might likewise  be exhibited as fol-.
and unity of design which we perceive through- lows:-Suppose a globe of eighteen inches diareout the system of nature.  Such considerations, ter to represent the sun, Jupiter will be iepre.
likewise, lead us to conclude that all the planets sented by a ball one inch and four-fifthls diamneof this system are destined to subserve in their re- ter; Saturn, one inch and two-thirds;  Uranus,
spective spheres the same grand purposes, namely, three-quarters of an inch; the Earth, one-sixth
to serve as comfortable habitations for numerous of an inch; Venus, one-sixth of an inch;  Mais,
orders of sentient and intellectual beings, capable one-eleventh of an inch; Mercury, one-fifteenth
of knowing and adoring the perfections of their of an inch; Moon, one-twenty-fourth of an inch;
great Creator.  For the material world could never Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta, by small pin heads
be shown to manifest the wisdom and intelligence  The following numbers may assist the memory
of its Author and Contriver, if this position were in recollecting the proportional mean distances on
denied.  For it would then exhibit only a stupen- the planets. Suppose the distance of the Earth
dous system of means without an end, correspond- from the Sun to be divided into 10 parts-iterlcuing to the muagnificence of the operations employed; ry may then be estimated at 4 of such parft; from
and, in this case, there would be no extensive dis- the Sun; Venus at 7; the earth at 10; Mars at
play of the riches of Divine beneficenlce.       15; the new  planets, Ceres, Vesta, etc. at 26;
Illustrations of the distances and magnitudes of Jupiter at 52; Saturn at 95; and Uranus at 190
theu Planets. —Sir J. Herschel proposes the follow- such parts.
ing illustration, to convey to the minds of general    1lethod of acquiring  an approxin.ate idea of a
readers an impression of the relative distances and million units. —In the preceding descriptionl of the
magnitudes of the parts of the solar system:-  solar system, the distances of the sun and plalets,
" Choose any well-leveled field or bowling-green; and the extent of the planetary orbits, lhave been
on it place a globe two feet in diameter-this will expressed by millions of miles. But however
represent the sun; Mercury will be represented  accurately such distances and dimensions may be
by a grain of mustard seed, on the circumference considered as stated, the mind is unable to form a




WHAT IS A MILLION?                                            65
sand are less clear and definite; and it is but a
SUMIMARY VIEWV  OF THE SOLAR SYSTEMI   vague idea we generally have of ten hundred thousand, or one million, when we attempt to grasp it at
r7e followinq Table exhibits, at one view, the dis- one conception. We may assist our conceptions
tances, diameters, periods of revolttion, etc., of  a little by such illustrations as the following:-A
the Planets, and other permanent elements of the million of pounds would be sufficient for the forSolar System.                                  mation of 5000 miles of road, at the rate of ~J200
for each mile-whichl would be sufficient to reach
~SUS au:Lt    -                            from the Land's End of England to the northernUoau uaos lun2  o.C m  cNa  M V,~ -IC         most point of Scotland, to go quite round the
aql1Jo Jsawul}uct                             island of Great Britain, and to cross it in different.    directions.  The same sum  would be sufficient
to rear more than 666 churches, at ~1500 each.
4  * | c  ~ ~  o oe                  r It would be adequate to the building and furnishv bDn  C   l u ing of 2500 schools, at ~400 each. Were a man
cd      to                                to count a million sovereigns, one by one, and
i________________ oW                       allow  only a single second for each sovereign,
Io     and continue, without intermission, 12  hours
~ [u-aq 2 t                      c Co      every day, it would require more than 23 days
laov0m  jo jt~ 7,    o & (        ca &5>   before such a sum  could be counted; and, con__LO_   C              o      sequently, to count in thle same manner 800
millions of sovereigns, the amount of our national
alqi ol olot  c1 cV             k           debt, would require more than fifty years! Were
-se~bt s'suejI ~   GO   ~          ~          a million of men to be arranged in a straight
JO uO!vIlt!L       a - C                      line, similar to a line of soldiers when onl parade,
I~  -                  and three feet allowed for the breadth of every.~; d,~                       man, that line would extend over a space of more; = cCq 69  0   a            than 568 miles in length-in other words, it
o   o   c o o o   o~ o o  o  o~  would extend over the whole length of the island
0 c         - c              vo            of Great Britain, from  the Straits of Dover to
the Orkney Isles. Such illustrations may help'sall4I u!    o M co    cc rI- e  ( C  o    to assist the mind a little in forming its concepssulxr Jad l  Gq   c_~      I C t'-z X) ~   mc cm   a  tions of the number of units contained in a.Jo ul AXIelsOA    5-q?"  -single million; to which we may add the followLn         o p.              ing-that a line a million miles in length would
~ o7a'spuo0as'<'3'"' Z Z Ot O      go forty times round the circumference of the,o  I. aw-q      M G  -1 en  earth; and that, since the creation of the world,,
little more than two million of days have elapsed..
Mr. Henry  Martin, teacher, Chatham, has:;
go   [.d<          E            E o3 ~  Slately contrived a plan by which a million oft
o   -oI; kc 0C  IG -(         units may be represented to the eye, and whict.
C   A d  -.          AI       produces a more striking effect than any plarl:
____________                     o        hitherto adopted. It consists in the arrangemenat.n._.  of spots of the size of those in the annexed figure.:.
~n ~   t  I   in }>,1  I e I < i They are arranged in squares, in the manner here.
~n C;.   g  represented —every  square containing one hun —
W V t.0  n0 M    G 0       ~'   dred spots. There are a hundred squares on s,
—.  - o-  -- s cGo 5  sheet of foolscap, which, of course, contains teln
rn;t  1                  2              0 CRJ O O O C < < m O O thousand spots or units; and there are one- hun —,     e=,  c>  o c> O — 0  C M oC o o  dred of these sheets pasted on a piece of calico;,
a~ < o o'~~ir' C^ Lrf    which doubles up like a long map, a small space-._ s                          o.Co       being left between each sheet, that the calico may_I~ -,.- form a hinge for doubling. Thetnumber of spots,
I c  o   o o o Qo:o o o        on these hundred sheets amounts to 10,000X100.
=        C c,.;C C3 o C C C       (
o       o o <> o o   g o          or exactly a million. This representation of a
r~ ~    Xc^ 5'2C:O  oC^ o C o  million of units, were it to: be exhibited in the.: 0n lr r C f le C   CC) CD r O C=o               Fig. 53.
cS.2zc n..                     e eeese   e o__ * e o  8    o'O~~~~~~~~~~~~~   +80     e 0  eVe   10  oo  oooe.
iastinct and comprehensive idea of such vast dis-                              e ee,6   a
lances and dimensions, and even at its utmost l*,0                                      -
**eoe    eee'eeeoeQ eee**o
stretch, and with all its efforts, must be contented9:e               8 *   G  G     O   GO
with a very vague and indefinite conception of         0 eOe           f       e* *Io 9e **   beeo
he immense spaces of the heavens.  This is
~partly owing to our want of a clear and co  mpre-      o ~   ~ ~                     e 
oeoseeeeee9    e *0,e  e e*e
tit a   comprehensiv e idea of the number  f units c                    o ntai ned  *,,  o.
in a siugle million. We can form a clear idea of           00 00 GO,0 ~., ~,.
a undred units, and eve of ad thousandeven atour ideas most striking manner, should be stretched alon
akretch, alld with all ltS effmorts, must be content;ed  a     oee   $ $  l      o ng:, e
often thousand fifty thousand, ahund a hured thou- nthe sid   e of a large room, 8 feet high and 14 fsee
VOL. II.-  43




66                                 THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
long, which it would completely fill; or on any  lions, four hundred and thirty thousand eight hunsurface about 101  feet square, and containing an  dred millions of square miles; and his solid coInarea of about 108 square feet.  The annexed  tents comprehend more than three hundred and
figure contains 400 spots, which are oni,; the forty-six thousand billions of cubical miles. And
1-2500th part of a million, so that it requires two the sun is only one out of a hundred millions of
thousand five hundred times the space and the similar globes which compose the visible universe;
number of spots contained in this figure to rep- and, beyond all that is visible to human eyes, orbs
resent the units in a million.  On beholding such  of astonishing grandeur may exist, whose nlIma nlumber of units or spots, as close to each other her may exceed the number of the sands that lie
as those in the figure, and covering such a large along the sea-stlore. Hence the necessity of enspace, the mind is struck with wonder at the deavoring to form as large and extensive an idea
number of units which a single million contains; as possible of the number of units contained in a
and Mr. Martin informs me that "all persons, million, if we wish to take a comprehensive view
who have seen it, have expressed themselves much  of the immense spaces of the heavens, and the
astonished at the vastness of it."  Were each magnitude of the celestial orbs.  For a million,
square, containing 100 spots, exactly of the same great as this number is, forms, as it were, but a
size as in the figure, placed along side each other, unit to thousands, tens of thousands, and hundreds
ill a straight line, that line would extend above a of thousands of millions-to billions, trillions, and
thousand feet in length.                         other higher numbers that sometimes enter into
When beholding such a number of units com- astronomical calculations.
pressed together, and yet filling so great a space,   What a vast and overpowering assemblage of
we might be apt, at first view, to consider it as a human beings must be presented to view at that
faint picture, or emblem, of immensity and eter- solemn day, when all the men and women, that
nity. But what is one million compared with  have ever dwelt on the surface of our globe, shall
hundreds and thousands of millions?  That sun, appear in one great assembly before "God, the
which enlightens our day, is ninety-five millions Judge of all!"  The number that have already
of miles distant from  us. The planet Uranus is dwelt upon the earth, since the formation of the
one thousand eight hundred millions of miles dis- first man, is at least, one hundred and forty-six
taut from the sun, and yet is within the reach of thousand two hundred millions; and, probably,
his illuminating and attractive influence.  Such  more than double that number may appear beimmense distances are comprised even within the fore that decisive day draws'nigh. The idea of
limits of the planetary system.  How overwhelm- such an assemblage of beings is absolutely overing, then, to consider the distance of the nearest whelmingtoour limited powers of conception. It
stars!  That distance is not less than twenty bil- may be proper, however, occasionally to ruminate
lions of miles; and let it be remembered that each  on such subjects, as it is one of the principal
billion contains no less than ten hundred thousand modes by which we may acquire comprehensive
millions.  And as to magnitudes, we are almost views of the vast extent of creation, and of
equally overpowered at the idea of their inmmen- the ineffable glory and magnificence of the great
sity. The sun contains, on his surface, two bil- Creator
CHAPTER V.
ON CO METS.
BEzsiE the plaietary bodies described in the pre- moving; the convex side being rather brighter and
ceding chapters, there is a class of celestial bodies, better defined than the concave side. When the
considered as connected with the solar system, tail has attained its greatest length, it quickly de.
which have obtained the name of comets.  The  creases, and vanishes entirely from the sight about
word comet is derived from  the Greek xoss, and  the same time that the comet itself ceases to be
the Latin coma, both of which signify the hair, visible. Of what kind of matter the tail consists
and a comet was so denominated, because the lu- has been matter of conjecture, and various opinions
cid haze with which the body of a comet is attend- have been broached on this subject but nothing is
ed sometimes resembles flowing hair.  As corn- e-ertainly known respecting it. Itis evident, howparatively little is Iknown of the nature and desti- ever, whatever may be the matter of this substance,
nation of these erratic bodies, swe shall just offer a that it is exceedingly rare, and so very pellucid
very few remarks.on what has been ascertained re- that the light of the smallest stars suffers no senspecting their phenomena and nlotions.            sible diminution in passing through it. Sir J.
Comets are distingnishled from  the planets and  Herschel says, that he "could distinguish stars of
fixed stars by being usually attended with a long  the sixteenth magnitude, through the thickest part
train of light, tending always opposite to the sun, of a comet, as it passed over them, covering them
which is called the tail, and which is of a fainter with perhaps 50,000 miles of cometic matter."
luster tile farther it is from the body of the comet.    The tails of comets are found sometimes to oc-'The luminous point near the center or head of  cupy an immense space in the heavens.  The
e comet, whence the tail seems to proceed, is comet of 1680 stretched its tail across an arch of
called the nucleus, which appears to be the densest 104 degrees, and the tail of the comet of 1769,
part of the comet.  The tail of a comet at its subtended an angle of 70 degrees.  Tile real lelngth
first appearance is very shorlt, and increases as it of the tail of the cornet of 1680, was estimatapproaches toward the sun. Immediately after ed at 112 millions of miles; that of 1769, at 44
its perihelion, or nearest approach to the sun, the  millions, and, that of 1744, at eight millions of
tail is longest and most luminous, and is then ge- miles. Sir W. Herschel estimated the length of'nerally observed to be somewhat bent, and to be the tail of the great comet which appeared in 1811,
convex toward those parts to which the comet is at one hundred millions of miles, a space larger




COMETS.                                          67
than the whole distance between the earth and the comet of 1680. The tail of this comet is said to
sun; and its breadth was calculated at about fif- have reached from  the zenith to the horizon, all
teen millions of miles. We may just simply men- extent of ninety degrees. When nearest the sun
tion the opinions of different philosophers, res- it was calculated to have been within 150,000 miles
pecting those long trains of light.  Tycho Brahe  of his surface, and its rate of motion at that time
supposed them to be the light of the sun trans- was computed at about a million of miles an hour.
mitted through the nucleus of the comet, which  The period of its revolution round the sun was
he believed to be transparent like a lens. Kepler calculated at 575 years; and if this computation
thought that the impulsion of the solar rays drove  be correct it will not again visit this part of the
away the denser parts of the comet's atmosphere, system until the year 2255. Another comet which
and thus formed the tail. Sir I. Newton supposed  has excited a considerable degree of interest and
that it is a thin vapor, raised by the heat of the attention, is that which appeared in 1682, and is
sun from the comet. Euler maintained that the  known by the name of Halley's comet. Dr. Haltail is occasioned by the impulsion of the solar ley computed the period of this comet at 75 or 76
rays driving off the atmosphere of the comet, and  years, and predicted that it would again appear
that the curvature observed in the tail is the joint about the end of 1758, or the beginning of 1739.
effect of this impulsive force, and the gravitation  It accordingly arrived at its perihelion on the 13th
of the atmospherical particles to the solid nucleus. March, 1759.  If 76 years be. the real period of?Mairin imagined that comets' tails are portions of this comet, then it behooved to re-appear in 1835,
the sun's atmosphere.  Dr. Hamilton supposed  which happened accordingly.  It was seen at
them to be streams of electric matter. Biot, the  Rome on the 5th of August of that year, and arrivFrench philosopher, supposes that the tails are va- ed at its perihelion on the 16th November.  The
pors produced by the excessive heat of the sun, period of this comet then is determined, and it bis
and also that the comets are solid bodies before proved, at the same time, that comets are permathey reach their perihelion, but that they are af- nent bodies belonging to the solar system.  At
terward either partly or totally converted into va- the remotest point of its orbit, this comet is comnper by the intensity of the solar heat. Notwith- puted to be 3,400,000,000 of miles from the sun,
standing these opinions of eminent philosophers, or nearly double the distance of Uranus.
we must still admit that the true cause of the ex-    Another brilliant comet appeared in 1744, the
traordinary phenomenon of the tails of comets re- diameter of the nucleus of which was nearly
mains yet unknown.  When we consider that equal to the apparent disc of the planet Jupiter;
these vast streams of light extend, in some in- and its tail, which was divided into six streams of
stances, to eighty and a hundred millions of miles light, was reckoned to be 23,000,000 of miles in
in length, we cannot conceive that any of the  length. In 1807, a large comet made its appearcauses assigned above will account for such a won- ance in the month of October, and continued to
derful phenomenon.  If they consist of vapor be visible to the naked eye for nearly two months.
raised from the comet, why should this vapor ex- The diameter of its nucleus was calculated by
tend to such a prodigious length through space, Schroeter to be 4600 miles, and the diameter offr
and why should it be illuminated throughout its its coma, or nebulosity surrounding the nucleeus
whole extent? for if it were opaque, or unillumi- 120,000 miles; its motion was frequently at the
nated vapor, it would be invisible.             rate of 55,000 miles an hour. A still mnore spleniIn ancient times, comets were generally sup- did comet made its appearance in September,
posed to be meteors, or exhalations, generated by  1811, which was visible to the naked eye for nmore
inflammable vapors in the earth's atmosphere. than three months in succession.  Schloeter consBut it is now ascertained, beyond a doubt, that puted the diameter of this comet at 50,000 miles,
comets move in regions far beyond the limits of and Sir W. Herschel estimated the length of its
our atmosphere, and form a portion of the solar tail at 100,000,000 of miles. When nearest the
system.  But they differ in many respects from  earth it was distant about 113,000,001) of miles.
the various planetary bodies, formerly described. We shall notice only two other comets, remarkable
In regard to planets, their orbits are all confined  on account of the shortness of their periods. The
to a certain zone, or region of the heavens, of no  first of these comets to which I allude is called the
great breadth, except in the case of Pallas. This Encke comet, from Professor Encke, who first
zone, in the case of the old planets, contains about ascertained its period.  It performs its revolution
eight degrees on each side of the ecliptic. But the in a period shorter than that of any comet yet
orbits of the comets cut the ecliptic in every di- known; namely, in 1200 days, or three years and
rection, and, in some instances their orbits are di- three-tenths. Its orbit penetrates within the orhbi
rectly perpendicular to it. They likewise differ of Mercury, but does not extend so far as the
from the planets in the form of their orbits. The  orbit of Jupiter.  It is a very small body, and is
orbits of most of the planets, though elliptical, scarcely distinguishable by the naked eye.  The
approach. very nearly to cilcles; but those of co- other comet is that of Biela, sometimes called
mets are long narrow ellipses, whose length is Gambart's cornet, which finishes its revolution in
many times greater than their breadth, and, in  a period of 634 years.  It was seen in 1826, 183,?
most cases, the full extent of their elongation can- and 1839, and in February and March, 1846. It
not be traced. Only one small portion of these  is likewise a very small comet, and cannot be seen
orbits lies within the limits of our observations, without a telescope.
and their remotest boundaries are far beyond the  The number of comets has been estimated to
range of human vision. Hence it is, that we per- be very great. Seven or eight hundred of these
ceive a comet only for a very short time, and du- bodies have been observed in different ages; but
ring a very small part of its course, the remaining  there are only a little more than a hundred of
parts of its course being performed in regions be- them,  the elements of whose orbits have been}
yond the reach even of our telescopic vision, and  accurately calculated, so as to identify them should
beyond the orbit of the remotest planet.        they again make their appearance.  By far thi
The following are some of the more remarkable  greater number are invisible to the naked eve, anjd
comets which have appeared within the last cen- even beyond the reach of telescopes, and man mg
tury and a half. The most splendid of these bo- of them, doubtless, pass along our hemisphere   in
dies which have appeared in modern times was the the day-time, when they cannot be perceived,




68                                THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
From calculations formed on probable grounds, without foundation. At least, the believer ir,
M. Arago concludes that the number of comets Divine revelation has nothing to fear, for he
which visit the solar system within the orbit of knows that the purposes of tile Almighty in resUranus, is at least 3,000,000. Of late, within the pect to this world are not yet nearly completed,
space of fourteen months, five or six comets have and that many of the most prominent predictions
made their appearance; one in December, 1843, of inspired prophets are not yet accomplished
in the constellation of Orion, another in August, Wars must cease to the ends of the earth. The
1844, not far from the star Arcturus, in the con- knowledge of Jehovah must cover the earth
stellation Bootes; a third was seen in September The Jews must be converted to the faith of
of the same year, near the constellation Cetus; a AMessiah. The kingdoms of this world must "befourth was seen in the month of January, 1845, in come the kingdoms of our Lord, and of his
the West Indies and which was visible to the naked Christ," and righteousness and praise must spring
eye, but was not seen in this country on account forth before all nations, before a comet or any
of its great southern declination; a fifth was seen other celestial agent shall be permitted to impinge
in this country in February, 1845, near the constel- upon our globe, or to alter its present constitution;
lation of Ursa Major, and about the same time an- and centuries must necessarily elapse before such
other was said to have been seen in the East Indies. objects are fully accomplished.
We had an opportunity of seeing two of these com-   As to the destination of comets, or the purposes
ets, but they were both invisible to the naked eye. they are intended to serve, in the economy of the
In former ages, the appearance of a comet was universe, we are in a great measure ignorant, as
viewed as the forerunner of disastrous events, we are unacquainted with the nature and constisuch as wars, famine, pestilence, the revolutions tution of these singular and anomalous bodies.
of nations and empires, the death of kings and But as they are all the workmanship of Him who
princes, inundations, earthquakes, and similar is "wonderful in counsel, and excellent in workcalamities. But we need scarcely say that there ing," they must be intended to subserve importis not the least foundation for such apprehensions; ant purposes in the system  of creation, worthy
for comets are every year making their appearance of the perfections of Him who is infinite in knowto the astronomical observer, while both the phy- ledge, who " established the world by his wisdom,
sical and the moral world is moving on in its regu- and hath stretched out the heaven by his underlar course. The comets are, doubtless, messengers standing." So many thousands, or even millions
of the Deity sent forth to accomplish the designs of these blazing orbs, as are continually traversing
he intended in their creation; but we have not the the regions of the ilanetary system, were not
least reason to believe that they were ever intend- created in vain. The adjustment of their motions,
ed to " shake from their horrid hair " wars, famine, and the arrangement of their orbits, so as not to
and pestilence upon the nations.  Their destina- interfere with each other, nor with the motions
tion, whatever it may be, must be in full accord- of the planets, is an evidence of that Divine wisance with the benevolence of him whose " tender dom which is displayed throughout every part of
mercies are over all his works."  It has, indeed, creation. The number of these bodies, the vast
been apprehended by some that a comet in cross- magnitude of their blazing tails, and the amazing
ing the path of the earth, might happen to come velocity with which they move in certain parts of
into collision with it, and produce a shock which their orbits, display the Almighty power of Him
would shatter its present constitution, and prove who at first set them in motion: and although we
destructive to its inhabitants.  It is admitted that are partly ignorant of the ultimate designs they
this is a possible circumstance, though the chances are intended to accomplish, yet we may rest
in favor of it, according to Aiago, are only as one assured that they form  a part of that plan of
to 281,000,000. In France and other parts of the Divine beneficence, which appears a prominent
European continent, in 1773, an apprehension of object in all the works of God. There seems no
this kind was excited, which was attended with improbability in the supposition, that they are inmany serious consequences.  People of weak tended as habitations for various orders of intelminds, it is said, died of fright, and women mis- lectual beings, to whom the Almighty displays
carried. A similar alarm was produced in 1832, himself in a peculiar manner, different from  that
when it was announced that the comet of Biela, of the inhabitants of the planets, and whose coron the 29th of October, would cross the plane of poreal organization is exactly adapted to the nature
the ecliptic at a point near where the earth would  and properties of the world in which they are
be on the 30th of November following; but before placed.  For we have every reason to believe
the earth arrived at that point, the comet was dis- that an infinite variety exists in the universe, in
tant from it 50,000,000 of miles. All such fore- respect both to the physical and mental constitubodings and alarms may be considered as entirely tion of the intelligences it contains.




CHAPTER VI.
ON THE ECLIPSES OF THE SUN AND MOON.
ivE term eclipse is derived from a Greek word,               SECTION  I.
which signifies to be diminished, to faint away,
to swoon, or to die. When the full moon, in her         ON THE ECLIPSES OF THE MOON.
greatest luster, is deprived of the beams of the
sun, she appears pale and languid, as if she were   AN eclipse of the moon is produced by the intersick and dying.  Hence the superstitious among I position of the earth between the sun and moon,
the ancients imagined that the moon was in pain and, consequently, it can only happen at the time
at such times, and therefore lunar eclipses were of full moon, when  the moon is in opposition to
called the labors of the moon; and in order to the sun. As the earth is an opaque body, enlightrelieve her in that fancied distress, they were ac- ened by the sun, it will cast a shadow toward
customed to hold up on high lighted torches; to those portions of space which are opposite to the
blow with horns and trumpets; to make a loud sun, and if the moon happen to pass through
noise, by beating on vessels of brass and iron, to those spaces where tile shadow falls, she must
break, if possible, the enchantment that had fallen  necessarily be eclipsed. The sun and the earth
on the lunar orb. Before the true causes of are both spherical bodies, and, therefore, if they
eclipses were ascertained, those phenomena were were of an equal size, the shadow of the earth
considered as supernatural, and viewed with ap- would be cylindrical, as in fig. 54, and would conprehension and alarm. It was believed that they  tinue of the same breadth, at all distances from
were produced by the immediate interposition of  the earth, and would extend to an equal distance,
God, as a token of his displeasure. When the  and might cause an eclipse of the sun to the susun was totally eclipsed, it was imagined, by many  perior planets.  If the sun were less than the
of the ancients, that he turned away his face, in  earth, the shadow would expand, and grow wider
abhorrence of some atrocious crime that had been  the farther it was from the earth, as in fig. 55. It
comnmitted, or was about to be perpetrated ons the  would reach the orbits of Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
earth, and thlreatened mankind with everlasting  and Uranus, and eclipse them, when the earth innight.  When the Medes and Persians, several terposed between them  and the sun; and these
centuries before Christ, were preparing to engage  eclipses, in the case of the most distant planets,
in furious combat, they were so alarmed at an  would be of long duration, oin account of the
eclipse, which happened at that time, that the shadow being broader in proportion to the diswarriors on both sides laid down their arms, and
entered into a treaty of peace. When the fleet   Fig. 54.          Fig. 55.         Fig. 56.
of Pericles, the celebrated Grecian, was preparing
to attack Peloponnesus, there happened an eclipse
of the sun, which was considered as a most unfortunate omen; and the whole of the Athenian
commanders and their men were thrown into the
greatest consternation.  Such facts should inspire
us with gratitude for the advantages we now enjoy, in a land where science is cultivated, and
useful knowledge disseminated, and where  the
light of Divine revelation has dispelled the darkness and superstitions of the heathen world.
Every planet and satellite is enlightened by the
sun1, and, consequently, casts a shadow toward the
point of the heavens which is opposite to that
luminary. An eclipse, therefore, is a privation
of the light of the sun, or of some other heavenly                 _
body, by the interposition of another body between it and our sight. Eclipses are either of the
sun, or the moon, or of the satellites which accompany some of the planets. In regard to cir-                  --- 
cumstances, they are divided into total, partial,  _
annular, and central. A total eclipse is when the
whole face of the luminary is darkened; a partial tance. But as such eclipses never happen, it
eclipse is one when only a part of the disc is dark- forms a demonstrative proof that the sun is not
cied; an annular eclipse is when the whole is less, but greater than tile earth.  Tile sun, then,
darkened except a ring, or annulus, which appears being greater than the earth, the shadow of the
round the dark part like an illuminated border. earth is a cone, which ends in a point at a certain
This call only happen in the case of an eclipse  distanc e from the earth, as represented in fig. 56.
of the sun. In a central eclipse, the centers of  This cone reaches to a distance of 840,000 mriles
the two luminaries and that of the earth are ill from the earth, or about three and a half times as
one and the same right line, as when in an eclipse  long as the distance of the moon from  the earth.
the moon passes through the center of the earth's   If the moon always moved in the plane of the
shadow.                                         ecliptic, she would suffer a total eclipse, at tho
(69)




70                                THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
time of every full moon, by passing through the not be an eclipse. Let I! G, fig. 57, represent the
center of the earth's shadow.  But the moon's moon's orbit, Ei F the plane of the ecliptic, and N
orbit is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic, at an the node of the orbit, or point where it cuts the
angle of 50 8', and coincides with it only in two ecliptic; and A B c D four representations of the
places, called the nodes, or the points where her earth's shadow in the ecliptic. It is obvious that
orbit intersects the ecliptic. Full moon, there- when the shadow is at A, and the moon at I, there
fore, may frequently happen without an eclipse, will be no eclipse, because the moon is too far
as at this period the moon may be either to the from the node, and the earth's shadow does not
north or the south of the ecliptic. It has been reach  her.  When the full moon is nearer to
calculated, that if the mean opposition of the sun the node, as at K, only a part of her disc passes
and moon, or the full moon, happen within 70 47' through the shadow, when she suffers a partial
of the moon's node, there must be an eclipse; but eclipse. When the full moon is at L, she passes
if the distance be greater than 130 21', there can- through a portion of the shadow, and is totally
Figs. 57, 58.
E      ____       X____            __
A'
eelipsed. When the moon's center passes through  middle of the earth's shadow.  Some have supsthe center of the shadow, which can only happen  posed this to arise from the moon's native light,
when she is in the node at N, it is then both a to- but the true cause of her being visible is, the scattal and a central eclipse; and such an eclipse is of tered beams of the sun bent into the earth's
the longest duration-at which time the total shadow, by passing through its atmosph'-re. The
darkness continues about two hours.             moon is not eclipsed by the earth alone; the atFig. 58 represents, in a different point of view, rnosphere, by refracting some of the rays of the
a total eclipse of the moon. The circle A n c rep- sun, and reflecting others, casts a shadow, though
resents the orbit of the moon, in which it revolves not so dark a one as that which arises from an
round the earth. The moon is supposed to be in opaque body.  Although in most lunar eclipses
the node, and in her opposition to the san-she the body of the moon, though obscured, is still
therefore passes through the center of the earth's visible, yet it has sometimes happened otherwise.
shadow.  And as the shadow  of the earth is Hevelius mentions, in his "Selenographia," an
nearly 6000 miles broad at the distance of the eclipse of the moon which happened in August,
moon, and as the moon is only a little more than  1647, when he was not able to distinguish the
2000i miles in diameter, she must be completely face of the moon even with a good telescope, alhnmersed in the shadow of the earth, and must though the sky was sufficiently clear for him  to
move nearly three times her own diameter before see stars of the fifth magnitude: but such cases
she can ernerge from the shadow.                are rare.
The following facts may be stated in relation to    The duration of a lunar eclipse depends on the
lugnar eclipses:-1. An eclipse of the moon always following circumstances: —. On the largeness
begins on the moon's eastern side, and goes off on of the circle of the earth's shadow, whose diameher western side.  2. Lunar eclipses are visible in ter may be different at different times; the nearer
all parts of the earth which have thle moon above the moon is to the earth, the larger is that portion
their horizon, and are everywhere of the same of the earth's shadow through which she passes.
magnitude and duration.  3. The, moon's diame- 2. On the apparent diameter of the moon, which
ter is supposed to be divided into twelve equal may be different, on account of her variable disparts called digits, and as many of these parts as tance, as she moves in an elliptical orbit. 3. On
are darkened by the earth's shadow, so many  the distance of the moon from  her node at the
digits is the moon said to be eclipsed. The ex- moment of her being full, which will cause her
tent in which the moon is eclipsed above twelve to pass through a greater, or less, portion of the
digits shows how far the shadow of the earth is earth's shadow.  Thus when the moon is at Et,
over the body of the moon on that edge to which  fig. 57, the eclipse will be of comparatively small
she is nearest at the middle of the eclipse. 4. duration; when at L, its duration will be much
The moon, when totally eclipsed, is not invisible, longer, but not so long as when she is at N, in the
if she be above the horizon and the atmosphere node, when she passes through the center of the
clear; but appears generally of a dusky color, shadow. 4. Omn the velocity of the moon's mosomewhat like tarnished copper, especially toward tion across the shadow of the earth, which is swift-.
tsle edges, being generally more dark about the est when she is in perigee, or nearest the earth,




ECLIPSES OF THE SUN.                                        71
and the duration of a central eclipse will then be dark body of the moon. Beside the dark shadow,
shortest.  According to these circumstances will there is a penumbra or fainter shadow produced,
be the time of continuance of a lunar eclipse. which is represented atc d; and in all those parts
When the moon is centrally eclipsed, and when where the penumbra falls, the sun will be only
she is at her greatest distance from the earth, its partially eclipsed. Thus, between c and a, the
duration is 3 hours, 57 minutes, 26 seconds, from  parts of the sun about A B cannot be seen; the
beginning to end: and when she is at her least rays coming from thence toward c or a being indistance, 3 hours, 37 minutes, 26 seconds. The tercepted by the moon; but the portions of the
moon may be totally eclipsed, although she do not sun about G and H will be visible. The nearer
pass through the center of the shadow; but in any place of the earth-within the penumbra —
this case the duration of the eclipse will be shorter is to the dark shadow of the moon, the greater
than what has been now stated.  In some in- will the eclipse appear, and the nearer it is to the
stances, the continuation of total darkness may outside of the penumbra, the smaller will be that
amount only to a few minutes, when the moon portion of the sun which is seen eclipsed. To
passes near the extremity of the shadow.        those who live beyond the boundary of the penumbra, the whole disc of the sun will be seen and no
eclipse will be visible. Hence it happens, that
SECTION  I'.  the sun may be totally eclipsed in Africa and the
southern parts of Asia, and no trace of all eclipse
ON ECLIPSES OF THE SUN.             perceived, at the same moment, either in Britain
or America.
AN eclipse of the sun is caused by the interposi-   The following are some facts in relation to sotion of the body of the moon between the sun lar eclipses:-1. If the mnean conjunction of the
and the earth, when she throws a shadow over a sun and moon takes place within 15 degrees of
certain portion of the earth. This call happen the moon's node, there must be an eclipse of the
only at the time of new moon, and when the moon sun; but if the conjunction happen at a greater
is at or near one of her nodes. The eclipses distance from the node than 21 degrees, there can
of the sun and moon, though expressed by the be no eclipse. Therefore, between 15 degrees andt
same word, are in their nature very different; the
sun, in reality, loses nothing of his native luster in               Fig. 59.
the greatest eclipse, but is all the while diffusing
streams of light around him  in every direction,
and illuminating without intermission all the bodies
in tile planetary system. Some of these streams,                A       ____
however, are occasionally intercepted in their
course toward the earth by the moon coming between the earth and sun, and at that time the
dark side of the moon is turned toward the earth.
W hen the moon is eclipsed, she suffers a real d(iminution of her borrowed light; but when the sun
is said to be eclipsed, there is no diminution of
hils light, and it is in reality an eclipse of the
earth by the shadow of the moon falling upon a
certain portion of our globe: and this shadow
would be distinctly seen, by all inhabitant of the
moon, passing along a certain zone of the earth,
like a small, dark, circular spot. The moon being
much smaller than the earth, and having a conical shadow-because she is less than the sun —
can cover only a small part of the. earth by her
shadow: hence an eclipse of the sun is visible
only to a few inhabitants of the earth, whereas
an eclipse of the moon is visible to all who are on
that hemisphere, where the lunar orb is seen.
The following diagram, fig. 59, will convey a
general idea of the nature of an eclipse of the sun.
In this figure, s represents the sun; M, the moon;
E, the earth; and M N o, the orbit of the moon.
The moon is supposed to be in that part of its
orbit next the sun, having the enlightened side        0           s                 N
toward the sun, and its dark hemisphere wholly
turned toward the earth, which is its position at
new moon.  It is also supposed to be in its node,                    E
in all exact line between the sun and the earth.
In this situation the shadow of the moon falls
upon a certain portion of the earth, and intercepts
the rays of the sun, for a little, from the inhabitants of the earth on whom the shadow falls. Part 21 degrees there may or may not be an eclipse. 2.
of the cone of the shadow is represented at a b, and The penumbra covers a space of 4900 miles in
it is never more than about 180 miles in diame- diamneter, within which the sun will appear more
ter, within the limits of which the sun will appear or less eclipsed. 3. The motion of the moon's
totally eclipsed.  But sometimes it happens that shadow over the earth's surface is equal to her mothe extremity of the cone of the moon's shadow  tion in her orbit, which is about 2200 miles in an
falls short of the earth, in which case an annular hour; a velocity four times as great as that of a
eclipse of the sun is produced; in which the sun cannon ball. 4. The number of eclipses in any
appears lilke a brilliant ring of light around the year cannot be less than two, and those both of'




72                                 THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
the su n; nor can they be ever more than seven:. that at the total eclipse of the sun which happenin which case there will be five of the sun, and I ed in 1560, the darkness at Coimbra, in Portugal,
two of the moon, and the moon's eclipses will be  was greater or at least more striking than that of
total. The usual number is four in a year, two  the night, and that the birds fell to the earth
at each node., and nearly half a year intervenes through terror. AtBerne, in Switzerland, on May
between the two sets of eclipses.  5. The sun is 1, 1706, the sun was totally darkened for four minever totally eclipsed longer than about four nutes, during which time a fixed star and aplanet
minutes, but the moon may be immersed in the appeared very bright. The sun's passing out of
earth's shadow, or totally eclipsed, about 1 hour the eclipse was preceded by a blood red streak of
and 48 minutes.  6. Eclipses of the sun are more light from his left limb, which continued about
frequent than eclipses of the moon, because the six or seven seconds; then part of the sun's disc
ecliptic limits of the sun are greater; but we have appeared all on a sudden brighter than Venus was
more visible eclipses of the moon, because they  ever seen in the night, —and in that instant gave
are seen to the whole hemisphere next her; while light and shadow to objects as strong as the mooneclipses of the sun only are visible from a very  light generally does  One of the most minute acsmall portion of the earth's surface. 7. Al eclipse counts of the circumstances accomlpalying a toof the sun begins on the western side, and ends tal eclipse of the sun is that which is given by
on the eastern.                                  Dr. Stukely, of the eclipse which happened in 1724,
Periods of Eclipses.-It has been found that in in a letter to Dr. EIalley; of which the following
223 mean lunationis, after the sun, moon, and  is an abridgment:nodes have been once in a line of conjunction,   "I chose for my station, Haradon-hill, near
they return so nearly to the same state again, Amesbury, east from Stonehenge avenue. In front
that the same node which was in conjunction  is that celebrated edifice upon which I knew that
with the sun and moon, at the beginning of the the eclipse would be directed.  I had the advanfirst of these lunations, will be within less than tage of a very extensive prospect in every direchalf a degree of a line of conjunction with the suns tion, being on the loftiest hill in the neighborhood,
and moon again, when the last of these lunations and, that nearest to the center of the shadow.
is completed.  Therefore, in that time there will  I had two men in company who looked through
be a regular period of eclipses for many ages. In  smoked glasses. The sky, though overcast, gave
this period there are 18 Julian years, 11 days, 7 out some straggling rays of the sun that enabled
hours, 42 minutes, 31 seconds; when the last day  us to see around us. It was half-past five by my
of February in leap years is four times included. watch when they informed sme that the eclipse was
Consequently, if to the mean time of any eclipse, begun. We watched its progress by the naked eye,
either of the sun or moon, we add the above pe- as the clouds performed for us tile service of coriod, we shall have the mean time of the return I lored glasses.  At the moment wheIn the sun was
of the same eclipse. During this period, there half obscured, a very evident circular rainbow
happen about 62 eclipses, 21 of the moon and 41 formed at its circumference  with perfect colors.
of the sun. If, then, we wish to kiiow the mean  As the darkness increased we saw the shepherds
time of an eclipse for any year, we have only to  oil all sides hastening to fold their flocks, for they
seek in old almanacs the exact time that any  expected a total eclipse of an hour and a quarter
eclipse may have happened 18 years before, and duration.  When the sun assuirmed tile appearance
add to such time the above mentioned period.     of the new moon, the sky was tolerably clear, but
From what has been now stated respecting so- it was soon covered with deeper clouds. The rainlar eclipses, it is evident that the darkness which  bow then vanished; the hill grew very dark, and
accompanied our Saviour's crucifixion must have on each side the horizon exhibited a blue tint
been supernatural.  For it happened at the time like that at the close of cay. Scarely had we
of the. Jewish passover; and that festival, by the time to count tell, when Salisbury spire, six miles
appointment of the law, was to be celebrated at to the south, was enveloped in darkness.  The
full moon, at which time it was impossible that hill disappeared entirely, and the deepest night
the shadow of the moon could fall upon the earth, spread around us. We lost sight of the sun,
or the sun be eclipsed, according to the established  whose place until then we had been able to distinlaws of nature. Beside, in a total eclipse of the guish in the clouds. but whose trace we could
sun, the time of the continuance of total darkness now no more discover than if it had never existis not more than about four srinutes; but the ed. It was now 35 minutes past six; shortly bedarkness which  overspread "the whole land" fore the sky aiid the earth resumed a livid tilt;
while our Redeemer hung upon the cross, con- there was also much black diffused through the
tinued without intermission for more than three clouds, so that the whole picture presented an awhours. Anld again, although the sun had been ful aspect that seemed to announce the death of
totally eclipsed in a natural way, at that time, to nature.
the inhabitants of Jerusalem  and its confines, it   " We were now involved in a total and palpable
would have been only partially eclipsed to those darkness.  It came oni rapidly, but I watched so
who dwelt on the outskirts of the land of Judea; attentively that I could perceive its progress.  It
as the shadow of the moon, in an eclipse of the came upon us like a great dark mainle thrown
sun, covers only a small part of the earth's surface over us. The horses we held by the bridle seemed
at one time.  In confirmation of what has been deeply struck by it, and pressed closely to us with
now stated, it has been calculated by some astro- marks of extreme surprise.  As well as I could
nomers, that an eclipse of the moon, which can perceive, the coontenances of my friends wore a
only take place at the time of full moon, happened horrible aspect.  It was not without anl involunon the afternoon of that day on which our Sa- tary excl'amation of wonder, I looked round me
viour was crucified; so that, according to the at this moment; I distinguislhed colors in the sun,
language of the prophet, " The sun and the moon  but the earth had lost all its blue and was enitirely
were both darkelned in their habitation," at the black.  A few rays shot through the clouds for a
time when this solemn and interesting event was momeint, but irnmediately afterward the earth and
accomplished.                                    the sky appeared totally black.  It was the most
Total eclipses of the sun have always been con- awful sight I had ever beheld in my life. Northlldered as remarkable events. Clavius remarks, west of the point whence the eclipse came on, it




ECLIPSES OF THE SUN.                                       73
was impossible to distinguish in the least degree half an hour before the commencement of the
the earth frern the sky, for a breadth of 60 degrees eclipse, became somewhat obscured by vapor, and
or m^re.. We looked in vain for the town of blue mists arose increasingly from  the horizon.
Amesbury, situate below us; scarcely could we see A perceptible chillness crept into the air, and
the ground under ourfeet. All the change I could flights of swallows flew  wildly and restlessly
perceive during the totality was that the horizon through the darkening atmosphere; but as long
by degrees drew into two parts, light and dark; as the smallest portion of the sun was visible,
the northern hemisphere growing still longer, there was considerable light. But now approached
lighter, aud broader, and two opposite dark parts the important moment.  A  heavy bell tolled at
uniting into one, and swallowing up the southern  intervals from the city, like the funeral knell of
enlightened part.                                our beautiful orb of light and life, and the shar1p
At length, upon the first lucid point appearing shrill cries of the birds, which had disappeared,
in the heavens where the sun was, I could distin- as if to take refuge from some impending convulguish pretty plainly a rim of light running along- sion of nature.  Yet a moment, and on a sudden,
side of us, a good while together, or sweeping by an effect took place, unexpected and sublimne.
our elbows, from west to east; just then, having The whole aspect of heaven and earth underwent
good reason to suppose the totality ended, I found a change, with regard to light, coloring, everyit to be full three minutes and a half. The hill thing: and the instant that-preceded tihe total
tops then resumed their natural color, and I saw  eclipse, resembled in nothing, and gave no idea
no horizon at the point previously occupied by the of that which followed it.
shadow.  My companions cried out that they    " Round the black sun was an irregular halo of
again saw the steep hill toward which they had whitish light, defining clearly and strongly the obbeen looking attentively.   Presently we heard scured orb. In some places, thlis halo extended
the song of tle larks hailing the return of light, into longer gleams, forming altoge-her a faint
after the profound and universal silence. in wllich glory. It was not so generally dark as I had supeverything had been plunged.  The heavens and posed it would have beeu,-lbut the sudden dimithe earth now appeared of a grayish cast, inter- nution of light, at the moment of total obscuraspersed with blue, like the morning before sun- tion, was sudden and startling.  Also the sudden
rise. As soon as the sun appeared, the clouds diminution of temperature, the thermometer fallgrew denser, and for some minutes the light did ilg 1] degrees instantaneously upon the complete
not increase, as happens at a cloudy sunrise. The immersion of the sun. One of the most striking
instant the eclipse became total, until the enmersion and unexpected effects, was a red and lurid glow,
of the sun, we saw Venus but ino other stars. We that suddenly kindled upon the horizon; the blue
perceived at this moment the spire of Salisbury pale vapor that llad risern from the east, being conCathedral.  The presence of the clouds added verted into the semblance of a mighty conflagramuch to the solemnity of the spectacle, intcorn- tion.  The principal light in the landscape came
parahly superior, in my opinion, to the eclipse of from thence, no longer from the sun.  The rest
1i15, which I saw perfectly from  the top of of the atmosphere was of a sickly greenish tinge,
Boston steeple, when the sky was very clear. overcast with duskiness, through whose spectral
There, indeed, I saw the two sides of the shadow, tints the crowds upon the ramparts were dimly
coming from afar aid passing to a groat distance discerned, all standing in solemn stillness, like the
behind us; but this eclipse exhibited great variety, vast shadowy multitudes in one of Martin's picanrd was more awfully imposing.  So deep an im- 1 tures.
pression hlas this spectacle lmade on my mind, that I   "T'he number of stars visible during this eclipse,
shall long be able to recount all the circumstances at Perpignan, according to Arago, was only ten.
of it with as much precision as now."            The number was greater at Montpelier and Milan,
There have been no total eclipses of the sun in Its effect upon animals was remarkable. One of
Britain, since those of 1715 and 1724, nor will the friends of Arago had five healthy linnets in a
there be one visible here during the present cen- cage, three of which died during the sudden darktury.  The first total eclipse in England will hap- ness of the eclipse.  Oxen formed into a circle,
pen on the 3d of February, 1916. Tlhe most re- with their horns thrust forward, as if to repel an
markable solar eclipses for the next half century enemy.  At Montpelier bats and owls appeared,
are those of March 15, 1858, and August 19, 1887. sheep lay as if for the night, and horses in the
The last total eclipse of the sun visible in Europe, fields were in terror.  M. Fraise a naturalist, rehappened on July Sth, 1842, of which the follow- lates that a swarm of ants, in full march, stopped
iog account is abridged from the Atheneum:       short at the moment of occultation, when tire dark"Vienna, July 8,1842.-The eclipse, the object ness was nearly at its hight."
of our journey to Vienna, was worth going any    The following table contains a statement of the
distance to see. No partial eclipse, however con- principal solar eclipses during the present century:
siderable, call give the faintest notion of what a   In this table, the eclipses marked with. an
total one is. All Vienna was in expectation for asterisk are calculated forthe meridian of Paris; all
mally days previous to the event, and strangers the others are calculated for the middle of England.
flocked to that capital in crowds to witness that   Eclipses are not only striking and interesting
phenomenon.  The celebrated astronomer, Schu- phenomena of nature, but are of considerable admacher, canme all the way from Denmark on pur- vantage and utility.  In the first place, fromn an
pose to see the eclipse with astronomical eyes. At eclipse of the moon we derive one conclusive
four in the morning, I beheld the clear rays of the argument to prove the globular figure of the earth,
sun, shining opposite my window, while the ge- frorm the circular shape of the shadow  of the
neral appearance of the sky indicated a favorable earth in a lunar eclipse. 2. Eclipses of the moon
concurrence of circumstances. Soon after five, I prove that the sun is larger than the earth, bewas on my way to the Botanical Garden, and al- cause the shadow  of the earth shortens in its
ready the ramparts of the city were thronged with breadth as it retires from the earth, and at length
multitudes.  About ten minutes before six the termninates in a point, which it could not do if the
first spot of darkness was observed upon the sun. sun were smaller. 3. They also prove that the
From that time until the total obscuration, there earth is larger than the moon, because thle whole
was no very unusual appearance. The sky, about of the moon's body is sometimes involved in the




74                              THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
Beginning of eclipse.   Middle of the eclipse..End of the eclipse.   Dig. eclipsed.
h. mi. se.         h. min. sec.          h. min. sec.        deg. min.
May   6,1845   8  30  25  morn.   9  51  55  morn.  11  19  55  morn.    5  12
April 25,1846   5  42   0  even.   6  30   0  even.                              3  42
Oct.  9,1847   6  22  38  morn.   7  36  38  morn.   8  48  38  morn.   11   0
July  28,1851    1  57  11  even.   3   5  11  even.   4  10  41  even.          9  43
March 15,1858  11  29  30  morn.  12  52   2  even.    2  12   0  even.    11  30
July  18,1860   1  34  30  even.    2  45   0  even.   3  52  30  even.           9  12
Dec. 31, 1861*  2   5   0  even.    3   4   0  even.                              6  13
May  17, 1863*  6   0   0  even.    6  46   0  even.    7  30   0  even.    3  58
Oct. 19, 1865   3  55  58  even.   5   9  58  even.    6  17  28  even.    7  36
Oct.   8, 1866'  5   2   0  even.    Sun sets 5h. 32m.                            3  58
March 6,1867   8   7  26  morn.   9  21  26  morn.  10  40  26  morn.    8  42
Feb. 23, 1868*  3  42   0  even.    3  54   0  even.    4   6   0  even.          0   9
Dec. 22,1870  11  15  28  morn.  12  32  58  even.    1  48  28  even.            9  36
May  26,1873*  7  56   0  morn.   8  48   0  morn.   9  34   0  morn.    3  36
Oct.  10, 1874*  8  55   7  morn.  10  13  37  morn.  11  34  37  Inorn.    6  18
Sept. 29,18754 11  56   0  morn.  12  37   0  even.    1   7   0  even.          2   7
July  19,1879*  7  45   0  morn.   8  39   0  morn.   9  41   0  even.            4   8
Dec. 31,1880-  1  49   0  even.   2  47   0  even.    3  36   0  even.            4  28
May  17,1882*  6  22   0  morn.   7   0   0  mnorn.   7  49   0  morn.    3  19
Aug. 19,1887   3  25  22  morn.   4  15  22  morn.   5   7  52  morn.   11  58
June 17,1890*  8  19   0  morn.   9  22   0  morn.  10  48   0  morn.    5  46
May  28,1900'  3  21   0  even.    4  30   0  even.    5  23   0  even.           7  53
Aug. 30,1905  11  54  52  morn.   1   8  42  even.    2  19  42  even.            9  30
April 17, 1912  10  48  12  morn.  12  23  12  even.    1  45  12  even.    11  30
Feb.   3,1916 1 4  21  10  even.   5  21  40  even.    6  18  10  even.    12   0
earth's shadow, and a section of this shadow at event be rightly determined, by calculating back
the moon is much less than the earth itself. 4. ward, and ascertaining whether any remarkable
The longitude of places may be obtained  by eclipse happened near the period supposed. For
eclipses to a great degree of accuracy. An eclipse example, Thucydides relates that a solar eclipse
commencing at the same moment of time to all happened on a summer's day, in the afternoon, in
places at which it is visible, the difference in the the first year of the Peloponnesian war, which
observed time at any two places will give the eclipse was so great that the stars appeared. This
difference of longitude between the places. 5. is stated in modern authors to have been in the
Eclipses have lent their aid in settling the precise year 413 before Christ, and by computation it
date of ancient historical events. For if near the appears that on the 3d of August in that year,
time of any memorable event recorded in history, there was a great solar eclipse, which passed over
a remarkable solar or lunar eclipse be also record- Athens about six o'clock in the afternoon; which
ed, we may know whether the real time of this therefore corroborates the decision of chronologers.
CHAPTER  VII.
ON THE SEASONS, AND THE DIFFERENT LENGTHS OF DAYS AND NIGHTS
WE formerly had occasion to state that the are tinged with the most lovely hues, the flowers
earth revolves round its axis every 24 hours, and expand their buds, and put forth their colors; the
round the sun in about 365 days and nearly 6 birds awake to melody, and the insect tribes are
hours.  These motions are intimately connected  on their wing, all rejoicing in the light of the
with the different lengths of days and nights, luminary of day. The curtain of darkness is
experienced in almost every region of the globe, likewise removed from the abodes of men, which
and with the seasons which diversify the different are previously obscured, and we behold the cities,
portions of the year.                          towns and villages, the lofty domes, the glittering
The constant succession of day and night-  spires, and the palaces and temples with which
though so common as to be almost unheeded —is the landscape is adornied. After a night of darkin reality a very wonderful operation of the Most ness and tempest, such a scene appears almost
High.  WVhen, after a dark and tempestuous like a new creation. The sun, after moving in
night, the sun first appears in the unclouded hori- all his brightness through the canopy of heaven
zon, all nature appears animated by his presence. is again hidden from our view in the western reThe magnificent scene of creation, which a little giolen of the sky, and we are then presented with
before was involved in obscurity, opens gradually a scene still more wonderful and sublisne: the
to view-and every object around has a tendency  moon rises in unclouded majesty-the planets are
to excite sentiments of delight and adoration, if beheld moving in their different courses, and an
man were disposed to contemplate the works of innumerable host of stars, spread over the whole
his Creator with intelligence and pious emotion. concave of the firmament, diffuse their radiance
The heavens are adorned with azure, the clouds from afar  Such a spectacle, during the silenco




THE SEASONS.                                             75
of the night, fills the contemplative mind with  as soon as genial showers refresh the soil, emerge
solemn thoughts, and with sentiments of wonder from the ground, and begin to display their beauand delight, and has a tendency to raise the soul ties.  As the sun rises higher and higher above
to a consideration of the Great First Cause, " by  the horizon at noon, and the [teat increases, the
whom the heavens were made."                       larger vegetables, shrubs and trees, unfold their
In the course of the annual revolution of the leaves, and the winged tribes begin to build their
earth round the sun, the inhabitants of every  nests, and to "sing among the branches."  The
country, and of every clime, experience, thoughi landscape begins  to be adorned with a lively
at different times, all the variety of the seasons, gree,. interspersed with flowers of various lhues,
and the different lengths of days and nights with  and all nature appears in ceaseless activity   In
which they are accompanied.  Spring, summer, this season, about thile 21st of Marchi, the 5sun
autumn, andi winter, follow each  other in con- crosses the equinoctial;  when tile days and nights
stant succession, diversifying the scenery of na- are equal over all the globe, and the north polar
ture, and distinguishing tilhe difitbrent periods of regions, which were previously involved in darkthe year.  In thile present constitution of thile  ness, now begin to feel tlihe light and genial inlunearth, and in the present state of man, this vicis- ence of tilhe sun.  The approach of spring an(d its
situde of seasons is attended with manifold ad- progressive advances, fill the hearts of all, the
vantages both to the human race and to the other mendicant as well as the monarch, withi hope,
tribes of animated nature, and is necessary toward  and unmixed joy and satisfaction;  for this season
bringing to maturity the various productions of  affoirds us a tliousand new deliglhts.  It clrurms
the earth.  During one-half of the year, firomn  us with  the beauty and perfume of flowers; tim
March 21, to September 23, the regions of our songs of the winged tribes; the length of the day
globe within the north polar circle enjoy their rapidly advancing; and tihe preludes of approachsummer, and part of their spring and autumnn. ing summer, and the pleasures of rural excurAt the north pole, the sun shines six months sions.
without intermission; and firom 66/. degrees of    Summer has generally been considered, on the
north latitude, the inhabitants of these climes whole, as the most delightful season of tilhe year.
enjoy a length of day varying firom 24 hours to  Every object is then clothed in renovated beaut[
six months; —the nearer thile pole, the longer is and gladniiess-the winter snows are completely
the day.  In Greenland and Davis' Straits, our melted firom the hills; the trees are bursting with
whale fishers enjoy, during tihe greater part of leaves; thle flowers are painting themselves with
the time they are employed in those regions, an  every variety of color, and every thicket, and every
almost uninterrupted day of three or four months hill ring with the modulations of various notesin length.  During the same time, the inhabitants  everything  in the animal and vegetable world
of the antarctic circle around tile southern pole, now appears in a progressive state toward matuare altogether deprived of the sun, and shrouded  rity, anid the insect race seem  animiiiated  with
in darkness, until the 23d of Septemrnber; when  peculiar vigor and activity under the mnore dilhe again appears on the verge of their horizon. rect influence of the sun. At this thae (about the
These countries, within the polar circlee  may be 21st of June), the sun rises highest in his utericonsidered as having  only two seasons-summer uuian course, tme heat increases, the day is at the
and winter.  They have a sunmmner of about four longest, the night consists only of a few hours of
months, during which tile days are very long and  twilight, and the rising sun is accompanied with
the heat considerable.  The rest of the year may  peculiar sublimity  and  splendor.  The fleecy
be considered as winter: for so rapid is the tran- clouds are painted with purple and vermilion, the
sition froiom heat to extreme cold, and from cold to  mountain-tops are  fringed with radiance, and
heat, that spring and autumn are scarcely per- every object oni the face of nature displays its peceptible.  It is only in temperate climates that culiar form  and beauties.  This season, too, is
four distinct seasons are particularly distinguished  sometimes distinguished by excessive heats, which
and enjoyed.  In such climates, in spring, plants produce laingior and inactivity, and sometimes tile
have time to shoot, and grow insensiely,  without sky is covered with dark and lowering clouds,
being destroyed  by  late  frosts, or too  much  when, on a sudden, tihe foried!ightnings flash,
hastened by early heats.  In summer, the heat and the thunders roll in awful majesty along the
gradually diminishes; so that the fruits of autumn  sky, appalling the timorous mind  and produchave time to ripen by degrees, without being hurt  uing  terror amongo  the tribes of animated aaby the winter colds.  Throughout most of thlie  tare.
European countries, particularly  ii Italy, and    Autumn is the season when the fruits of the
the south of France, these four seasons are dis- earth  are brought to maturity, to supply  the
tinctly  perceptible.  Iii the warmest countries Wants of man and beast.  The silent and gradual
too, as well as in the coldest, there may be said  progress of maturity is now  completed, and the
to be only two seasons, that materially differ from  promise of sprintg fulfilled.  The fields are covereach other; as in the tropical climates, about ed with a golden harvest, the reapers in joyful
the central parts of Africa, and the southern i groups are cutting  down their sheaves, and the
regions of Asia.  In such countries, there is a productions of tile earth are gathered into the
dry and scorching season, during seven or eight garner, to be stored up as provisions for thIe commonths, until the railny season commences, which  iug year.  In every garden and orchard, delicious
continues generally four or five months; and this finits of various hues are seen hanging on the
is the ciiief distinction between their summer and branches, to gratify the eye, the palate, and the
winter.                                            imrnagiiiation, and presenting a specimen of the
Every season of the year is characterized by  superabundance of Divine goodness in providing
its pecul-iar phenomena and effects.  Spring is such a variety of comiforts for the human fatmily.
characterized as the season of the renovation of "Oh  that men would praise the Lord for his
nature after the gloom and torpor of winter.  At goodness, and for his wonderful works to the
this period, animals and vegetables feel the in- children of men.u"-For Hle crowneth the year
flueice of returning warmth, and prepare for the  with hiis goodness, his " paths drop fatness:-the
continuasce and increase of their several species. little hills rejoice on every side. The pastures
The plants aid flowers, which were hid in winter, are clothed with flocks; the valleys also are




76                                  THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
covered over with corn; they shout for joy, they  days are shortest and the nights the longest This
also sing."  Toward the close of this season, the happens more particularly  about the 21st of
objects of the vegetable creation begin to lose December, when the sun, in our latitude, rises
their bloom  and their beauty.  The groves lose near the south-east, describes a short curve a
their leafy honors; the gaudy flowers disappear; little above the southern horizon, and sets near
and nature puts on a more bleak and somber as- the south-west, after having remained only seven
pect.  But before the forests and the groves are or eight hours above the horizon.
stripped of their beauty, they assume a tempo-   It is here worthy of remark, that all the diverrary splendor superior to even the verdure of sified phenomena of the seasons, and the differspring, or the luxuriance of summer.  The ever- ent lengths of days and nights throughout the
changinlg hues of the leaves of the trees, melting year, are produced by the operation of a few apinto every soft gradation of color and shade, have parently simple principles.  In all the operations
long engaged the imitation of the painter, and in of the Almighty, we find that the most diversified
some measure enliven the gloom  of the falling and astonishing effects are produced by causes
year.  During this season (on the 23d of Septern- that are either unheeded, or by agents which, to
her), the sunI crosses the equinoctial, in his course our limited view, appear altogether inadequate to
toward tile south. He then sets to the north pole, produce the results.  From  the simple principle
and begins -to diffuse his rays on the south polar of gravitation, for example, proceed all the beauregions, where spring now commences; and du- ties and sublimities which arise from the meandering all the period which intervenes from this time, ing rills, the majestic rivers, and the roaring catauntil the 21st of the following March, the sun  racts; it causes the mountains to rest on a solid
shines without intermission around the southern  basis, and confines the ocean to its appointed chanpole.                                             nels; it produces the descent of the rains, and
Winter succeeds autumn, and completes the dews, and the alternate flux and reflux of the
circl'e of the seasons, in our northern latitude. tides; it rolls the moon round the earth, and prmThe thickening fogs, the heavy rains, the hail vents her from flying off to tile distant regions of
showers, and the descending snowls, now  begin space; it extends its influence from the earth to
to deface the beauties of the rural landscape. the moon, and from  the sun to the remotest
The melody of birds is seldom  heard in the planets-preserving surrounding worlds in their
groves; the flowers lie dead, and their beauties proper courses, and connecting the solar system
defaced; the trees are lashed by storms, stripped  with other worlds and systems in the remote
of their verdure, and spread their naked arms to spaces of the universe.  From the minutest atom
the ruthless winds.  The vapors sometimes tllick- to the vast luminaries of heaven, everything is
en into an impenetrablee gloom, and obscure the subject to its all-powerful influence; and from
face of the sky.'Tihe rains descend in torrents; this active invisible agent proceed all the order,
the brooks swell, the rivers burst their banks, beauty, and variety, which distinguish the works
and bury the meadows under a soaking deluge. of creation.  Thus, also, the principle called elecT'lhe atmosphere is now  and then Imtrled into  tricity —which manifests itself in sparks of fire,
tumultuous confusiol, and everything trembles when a glass tube is rubbed in the dark-is found
before the furious blast.  Tile trees of the forest to be the cause which produces the lightnings of
are dashed headlong to the ground, and the shep- heaven, ald all the sublime phenomena which
herd's cot carried aloft in the air, or shattered in accompany a violent thunderstorm; and, in compieces.  The ocean swells with violent commo- bination with other agents, produces likewise the
tions, and tosses its waves toward the clouds. fiery meteor which sweeps through the sky with
Ships are dragged from  their anchors, and are its luminous train, and the beautiful coruscations
whirled about as stubble along the vast abyss, and of the aurora borealis.
some of them  plunged into the open gulf, with   In like manner the vicissitude of day and night
all their imariners, to rise no more. Such are and the revolution of the seasons and their diversisome of the aspects and desolations of stern wil- fled phenomena, depend on the most simple printer.  But it is also accompanied with numerous ciples and arrangements.  The alternate succesbenefits to mankind.  The frost and cold which sion of day and night is occasioned merely by the
winter produces, prevent many hurtful vapors uniform rotation of the earth upon its axis.  As
in the higher regions of the atmosphere from  our globe turns round on this imaginary line every
falling upon us, and purify the air from  nox- 24 hours, and as only one-half of a globe call be
ious exhalations.  Far from being prejudicial to illuminated at a time, it is evident that any parhealth, they often improve it, and prevent the ticular place will sometimes be turned toward the
humors from  that putrefaction which heat might sun, and sometimes opposite to it: and being thus
produce.  Cold has a tendency to brace the ani- constantly subjected to these various positions, a
mral system, and to promote the circulation of regular return of light and darkness will be expethe blood.  When the fields and gardens are rienced during the above period in every region
covered with snow, this is necessary to preserve not within the limits of the polar circles.  When,
them  from'the cold, and to prevent the grain by the diurnal revolution, any place is carried into
from  corrupting.  The earth  requires repose, the dark hemisphere, it is night; and when turned
after having yielded in summer all that we re- round intotheenlightened hemisphere, it is day.
quire  for our subsistence during  the winter. The sun and all the other heavenly bodies appear
While the cold continues, the means are at hand to move along the heavens every day from east to
for procuring artificial heat, by the abundance west; but this motion is only apparent, and is
of coals and wood which the Creator has pro- caused by the real motion of the earth on its axis
vided.  During this season, too, we enjoy the from west to east; but the apparent motion of
most brilliant and interesting views of the star- these bodies is somewhat different at different sea.
ry heavens, of the planets in their courses, and sons of the year, and in different regions of the
of the moon " walking in brightness."  So that globe. (See ante, p. 11.) All the planets on whose
in every season, we have abundant evidence of surfaces spots have been discovered, are likewise
the goodness of our bountiful Creator, and of the found to perform rotations round their axes, which
tender care he exercises over every portion of the will produce a similar revolution of day and night,
human family. During the middle of winter the as in our world, though in different periods of




THE SEASON1S.                                           77
time, some of the planets finishing the periods of sents the earth in four different positions in its
their rotation in about ten hours, some in ten and  orbit, the central figure representing the sun.  It
a hall', and others in twenty-three hours.        is known from  observation that the axis of the
As to the vicissitudes of the seasons-this is earth is always directed to very nearly the same
owing to the inclination of the earth's axis to the fixed point in the heavens, and therefore it will
plane of its orbit.  If the axis of the earth stood  constantly preserve the same position, in whatever
perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, there would  part of its orbit the earth may happen to be in its
be no variety in the length of days and nights; circuit round the sun, as may be seen in the
but they would of course be equal all over the  figures hererepresented.  Let us now suppose the
globe, except at the poles, where the sun would  earth to be in the situation represented at March,
neither rise nor set, but remnain continually in the or at N, at the higher part of tihe diagrarm.  A
horizon, as he is seen at present in that position  right line joining the centers of the earth and sun
on the 21st of March and the 23d of September, will cut the surface of the earth in the equator,
at the north and south poles.  This inclination is and the boundary between light and darkness will
23/1 degrees from the perpendicular, which makes  pass through the two poles, and the days and
an angle with the earth's orbit, or the ecliptic, of nights will consequently be equal throughout the
661~ degrees.  The axis of the earth always keeps whole earth, except at the poles, which are in the
parallel to itself, in its motion round the sun, and  boundary of light and darkness.  But when the
points exactly to the same part of the heavens. earth, in its annual course, is carried along the
This may appear somewhat strange, since the orbit fourth part of its orbit to its position, as repreof the earth is 190 millions of miles in diameter; sented in June, toward the left hand of the figure,
but this extent, however great, is only as a point the north pole of the axis still continuing to point
when compared with the immense distance of in the same direction, will advance into the enthe fixed stars-the nearest of which is at least lightened hemisphere, and will be 23 degrees and
nore than two hundred thousand times farther a half from the boundary between light and darkfrom us than we are from the sun.  If we look  ness, and the south pole at the same distance
along two parallel rods, four or five yards distant within the dark hemisphere.  It is evident that,
from each other, they will both seem to point tli- in this position, the earth may turn round its axis
rectly to the moon when in the horizon, though at a considerable number of times, and yet no placec
such a distance from  each other, although they  around the poles be within the boundary of darkwould not both point to the same object placed at ness.  And if the earth were to continue in this
a short distance.  And perhaps four or five yards part of its orbit, the sun would never set to tioe
bear as great a proportion to the distance of thie inhabitants near the north pole, nor rise to those
moon as 190 millions of miles bear to the distance near the south.  At the equator it would  be
of the stars.                                     always equal day and night; and in all places
The subject of the seasons may be illustrated  north of the equator their days would be longer
by the following diagram, fig. 60, which repre- and their nights shorter in proportion  to their
Fig. 60.,,      aq t D( ld Day and.9..           _.   j.  0.,,C,~                -,
I..  EqeajDay and Niqht   I
earness to the arctic or noth  polarummer inand
trerose on t             the Southe rnouther
But as the earth moves forward in its orbit to- until December 21st; when the north pole of the
ward September, represented     the lower part of  earth will  emisphere.
Hemisphere.                                        j
th  23d of September the days will gradually  solstice.  From  this period to the vernal equinox
shorten  until it arrive at this point, and  day and  intMarch, the darts gradually lengthen as the north
their nights longer than their days.               quarter of its orbit, the days will still shorten
But as the earth moves forward  in its orbit to- until December 21st; when the north pole of the
ward September, represented in the lower part of earth will be just as far in the dark hemisphere,
the cut, the north pole will gradually approach  as it was in the enlightened one on the 21st of
the boundary between light and darkness, which  June.  This position of the earth, represented at
boundary will again pass through both poles on  the right-hand side of the cut, is called the winter
the 23d of September; the days will gradually  solstice.  From this period to the vernal equinox
shorten until it arrive at this point, and day and  in March, the days gradually lengthen as the north
night over the globe will be then equal as before. pole again approaches the boundary between light
This is called the autumnal equinox, and this sea- and darkness; and when the earth arrives at that




78                                  THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
point, the circle of the year and of the seasons is by the return of heat in the short days, by rees;on
completed. From  the description now given it of which the cold will be increased until the days
will evidently appear that the inhabitants of the sensibly lengthen. On the other hand, the greater
southern regions of our globe have the sare va- length of the day contributes to augment the
riety of seasons which we enjoy, but in a reverse  heat in summer; for the earth and air are heated
order. When it is summer in southern climes, it by the sun ill the day-time more than they call be
is winter with us; and when it is spring with us, cooled in the night, and on this account the heat
it is autumn in the soutiern regions.             will go on increasing in summer, until the days
The different signs of the zodiac through which  sensibly decline.  In summer, too, the sun rises
the earth, or the sun, passes in the course of the  to a high altitude, and his rays pass through a
annual revolution are depicted in their several much less portion of the atmosphere, and are less
characters, in the outer circle of the diagram. refracted and weakened by it than when they fall
They are as follows:-beginning at the bottom,  nmore obliquely on the earth, and pass through the
at September, and proceeding toward the right dense vapors near the horizon.  Hence it is, that
hand, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, it is colder near the tirme of sunset, and a little
Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aqua- after;unrise, than when the sun is near his merius, Pisces.  These are the names of the twelve ridian altitude.  It is owing to these and similar
constellations through which the sun apparently  circumstances that the hottest and coldest seasons
passes in the course of a year. In March, the of the year are not about the time of the longest
real place of the earth is Libra, and consequently  and shortest days, but generally about a month
the sun will appear in the opposite sign in Aries, after these periods.  For a body once heated does
and be vertical to the equator. In June, the earth  not grow cold instantaneously, but gradually; and
is in Capricorn and the sun in Cancer, when he so long as more heat comes fiom the sun in the day
is vertical to those who live under the tropic of than is lost in the night, the heat will gradually
Cancer.  Ill September, the earth is in Aries and increase until it comes to a certain maximum,
the sun in Libra, when he is again vertical to the  when the increasing length of the night will
equator.  In December, the earth is in Cancer cause it to diminish.
and the sun in Capricorn, when he is vertical to    The subject of the seasons has been a favorite
those living under the tropic of Capricorn; as the thenie to poets as well as to philosophers; and
inhabitants of South Africa and the central parts they have frequently expatiated on the beauties
of New  Holland.  The explanations now  given and the beneficent designs connected with the
of the seasons would, perhaps, appear more per- varying aspects of the revolving year.  And it
spicuous to the astronomical tyro, were they to must be adtmitted that, iin the present constitution
be illustrated by an orrery, a tellurioin, or any  of our globe, and in the present moral state of
other instrument calculated to elucidate the subject. the human race, there are nmany advantages en.L
In the northern part of the globe, where we joyed, and much of the Divine goodness is disreside, our summer is nearly eight days losnger played in every one of the seasons as they suec
than our winter. By summer, we understand cessively appear, which brings along with it its
the time which elapses between the 21st of March peculiar beauties, pleasures, and enjoyments. But
and the 23d of September; and by winter, the the earth, with the seasons as they now "roll,"
time between the 23d of September and the 21st can scarcely be considered as an abode suited to
of March; or the period between the autumnal an innocent creature that has retained its original
and vernal equinoxes.  In the former case the purity and integrity;-the burning heals in sumearth passes through 184 degrees of its orbit, mer, which are felt in the southern climes, the
which occupies 186 days, 11 hours; in the latter whirlwinds, tornadoes, inundations, thunders and
case it passes through only 176 degrees, which is lightnings, withll which they are frequently acperformed in 178 days, 18 hours.  The reason of comrpanied; and tile fiosts and snows, storms and
this difference is, that the earth moves in all tempests, and insufferable cold whiich are felt in
elliptical orbit, one portion of which is nearer the winter in different parts of the temperate climates,
sun than another; in consequence of which the and in the polar regions-seemn to be accommosun's apparent motion is slower when in the dated only to beings who are involved ill guilt
northern signs than while it traverses the south- and tainted with moral depravity; and, therefore,
ern ones. This orbit is more than three millions we have no reason to believe that the seasons, as
of miles longer in one direction than it is in an- they now exist, would have presented the same
other; consequently, the sun is farther from us at aspects, or operated in the same manner, had
one season than he is at another.  On the 1st of manl remained inll his primeval innocence and
January he is three millions of miles nearer us allegiance to his Maker.  A great change seems
than on the 1st of July, which is ascertained from  to have taken place in this and other respects
the difference of his apparent diameter at those at the period of the universal deluge, when the
seasons.  On the 1st of January his apparent "fountains of the great deep" were broken up,
diameter is 32 minutes, 35 seconds, whereas, on the cataracts of heaven opened, and tile solid
the 1st of July, he is only 31 minutes, 31 seconids, strata of the earth scattered and disrupted: then,
— being a difference of 1 minute of a degree and  in all probability, the constitution of the atmo4 seconds.                                        sphere likewise underwent all extensive change
Here a question will naturally occur, —Why  as to its composition and properties, which is
have we the coldest weather when the sun is partly the cause of some of those storms and
nearest us, and the hottest when he is farthest tempests and other phenomena which  arise in the
distant?  This is owing to various causes; the course of the revolution of the seasons.  But,
principal of which is, that the sun's rays in win- even in the present state of nature, we have
ter fall so obliquely upon us, and have so large a reason to be grateful to God, that in all his disportion of the atmosphere to pass through, that pensations toward his creatures "'he rememrhbers
they come with less force, and spread over a for us mercy in the midst of deserved judgment"
larger space than they do in the summer, when -that while  hurricanes, tempests, and  earththe sun is at a greater hight above the horizon. quakes sometimes produce dreadful devastations,
Beside, in the long nights of winter, we have a and sweep away multitudes of human beings
greater degree of cold than can be compensated from the living world, "his tender mercpies'  may




THE SEASONS.                                           79
be said, on the whole, to be diffused " over all his sun did not show that another day is on the wing
works;" for every season of the year brings along -if the circling seasons did not impress us with
with it its own peculiar enjoyments, in a thousand  the flight of another year-quantities of duration,
different ways; and man, even in his present con- equal to days, months, and years, might glide
dition, might be a comparatively happy being, away without being observed, and without imwere his thoughts and affections, his temper and provement. But the course of time, marked out
actions, regulated by the principles and precepts by so many movements, objects and circumstances,
of Christianity and the moral laws of his Creator. continually reminds us of what progress we have
The evil passions and depraved affections which  made in gliding down the stream  of life toward
prevail among mankind, are far more destructive the ocean of eternity! and admonishes each of
to human happiness than all the storms and temp- us by its rapidity "Whatsoever thy hand findeth to
ests, thunders and lightnings, earthquakes and *do, do it with thy might," since the day rolls on,
volcanoes, that rage throughout the seasons and and "the night cometh, when no man can work."
convulse the elements of nature.                   In fine, the several divisions of the seasons have
The present state of man on earth, in the midst been considered as bearing a striking analogy to
of the circling seasons, appears to be adapted only the course of human existence. Spring has been
to a being who has but a short time to remain in represented as the youth of the year, the season
this terrestrial sphere; whose aim ought to be to of pleasing hope, blooming beauty, and lovely
aspire after a nobler scene of existence-to enter energy.  Summer has been likened to perfect
in the prescribed path to this happier state, by  manhood, the season of confirmed strength, and
believing in the name of the only begotten Son of persevering vigor. Autumn has been compared
God, who is " the Way, the Truth, and the Life " to that period when man is mellowed by age and
-and by cultivating, with vigilance and caution, brings forth the fruits of wisdom and experience
those heavenly tempers and Divine virtues which And cheerless Winter has been termed the dewill prepare him for the employments of an im- crepit and hoary old age of the year. If a day be
mortal existence.  As the engagements of life considered as an image of a year, and the year as
and religion are such as human nature does not a representation of human life-then the mornalways willingly perform, and is apt to postpone ing answers to spring, and the spring to childthem to what it considers a more convenient sea- hood and youth; the noon corresponds to sumson-the vicissitudes of the seasons, and other mer, and. the summer to manhood.  The evening
arrangements in nature, have a tendency to sti- is an emblem of autumn, an autumn of declining
mulate us in the performance of present duty. life; the night is an emblem of winter, in which
Whatever we behold in the economy of nature the powers of vegetation are benumbed,-and
around us, reminds us of the lapse of time and winter points out the time when life shall cease,
the flux of mortal existence.  The day and night with all its hopes and joys. With such views,
regularly succeed each other, and remind us that Thomson, the poet of the "Seasons," closes his
a certain portion of duration has fled. The sun description of Winter:
appears in the eastern horizon; he soon attains hlis
meridian altitude, then declines, and in a few                 Behold, fond man!
hours sets in the west;-the stars in their courses  See here thy pictured life: pass some few years,
houmark setsinthe lapst; the oftour fleeting  m ttheir Thy flowering Spring, thy Summer's ardent strength,
mark the lapse  of our fleeting moments; —the       Thy sober Autumn fading into age,
moon does the same every night, by changing its     And pale concluding Winter comes at last,
form; and the revolution of the seasons diversi-    And shuts the scene. Ah whter now are fled
fies the year, and shows how large a portion of     Those dreams of greatness? those unsolid hopes
Of happiness? those longings after fame?
human life glides silently away.  If the wheel    Those restless cares, those busy bustling days?
of life passed on in undistinguishable uniformity,  Those gay-spent festive nights? those veering thoughts
we should scarcely be able to mark its approaches   Lost between good and ill that sharer thy life?
to the end of the course. If one hour were uni- ortal, now are vanished! Reliin sle survives,
Immortal, never-failing friend of man,
formly like another-if the diurnal motion of the    His guide to happiness on high!
CHAPTER  VIII.
REFLECTIONS, MORAL AND RELIGIOUS, IN REFERENCE TO THE SOLAR
SYSTEM.
WrriTOUT entering at present on the considera- But when, with the eye of the intellect, assisted
tion of any other topics connected with astro- by the telescope and the discoveries of science,
nomical science, we shall conclude the present we endeavor to traverse  the immense spaces
work with a few reflections, suggested by the above us, and to survey the number, the magnisubject we have endeavored to illustrate in the tude, the distances, and the rapid motions of the
preceding pages.                                 globes dispersed throughout the regions of inmThe science of astronomy presents to our view  mensity, we are completely overpowered, and
objects which are calculated to raise our admira- lost in astonishment, at the extent and grandeur
tion, and to excite the soul to solemn reflection, of the scense-their numbers cannot be told; their
and elevated contemplations. When we take but magnitude cannot be conceived; their distances
a cursory view of the nocturnal heavens, in a are beyond human calculation and comnprehenclear and serene evening, we are almost irresisti- sion; and the amazing velocity with which they
bly overpcwered with emotions of wonder and fly through the regions of space is confounding
awe, at the amazing grandeur of the vast canopy and almost terrifying to the imagination.  Milaround us, and the number of the brilliant orbs lions upon millions of those magnificent globes
which shed their radiance upon us from  afar. have been running their ample rounds for tihou



80                                  THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
sands of years, and  will, doubtless continue    What a striking display do such objects present
their courses, though amidst numerous changes, of the power and grandeur of Omnipotence, oC
throughout all the revolutions of eternity.  The frequently celebrated  by the  inspired writers.
immense forces with which they are impelled in  " Great is our Lord, and of great power: his untheir career; the magnificent circles they describe; derstanding is infinite; his greatness is unsearchathe beautiful order in which they are arranged; ble;" wonderful works doth He, wlich we canthe regularity and harmony of their movements; not comprehend.  "Who is a strong Lord like
and the noble and important ends to which they  unto thee?  Who in heaven can be corlparea
are destined, proclaim, in language not to be mis- unto  the Lord?  Who among the sonIs of the
taken, that " the hand that made them is Divine;" mighty can be likened unto the Lord?"  We are
and, therefore, that they ought to be studied, and sometimes apt to be dazzled with the spielldor of
contemplated with pious emotion, by every ra- riches, and to admire, in the palaces of thle great,
tional and religious mind:                        the magnificence of the furniture, the. beauty of
the apartments, and the profusion of gold anid silL' Come forthl, O man! yon azure round survey,                I
And view those lamps which yield eternal day.  ver ornaments that appears on every side.  We
Bring forth thy glasses; clear thy wondering eyes;  are apt to reverence mighty potealates, wuhen
Millions beyond the former millions rise;      they bear rule over multitudes of subjects, and
Look further; —millions more blaze from yonder skies."       sway
exercise their sway over extensive counltries. We
Who can look up to the midnight sky, and be- judge of the greatness of men by their actions,
hold its rolling wonders, without being struck  when they build spacious cities, and erect splenwith astonishment at the idea of that great Being, did palaces and temples; when they conistruct
who formed such vast and magnificent works? steam-engines and carriages, asnd impel thlem for"GCanst thou by searching find out God? canst ward with a motion of fifty miles an hour.  Bit,
thou find out the Almighty unto perfection?"  what are all the powers and energies of man, as disThere is a length and a breadth, a hight and a played in his noblest achievements, collmpared with
depth, in the perfections of the Divinity, which  the magnificence and energies displiayed thlrouglhfinite intelligences will never be able fully to com- out the planetary system? What are a few cities,
prehend.  Vast and magnificent as the structure palaces, and temples, compared with the grasidetr
of the starry heavens is, it was produced without and extent of mighty worlds?  What is a  stiall
materials-it emerged out of 1otthing.  The voice corner of the earth, compared with t'he expansive
of the Eternal "spake, and it was done."  "He  range over which the sun extends his influence?
commanded," and the orbs of the firmament What is the motion of a small engine, even at
started into being.  " Let there be light: and  fifty miles an hour, compared with the motion of
there was light."  "By the word of the Lord  a globe ten thousand miles in circumrferience,
were the heavens made; and all the host of them  flying at the rate of a hundred thousand miles an
by the breath of his mouth."  Our admiration of hour?   All human  art, power, and grandeur
such wonderful works should lead us to humble  must hide their diminished heads in the presence
ourselves in his august presence, and to reverence  of Him who is the former and governor of spaand adore him as the uncreated source of all feli- cious worlds.  As the splendor of thie stars is lrbcity.  " Let all the earth fear the Lord; let all sorbed by the rays of the sun, so all the graidt ur,
the inhabitants of the world stand in awe of him."  power, and splendor of this world anid its inlhabiBut as we have not yet taken a survey of the tants vanish before the presence of Him whlo is
starry heavens, and the wonderful scenes which  " the Kiig Eternal, Immortal, and Invisible," and
they disclose, we shall chiefly confine our present before whom "all nations are accounted as noreflections to  the objects connected  with the fhing, and less than nothing and vanity."  And,
planetary system, of which we have given a brief if such power is displayed in one sun, and one
sketch in the preceding pages.                    system of revolving worlds, how great beyond conr
In the first place, when we contemplate the ception the effects of that Almighty energy which
grand machinery of the solar system, we are pre- has brought into existence thousands and iiillions
sented with a striking display of the Almighty  of other suns and systems, and dispersed them  in
power of Him who formed it. It presents to our countless numbers throughout the illimitable tracts
view  objects of overpowering  magnitude and of space! "Who can utter the mighty acts of tlh.t
grandeur-planetary  globes, a  thousand  times Lord?"'-" Great and marvelous are thy works,
larger than  the earth; and magnificent rings, Lord God Almighty!"
which w6uld reach nearly from  the earth to the    This attribute of the Almighty, so conspicumnoon, and which would ellclose within their vast ously displayed in the heavens, lays a sure founcircumference four hundred worlds as large as that dation for the faith and hope and comfort of the
on which we dwell.  It exhibits a sun more than  Christian, amidst all the perplexities and afflictions
twelve hundred thousand times larger than. our to which he is subjected in the present state..
earthly ball, and five hundred times larger than  For it assures him  that whatever Jehovah has
all the planets, their satellites and rings, taken to- promised, " he is able also to performr."  The
gether, even although hundreds of comets were promises addressed to us by a wise and be nevolent
also included; and this sun extending its influ- Being can excite in us hope and dependence, only
ence to bodies a thousand millions of miles dis- in so far as we are convinced of his powner to setant, enlightening them by his beams, andi retain- cure their accomplishment.  If omnipotence wrelr
ing them in their orbits by his attractive ifluence. not an attribute of the Divine Being, or were we
It presents before us motions, so astonishing as to unable to trace its operations in existing facts, we
overpower all our faculties-bodies, a thousand  could have no rational dependence on his promises
times larger than our globe, flying with a velocity  and declarations in regard to objects which are
of thirty thousand miles every hour, carrying  unseen and eternal, and which lie beyond the
along with them  a retinue of revolving worlds, limits of human comprehension.  But when we
and continuing their rapid career, without a morn- behold, in the arrangements of this lower world,
ment's intermission, for thousands of years-nay, and in the solar systenm, a display of omnipotent
motions at the rate of eight hundred thousand  energy in incessant operation, far beyond the
miles an hour have been perceived among some grasp of our limited faculties, we plainly perceive
of the bodies connected with the solar system.    that there is not a promise recorded in Divine




BENEVOLENCE OF THE DEITY.                                       81
revelation, nor a future fact declared, but is with- For the wisdom of God is never esmployed in dein the power cf, Jehovah ft lly to accomplish and vising means without an end: and the grand end
realize. " lie doeth accordinug to his will in the of all his arrangements, so far as our views (xarmy of heaven, and among the inhabitants of the tend, is the communication of happiness; and it
earth: and none call stay his hand, or say unto  would be inconsistent with the wisdom  and other
him, What doest thou?"  Should afflictions as- perfections of God not to admit that the same end
sail us, he is able to comfort and support.  Should  is kept in view in every part of his dominions,
calamities befall us, or dangers surround us, he is however far removed from  the sphere of our obable to deliver. Should death stare us in the face, servation. We cannot, indeed, explore hlle miand heart and flesh begin to faint and fail, he is nute displays of Divine goodness in the distant
able to transport our spirits to a nobler scene of regions of the planetary system, but we perceive
existence, and to re-anirnate our mortal framrnes at certain general arrangements which clearly indithe resurrection of the just.  Happy, then, is the cate that the happiness of intellectual natures is
rman whlo hath this eternal God for his refuge, one of the grand enlds of the Divine adiminiistra" whose hope is in the Lord his Goi: which made. tion.  For example-light is essential to tile comheaven and earth, the sea, ald all that therein is: fort and happiness of all living beings. Its rays
which keepeth truth forever."  For He "is able illumine the vast expanse of the heaven-s, and unto do exceeding abundantly above all that we can vail all the beauties and sublimities of creation
ask or think," -" according to the working of his around us. Without its influence the universe
mighty power, which he wrought in Christ, when  would be transformed into a desert, and happiness,
he raised him from the dead, and set him  at his evenl in the lowest degree, could scarcely be enown right hand in the heavenly place."          joyed by any sentient or perceptive existence.
2. The arrangements of the solar system display Now we -find, in the arrangements of the solar
the wisdoln and benevolence of its Creator. Were system, that ample provision has been made for
it possible to conceive a being possessed of such diffusing light in all its varieties over every planet
power as the planetary system  displays, but de- and satellite belonging to this system.  All the
void of wisdom and goodness, such a being would. planets revolve round their axes, in order that
be the most terrible object which the human mind every part of their surfaces may enjoy a due procould contemplate.  Power acting at random, portion of the solar rays: around the more distant
without regard to the happiness of intellectual planets, an assemblage of moons has been arbeings, could only produce terror and apprehen- ranged to throw light upon their surfaces in the
sion throughout the intelligent universe, uncer- absence of the sun. And while the satellites pertain whether or not its energies might be exerted  form this office, the primary planets reflect a still
for the purpose of promoting misery and destrue- greater quanstity of light upon the surface of the
tion. But the attribute of omnipotence, when satellites: and one of these planets is invested
conjoined with infinite wisdom and boundless be- with a splendid double ring, of vast dimensions,
nevdlence, conveys an idea the most glorious and to reflect the solar rays during night both on the
transporting; and these perfections are conspicu- surface of the planet and on the surface of its
ously displayed throughout all the works of God. moons; all which arrangements nmust necessarily
Hits wisdom  is illustriously displayed in the ar- lhave a respect to the enjoyment of intellectual
rangernents of the planetary system, in placing natures: otherwise they would be means without
near the center of this system that immense lumi- an end, which would be inconsistent with the
nary, thie sun, from whence light and heat might wisdom  and intelligence of the Deity. If, then,
be distributed in due proportions to all the worlds the happiness of various orders of intelligent bethat roll around it-in nicely proportionating the ings was intended to be promoted by such adaptamotions and distances of all the planets, primary  tions and arrangements, we have here presented
and secondary —in uniting them  in one harmo- to our view a most glorious display of the expannious system  by one grand and universal law, sive benevolence of that almighty Being who 1"is
which prevents them from flying off in wild con- good to all," and whose " tender mercies are. diffusionm through the infinity of space-in nicely fused over all his works."  If this earth din which
adjusting the projectile velocity to the sun's at- we dwell " is full of the goodness of the Lord,;"
tractive power, so as to produce harmony of moe- if countless myriads of living beings, from  man
tion. and to prevent the planets, on the one hand, downward to the minutest insect, are supported
from rushing forward to the sun, and on the other, and nourished by the Divine bounty, how wide
from flying off in a tangent through the regions and expansive must be the eranations of that beof immensity-in the constancy and regularity  neficence which extends its regards to worlds a
of their motions, no one interfering with another thousand times more extensive and populous than
or deviating from the course prescribed-in the ours! The benevolence of the Deity may be said
exactness with which they run their destined  to constitute his whole moral character, and to
rounds, finishing their circuits with so much ac- reflect a radiance on all his other perfections.
euracy as not to deviate from  their periods of Hence, in the records of inspiration, the Divinity
revolution the space of a minute in a hundred  is summarily described by this perfection alone,
years —in the spherical figure given to all these "God is love!"  He is the uncreated source of all
mighty orbs, and the diurnal motions impressed  the happiness enjoyed by every rank of spiritual
upon them, by which a due proportion of light and perceptive existence, from the highest angel
and heat is diffused over every part of their sur- to tile worm. " 0 give thanks unto the Lord:;
faces-and in the wonderful simplicity of the phy- for he is good: for his mercy endureth forever."
sical laws, on which so much beauty, harmony,   3. The survey we have taken of the solar sysand order depend. In all these and many other tem has a telndency to moderate the pride of marn
respects, the planetary system  presents a display and to promote Ihumility.  Pride is one of tle disof "the manifold wisdom of God."                tinguishing, characteristics of puny man, and has
The benevolence of the Deity is liklewise maiul- been one of the chief causes of all the contenfested throughout this system, in ordering all the tions, wars, devastations, systems of slavery, and
movements and arrangements of the planetary  ambitious projects which have desolated and deglobes, so as to act in subserviency to the comfort moralized our sinful world.  Yet there is no disand happiness of sentient and intelligent beings. position more incongruous to the character and
VOL. II.-44




82                                 THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
circumstances of man.  Perhaps there are no  sublunary scene.  To foster a spirit of pride and
rational beings throughout the universe among  vain-glory in the presence of Him "who sitteth
whom pride would appear more unseemly, or in- on the circle of the heavens," and in the view of
compatible than in man, considering the situation  the overwhelming grandeur and immensity of his
in which he is placed. He is exposed to numer- works, is a species of presumption and arrogance,
ous degradations and calamities, to the rage of of which every rational mind  ought to feel
storms and tempests, the devastations of earth- ashamed: and, therefore, we have reason to be.
quakes and volcanoes, the fury of whirlwinds, lieve, that those multitudes of fools, "dressed in
and the tempestuous billows of the ocean, to the a little brief authority," who walk in all the
ravages of the sword, famine, pestilence, and nu- loftiness of pride, have not yet considered the
merous diseases; and at length he must sink into  rank they hold in the scale of universal beingthe grave, and his body must become the compan- and that a serious and profound contemplation
ion of worms! The most dignified and haughty  of the immensity of creation would have a tenof the sons of men are liable to these and similar dency to convince us of our ignorance and nodegradations, as well as the meanest of the human  thingness, and to humble us in the dust in the
family.  Yet, in such circumstances, man-that presence of the Former and Preserver of all
puny worm of the dust, whose knowledge is so worlds. We have reason to believe that the most
limited, and whose follies are so numerous and exalted beings in the universe-those who are
glaring-has the effrontery to strut in all the furnished with the most capacious powers, and
haughtiness of pride, and to glory in his shame. who have arrived at the greatest perfection in
When other arguments and motives produce knowledge-are distinguished by a proportional
little effect en certain minds, no considerations share of humility; for in proportion as they adseem likely to have a more powerful tendency to vance in their surveys of the universal kingdom
counteract this deplorable propensity in human  of Jehovah, the more will they feel their combeings, than those which are borrowed from the parative ignorance, and be convinced of their
objects connected with astronomy.  They show  limited faculties, and of the infinity of objects
us what an insignificant being-what a mere and operations which lie beyond their ken.  At
atom, indeed, man appears amidst the immensity  the same time, they will feel that all the faculof creation! Though he is an object of the pa- ties they possess were derived from  Him  who
ternal care and mercy of the Most High, yet he is the original Fountain of existence, and are
is but as a grain of sand to the whole earth, when continually dependent for their exercise on his
compared to the countless myriads of beings that sustaining energy.  Hence we find that the anpeople the amplitudes of creation.  What is the  gelic tribes are eminently distinguished for the
whole of this globe on which we dwell compared  exercise of this heavenly virtue.  They " cover
with the solar system, which contains a mass of their faces with their wings," in the presence of
matter so manlly millions of times greater? What their Sovereign, and fly with cheerfulness at his
is it in comparison with the hundred millions of command to our degraded world, "to minister to
suns and worlds which, by the telescope, have  them  who shall be heirs of salvation," and to
been  descried  throughout the starry regions? execute whatever purposes he prescribes.
What, then, is a kingdom, a province, or a baro-    Throughout the sacred records pride is unisnial territory, of which we are as proud as if we  formly represented as abhorrent in the sight of
were the lords of the universe, and for which we the Almighty, while humility is marked with his
engage in so much devastation and carnage? approbation.  "Every one that is proud in heart
What are they, when set in competition with the is an abomrination to the Lord."  "God resisteth
glories of the sky?  Could we take our station  the proud, but giveth grace unto the humble."
on the lofty pinnacles of heaven and look on this " Thus saith the high and lofty One, who inhabscarcely distinguishiable speck of earth, we should  itetli eternity, whose name is Holy: I dwell in
be ready to exclaim with Seneca, "Is it to this the high and holy place, with him  also that is
little spot that the great designs and vast desires of an humble and contrite spirit, to revive. the
of Imen are confined?  Is it for this there is so spirit of the humble, and to revive the heart of
much disturbance of nations, so much carnage, the contrite ones." This is a consideration which
and so many ruinous wars? Oh folly of deceived  deserves the serious attention of young men when
men, to imagine great kingdoms in the compass they first set out in the pursuit of science.  They
of an atom, to raise armies to decide a point of are apt to be puffed up with a vain conceit of
earth with the sword!"  Soon may the time ar- their acquirements, when they have acquired only
rive when the prophesy shall be fulfilled:-      a smattering of learning, and have scarcely entered the porch of the temple of knowledge, and
"The wolf shall dwell with the lamb,             to vaunt themselves as if they were raised to a
And the leopard shall lie dowun with the kIid;    high elevation above the vulgar throng. Let such
Anl the calf and the young lion and the fatling together;
And a little child shall lead them.               remember that even the illustrious Newton, after
And the cow and the bear shall feed;              the vast acquirernonts he had attained, and the
Their young ones shall lie down together:         noble discoveries he had made, when he approachAnd the lion shall eat straw like the ox.
And the sueling child shall play on the hole of the asp,    ed the hour of his dissolution, declared, "I do not
And the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' know what I may appear to the world, but to
[den. myself I seem to have been only like a boy
They shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain:    playing on the sea shore, ad diverting mysel
For the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord,   with now and then finding a pebbl e or a prettier
As the waters cover thle sea.     b               with now and then finding a pebble or a prettier
As the saters cover the sea.
And in that day there shall be a root of Jesse,   shell than ordinary, while the great ocean of
Which shall stand for an ensign of the people;    truth lay all undiscovered before me."
Tod itshall ths Gelntilos see.":                    4. The subjects of astronomy to which we have
Is.. xi, 6-10.     directed the attention of the reader, afford a
striking view of the condescension of the Divine
It is unworthy the dignity of an immortal mind  Being toward man, especially in regaid to the
to have its affections absorbed in the vanishing  redemption of our fallen world.  This sentiment
splendors of earthly grandeur, and to feel proud  seems to have been deeply impressed upon the
of the paltry possessions and distinctionsof this mind of the Psalmist, when contemplating the




THE WONDERS OF REDEMPTION.                                      83
nocturnal heavens. Viewing the resplendent orbs vens were arrayed in sackcloth, the day was
everywhere around him in the canopy of the sky  turned into night, and, for three hours, dalKness
-the moon displaying her radiance-the planets covered the whole land. The rocks rent asunder,
in their courses, and the innumerable host of the foundations of the earth did quake, the vail
stars-his thoughts seem to have taken a flight of the temple was rent in twain from the top to
into the regions of immensity, and by the guid- the bottom, the graves were opened, and many
ance of his rational powers, and the assistance  bodies of the saints who slept arose.
of the Spirit of inspiration, he takes an expansive    This was the most wonderful event, and the
view of the multitude, the magnitude, and the most illustrious display of Divine love that was
grandeur of those magnificent globes which roll ever announced to our world. What displays of
in the distant tracks of creation.  Overwhelmed  Divine love and mercy may have been made to
with his views of the immensity of the universe, other worlds, and other orders of beings, we are
and of the perfections and grandeur of its Creator, not in a situation to determine. We dare not
he breaks out in the language of astonishment affirm that, in other regions of the Divine empire,
and wonder, " When I consider thy heavens, the similar displays have not been made; for we have
work of thy fingers, the moon, and the stars never traversed the depths of immensity to ascerwhich thou hast ordained; whattls man that thou  tain all the dispensations of the Almighty in every
art mindful of him? and the son of man that thou  province of creation.  But we may boldly affirm
visitest him?"  Surveying with his intellectual that the mission and the death of Christ were the
eye the boundless extent of God's universal em- most wonderful events, and the most astonishing
pire, he shrinks as it were into nothing, and  displays of mercy and love, that were ever made
seems almost afraid lest he should be forgotten or to our sublunary world. As the apostle of the
overlooked amidst the immensity of beings over gentiles has declared, there is a hight and a
which the Divine government extends. And when  depth, a breadth and a length in the love of God
he considered himself as a guilty creature in the which is in Christ Jesus, that passeth knowledge.
presence of the Most High, his astonishment at When we consider the depths of misery from
the Divine condescension and grace must have which it raises us, the hights of felicity to which
been increased.                                it exalts us, the boundless nature of its operations,
In no dispensation of the Almighty is this Di- and the everlasting continuance of all its blessvine condescension so strikingly displayed as in  ings, we have reason to exclaim, in the language
the economy of our redemption. Though count- of admiration, with the apostle John, "Behold,
less myriads of worlds'and intelligences are under what manner of love the Father hath bestowed
his superintendence, and are incessantly celebrat- upon us that we should be called the sons of
ing his praise in the loftiest strains; and, conse- God!"  "Unto him that loved us, and washed
quently, though all the apostate inhabitants of  us from  our sins in his own blood, and hath
our world might have been forever annihilated  made us kings and priests unto God and his
without being missed amidst the immensity of Father; to him be glory and dominion forever and
creation, yet, amazing to relate! the joyful an- ever!"
nouncement was made. to our rebellious race,   5. The studies connected with the science of
"God so loved the world, that he gave his only  the heavens have a tendency to prepare the soul
begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him  that has been previously enlightened and regenershould not perish, but have everlasting life." ated, for the employments of the future world.
Soon after the fall of man this glorious intelli- In that world the glory of the Divine perfectiois,
gence was announced; and in every succeeding  as manifested throughout the illimitable tracks
age God raised up a succession of prophets to of creation, is one of the objects which unceasannounce the coming of the great Deliverer, "to  ingly employ the contemplations of the blessed;
foretell the sufferings of Christ, and the glory  for they are represented in their adorations, as
that should follow."  And when the time ap- celebrating the attributes of the Deity as displaypointed in the decree of Heaven arrived, the pro- ed throughout the material universe: " Great and
mised Messiah was at length ushered into the marvelous are thy works, Lord God Almighty.
world. A messenger from  the celestial world, Thou art worthy, 0 Lord, to receive glory and
surrounded with refulgent splendor, was dispatch- honor and power; for thou hast created all things,
ed to the plains of Bethlehem, to make known  and for thy pleasure they are and were created."
his appearance in the world: "Behold," says he, Before we can enter that world and mingle with
"I bring you good tidings of great joy, which its inhabitants, we must acquire a relish for their
shall be to all people. For unto you is born this employments and some acquaintance  with the
day in the city of David, a Saviour, which is objects which form the subject of their sublime
Christ the Lord."  And immediately a multitude  investigations; otherwise we could feel little enof angels, having winged their flight from their joyment in the society of heavenly intelligences,
heavenly mansions, joined in a chorus of congra- and the exercises in which they engage. The
tulation and praise, "Glory to God in the highest, investigations connected with astronomy, and the
and on earth peace, good-will toward men." Our frequent contemplation of its objects, may tend
Redeemer having passed through the scene of  to prepare us for such celestial employments; as
his public ministry, and manifested himself to be they awaken attention to such subjects-as they
"the Son of God with power," by a series of invigorate the faculties and enlarge the capacity
beneficent miracles, which he performed in every  of the intellect-as they suggest sublime inquiregion of the land of Judea-was "led as a lamb ries, and excite desires for further information
to the slaughter," delivered up to the severest which may afterward be gratified-as they form
sufferings for our sake, and "became obedient the ground-work of the progress we may afterunto death, even the death of the cross!"  And ward make in that state, in our surveys of the
while he hung on the accursed tree, the most Divine operations-and as they habituate the
awful and striking miracles were exhibited to mind to take large and comprehensive views of
surrounding spectators, in order to display the the empire and moral government of the Aldignity of Him who suffered, and the importance mighty.
of that "decease which was accomplished at Je-  T'Ihose who have made progress in such studies,
rusalern."  The sun was clad in black, the hea- under the influence of holy dispositions, will cer



84                                THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
tainly have higher and more perfect conceptions commandment, that we believe on the name of
of the attributes of Jehovah than those who have his Son Jesus Christ,-whom God hath set forth
given little or no attention to them; and it is not to be a propitiation, to declare his righteousness
perhaps an unwarrantable supposition, that by for the remission of sins."
such employments as most familiarize us with    This is the first step in the path which leads to
the glorious works of the Creator, and lead us to life eternal. And having entered on this course,
the contemplation of his moral perfections, we we must be careful to bring forth "the fruits of
may be the better prepared for directing the views righteousness," and to "glorify God in our bodies
and investigations of such as have enjoyed fewer and spirits which are his."  We must "add to
opportunities of instruction in the present state. our faith virtue; and to virtue knowledge; and to
For, we are informed in the sacred records, that knowledge temperance; and to temperance pa
"c they who are teachers of wisdom shall shine as tience; and to patience godliness; and to godli
the brightness of the firmament, and they that ness brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kind
turn many to righteousness as the stars forever ness charity. For if these things be in us and
and ever:" plainly intimating, that those who abound," we shall neither "be barren nor unhave made eminent advances in Divine know- fruitful in the knowledge of our Lord Jesus
ledge, and applied it to its proper use, shall be Christ. For so an entrance shall be ministered
distinguished with peculiar honors.             unto us abundantly into the everlasting kingdom
It is here of some importance to remark, that it of our Lord and Sa7iour Jesus Christ."  Proseis not merely a scientific view of the mechanical cuting such a course with activity and perseverfabric of the universe that will prepare us for ance, holding communion with the 1" Father of
the employments of the celestial world, but the our spirits," and exhibiting a pattern of every
moral principles and the holy affections with Divine virtue and grace, we shall enjoy all that
which we are animated in all our studies and happiness which is consistent with our present
contemplations. A  man under the influence of state of trial and imperfection, and be gradually
evil principles and passions, whose mind is actu- prepared for being "partakers of the inheritance
ated by pride, malignity, avarice, or revenge, is of the saints in light:" where there is " fullness of
unqualified for a right contemplation of the works joy," and " pleasures for evermore."  In short,
of God, for joining in the associations of pure animated by such Divine principles and affecand holy beings, and for engaging in the exalted  tions, we shall be fitted for holding intercourseo
services of the heavenly world.  Unless the prin- with all the holy beings that constitute the moral
ciples of "love to God" and "love to man" be and intelligent system, or the whole family of God
engraven on our hearts, and interwoven through- throughout the universe, in whatever regions of
out the whole of our mental frame, and mani- the vast creation they may reside; for the princifested in the general tenor of our conduct, we pies and dispositions to which we, have adverted
can never enjoy true happiness either in the must be common to all the pure intelligences that
present state or in any other region of the uni- people creation, that have retained their primeval
verse; and such principles and dispositions can innocence and rectitude. When implanted in the
never be expected to be implanted in the souli heart, and interwoven through the whole of the
and brought forth into action, unless we comply mental constitution, they assimilate us to angels
with the requisitions contained in the word of and every other class of holy intelligences, and
God. The foundation of future felicity must be qualify us for associating with the superior orders
laid in "repentance toward God, and faith toward of intellectual natures-for entering into their
our Lord Jesus Christ."  As sinners against the sublime and comprehensive views-for bearing a
most high God, we stand in need of pardon, part in their extensive schemes of universal bepeace, and reconciliation.  And "this is the neficence-and for contributing along with them
record of God, that he hath given to us eternal to the order and prosperity of God's universal and
liU, and this life is in his Son."  "This is his everlasting kingdom!




APPENDIX.
NEW DISCOVERIES IN THE PLANETARY SYSTEM.
THE PLANET NEPTUNE.-The discovery of this Astronomer, especially when we consider that
planet forms a remarkable era in the history of Mr. Adams made two journeys to Greenwich to
astronomy.  It was ascertained to exist by calcu- explain this matter, and left his papers and calculations founded on the principles of physical lations at the Observatory.
astronomy, and on the discrepancies which were   In the Comptes Rendus, for June 1, 1846 —
found to exist between the observed and the cal- eight months after Mr. Adams had made known
culated places of Uranus. It was conceived that the elements of the new  planet's orbit to the
probably some disturbing body existed beyond  English astronomers-M. Le Verrier gave a methat planet, which had hitherto eluded the obser- moir on the theory of Uranus, in which he afvation of astronomers, and which produced the firmed the necessity of admitting the hypothesis
irregularities to which we allude. The follow- of an exterior planet. No elements of the orbit
ing is a brief sketch of the history of this dis- or mass were given, but its longitude, it was
covery:-                                         stated, should be, for the beginning of 1847,
The Rev. Dr. Hussey, in 1834, wrote to Profes- about 3250.  He communicated  his principal
sor Airy, of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, conclusion to the astronomers of the Berlin Obthat he conjectured the possibility of some dis- servatory on September 23d, and, guided thereby,
turbing body beyond Uranus, and that he had  and comparing the observations with a star map,
found that Bouvard and Hansen had been in cor- MI. Galle found the planet on the same evening.
respondence on a similar conjecture.  In 1842,   Professor Challis, before this time, in consethe late distinguished astronomer, Bessel, in con- quence of a laborious research, had actually seen
versation with Sir John Herschel, in reply to the the planet. On July 30th, he went over a zone
question  whether the  deviations in  question  of the heavens, nine minutes broad, in such a
might not be due to the actions of an  un- manner as to include all stars up to the eleventh
known planet, stated, that he, thought it highly  magnitude.  On August 4th, he took a wider
probable that such was the case.  But, until zone, and recorded a place of the planet. His
September, 1845, there was not produced by any  next observations were on August 12th, when
astronomer a research that was calculated to de- he met with a star of the 8th magnitude, in
cide this question. It was about this time that the zone which he had gone over on July 30th,
Mr. J. C. Adams, fellow  and assistant of St. which did not then contain this star. Of course,
John's college, Cambridge, communicated  to this was the planet —the place of which was
Professor Challis, of the Cambridge Observatory, thus recorded a second time, in four days of obhvalues which he obtained for the heliocentric serving.  A  comparison of the observations of
longitude, eccentricity of orbit, longitude of peri- July 30th and August 12th, would, according to
helion, and mass of an assumed exterior planet, the principle of search which he employed, have
deduced entirely from unaccounted-for perturba- shown him  the planet; but he did not make the
tions of Uranus. The same results, somewhat comparison until after the detection of it at Bercorrected, were left at the Observatory of Green- lin. The planet, however, was secured, and two
wich, about the end of the following October, in positions of it recorded, six weeks earlier than in
a paper containing the following statement:- any other observatory, and in a systematic search
" According to my calculations, the observed  expressly undertaken for that purpose, so that
irregularities in the motion of Uranus may be Mr. Challis, though not acknowledged as the first
accounted for, by supposing the existence of an discoverer, has at least the satisfaction of having
exterior planet, the mass and orbit of which are seen and recorded the position of this new-found
as follows:-                                     planet six weeks earlier than he who is considered the real discoverer.
Mean distance (assumed nearly in accordance with   This planet appears like a star of the 8th magBode's law)       i.  130.84 nitude, and consequently may be seen with a moMean sidereal motion in 3654 days  1~ 30.' 9
Mean longitude, 1st October, 1845.. 323 34'  derate degree of magnifying power; but it will be
Longitude of perihelion.  3150 55'  difficult to distinguish it -from  small neighboring
Eccentricity.0.1610 stars, unless with a very high power, when a disc
Mass, tat of te sn being unity.  0.00156  may be perceived. Its distance from the sun is
These were the first intimations of the new pla- reckoned about 30 times that of the earth, or
net that were ever made public; and at, or near 2,850,000,000, that is, two thousand eight hundred
the position here assigned to it, it was afterward and fifty millions of miles, or, more than a thouseen by Professor Challis of the Cambridge Ob- sand millions of miles beyond the orbit of Uranus.
servatory. Had Mr. Airy attended to the above, The apparent disc of this planet subtends an angle
as he ought to have done, Mr. Adams would have of something more than 3 seconds, and its diameenjoyed tile undivided merit of being the first ter will consequently be nearly 50,000 miles. Of
discoverer of this planet; and we cannot but feel course, it is about 250 times larger than the Earth,
indignant at the apathy and neglect of the Royal and three times larger than Uranus; and above a
t85)




86                                 THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
hundred timeslarger than the whole mass of the in the movements of Jupiter and Saturn, which
Earth and Moon, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Ceres, was long unaccounted for, was at length traced to
Pallas, Juno, and Vesta taken together. So that their reciprocal action on one another by the opehere we have a planet, which has been hid from  ration of this law. The effects of the attraction
the view of mortals in the profundity of space for of planets that could be observed, and whose
thousands of years, exceeding in bulk a large names were known were thereby calculated.  In
retinue of spacious worlds; Jupiter and Saturn  respect to the newly discovered body-the mean
alone are its superiors. Its apparent motion when  distance and position-the mass and the form  of
discovered was retrograde at 4 seconds per day. its orbit, were all unknown.  But, by its observed
Its revolution round the sun is supposed to be ac- effects, these were all so well determined as to
complished in 190 years.                         guide the observer almost to the very point of the
Mr. Lassell of Starfield, near Liverpool, stated  heavens where it was first seen. This fact stands
that soon after its discovery, he had different views almost alone in the records of astronomrrical sciof it, and believes that he may confidently assert ence.  There has been no discovery of the same
that it is sureounded by a Ring like that of Saturn, kind before it in the annals of astronomy, and it
placed three diameters from the body of the pla- may lead to other discoveries of a similar kind.
net.  This discovery appears to be confirmed by We have now no reason to conclude, that we have
some late observations of Professor Challis.  " I as yet descried the utmost boundaries of the solar
have been able," says he, "with the Northumber- system, since a body of so great magnitude has
land telescope, to verify Mr. Lassell's suspicions of been ascertained to exist and to prosecute its ana Ring.  I first received the impression of a ring  nual course around the sun, at. nearly double the
on the 12th January, 1847.  Two independent distance of Uranus.  If there be another planet or
drawings, made by myself, and  my assistant, more beyond the orbit of Neptune, the observaMr. Morgan, gave the same representations of its tions of a number of years upon the movements
appearance and position.  The ring is very little of this body may lead to a like result again, and
open.  Its diameter makes an angle in the south  to bring to view other spacious orbs which have
preceding quadrant of 66 degrees with the paral- hitherto been concealed in those distant regions
lel of declination.  The ratio of the diameter of of space.  It is in this way that the Creator
the ring to that of the planet is by estimation that crowns the exertions of human genius and the
of 3 to 2.  I am at a loss to account for my not investigation of his works with success-by openhaving noticed the ring earlier."                ing to our view a more expansive prospect of his
It also appears that Neptune is attended with at boundless and eternal empire.
least one satellite, which Mr. Lassell has several
times seen. In a letter dated September 20,1847, he             THE PLANET HEBE.
informs the editor of the Times, that "he has ascertained the period of this satellite to be 5 days,    The brilliant discovery of the planet Neptune
20 hours, 50 minutes, 45 seconds. The projected by Adams and Le Verrier, has been closely folorbit is a narrow  ellipse, with an axis inclined to lowed by that of another, which has been detected
about 28 degrees to the ecliptic, and with its senmi- by M. Hencke, the discoverer of Astrma.  On the
axis subtending about 18 seconds, so that the 1st of July, 1847, at 10h.40m.. M.,M. Helce,
satellite is about 250,000 miles from  the planet. of Dresden, discovered a second star, not previThis satellite is much brighter in the preceding  ously marked in his map, of about the 9th dethan in the following half of its path.  This va- gree of magnitude, ill 2570 6' right ascension, and
riation seems to show that one side of the satellite 30 42' south declination.  This new planet was
has less light than the other."  It is likewise evi- observed on the 5th July from  the Observatory of
dent that this satellite must be a body of very con- Berlin in the meridian, and in the refracting telesiderable size, otherwise, it could not be visible at scope. This body is considered as belonging to
such an immense distance.  It is probably much  the smaller planets between Mars and Jupiter.
larger than any of the satellites of Jupiter or Sa- This planet has been subsequently observed by
turn, and may far exceed our globe in magnitude. M. Schumacher, M. Encke, M. Rumker, Mr. Iind,
The heliocentric longitude of this planet, on the Professor Challis, Dr. Peterson and M/r. Lassell.
4th of August, 1846, was 3260 39', and the north  Mr. Hind has computed its elements as follows:
polar distance 1020 57'.
The discovery of this far distant planet, in the   Epoch of mean anomaly, July, 1847, Greenwish mean time.280 53' 5411
manner in which it was effected, constitutes not   Longitude of perihelion....          171 24"
only a new era in the progress of celestial science,  Inclination...1373.t. 35"
but also evinces the perspicacity of the human   Eccentricity                               238910
intellect, and the certainty and uniformity of those    esan diurnal motion... 
physical laws by which the bodies of the planetary system are directed, and that the law of gra-    From these statements it appears that this plavitation is extensive in its influence, reaching far net comes between Vesta and M. Hencke's other
beyond what were formerly considered the boult- planet Astraa.  It has been named Hebe, followdaries of our system, and probably exerting its ing the nomination of the illustrious Gauss, to
energies throughout all the worlds that roll through  whom the office was delegated by Hencke.
the spaces of infinitude. We have here a new
confisrmsation of the theory of universal gravitation.           THE PLANET IRIS.
The first step in the exhibition of that law was,
the discovery made by Newton that the earth at-   On the night of Friday the 13th of August,
tracts the moon.  The principle was also found  1847, ofly about six weeks after the discovery of
to explain the revolution of the planets round the Hebe —ir. Hind, the astronomer at Mr. Bishop's
sun.  Beside, it was found that the movements of observatory, Regent's Park, London, discovered an
the secondary planets round their primaries are asteroid, which he believed was a new planet beowing to the same cause.  The application of this longing to the group between Mars and Jupiter.
law lilkewise explained certain anomalies in the Subsequent observations have confirmed the acmotion of the moon and planets, which were other- curacy of that opinion, and placed beyond doubt
wise difficult to account for.  A great inequality  this further triumph of English astronomers




APPENDIX.                                            87
gr. Hind has since favored the scientific world  new primary planets have been brought to light
with the following particulars of this interesting  during the year 1847, and that, too, within less
wanderer, now, for the first time recognized as be- than the space of four months, the first of them
longing to our solar system. —" In addition to the having been discovered on the first of July, and
Berlin maps," says Mr. Hind, "';which we have the third on the 18th of the following October.
revised, and in some instances corrected, elliptical It is remarkable, too, that they all belong to that
charts of stars down to the 10th magnitude have class of comparatively small bodies, sometimes
been formed for some of the hours of Right As- called Asteroids, which move between the orbits
cension, which it is Mr. Bishop's intention to pub- of Mars and Jupiter, and are all invisible to the
lish as soon as they are completed.  On the 13th  naked eye. Those bodies revolve nearly at the
of August, I compared Wolf's map with the hea- same distance from the sun, and the times of their
veni, and was surprised to find an unmarked star revolutions round the sun are not much different
of 8:9 magnitude in a position which was ex- from each other, and they are now found to be at
amined on June 22d and July 31st, without any  least eight in number.  There is a considerable
note being made. The mere existence of a star degree of mystery that hangs over the facts and
in a position where before there was none visible, circumstances connected with these bodies, which
would not have been sufficient to satisfy me as to prevents us from  forming precise and definite
its nature, because during an eight months' search, conceptions respecting their nature and destinaI have met with very many variable stars, a class tion.  It is generally supposed that they once
which I believe to be far more numerous than is formed the component parts of a large planet,
generally supposed.  But, on employing the wire  which formerly revolved near the regions they
imicrolneter, we were enabled, in less than half an now occupy, but, by some powerful internal force,
hour, to establish its motion, and thus to convince had been disrupted into a number of smaller
ourselves that I had been fortunate enough to dis- planets, which form the bodies which have been
cover a new member of the planetary system.  It lately discovered.  How many of these smaller
may appear to many rather bold to announce the ex- bodies may exist it is now impossible to deteristence ofa new planet from the detection of so small mine, since others may still be discovered  for it
an amount of motions as 2".5 in right ascension; would be as unreasonable to conclude that we
but such is thefirm mountingof thelarge refracting  have now  discovered the whole of them, as it
telescope, and the perfection of the micrometers, would have been when only two or three of them
(for which we have to thank Mr. Dollond), that were discovered. Between the beginning of 1801,
a far smaller change would have been sufficient and 1807, four of these bodies had been detected,
to convince us of the nature of the object in but no further discovery was made in reference
question." The following are all the observations to them until December, 1845, when Astraea was
yet made:-                                        discovered.
R. Ascen. of Iris. S. Declin.  Various inquiries are suggested to the mind
h. m. see.  h. m. Sec.                 when contemplating  the peculiar phenomena
August i3, 9 39 46    19 57 30    130 27' 21"1 5
10 37 24    19 57 28    13 27 27.6 which these bodies present. If these small planets
14  9 23 58    19 56 38    13 29 14.0 once formed the component parts of a large
15  9  0 39    19 55 47    13 31  4.3 planet, at what period did the. disruption take
place?  Was that planet then inhabited?  And
The  name  Iris was fixed upon by Mr. Bishop  if inhabited what was the fate of its inhabitas an appropriate name for this new planet.  The  ants?  Were they entirely destroyed by the awful
symbol adopted for its desig nation is a   semicircle catastrophe? or, did the inhabitants of the differwith an interior star. Mr. Hind says,"This planet ent fragments fly off along with that portion of
has been detected in a systematic search instituted  the original planet which they occupied?  Are
expressly with the view to the discovery of such a these bodies still inhabited? or, are they flying
body, and commenced in November, 1846.  The like shattered masses, and barren deserts, through
Berlin maps were employed as far as they extend: the voids of space?  And if so. are they ever
small stars of the 9th or 10th magnitude, not again to be repeopled?  To such inquiries, howmarked ill the maps, being inserted from time to ever, no satisfactory answers can be expected
time, as they came under examination."  Obser- while we remain in the present state.  On the
vations of Iris have likewise been made by Pro- other hand, if we do not admit the hypothesis of
fessor Challis, Mr. Graham, Dr. Peterson at Altona, a large planet having been disrupted, it is very
M. Rurnker at Hamburg, and Professor Encke at difficult to account for the present position, moBerlin.                                           tilns, and other phenomena of these bodies, so
THE PLANET FLORA.                  very different from the harmony, proportion, and
order, which characterize the other arrangements
Since  the discovery of the planet Iris, Mr. of the solar system.  As already stated, they are
Hind, at Mr. Bishop's observatory, South Villa, nearly of the same distances from  the sun, and
Regent's Park, has discovered another, within  perform  their revolution nearly in the same pelittle more than two months after Iris was dis- riods: their orbits are more eccentric, and have a
covered.  This new body was discovered on Oc- much greater degree of inclination than those of
tober 18, 1847.  A few hours' observation proved  the other planets; and what is very singular and
it to be a new planet-the eighth of the remark- ulnaccounftable, their orbits cross each other, so that
able group between the orbits of Mars and Jupi- there is a possibility of these planets imnpinging
ter. Since the epoch of discovery the brightness upon each other in the course of their revolutions.
of the planet has considerably increased, and now  These circumstances seem  to indicate that tile
equals that of a star of the eighth magnitude. At bodies in question are not in that order and arMr. Bishop's request, Sir John  Herschel has rangement in which we should suppose an ll all-wise
inamed it c" Flora" with a flower (a rose) for the Creator would have placed them at their original
symbol.  This new body has also been observed creation, so that, whatever view we take of these
by Professor Challis, E. I. Cooper, Esq., Mr. Gra- anomalous bodies, there appears to us something
ham, Professor Encke, Professor Schumacher, M. inexplicable, mysterious, and incomprehensible.
Peterson and M. Rumker.                           But we may rest assured that their present state,
From the above statements it appears that three whatever it may be, is in full accordance with tb




88                                 TIIE SOLAR SYSTEM.
wisdom, rectitude, and benevolence of thie 3Moral sonme of them have lately procured most powerfu
Governor of the universe.                         instruments of observation.  It is to be hoped
that Professor Mitchell, of Cincinnati, who has
RAPID PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERY.   been furnished with an observatory, and an ex
cellent instrument of observation, will soon comSince the beginning of the 17th century, a little ply with the requisition of Strive, and ineasure
before the telescope was applied to the heavens, no  all tile double and multiple s&tars south of tha
less than thirty-one bodies, unknown before, have equator.  It is also confidently expected that Mr.
been added to our views of the Solar System.  In  Bond of Cambridge, Massachusetts, will follow
the year 1608, seven bodies were known to belong  up his discovery of analyzing tlhe great inebula
to our system, namely, the Sun and Moon, Mer- of Orion by similar discoveries ill time iTebulous
cury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. In 1700, regions of the heavens.  The great Cambrid.r;e
there had been added eleven moving bodies, name- achromatic telescope is an ilstrument which does
ly, four satellites of Jupiter, five of Saturn, the honor to the Harvard University, -tad to thle UniEarth itself, which was now fully recognized as a ted States.  From what it has already perfolrmed,
planet, and Halley's comet, though the prediction  it appears scarcely inferior to the srionster telehad not been verified.  In 1800, there had been scope of the Earl of Rosse, 54 feet ip length, and
added nine, namely, Uranus and its six satellites, 6 feet in diameter.
with two satellites of Saturn. These were all (iscovered by the late Sir Winm. Herschel; and this
celebrated observer, at his death, left the solar sys-                   Ii.
tem  half as large again, in number of bodies, as
he found it. hSince  the beginning of the year BRIEF SKETCII OF TIlE HIISTORY  OF ASTRO1800, there. have been added twelve, namely, Ves-                       NOMIY.
ta, Juno, Cores, Pallas, Astruaa, Hebe, Iris, Flora,   ASTRONOMY was undoubtedly one of the earliest
Neptune, the satelite discovered by Mr.   L asse of the sciences cultivated by the human race.
as revolvimng round the planet Neptune, Elcke's Some of its facts and first principles must have
comet,.and  iela's comet*.                hbeen known from the beginning of the world. For
Notwithstandinlpg the discoveries which have
Notwithlstaning  the discoveries  which have  wen the shades of night have opened to view the
lately been'made in the planetary system, and in  azure filmament, diversified with a mnultitude of
other regions of the heavens, we are not to ima- shining orbs-the nooi walking il brightnessgins that we have yet arrived at boundaries in  the planets moving in their courses.-and the host
creation, beyond which we cannot pass.  Only a of stars displaying their diversified radciancefew years have yet passed since the planet Saturn  such a scene mipst have attracted the attention of
was considered as the utmost boundary of our
nlanetary system, whose orbit is removed 900 mil- every spectator, and led him to observe their ap- parent motions, and to inquire into their order
lions of miles from  the sun.  But now, planets and aenalgement, and their use in meastring the
have been discovered at double and treble this dis-,
ance, at eighteen hundred millions, and at thr exact length and proportions of days, and months,
rance, at eighteen hundred millions, and at thr]ee  and years. Hence our English p oet, M ilton, v ery
thousand millions of miles from  this central lu- and years.  Hence our English poet, Milton, very
ninary, and at such immense dista. ces retained  properly represents our first progenitors, Adanl.ary, ad.  such immense distances reta d and Eve, celebrating the praises of their Maker,
in their orbits, and guided by the influence of tie and Eve, celebrating the   n oturnal the avens.
attractive powers of thle sun.  The planet Neptune moves in an orbit five thousand seven hun- Adam. " These are thy glorious works, Parent of Good,
dred millions of miles in diameter, and about             Almighty! thine this sniversal frame,
eighteen thousand millions of miles in circumfer- I  E, ve Thus wondrous fair; thyself how wondrous then!
eighiteeln thousand millions of miles inl ciumfer-.Eve.   Unspeakable! who sittest above these ieavens
ence; and were a steam carriage to move round             To us invisible or dimly seen
this vast circle at the rate of twenty miles an           In these thy lowest works; yet these declare
hour, it would require more than a hundred thou-          Thy goodness beyond thouoht, lnd power divine,'
sand years before it would complete the vast cir-    Hence we find that Josephus, ill his book of thae
culit.  As we have no reason to conclude that we  " Antiquities of the Jews," relates that "Seth and
Ilave not reached the utmost bounds of our sys- his descendants were persons of happy tempers,
tem, it is not at all improbable that planets of a an.d lived in peace, employing themselves in tlhe
large size may exist far beyond the orbit of Nep- study of astronomy, and in other researches after
tulle, whicl marny yet be discovered by the perse-  useful knowledge."  He also remarks that, "God
vering efforts of our astronomers, and some of indulged the antediluvians with a long life, tlhal
which may never be visible to mortal eyes.  It they mnight bring astronomy a(lnd geometry to perwill now be more difficult than formerly to make fection."  And the long lives of men, cat that pedelineations of the orbits of the planets, when  riod, when many reached the age of eight or nine
they are intended to be represented il the relative  hundred years, had a tendency to improve the
proportions of their distances finom the sun, un- science of astronomy; silce the same individual
less the delineation be made on a very large scale, might observe the planet Saturn go through  more
for otherwise the orbits of Mars, the Earth, Ve- than thirty revolutions.  We have, therefore, reaaus, and Mercury, would appear so close to each  son to conclude that many of the antediluvians,
other as scarcely to be distinguished.            were intelligent astronomers: but their observa.On the whole, what further discoveries may yet tions, if they were ever recorded, must have,
be made in the celestial regions it is scarcely for perished in the general deluge, unless Noah, whr6
us to anticipate.  But in proportion to the hum- was a wise and good main, had secured somne of
ber of those who devote themselves to celestial the most valuable of them  in the ark, and tran. —
observations, and in proportion to the improve- mitted the results to his posterity.
ments that may be made on telescopes, and other   After the deluge, the nations most noted for
instruimernts of observation, may we expect that the cultivation of the science of the heavens were
still more brilliant discoveries will be unfolded  the Chaldeans, the Egyptians, and the Chineose.
to our view.  It is to be hoped that American  It is remarked by Josephus that Abraham  was a
astronomers.will, ere long, be instrumental in  most attentive observer of the stars; that lie  -as
making new discoveries in the heavens, since aperson of great sagacity, botl for understaniung




APPENDIX.                                            89
all ihings, and persuading his hearers, and that system, notwithstanding its absurdity, and its conhe first brought astronomy from  Chaldea into  trariety to the appearances of the universe, conEgypt.                                           tinued in vogue, even among the learned, for the'rile Egyptians appear to have made some pro- space of more than one thousand four hundred
gress in astronomy, at as early a period as the  years, or until the middle of the fifteenth century.
Chaldeans.  Their Pyramids, the most ancient During this period, a few individuals appeared
nlonuments in the world, provo their skill in prac- who cultivated astronomy, such as Almansor,
tical astronomy, as they are all situated in such a Almanon and others among the Arabians; Ulugh
malnner, that their several sides front very exactly  Beigh, a prince of Tartary; Alhazen, an Arab in
the four cardinal points, east, west, north, and  Spain; Alphonso X, king of Castile; Roger Basouth.  The system  adopted by the Egyptians con, and several others; but they all adopted the
was the following: they conceived that the planets  absurd hypothesis of Ptolemy.
Mercury and Venus revolved like satellites, around    About the beginning of the sixteenth century,
the sun, their orbits being carried along with him   Copernicus, a bold and original genius, began to
in his revolution round the earth.  They sup- be distinguished for his attainments in astronomy.
posed the earth immovable as the center of the  Perceiving that the clumsy and unnatlural system
system, and the other celestial bodies to turn  of Ptolemy could never account for the motions
around the same center; first the moon, then the  and appearances of the celestial orbs, he adopted
sun, about which they supposed Mercury and  the Pythagorean system, which had been broached
Venus to revolve, next the planet Mars, then Ju- five hundred years before Christ, and wrote a propiter, next to Jupiter Saturn, and lastly the sphere  found treatise in confirmation of it, entitled, " Asof the fixed stars. The Chinese pretend that their  tronomy Restored; or, The revolutions of the Cenation studtied astronomy soon after the flood, and  lestial Orbs."  With a bold and daring hand, he
date their astronomical knowledge from  Fohi, the  dashed the crystalline orbs of Ptolemy into pieces,
first of their kings; supposed-by some to have been  swept away his cycles, epicycles, and defercnts,
Noah, as it is understood that he journeyed with his  placed the sun in the center of the system, rechildren in the direction of China, about the time  moved the earth from its quiescent state, and set it
of the building of the tower of Babel.           in motion through the regions of the firmament,
Among the Greeks, astronomy was cultivated  in company with the other planetary orbs.  This
by Thales, the Milesian, Anaxagoras, Anaximan-  system was at first violently opposed, both by the
der, Pythagoras, Aristarchus and others.  Pytha- vulgar, the dignitaries of the Romish church, and
goras, who flourished about five hundred years  pretended philosophers, as contrary both to sense,
before the Christian era, taught that the sun was reason and Scripture, and many of its abettors
in the center of the universe; that the earth is were subjected to violent persecutions. But it is
globular, and moves round the sun; that Venus  now universally received by all men of learning,
is the morning, as well as the evening star; that and by every one who has investigated the methe moon reflects the sun's rays, and is inhabited; tions and other phenomena of the hIeavens. It
that the stars are worlds, and that comets are  has opened to our view the harmony and order of
wandering stars. This is nearly the system which  the planetary system, tihe wisdom  and intelliwas restored by Copernicus, in the fifteenth cen- gence of its great Author, and laid the foundation
tury.                                             of all the discoveries which have subsequently
Hipparchus, born at Nice, in Bithynia, appears  been made in this science.  It was afterward ably
to have made considerable advances in the culti-  supported by the writings and observations of
vation of every branch of astronomy. He flour- Galileo, Kepler, Gassendi, Hlevelius, Huygens,
ished about one hundred and forty years before  Cassini, and other celebrated astronomers, by
Christ. He was among the first astronomers on  whom  its principles have been established on a
record who attempted to number the stars, aind to  foundation stable and permanent as the laws of
determine their exact positions.  He was first in- the universe.
duced to commence this labor in consequence of    About sixty or seventy years after the publicathe appearance of a new star, in order that suc-  tion of this system, the invention of the telescope,
ceeding astronomers might learn whether aly  and the discoveries made with this instrument by
changes take place in the heavens.                Galileo, tended to confirm  its principles, and to
Ptolemy, a native of Pelusium, iii Egypt, born  expand our views of the sublimity, the variety,
In the year 69, is the most ancient astronomer and multitude of the objects which the universe
whose works have been handed down to our displays.  This illustrious astronomer firstl distimes. His Alniagest, or the great composition, covered, by his telescope, the satellites of Jupiter,
is that to which we are indebted, not only for his  the phases of Venus, the spots of the sun. and the
own observations, but for almnost all that remains  rotation of this globe round its axis, the mounof Hipparcihus, Aristillus, Timociharis, and the  tains ald vales in the moon, the stars in the Milky
ancient Babylonians.  According to the system   Way, and an extraordinary phelnomenon, which
of Ptolemy, tie earth is immovable in the center he imagined to be two small globes, connected
of the universe, and the planets move round it in  with the planet Saturn.  These discoveries were
the followilng order: first the moon, then Mercury  made about the year 1610, soon after the telescope
and Venus; next to Venus the sun; then Mars, was invented. About forty-eight years afterward,
Jupiter, and Saturn, in the order here stated; and  Huygens, a celebrated mathematician and astronoabove all these, the firmament of the fixed stars, mer, in Holland, with telescopes of a much larger
all which were conceived as revolving around the  size than those of Galileo, discovered that the pheearth every twenty-four hours.  He supposed  nomenon connected with Saturn was, in reality, an
that the planets moved round the earth, each in a  immense ring surrounding that planet, and thirty
vast solid transparent globe, having the planet at- thousand miles distant from every part of it He,
tached to its surface; and as these transparent at the same time, discovered the fourth satellite
spheres did not account for all the motions and  of Saturn; and in these and other observations he
apparent irregularities of the heavenly bodies, he  used telescopes of his own construction of twelve,
contrived other and still more complicated ma- twenty-three, and even one hundred and twenty
chinery, such as cycles, epicycles, deferemits, etc., feet in length.  Some time afterward, Cassini, a
in order, if possible, to solve appearances. This French astronomer, discovered the first, second,




90                                  THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
third, and fifth satellites of Saturn, and the periods with all the micrometrical measurements; and
of the rotation of Mars and Venus.               about ten or twelve years ago, he went to the
About the period to which we' now  allude, Cape of Good Hope for the purpose of making
flourished the illustrious Sir Isaac Newton, who observations in the southern region of the healaid the foundation of physical astronomy. About vens, and made some interesting discoveries.  On
the year 1666, when in the twenty-fourth year of the 1st of January, 1801, M. Piazzi, a Sicilian
his age, he retired from Cambridge into the coun- astronomer, discovered a small planet between
try on account of the plague, and sitting one day the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, which has been
inl an orchard, under a tree, an apple happening  named Ceres.  On the 28th March, 1802, Dr.
to fall upon his head, led him  into a number of Olbers, of Bremen, discovered another planet,
reflections.  Reflecting on the power by which  near the same region, which is named Pallas.
all terrestrial bodies gravitate toward the earth, it On the Ist September, 1804,?Msr. Harding, of
occurred to him, that as this power is not sensi- Lilienthal, discovered another, which is named
bly diminished in any distance to which we can Juno, distinguished for the great eccentricity and
recede fiom  the earth's center, there seemed rea- inclination of its orbit.  Oil the 26th  March,
son to conclude that it extended much farther 1807, Dr. Olbers discovered a fourth planet, which
than it was generally supposed, and even might he named Vesta.  The latest discovery of this
extend as far as the moon; and if this were true, kind we have to record was made by Mr. Hencke,
he concluded that her motion would be influenced of Driesen, on the 8th December, 1845, when he
by it, and that probably it was this very force discovered another planet somewhat similar to the
which retained her in her orbit. Following out four now mentioned, which is nearly at the same
these sublime conceptions, he began the compo- distance from the sun, and accomplishes its revosition of his immortal work, the "Principia,"9 lution in nearly the same period as the others.
which was published in 1687, in Latin, under the This planet has been named Astruaa.
title of " Mathematical Principles of Natural Phi-   In the present day there are many distinguishlosophy."  He also invented a reflecting tele- ed cultivators of astronomical science, from whose
scope, which bears his name.                      observations and researches new discoveries may
Conternporary with Newton were Dr. Hooke, be expected.  The names of South, Herschel,
Flamstead, Halley, Bradley, Roemer, Richer, Pi- Airy, Smyth, Robinson, the Earl of Rosse, Schucard, Maraldi, and others, whose labors greatly macher, Strove, Harding, Bessel, Arago, and a
contributed to the improvement of astronomy. multitude of others, are well known as distinFlamstead was the first astronomer royal in the guished cultivators of the science of the heavens.
Observatory at Greenwich, and, for nearly half a It is to be hoped that the Earl of Rosse, by means
century, was assiduous in his observations of the of the large and splendid telescope he has lately
heavenly bodies. He formed a catalogue of more erected, will be enabled to make new discoveries,
than thliee thousand stars, with their right ascen- and to enlarge our views of the grandeur of the
sions, longitudes, solar distances, and apparent sidereal heavens.  He has already analyzed some
magnitudes.  Roemer, a Danish astronomer, was of the nebulae, and shown them to conssist of imthe first who discovered the progressive motion of mense clusters of stars which could not be perlight.  B3y comparing the eclipses of the first ceived by ainy former telescopes; and this, we
satellite of Jupiter with the times of their immer- would hope, is only a prelude to still more sub.
sions and emersions given by the tables of Cassini, lime discoveries.  What further advances astrohe found that the error of the tables depended on noiny rmay yet make, we dare not venture to ainthe distance between Jupiter and the earth, and ticipate.  The number of individuals who devote
hence he concluded that the motion of light was themselves to this study is gradually increasing;
not instantaneous, and that it moved across the its instruments of observation are rapidly imdiameter of the earth's orbit in about sixteen proving; and we call scarcely set boundaries to
minutes, or at the rate of 192,000 miles in a se- the discoveries that may yet be made. In future
cond.                                            ages, man, by the improvements in optical and
Few discoveries were made in the heavens from  other instruments, may be able to penetrate much
the beginning of the eighteenth century until farther into the distant regions of the universe
the period when Sir W. Herschel applied his large than he has hitherto done, and may descry myrtelescopes to the spaces of the firmament.  His lads of objects which have hitherto remained indiscoveries have greatly extended our views both visible in the unexplored regions of immensity.
of the planetary system, and of the sidereal Ile- And after all the discoveries which mortals can
vens.  On the 13th March, 1781, he discovered  bring to view from  this terrestrial sphere, the
a new planet beyond the orbit of Saturn, to which  greater part of the works of the Almighty will
he gave the name of Georgium Sidus; but it is still remain to be explored throughout the ages
now generally distinguished by the name of Ura- of eternity.
nus.  On the 11th January, 1787, he discovered
the second and fourth satellites which move round
this planet; in 1790 and 1794, he discovered four                       III
other satellites revolving round the same body.
In 1789 lihe discovered the sixth and seventh sat-  EXPLANATION OF ASTROCNOMICAL TE.RMIS
ellites of Saturn; he also determined tile rotation
and figure of this planet-discovered that it had    Aberration, an apparent change of place in
a double ring, and was marked with several belts the fixed stars, which arises from  the motion of
parallel to its equator. His son, Sir J. Herschel, the earth combined with the motion of light.
has also distinguished himself by his unwearied    Achernar, a fixed star of the first magnitude,
observations on the heavens.  In conjunction in the constellation Eridanus, R. A. 1 hour, 31
with Sir J. South, he produced a catalogue of minutes.-Dec. 58 degrees, 162 minutes.
380 double stars, whose distances and angles of   Achronical rising or setting of a planet, or star,
position they had determined with the utmost is when it rises at sunset, or sets at sunrise.
precision.  Sir J. Herschel afterward produced a   Aldebaran, a fixed star of the first magnitude
list of upward of 3300 double and triple stars, in the head of the constellation Taurus; solmefrom his own solitary observations, accompanied times called the Bull's eye.




APPENDIX.                                           91
Acrolites, or air-stones, are semi-metallic sub-    Comets, erratic bodies belonging to our system,
stances which are found to fall from the atmo- which move round the sun in very eccentric orSphere in diflerent countries. Some philosophers bits, distinguished by their fiery tails and nebuihave imagined that they are the fragments of a pla- ions aspects.
net that had been burst asunder.                   Colures, two imaginary circles or meridians,
Algol, a star in Medusa's head which varies one of which passes through the solstitial points
from the second to the fourth magnitude.         Cancer and Capricorn, and the other through the
Alioth, a fixed star in the tail of the Great Bear. equinoctial points Aries and Libra.
Almicanters, imaginary circles, which are sup-    Conjunction, is when two or more stars, or
posed to be drawn parallel to the horizon, and to  planets, are in the same part of the heavens.
pass through every degree of the meridian, to    Constellation, an assemblage of stars.
show the altitude of a celestial object above the    Cosmnical rising or setting of a planet, or star,
horizon.                                        is when it rises with the sun in the morning, or
Altitude, the hight of the sun, moon, or stars sets with him in the evening.
above the horizon, reckoned in degrees and min-    Crystalline heavens, two solid orbs by means of
utes, on a vertical circle.                      which the ancients attempted to account for tho
Amnphiscii, a name given to the inhabitants of  apparent motions of the fixed stars.
the torrid zone, on account of their shadows fall-   Cusps, the points or horns of the moon, or of
ing at one time of the year toward the south, and  a planet.
at another time toward the north.                  Cycle of the moon, a revolution of nineteen
Amplitude, an arc of the horizon, contained be- years, in which time the conjunction and lunar
tween the east or west point of the heavens, and  aspects are nearly the same as they were nineteen
the center of the sun or a star at the time of its years before.
rising or setting.
Anomaly (the true), the distance of a planet   Day (astronomical), the time between two sucin signs, degrees, etc., from that point of its orbit cessive transits of the sun's center over the same
which is farthest from  the sun. The mean ano-  meridian, which always begins and ends at noon.
maly is, that which would take place if the planet    Day (sidereal), the time which elapses during
moved uniformly in the circumference of a circle. the rotation of the earth from one star until it reAntdeci, a name given to those inhabitants of turns to the same star again, and consists of 23
the earth, who live under the same meridian, and  hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds.
at equal distances from the equator, but on oppo-   Declination is the distance of any celestial obsite sides of it.                                ject north or south from the equator, reckoned in
Antipodes, those inhabitants of the earth who  degrees, minutes, etc., upon a circle which is perlive diametrically opposite to each other, or walk  pendicular to it.
feet to feet, on opposite sides of the globe.      Degree, the 360th part of a circle, or the 30th
Aphelion, that point in the orbit of a planet in  part of a sign.
which it is at its greatest distance from the stn.   Disc of the sun, or moon, is its round face,
Apogee, that point in which the sun, or a planet, which, on account of the great distance of the
is farthest distant from the earth.              object, arpears flat.
Apsides, the two most remote points of a plan-   Digit, the 12th part of the sun's diameter, which
et's orbit, otherwise termed its aphelion and peri- is used in the calculation of eclipses.
helion. A line joining those points is, the line    Diurnal motion of the earth, its rotation on its
of the apsides.                                  axis.
Armillary sphere, an instrument composed of
the principal circles which are drawn on an artifi-   Eccentricity, the distance between the center
cial globe.                                      of a planet's orbit, and the focus round which it
Ascii, the inhabitants of the torrid zone; so revolves.
called because the sun being twice a year in their   Eclipse, a deprivation of the light of the sun,
zenith, their bodies at those times cast no shadow. by the interposition of the moon; or of the light
Axis of the earth, or of a planet; an imaginary  of the moon, by the interposition of the earth.
line passing through the center from one pole to    Ecliptic, a great circle in the heavens through
another, round which they perform their diurnal which the sun apparently makes its annual revorotation.                                        lution; but which is in reality the earth's path
Azimuths, great circles which pass through the  round the sun. It makes an angle with the equazenith and nadir perpendicular to the horizon. tor of 23 degrees, 28 minutes.
The azimuth of a celestial body is an are of the    Elongation, the annular distance of a planet from
horizon contained  between the east and west the sun, as it appears from the earth. It is applied
points, and a vertical circle passing through the  only to the inferior planets, Mercury and Venus.
center of that object.                             Emersion, the re-appearance of a celestial body
after having been eclipsed.
Belts, zones surrounding the body of Jupiter   Equation of time, the difference between real
and Saturn.                                      and apparent time, or between that shown by a
Bissextile (or Leap Year), which  happens true clock and a sun-dial. It depends on the obevery fourth year, contains 366 days; one day  liquity of the ecliptic, combined with the unequal
being added to the month of February.            motion of the earth in its orbit.
Equator, or a great circle of the earth which
Cardinal points of the compass; the east, west, separates the northern from the southern herninorth and south points.                          sphere. When referred to the heavens, it is called
Cardinal points of the ecliptic; the first points the Equinoctial.
of the signs, Aries, Cancer, Libra, and Capricorn.   Equinoxes, two opposite points in Aries and
CentritJigal force, that force by which any re- Libra, where the ecliptic cuts the equinoctial.
volving body endeavors to fly off from the center When the sun is in these points the days and
of motion in a tangent to the circle it describes. nights are equal to each other.
Centripetal force, the tendency which a body
has to the center of its revolution.              _Foci of an ellipse, two points in the longest, or




92                                   THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
transverse axis, on each side of the center; from    Magellanic clouds, certain whitish appearaTnces
each of which if any two lines be drawn to meet in the heavens, in the southern hemisphere, supeach other in the circumference, their sum will posed to consist either of an immense number of
be equal to the transverse axis.                  stars, or nebulm.
lMagqnitudes, the stars are divided into six classes;
Galaxy, or the Milky Way, a luminous and ir- the brightest are called stars of the first magniregular zone which encompasses the heavens, tude; the nextin brightness, the second magniwhich is found to be composed of an immense  tude, etc.
number of stars.    -Mean motion of a planet, that which would take
Geocentric place of a planet, is that position  place if it moves in a perfect circle, and equally
which it has when seen frorn the earth.           every day.
Gibbous, a term used in reference to the enlight-    Meridian, a great circle of the sphere which
ened part of the moon, from  the first quarter to  passes through the zenith and the poles, and perthe full, and from the full to the third quarter.    pendicular to the horizon.
Gravity or Gravitction, that force by which all  Miicroneter, an instrument fitted to a telescope
masses of matter tend toward each otfher.         to measure very:mall angles; as the diameters of
the planets, etc.
Halo, a luminous circle round the body of the
sun, or moon.                                        Nadir, that puint in the heavens directly oppoHeliacal rising of a star, is when it enmerges site to the zenith, or immediately under our feet.
from the sun's rays, and appears above the hori-    Nebult, luminous spots in the heavens, or cluszon before him in the morning.                     ters of small stars, discovered by the telescope.
Heliacal setting of a star, is when it is so hid    Nocturnal arc, that space of the heavens which
in the sun's beams as not to be seen above the the sun apparently describes from the time of his
horizon after him in the evening.                 setting' to his rising.
Heliocenttric place of a planet, is that in which    Nodes, two points when the orbit of the moon,
it would appear to a spectator placed in the sun. or of a planet, intersects the plane of the ecliptic.
Hemnisphere, the half of a globe or sphere.       Nucleus, a term  used to denote the head of a
Heteroscii, a name given to the inhabitants of comet.
the temperate zones, because their shadows at
noon always fall one way.                            Oblique ascension, an arc of the equinoctial conHorizon. (the sensible), a circle which separates tained between the first degree of Aries, and that
the visible from  the invisible hemisphere, and poih.t of it which rises with the center of the sun
forms the boundary of our sight.                   or star.
Horizon (the rational), a great circle which is    Oblique sphere, that position of the globe in
parallel to the former, and whose poles are the  which either of the poles is elevated above the
zenith and the nadir.                              horizon any number of degrees less than ninety.
Hoetr circles, the same as mleridians-nmarking     Occultatlion is when a star, or planet, is hlid from
the hours.                                        our sight- by tlhe interposition of the moon or some
other planet.
Imomersion, the moment when ao eclipse begins,        pl'et.
~ppositioss, an aspect of the stars or planets
or when a planet enters into the shadow of tih  whe l they are 180 degrees distant from  each
body that eclipses it.                            other, mred thus 8
Inclina.tion, the angle which the orbit of one
planet  makes  with  that of anotther or with theo   Orbit, the curve which a planet describes in its
revolution round the sun.
plane of the ecliptic.
Inferior planets, those that move at a less distance from the sur than the earth, which are Mer-                    ifece   of the place of any
cury and TVenus.                                   celestial object, as seen from  the surface of the
earth, and from its center.
Latitude of a place, its distance from the equa-    Parallax of the earth's annual orbit, the angle at
tor, reckoned in degrees and minutes upon the arc any planet subtended by the distance between the
of a great circle.                                earth and the sun.
Latitutde of a star, or planet, is its distance from  Parallels of latitude, small circles of the sphere
the ecliptic, reckoned in degrees, etc., on the are which are drawn parallel to the equator.
of a great circle.                                   Penumnbra, a faint shadow observed between the
Lesser Circles of the sphere, those whose planes perfect shadow and tile full light in an eclipse,
do not pass through the center, and which divide    Perigee, that point of the solar and lunar orbit
the sphere into two unequal parts.  Great circles, which is nearest the earth.
as the equator, meridians, etc., divide the sphere    Perihelion, that point of the orbit of a planet
into two equal parts.                             nearest the sun.
Libration of the moon, an apparent irregularity    Periscii, the inhabitants of the frigid zones, bein her inotion on her axis, by which we some- cause their shadows go around  them  for  six
times see more than the usual half of her disc.   months, or fall toward  opposite points of the
Longitude of a place, its distance'east or west compass.
from the first meridian, reckoned in degrees, etc.,   Phases, the differant appearances of the illumiupon the equator.                                 nated parts of the moon, or planets.
Longitude of a star or planet, its distance from   Phenomenon, any extraordinary appearance in
the first point of Aries, reckoned in degrees, etc., the heavens; as a comet, etc.
upon the ecliptic.                                   Planetarium, an  astronomical machine  for
Lutnation, the time between one new moon and  showing the motions and other phenomena of thle
another; which is, on an average, 29 days, 12 planets.
hours, 44 minutes, 3 seconds.                        Pleiades, or the seven stars, an assemblage of
stars in the constellation of Taurus.
Maculm, dark spots which appear on the face    Polar circles, two small circles, 23 degrees and
of the sun; and Facule  are bright spots some- a half from the poles; the arctic in the north and
tinmes seen on the solar disc.                    the antarctic in the south.




APPENDIX.                                          93
Pole star, a star of the second magnitude in the    Vertical circles, the same as azimuth circles, or
tail of the Little Bear; so called, because it is such as are drawn perpendicular to the horizon.
near the north pole.                               Prime vertical, is that azimuth circle which
Precession of the equinoxes, a slow motion of the passes through the east and west points of the
two points where the equator intersects the eclip- horizon.
tic, which go backward about 50 seconds in a year.
Year (the solar), the time which the sun takes
Quadrant, tilhefourth part of a circle; or an in- to pass from  one tropic until it returns to the
strument for measuring angles, and taking the same again, and is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes,
altitudes of the sun and other heavenly bodies.   49 seconds.
Quadrature, the position of the moon when    Year (sidereal), the time which the sun takes
distant 90 degrees from the sun; as in the first to pass from  any fixed star to the same again,
and third quarters.                             and is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 9 seconds.
Refraction, the bending of the rays of light in    Zenith, that point of the heavens immediately
passing through the atmosphere, by which the over head.
heavenly bodies appear more elevated than they    Zodiac, a zone surrounding the heavens, 18
really are.                                     degrees broad, in  the middle of which is the
Retrograde, an apparent motion of the planets, ecliptic.  The orbits of all the old planets are inin some parts of their orbits, when they seem  to cluded in this zone.
go backward, or contrary to the order of the signs.   Zodiacal light, a brightness sometimes observed
Riglht ascension zis that degree of the equator in the heavens, somewhat similar to the Milky
which comes to the meridian with the sun, moon, Way.
or star, reckoning from the first point of Aries.  Zone, a division of the sphere between two
Relation, the motion of any heavenly body parallels of latitude. There are five zones; one
round its axis.                                 torrid, two temperate, and two frigid.
Satellites, secondary planets or moons, which
revolve round the primary planets.
Sextile, an aspect of the heavenly bodies, when
they are 60 degrees distant from  each other.                T H E T E L E S C O P E.
Sidereal, of or belonging to the stars.
Solstitial points, the first degree of Cancer and    As those who have acquired a taste for celesCapricorn at which the ecliptic touches the tropics. tial observations, may wish to know something
Selenograpy, a representation of the moon, respecting the telescope, we subjoin the following
with a description  of her different spots and very brief description.
appearances.'There are two kinds of telescopes generally
Sign, the twelfth part of the ecliptic, or 30 distinguished,-the refracting and the reflecting
degrees.                                        telescope, the former composed of leinses, or conSphere, the concavity of the heavens in which vex glasses, and the latter of speculums or mirrors
the stars appear.                               combined with lenses.  A  common refracting
Superior planets, th- se which move at a farther telescope, for viewing some of the celestial bodies,
distance from  the sun than the earth; as Mars, may be constructed as follovws:-Procure a convex
Jupiter, etc.                                   glass, whose focal distance is about three feet.
System, a number of bodies revolving round a This may be known by holding the glass in the
common center, as the planets round the sun.    sun's rays, and measuring the distance between
Syzigqy, a term  usually applied to the moon, the glass and the place where the solar rays are
when in opposition, or in col.junction, or when at condensed into a small spot. Place this lens at
the new or full.                                the end of a tube. about three feet two inches
long, in which there is a small sliding tube for
Telescope, an optical instrument for the pur- fixing the eye-glass, and adjusting the focus for
pose of viewing distant objects, particularly the distinct vision. At the distance of three feet one
sun, moon, planets, and stars.  Telescopes pro- inch, place a convex glass one inch focal distance.
duce their effects either by refraction through The object-glass will form a picture, in its focus,
glasses, or reflection from speculums.          of all the objects which are directly opposite to it,
Telescopic stars, those stars which are only vi- and this picture will be seen magnified in looking
sible by means of Telescopes. All stars beyond through the eyeglass.  The mlagnifying power,
those of the sixth magnitude are reckoned tele- in this case, will be in the proportion of three
scopic stars.                                   feet, or thirty-six inches to one inch; that is, the
Torrid zon3e, that part of the earth which is instrument will magnify the diameters of all obcontained between the two tropics.              jects thirty-six times, or make them appear thirtyTrajectory, a term  applied to the orbit of a six times nearer than when viewed by the naked
comet.                                          eye; but as the image formed by the object-glass
Transit of a planet denotes its passing over is in an inverted position, all terrestrial objects
another planet, or star, or across the disc of the sun. will appear through it as turned upside down..Trine, an aspect of the planets when they are The opening at the object-glass which lets in the
120 degrees distant from each other.            light, should not exceed an inch in diameter.
Tropics, two circles parallel to the equator, and    With such a telescope, which may be con.
23 degrees 28 minutes distant on each side of it. structed for five or six shillings, if the tubes be
They are named Cancer on the north, and Capri- made of paper or pasteboard, the satellites of Jucorn on the south.                              piter, the crescent of Venus, the solar spots, and
the inequalities on the surface of the moon may
V'ector  Radius, a line supposed to be drawn be distingui3shed.  Galileo's telescope, with which
from ally planet to the sun, which, moving with he made the first discoveries in the heavens, did
the planet, describes equal areas in equal times. not magnify nmore than such a telescope.








THE
AND
ATM0OSP'HPERICAL PHENOMIENA:
ITS NATURE, PROPERTIES. ETC.








CONTENTS
PART I.
PAGa.
THE NATUR,, PROPERTIES, AND BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE IN THE SYSTEM OF NATURE,
AND THE EVIDENCES WHICH ITS CONSTITUTION AFFORDS OF THE WISDOM AND BENEFICENCE OF THE
CREATOR.
IN T ROD U CT IO N.
The works of God deserve our serious contemplation. His wisdom displayed ill the various
scenes connected with sublunary nature.  His power displayed in the luminaries of heaven.
His perfections manifested even in the invisible regions of nature. Atmosphere an important
appendage to our globe. Outline of subjects in reference to the atmosphere.......... 7
CHAPTER  I.
Proofs that air is a material substance. Various experiments illustrative of this position. It
produces sound, and shows a resistance to bodies passing through it.  It excludes all other
bodies from the place it occupies. A common bellows shows the materiality of air. Its
waves frequently become an object of sight.......................................... 
CHAPTER  II.
The weight and pressure of the atmosphere, and the quantity of matter it contains. Comparative weight of air and water. Experiments illustrative of its pressure. Barometer, and the
mode of its action. Pascal's celebrated experiment with water and wine, to prove the pressure
of the atmosphere. Remarks and reflections in reference to such experiments. Atmospheric
pressure on the body of a man. This pressure varies. Weight of the whole atmosphere.
Air decreases in density as we ascend to the higher regions.  Scenes beheld from balloons.
The pressure of the atmosphere illustrated by a great variety of simple experiments.........  10
CHAPTER III.
Facts illustrated by the pressure of the atmosphere. It explains suction. The process of a
child sucking the breast. Why two smooth surfaces adhere with great force. Action of a
boy's sucker. Adherence of shellfish to the rocks on which they are found. Why frosts
occasion a scantiness of water. Why a cask will not run unless open at top. Mode of taking
a draught of water, and the principle on which it depends. Action of the syphon. Remarks
and reflections in reference to the atmospheric pressure.  Its discovery struck the learned
throughout Europe with surprise. Amazing pressure on the human body.  How our dwellings are prevented from being crushed to atoms. Wisdom and benevolence of the Divine
Being in such operations.....................................1.............4........  14
CHAPTER IV.
The elasticity of the air, and the phenomena it explains. Important purposes effected by the
atmosphere.   Various illustrations of the elasticity of air.  Effects produced in various
substances by this property. Spring of thetair equal to its weight-is susceptible of dilatation
and compression. Elasticity of air not capable of being destroyed. This property explains
a great variety of appearances in nature and art........................................ 16
VOL. II. —45                                                              ( iii)




CONTENTS.
C HAPTER V.
The hight of the atmosphere, or the elevation to which it extends beyond the surface of the
earth-hight of the atmosphere, were it of uniform density-its hight, as ascertained from the
twilight —mode of finding its hight from the effects of refraction-probably extends to a much
higher elevation than is generally supposed.  Hight of fire-balls, and other meteors. Universal space may be filled with ethereal fluids....................................... l
CHAPTER VI.
The composition of the atmosphere-atmosphere a compound fluid-history of this discoverycomponent parts of which it consists.  Properties of oxygen gas. Properties of nitrous
oxyde-its extraordinary effect on the animal spirits, illustrated in a variety of instances-its
singular effects on a student in Yale College-its effects on the author, and other individuals —
on insects, etc. Reflections on this subject.  Properties of nitrogen gas. Carbonic-acid
gas-where found-its specific gravity-fatal to all animals that breathe it-Grotto del Canthints and cautions in reference to avoiding the pernicious effects of this gas.  Atmosphere of
our globe not to be considered the same as those of other planets-adapted only to mortal
men-may be improved, and rendered more salubrious, by the universal cultivation of the
soil.  Millennial era. Man has it in his power to effectuate important changes, were his
moral dispositions renovated. State of the atmosphere before the deluge. Atmospheres of
other planets.  Reflections...................'....................................   20
CHAPTER VII.
The beneficial effects of the atmosphere in the system of nature. Air is essential to the growth
of plants.  Pressure of the atmosphere preserves water in its liquid state-supports fire and
fiame-respiration of all animals depends upon it. Various interesting experiments in relation
to respiration.  Reflections.  Respiration in fishes. Atmosphere essential to the process of
evaporation.  Density of the atmosphere gives buoyancy to the clouds —is the source of
winds, which are of essential use in the system of nature.  Air is the vehicle of smell, the
medium of sounds; and produces all the harmonies of music-the cause of that splendor and
universal light around us, and of the morning and evening twilight. Disastrous effects which
would follow were the atmosphere swept away.  Divine wisdom and beneficence displayed
in the arrangements of the atmosphere-its transparency-not capable of being frozen-man
has acquired a certain degree of sovereignty over it. Mforal reflection in reference to this
subject.........................................................................     24
CHAPTER VIII.
The wisdom and benevolence of the Creator, as displayed in the constitution of the atmosphere. Wisdom and goodness are manifest in the proportion which subsists between the
different gases-in determining the relative specific gravity of these gases-and in the process
for supplying the waste of oxygen, and promoting the renovation of the atmosphere.  Coneluding reflections.  Folly of denying the reality of a future and invisible state of existence.
Many of the objects of religion lie beyond the range of our corporeal vision, but are not, on
that account, to be considered unreal. What ought to be our great object in our study of the
sciences, and the investigation of the phenomena of nature?.............................  31
PA t T  II,
AT MOSP1 ERIC P HENO   MEN A.
CHAPTER  I.
A Q U E 0 U S  E E T E O R S.
1. LEvaporation- Bishop Watson's experiments on this subject-various facts in relation to
th.1is process.  Quantity of water annually evaporated from  our globe.  2. Clouds-their
big-ht, size, etc.-Classes into which they have been arranged, cirrus, stratus, cirro-cumuius, nimbus, etc. Electrical clouds, and the ravages they sometimes produce.  3. Rainimperfect knowledge of its cause-quantity which falls in different seasons, and in different




CONTENTS.                                          v
regions-prognostics of rain-uses of rain. 4. Snow-how formed-its flakes assume regular
figures-representation of some of these figures. Avalanches, and the ravages they produce.
Uses of snow. 5. Hail-storms of hail in different countries, and the effects they produce-hailrods for preventing the formation of hail-showers 6. Dew-its formation. Hoar-frost. Fogs..  34
CHAPTER II.
WINDS.
1. Winds in general explained. 2. General or permanent winds. Trade-winds. 3. Periodical
winds, or monsoons. 4. Land and sea-breezes. 5. Variable winds. Destruction occasioned
by stormy winds.  6. Noxious and poisonous winds-the harmattan-sirocco-samiel-the
simoon-hurricanes-tornadoes.  Reflections in reference to noxious winds.  Velocity of
winds. Uses of winds........................................., 39
CHAPTER III.
LUMINOUS AND FIERY METEORS.
1 TheAuroraBorealis-its general appearances. Description of several striking auroras. Their
appearance in the polar regions. Their supposed cause. 2. Luminous arches-their phenomena
and elevation. 3. Fire-balls-description of their phenomena, size, motion, etc. 4. Shooting,
or falling-stars.  November meteors-their striking appearance in the UInited States, in 1 33their supposed origin. 5. Parhelia, or mock-suns-their general appearance-description of
one seen at Rome, illustrated with a figure.  6. Thunder and lightening-description of a
thunder-storm, with its accompaniments-how to estimate the distance of a thunder-cloud.
Different kinds of lightning. Identity of lightning and electricity. Thunder-guard. Maxims
t obe observed during a thunder-storm.  Concluding reflections...............








THE ATMOSPRHERE
AND
ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
PART I.
TIIE NATURE, PROPERTIES, AND BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
IN THE SYSTEM OF NATURE, AND THE EVIDENCES WHICH ITS CONSTI'UTION' AFFORDS OF THF. WISDOM AND BENEFICENCE OF THE CREATOR.
INTROD UCT ION.
ALL the works of God, throughout the immen-  structure of all the vegetable tribes, the numersity of the universe, display the character, per- ous vessels with which they are furnished, the
fections, and agency of the Supreme Creator, to  thousands of delicate tubes, invisible to the naked
every rational and Christian mind that surveys eye, through which their sap and juices are conthem with attention and intelligence. From  the tinually flowing to the leaves and branches, the
magnificent luminaries of heaven to the compara- millions of pores through which they shed their
tively small globe on which we dwell, and the  delicious odors, and the curious contexture and.,
smallest microscopic animalcule that glides through  the numerous beauties which the microscope alone:
its waters, we perceive the impress of omnipotence  can discover in their leaves, prickles, stamens,
and skill, which infinitely surpass all the puny  petals, and flowers:-when we consider the lnu -
labors and inventions of man.  These works merous orders of animated beings-the wonderfuzol
were evidently intended by their Divine Author diversity of structure they exhibit, in their eyes:.
to be investigated, contemplated, and admired by  ears, feet, joints, claws, wings, and movements —all his intel'lgent offspring, that their conceptions  their numberless contrivances, which enter inute
of the D;vine character may be expanded, and  their construction and functions-the thousands;
that they may be led to give unto Him  "the  of adjustments, adaptations, borings, claspingss.
glory due unto his name."  The enlightened  and polishings, which enter into the body of anli
Christian, therefore, ought to devote a portion of  animal a thousand times less than a mite-the
his time and attention to the study and contem- adaptation of all these contrivances to the pur —
plation of the works of God, not only as a rational poses of life, motion, and enjoyment, and thei-i
amusement, but as a solemn duty: for, in nu- correspondence to the surrounding elements inl;
merous passages in the sacred records, this duty  which such creatures pass their existence:-and,.
is expressly inculcated: "Lift up your eyes on  in particular, when we contemplate the structure,
high, and behold who hath created these things."  and functions of our own corporeal frames; the'
-"Stand still, and consider the wondrous works hundreds of bones of different shapes and sizes.
of God "-" The works of the Lord are great, which support it; the hundreds of muscles of.difsought out of all them that have pleasure therein"  ferent conformation, which give motion to its:
-"Great and marvelous are thy works, Lord  different parts; the-thousands of glands, secreting
God Almighty."                                 humors of various kinds from  the blood; the'
When we look around on the surface of the  thousands of lacteal and lymphatic tubes, absorb-.
earth, and behold the beautiful and sublime land- ing and conveying nutriment to the circulating..
scapes which diversify its aspect, the variety of fluid; the millions of pores, throughl which the
colors with which it is adorned, the myriads of perspiration is continually flowing; the infinite
trees, shrubs, and flowers which spring from its ramification of nerves, diffusing sensation throughsurface, and the rich perfumes they shed around  out all the parts of this exquisite machine; and.
them —the numerous animated beings which tra- the numerous veins and arteries which convey
verse the air, the ocean, and the earth, and the the whole mass of blood through every part of
arlpile provision which is made for their subsis- the body ten times every hour: —when we contence and conifort-we can scarcely fail of being  sider these adaptations and arrangements throug!timpressed with the conviction, that the Creator out the vegetable and animal kingdoms, we peris a being of unbounded beneficence, that "His ceive the marks of a Divine intelligence and skills.
tender mercies are over all his works," and that which completely throw into the shade the most'
the happiness of his sensitive and intelligent off- exquisite contrivances of human genius, and whichl
spring is one great end of all his arrangements. convince us that the wisdom of the Creator is ir-a
Wthen ntwe consider the curious and exquisite finite, and "his ways past finding out."
(7 )




8      ~    ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERTCAL PHENOMENA.
In short, when we lift our eyes beyond the we should doubtless behold the operations of a
boundaries of the globe on which we dwell, and Wisdom and Intelligence no less admirable and
look upward to that boundless firmament where astonishing than what is displayed in the visible
suns unnumbered shine, and planets and comets scenes of nature which are obvious to every eye.
run their ample rounds-when we behold ten    Of those invisible regions of nature now alluded
thousand times ten thousand of luminous and to, the ATMOSPPHERE is one in which we are partiopaque globes of vast dimensions scattered in cularly interested, and which exhibits a striking
magnificent profusion throughout every region scene of Divine wisdom and beneficence.
of infinite space; when we contemplate the sun    The term  atmosphere may be defined to be
occupying a space which would hold one million " that body of air, vapors, electric fluid, and other
three hundred thousand worlds such as ours; and substances which surround the earth to a certain
when we contemplate globes fourteen hundred hight."  This mass of fluid matter gravitates
times larger than our world, flying through the toward the earth, presses upon its surface with a
voids of space with a velocity of thirty thousand certain force, revolves with it in its diurnal rotamiles an hour, and carrying along with them in tion, and is carried along with it in its course
their rapid career a retinue of surrounding worlds round the sun, at the rate of sixty-eight thousand
-we behold the effects of a Power which all the miles an hour. This fluid mass is invisible to the
subordinate intelligences in the universe can never corporeal organs; and hence, the great body of
control, a power before which  the mightiest mankind are apt to imagine that the regions
achievements of human art sink into the same around us, in which the birds fly, and the clouds
scale with the flutterings of a microscopic ani- move, are nothing else than empty space; and,
malcule; a power which astonishes and confounds were it not that they sometimes hear its sound in
the imagination, which sets at defiance human the breeze, and feel its effects in the whirlwind
calculations, but which conveys to the mind a and the storm, they would be disposed to deny
most impressive idea of the grandeur of the Di- that such a thing as the atmosphere had an existvine Being, and of the magnificence of that uni- ence. There is, however, no appendage to our
verse which his hands have formed!             globe which is so essentially requisite to the comIt is not merely in the scenes of the visible fort, and even to the very existence of animated
world that the attributes of Deity are conspicu- beings; for, were the earth and the ocean, the
ously displayed. Even in the invisible regions springs and the rivers, to remain as they now are,
of creation, which are impalpable to the organs but were the hand of Omnipotence to detach from
of human vision, the perfections of the Eternal our globe the atmosphere with which it is now
Mind are no less apparent to the philosophic and environed, it is absolutely certain that, in a few
Christian inquirer, than in those external scenes minutes, and after a few sighs and groans, all the
of beauty and magnificence which arrest the at- eight hundred millions of men that now people
tention of every spectator. Could we descend to the earth, and all the other animated beings that
the central regions of our globe, and contemplate traverse the air, the waters, and the land, would
the processes which are going on in those unex- sink into the slumbers of death, and disappear forplored and unexplorable recesses; could we pene- ever from the living world.
tate into the depths of the ocean, and survey   In elucidating this subject, the observations
the multiplicity of objects which lie concealed in that will ble made may be arranged under the folits unfathomable caverns; could we ascend on lowinDg heads:the wings of the wind with the vapors which rise I.  To prove that air exists, and that it is a mafrom its surface, and contemplate all the regions    terial substance.
and transformations through which they pass, II. To consider its weight or gravity, and the
until they again descend in refreshing rains on       force with which it presses on all bodies on
the mountains and vales; could we wing our           the surface of the earth.
flight beyond the denser regions of the atmo- III. To exhibit several facts which the pressure
sphere into those places where fire-balls and shoot-  of the atmosphere tends to illustrate.
ing stars have their origin, and where the aurora IV. To illustrate the elasticity of the air, and the
borealis displays its fantastic coruscations; could   effects it produces.
we ascend to the ethereal spaces which intervene V. To offer some considerations for illustrating
between us and the celestial bodies, and investi-    the hight of the atmosphere, or its elevagate those apparently empty regions which sur-       tion above the surface of the earth.
round the atmospheres of all the planets; or, VI. To illustrate its composition; or, the chemicould we penetrate into the chemical processes        cal principles of which common atmoand changes which are incessantly going on among      spherical air is composed.
the invisible atoms of matter, in the union and VII. To illustrate its beneficial effects in the sysdisunion of the different gases, in the various      tem of nature.
modifications of crystallization, in the circulation VIII. To exhibit the evidences which its constituof the sap and juices in the minutest flowers, and   tion affords of the wisdom and benevolence
in the internal vessels of microscopic animalcules;   of the Creator.




CHAPTER I.
AIR IS A MATERIAL SUBSTANCE.
THE first inquiry, then, is, What is that air, of  and the funnel, to let the air out as the wat(er
the importance of which we hear so much assert-  rushes in. And hence, the practice in such cases,
ed?  We see nothing, it may be said-we feel no- suggested by necessity, of pulling up the funnel a
thing. We feel ourselves at liberty to move about little when the liquor stops, in order to let tile air
without any let or hindrance. Whence, then, the rush out between the pipe asnd the neck of the bottle.
assertion that we are surrounded by a substance  It is oil the principle now stated, that the diving-bell
called air?  A few facts and illustrations only will is constructed, by which a person may descend to a
be sufficient to elucidate this position.         considerable depth into the sea, and yet not be im1. If we take a rod, and make it pass rapidly  mersed in water, nor deprived of air for breathing.
through what appears empty space, we shall hear a    4. If we take a smooth cylindrical tube shut at
sound and feel a slight resistance, as if something  one end, and fit a plug or cork exactly to its openi
had intervened to prevent the motion of the rod.  end, so as to slide along it, if the plug be so tiglht
2. If we take a large fan, or an umbrella, when  and soaked with grease, as to prevent all passage
fully stretched, and push it forcibly from us, we of any fluid by its sides, we shall find that n(o
shall feel a very considerable resistance, and a force whatever can push it to the bottom of the
person opposite will feel a certain impression  tube.  There is, therefore, something within the
made upon his face, as if some substance had  tube, though invisible, which prevents the entry
come in contact with it. Were we to take a very  of the plug, and, therefore, possessing the charan -
large umbrella-say from  twelve to fifteen feet teristic of matter, and this something is air.
diameter-and stand onl the top of a high stair, or   5. Let us take a pair of common bellows, and,
a building, twenty or thirty feet high, we might after having opened them, if we shut up the nozjump from such a position, while we hold it fully  zle and valve-hole, and try to bring the boards tostretched, and gradually descend to the ground  gether, we shall find it impossible.   There is
without violence or injury. It is on this principle something included that prevents this, in the same
that the instrument called a parachute is con- manner as if the bellows were filled with flax or
structed, by means of which an aeronaut, while  wool; but, on opening the nozzle, we can easiiy
pursuing his aerial excursions, has left his balloon, shut them  by expelling this something that is
when elevated nearly a mile above the surface of within, which will issue with considerable force,
the earth, and descended in a few minutes to the  and impel anything that lies in its way.  This
ground, without shock or accident. Perhaps some  something can be nothing else than the air of the
contrivance of this kind might be useful to prevent atmosphere.
accidents in the case of fires in large towns-when    6. The air, though for the most part invisible,
persons have attempted to jump from  the win- may, in certain cases, be rendered an object of
dows of a third story to preserve themselves from  sight.  If we take a telescope of high magnifying
being involved and destroyed in the burning mass. power, and, in the forenoon of a hot summer day,
The circumstances now stated prove, that there is when the sun is shining, look through it to disa certain material substance, though invisible, tant objects, we shall perceive the air undulating
around us, which offers a sensible resistance to  about the objects somewhat like the waves of the
any bodyhaving a large surface when it is pushed  sea, and rendering them  undefined and obscure.
rapidly thlrough it.                              This is the principal reason why very high mag3. That air is a material substance, appears  nifying powers cannot be used, with effect, oni
fhom  its excluding all other bodies from the place  telescopes for land objects, in the day-time, when
it occupies. Thus, if we take a glass jar, and  the sun produces undulations in the atmosphere:
plunge it with its mouth downward into a vessel and the same cause frequently prevents distinct
of water, only a very small quantity of water will vision of celestial objects.
get into the jar, because the air, of which the jar    The above are clear proofs that the air, though
is full, keeps the water out; otherwise, if it were  not generally an object of sIght, is, in reality, a
empty of every material substance, the water material substance, as much so as water, wood,
would rush in and completely fill the jar. Hence, stones, or iron.  This substance, in a state of
we may learn why a vessel cannot be filled with  rest, we call air; in a state of motion, we call it
water by plunging its orifice downward, and why  wind; and, in this state, its force is sometimes so
a funnel, if its pipe fit closely to the neck of a  great as to drive our wind-mills, impel our ships
bottle, is not convenient for pouring off liquors; across the ocean, and even to overturn buildings,
for, in order to put water or wine into a bottle, to tear up from their roots the largest trees, and
the air most pass between the neck of the bottle  to dash whole fleets to pieces of wreck.
(9)




CHAPTER II.
THE WEIGHT OF THE ATMOSPHERE, AND THE QUANTITY OF MATTER IT
CONTAINS.
AS AIR is demonstrated to be a body, like all or, if an opening be made in the top of the tube
other material substances, it must have weight, and the air admitted, the quicksilver will sink into
and the proportion its weight bears to other known  the basin.  The pressure, therefore, by the atmosubstances is determined by experiment.  If a sphere on the earth, is the same as if a coating of
bottle which contains about a quart be emptied of  quicksilver twenty-nine and a half inches thick
its air by means of an air-pump, or in any other were spread over every part of the earth's surway, and then  accurately weighed in a nice  face.
balance, it will be found to be about sixteen    Now, it is proved that a square column of
grains lighter than it was before it was emptied  quicksilver twenty-nine and  a half inches in
of its air, which shows that a quart of air weighs  hight, and one inch thick, weighs just fifteen
sixteen grains.  A quart of water weighs about pounds, which counterpoises a column of air of
14,620 grains, or nearly two pounds.  If this last the same thickness, extending to the top of the
snumber be divided by sixteen, the quotient will be atmosphere; and, consequently, that air presses
nine hundred and thirteen, which shows that air with this force upon every square inch of the
is nine hundred and thirteen times lighter than  earth's surface; and, of course, 2160 pounds on
water; or, in other words, that it would require  every square foot, and 19,440 on every square
above nine hundred quart-bottles of air to weigh  yard.  The experimrrent now described is, in fact,
one quart-bottle of water.  Other experinenlts  nothing else thlan the common barometer.  The
which have been made to determine this point, tube of the barometer is filled iwith quicksilver, or
lead to the result that for every cubic foot of air, mercury; it then stands in a ba:in of quicksilver,
five hundred and twenty-three grains, or, one  is connected with a ball containing quicksilver,
and one-fifth ounce avoirdupois, are to be allowed; on the surface of which the atmosphere presses,
and, since a cubic foot of water weighs 1,000  and, in most cases, stands at an elevation of
ounces, the one divided by the other gives a result about twenty-nine and a half inches, but subject to
of eight hundred and thirty-three, the number of  certain variatiols, according to atle state of the
times that water is heavier than air.  It is impos- atmosphere..When the weather me steady and
sible to arrive at very great nicety in such esti- serene, it rises to above thirty il h-,s;  when it
mates; but the general results of all the experi- is stormy and rainy, it frequently sinfmk  to twenments which have been made on this point, lead  ty-eight inches, or under, thus ildwcating the
to the conclusion that air is somewhere between  changes that take place in the weight of the air;
eight hundred and nine hundred times lighter and hence it has obtained the name of the weathai water. These results, however, must be un-  thler-glass.
derstood solely to apply to the air near the surface    Were the same experiment made witht water,
of the earth; for, as we ascend into the higher re- instead of mercury, a tube must be prcovided of
gions of $he atmosphere, the air becomes gradually  about thirty-six feet long; and then it -viutMi  be
thinner and lighter, being less pressed with the air found, that the water in the tube would bto cupthat is above.                                     ported by the atmospheric pressure to the highi
We may now attend to the pressure which the' of thirty-two  or thirty-three feet.'his costly
atmosphere exerts upon the surface of the earti, experiment, which has been seldom repeated, was
and upon all bodies connected with it.             first performed by the celebrated Pascal, at Roueb.
It has been proved by a variety of accurate ex- in Normandy, in 1647.  He exhibited the expert
periments, that the atmosphere presses on every  meiit both with water and with wine, in order tt
part of the earth's surface with a force, at an ave- show the differlent hights to which these flui&
rage, equal to about fifteen pounds on every square  would rise, according to their respective densities
inch. This has been ascertained bywhat is called  He procured, at a glass-house, tubes of crys.
the Torrice!lian experiment.  Take a glass tube  tal glass forty feet long, which were fixed ti
about three feet long, open at one end, and her- the mast of a ship, that was contrived to be
metically sealed at thie other: fill it with quick- raised or depressed, as occasion required.  He
silver, putting the finger upon,the open end, turn  appointed a day for performing this experiment,
that end downiward, and immerse it in a small yes- and invited all the philosophers and others who
sel of quicksilver, without admitting ally air, then  doubted of the pressure of the atmosphere to
take away the finger, and the quicksilver will re- attend, and to be witnesses of the wonderful namain suspended in the tube about twenty-nine  ture of his experiment.  The result'was, accord&
and a half inches above its surface in the vessel, ing to the calculations he bad previously  nade,
sometimes more and sometimes less, according to  that the altitude of water in the tube was thirtythe state of the atmosphere.  It is evident, then, one and one-ininth. Paris feet, equal to thirty-two
that the quicksilver is kept up in the tube to this  feet two and a half inches English; and the altielevation by the pressure of the atmosphere upon  tude of the wine was somewhat greater, namely,
the surface of the mercury in the basin; for, if  thirty-one and two-thirds Paris feet, or thirty-two
the basin and tube are put under a glass, and the  feet ten inches English; the wine, on account of
sr extracted. all the quicksilver in the tube will its superior levity, rising about seven and a half
f;al diowni into  thie balsit; and, if the air be re- inches higher than the water.  He performrd thia
admitted, it will rise to the same hight as before; experimeIt to convince the Aristotelian pliiloso



WEIGHT OF THE ATMOSPHERE.                                          11
phers of those times of the folly of a notion  of preconceived notions, foolish prejudices, and
which then prevailed, that the rise of the mer- of the authority of great names, which are some
cury in the Torricellian experiment and the rise of the greatest obstructions to the expansion of
of water in pumps were produced, not by the the human mind, and the reception of useful
pressure of the atmosphere, but by an occult knowledge.  It was not before men began to
quality, which they denominated " Nature's ab- emancipate themselves from  such shackles that
horrence of a vacuum."   They asserted that, in science commenced that brilliant career which
the upper part of the tube, deserted by the quick- has issued, in our times, in so  many  intersilver, there were contained some spirits, evapor- esting and important discoveries.  Similar preated from the quicksilver; which, being rarefied, judices are still prevalent in  relation to the
filled up that space, thus assisting Nature, in a affairs of common life, the facts of science, and
great emergency, against her mortal enemy, a the important truths of religion.  We are only
vacuum.  " Well, then, gentlemen," says Pascal, yet beginning to cast off the yoke of that ignor"take your own way.  Here are two tubes, the ance, under the guise of wisdom, under which
one I am to fill with water, and the other with  the men of other times bowed with such abject
wine.  You will all readily admit that there is a submission.  Religious prejuuices, in particular,
greater quantity of spirits in wine than in water: derived from  education and submrnission to mere
and, consequently, that if the empty space be- authority, are frequently so strong that no species
tween the upper surface of the fluids and the top  of reasoning, however convincing to an unbiased
of the tube be filled with spirits, there will be a mind, is sufficient to subdue them. When certain
greater quantity of spirits, in the upper part of the dogmas or opinions, however futile, have got a
tube containing the wine than in the tube contain- firm  hold on the mental faculties, all the arguing the water; and, of course, the wine will not ments that can be derived from  reason and phirise so high as the water." To this they all readily losophy, and even from  the most cogent anassented.  But, when the experiment was made, nouncements of Divine revelation, are found
the wine was found to rise nearly eight inches altogether insufficient to displace them.  And, as
higher than the water, as Pascal had previously  tile fostering of erroneous opinions, in relation
calculated and predicted.  This experiment was to religion, may endanger our best interests, both
decisive; and, since that period, the figment of  in relation to the life that now is and the life to
"Nature's abhorrence of a vacuum," along with  come, it is of the utmost importance to all, and
many other absurdities, has been consigned to the especially to young persons, that they examine,
slumber of the dark ages whence it originated.   with care and without prejudice, every doctrine
A few years before the period now alluded to, and opinion they embrace, without regard to huthe engiaeers of the Grand-duke of Florence, man authority; founding all their views and
having received orders to raise a portion of water sentiments on the dictates of enlightened reason,
to the hight of fifty or sixty feet, by means of a and the plain declarations of the word of God.
common pump, perceived, when they had made    Fronm what has been now stated, we may easily
the attempt, that the pump refused its assistance compute the weight sustained by the body of a
when the water was to be raised above thirty-two  rmiddle-sized man, in consequence of the pressure
feet.  They communicated the circumstance to of the atmosphere.  Suppose the average stature
Galileo, an eminent philosopher of that age, and of the human body to be about five feet nine
asked him  the reason of it.  Galileo was nlot a inches; suppose the breadth in front to be about
little surprised, and was unprovided with an  one foot, and the breadth on each side half a foot;
answer.  He, however, put a good face on the by allowing a little deduction for the narrowness
affair, and gravely replied, that "Nature abhorred a of the head and feet, we may reckon about five
vacuum  only to the hight of thirty-two feet."  feet in front, and five for the back part, and two
Torricelli, tile disciple of Galileo, vexed at the and a half square feet for each side of tile body,
water's refusing to ascend more than thirty-two  or fifteen square feet in all.  It has already been
feet in a tube void of air, made a new experiment stated  that the atmospheric pressure on  one
Ewith quicksilver, in the mnanner already described. square foot is 2160 pounds.  Multiply this sum
He saw the quicksilver in the tube fall down, and  by fifteen, the number of square feet on the surleave an empty space at top, and remain sus- face of the human body, and the product wvill be
pended at the hight of twenty-nine inches.-  32,400 pounds, or somewhat more than fourteen
"' How," says he, " Nature abhors a vacuum only  tons, or the weight of more than fourteen ordinary
to the hight of thirty-two feet when it is water cart-loads of heavy goods. This is the pressure
that ascends in a tube void of air, and only to sustained by every middle-sized man-a pressure
twenty-nine inches when it is mercury! Vacuum  which would be insupportable, and even crush
does not frighten her beyond these measures! us to pieces, were it not that it is equal in every
But why does she fear it to far more than twenty- part; pressing with the same force upward, downnine inches when it is water that rises?  Very  ward, and on every side; and is at the same
likely this horror at vacuity is an idle fancy, a time, counterbalanced by the spring of the air
mere philosophical cant, which we take for good within uz, which is diffused through the whole
coin without understanding it."  Reasoning in body, and reacts with an equal force against the
this way, and repeating a variety of similar ex- outward pressure.  This pressure, however, is
periments, he was, at length, led to the conclu- somewhat different at different times.  When the
sion " that the diversity of the elevation of the air is lightest, the pressure is 31,150 pounds, and,
two different fluids proceeded from  the diversity  when heaviest, about 33,660 pounds, making a
of their weig;ht, and that they were supported  difference of about 2500 pounds, the weight with
and counterpoised by a column of air, of the which we are compressed more at one time than
same diameter, reaching the top of the atmo-  at another.  This great difference in the atmnosphere."  Here the matter rests, and will rest spheric pressure is found greatly to affect the
throughout all succeeding generations.           animal functions and the state of healtih.  A
This short sketch of the history of the experi- person laboring under an asthmatical complaint
ments which relate to the pressure of the atmo- will find his disorder increased when the air is
sphere  vill not be altogether out of place, if it li ht, as it has then les elasticity, and is n,,?t so (chas a tendency to guard us against the influence   pable of expanding tile lungs.  The Ui is gene



12              ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
rally the lighest in hazy and rainy weather, when trike a barometer to the top of a mountain only
the clouds descend, and the mists cover the half a mile ill perpendicular elevation, the mercumountain tops.  Every one then feels the effect, ry falls from  thirty to twenty-seven inches; and
by a certain degree of lassitude and depression of the fall of the mercury is in proportion the higher
spirits, occasioned by the surrounding  gloom, we ascend.  Those travelers who have climbed
and by being deprived of an atmospheric pres- to the tops of lofty mountains know, by experisure amounting to more than 2000 pounds.  The ence, that the air is much thinner in those refibers of the body are relaxed, the contractile  gions than in the plains below. Their breathing
force of the muscles diminished, and a languid  becomes difficult and painful, their hands and feet
circulation of the fluids ensues, which sometimes swell, and they are sometimes seized with a vomproduce obstructions, fevers, and headaches; and, iting of blood. They also find, that the atmnoin most persons, a sort of indolence and gloomy sphere becomes clearer as they ascend, and is uninactivity.  Whereas, when the air is heavy, and able to support the clouds.  We are informed by
the clouds ascend to the higher regions, and ap- Don Ulloa that, while he stood on the top of the
pear like fine fleeces on the blue vault of heaven, Andes, in Peru, " the clouds, which were gathered
the nerves and fibers of the animal system  are below the mountain's brow, appeared like a tembraced by the additional pressure of the atmo- pestuous ocean, all dashing and foaming, while
sphere, the blood-vessels exert their full power, the lightnings were breaking through the waves,
the solids are compressed; the fluids circulate  and the thunders rolling beneath his feet, far bewith increased vigor, we feel light and alert, and low the spot on which he stood. In the meanthe elevation of the animal spirits is increased by time he enjoyed a serene and cloudless sky, and
the splendor and activity of the surrounding left the war of the elements to the unphilosophiscene.                                           cal mortals on the plains below."
Weight of the whole Atmnosphere.-From the facts   Those who have taken a flight to the higher renow  stated, we may form  an estimate of the gions of the atmosphere in balloons, have beheld
weight of the whole body of the atmosphere  scenes of a similar kind. Mr. Baldwin, who aswhich surrounds the surface of the earth.  The cended in a balloon from Chester, in 1785, relates
surface of the globe contains, in round numbers, that at a certain elevation, the earth was entirely
200,000,000 of square miles; every square mile hid from his view by an immense mass of vapors,
contains 27,878,400 square feet; and these two which he compares to a sea of cotton, tufted here
numbers multiplied together, produce 5,575,680,- and there by the action of the air, and, soon after,
000,000,000; or, five thousand five hundred and the whole became an extended pavement of white
seventy-five billions, six hundred and eighty thou- cloud.  The reason of all this is obvious: the
sand millions, equal to the number of square feet clouds are vapor, or water rarefied by heat. Ton the surface of the earth; which multiplied by por is lighter than air near the surface of the
2160 pounds (equal to the pressure on every earth, and, consequently, ascends in it; but, in the
square foot), produces the sum  of 12,043,468,- higher regions, the air is thinner and lighter than
800,000,000,000; that is twelve trillions, forty- these vapors, and, of course, is unable to support
three thousand four hundred and sixty-eight bil- them beyond a limited hight; which circumstance
lions, and eight hundred thousand millions; which  undeniably proves that the air is lighter the higher
is equal to the number of pounds which consti- we ascend.
tute  the weight of the whole atmosphere, or   The pressure of the atmosphere may now be
5,000,000,000,000,000; that is, about five thousand  illustrated by a few simple experiments.  The inbillions of tons. A. more definite idea of this strument called the air-pump affords, on the whole,
weight may be obtained by supposing a ball of the best means of illustrating the pressure of the
lead, extending from  London to Oxford, stretch- atmosphere.  This instrument bears a certain reinlg sixty miles perpendicularly above us, and in semblance, in its principle and action, to the comevery direction;, or, in other words, a ball of lead mont house pump.  It consists of a hollow cylinone hundred and ninety miles in circumference, der or tube, in which a piston is alternately raised
and about sixty miles in diameter.  Suppose this and dep-'ossed by means of an iron rod attached
ball placed on one end of an immense balance, to the  unidle of the pump.  In the piston there
and the whole atmosphere on the other, they is a valve, which opens by any pressure from bewould nearly counterpoise each other. So that low, and is shut by any superincumbent pressure,
this invisible fluid, which we are apt to consider like the flapper of a pair of bellows. When the
as almost a nonentity, when considered as a whole, piston is forced down, the valve is opened from
contains a weight which it is difficult for numbers below by the pressure of air, or whatever fluid
to express.                                      the pump may contain.  The fluid then gets above
It need only be observed further on this point, the valve, and is lifted up by the raising of -the
that the air decreases in density in proportion as piston, and carried out of the pump, the valve bewe ascend to the higher regions of the atmosphere. ing then shut by the pressure of the air above it.
At the hight of seven miles, the air is four times At the top, is a metal plate ground to a perfect
rarer than at the surface-of the earth; at the hight plane surface, on which is placed an inverted glass
of fourteen miles, it is sixteen times rarer; at the jar or receiver, whence the air is to be extracted.
hight of twenty-eight miles, it is two hundred and A hole in the plate is connected with a tube which
fifty-six times rarer; at the hight of ninety-six communicates with the pump-barrels. By workmiles, it is 268,435,456 times rarer; and at the ing the handle of the instrument for some time,
hight of five hundred miles, it has been computed, the receiver will soon be nearly exhausted of all
that a cubic inch of such air as we breathe at the the air it contains, and the effects produced in a
surface of the earth, would be so much rarefied, vacuum, or place void of air, mav then be exhibthat it would fill a hollow sphere equal in diameter ited.  The following, among other experiments,
to the orbit of the planet Saturn, which is 1,800,- may be shown by the air-pump.  If the receiver
000,000 of miles in diameter.  This is a neces- be open at both ends, and the upper orifice be
sary consequence of the elasticity of the air, and stopped by the hand, when the air is exhausted,
of its want of compression in the higher regions; the pressure of the external air will be such as to
rild that this is in reality the case, is proved by prevent the removal of the hand, and will cause
experiment as well as by calculation.  When ve a certain degree of pain. If a piece of bladder




WEIGHT-PRESSURE, ETC.                                         15
be tied tightly over the orifice, as the exhaustion  a number of small holes in its bottom, about the
proceeds, the bladder will be pressed inwards, and  diameter of a common sewing-needle.  Plunge
will finally burst with a loud noise. In the same  this vessel in water, and, when full, cork it up, so
manner, if a flat piece of window-glass be placed  that no air can enter at the top. While it reupon the orifice, when the air is exhausted, the mains corked, no water will run out, being preglass will be broken into a number of pieces by  vented by the atmospheric pressure upon the botthe external pressure of the atmosphere.         tom of the vessel; but the moment it is uncorked,
But as comparatively few persons have an op- the water will issue from  the small holes by tile
portunity of performing experiments with the air- pressure of the air from above. The same experipump, a few simple experiments equally convin- ment may be made with a tin-plate tube, about an
cing, which every person has it in his power to  inch in diameter, open at the top, and having its
perform, may here be described.                  bottom  pierced with a small hole.  When filled
L. Take a wine or an ale-glass, and fill it with  with water and tightly corked at the top, it may
water; take a smooth piece of writing paper, and  be carried for miles without losing a drop of wapress it firmly against the edges of the glass, so  ter, notwithstanding the hole in the bottom.
that no air get in between the paper and the
water, then turn the glass upside down, and the                Fig. 1.       Fig. 2.
water will be supported by the pressure of the atmosphere upon the paper.  That it is the external pressure of the atmosphere upon the paper.
which supports the water will appear, when we
consider that the paper, instead of being convex,                                   G
by the pressure of the water downward, is concave, by the pressure of the air upward.  If a
lighted candle be placed under the paper, with its              I 
flame touching the paper, we may hold it for an                 I 
indefinite length of time, without its producing
any effect upon the paper, or setting fire to it.
2. Take a wine-glass, and burn a piece of paper.I
in it, and while the paper is burning, if we place
the palm  of our hand firmly upon the edges of    5. In order to show the lateral pressure of the
the glass, the glass will stick fast to the hand, atmosphere, take a tube, as G H (fig. 2), six or
producing a certain degree of pain, and it will re- seven inches long, having a small hole on each
quire a considerable degree of force before the  side, as I K.  When filled with water, and tightly
hand can be detached from the glass.  In this ex- corked, no water will run out from the sides of
periment, the burning of the paper rarefies the  the tube, but the moment the cork is taken out,
air, nearly expels it from the glass, and then the  the water will run out at I and K, as represented in
atmosphere presses with its whole weight upon  the figure.
the hand.                                           6. Take a wine-glass and burn in it a piece of
3. Take a glasstube two or three feet long, of paper; then invert the glass, while the paper is
a narrow  bore; plunge one end of it in a basin  burning, over a saucer full of water, the water
ef water; apply the mouth to the other end, and  will rush up into the wine-glass, ill consequence
draw  out the air by suction; the water will in- of the air being rarefied or driven out by the burnstantly rise into the tube by the pressure of the  ing paper, and in consequence of the pressure of
atmosphere on the water in the basin; and, if we  the atmosphere upon the surface of the water in
imusediately place our thumb firmly on the upper the saucer.
part of the tube, and withdraw it from the water    These experiments show that the atmosphere
in the basin, the water will be suspended in the presses in all directions, upward, downward, and
tube by the pressure of the atmosphere, although  laterally.  This subject has been dwelt onil somethe tube is open below; but, when the thumb is what particularly, because the atmospheric presrelmoved from  the upper part of the tube, the sure  forms an important element, and a mnewater in it will run out, in consequence of the  chanical power in the construction  of steampressure of the atmosphere from above.           engines, atmospheric railways, and other modern
4. Take a tin vessel, six or eight inches long, inventions, which are now of such great utility in
and about three in diameter, with its mouth about propelling carriages along railways, and steama quarter of an inch wide, as E F (fig. 1). Pierce  vessels across seas and oceans.




CHAPTER III.
FACTS ILLUSTRATED BY THE PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
LET US now  attend to a few facts which the gether, which prevents the air from  insinlating
pressure of the air tends to explain and illus- itself between them, and the external air then
trate.                                            presses upon them with a force of fifteen pounds
1. The atmospheric pressure explains the nature on every square inch.  There can be no question
of the process vulgarly termed suction. When that the stability of our houses and garden walls
we attempt to take a draught of water out of a depends, at least in a great measure, upon the
basin, or a running stream, it is commonly said same principles; for the more completely every
that we draw in the water by suction; whereas crevice between the bricks or stones is shut up,
the fact is, that instead of drawing the water into  by means of mortars and cements, from  the inthe stomach, we only draw the air into the lungs, sinuation of the external air, the more firm  an.
and the atmosphere performs the other part of the stable is the building.
operation.  The process is simply this:-We im-    To the same cause is to be attributed the action
merse our lips into the water, so as to prevent the of a boy's sucker in lifting large stones from the
entrance of air into the mouth; we then make a ground.  The sucker is made of stiff wetted
vacuum in the mouth by drawing the air into the leather fastened to a string; the moisture upon
lungs, after which the pressure of the atmosphere the leather, when it is pressed down upon the
upon the surface of the water forces it upward  stone, prevents the air from  getting in between
into the mouth.  That such is the process of re- the leather and the stone, and if the sucker be
ceiving a draught of water when the mouth is four inches square, it will require a force of two)
held downward, appears from  this circumstance, hundred and forty pounds to separate it from the
that if the lips do not touch the water, we might stone.  In certain cases, such contrivances, Oil a
draw in the air by what is called suction for twen- large scale, might be sometimes useful as a mety years, and not receive a single drop into the I chanical power.
mouth.                                              3. Another circumstance which is accounted
The same principle explains the action of a for on this principle is, the strong adhesion of
child sucking the breast of its nurse.  The ope- snails, periwinkles, limpets, and other molluscous
ration of cupping is performed in the same way. animals, to the rocks on which they are found.
In this case the operator takes a;small glass, close The animal forms the rim of its shell so as to fit
at the top, and holding it for some time over the the shape of the rock on which it intends to cling.
flame of a candle or lamp, the air is thereby rare- It then fills its shell either with its own body or
fled, and part of it drawn out.  The glass is then  with water.  In this condition, it is evident, that
suddenly placed on the part of the body to be we must act with a force equal to fifteen pounds
cupped, and adheres to the flesh by the external on a square inch before we can detach it from the
pressure of the air.  The flesh rises in the glass, rock.  This may be illustrated by filling a drinkand the blood and serosities are forced from the ing-glass to the brimn with water, and, having
wounded vessels into the glass by the atmospheric covered it with a piece of thin wet leather, place
pressure on the parts around.                    it upon a table, and it will be found to require a
2. It is owing to the atmospheric pressure that very considerable force to pull it straight upward.
two polished surfaces, which accurately fit each But, if we place a snail adhering to a stone in an
other, adhere with great force.  This fact is well exhausted receiver, it will drop off by its own
known to glass-grinlders and polishers of marble. weight. It is owing to the same cause that bivalve
A large lens, when ground very smooth, requires mollusca, such as oysters and mussels, keep their
more than thte strength of a single individual to shells so firmly shut, and require such a degree
pull it directly from  the tool.  If the surface is of force to open them. But, if we grind off a
only a square inch, it will require fifteen pounds bit of the convex shell, so as to make a small hole
to separate them  perpendicularly, though a very  in it, the air gets in, and it opens with the great.
moderate force will make them  slip along each est ease. The same thing takes place when it is
other.  W7ere the surface six inches square, the put under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump.
force requisite to separate the two pieces would  It has been lately discovered that it is owing to
be equal to five hundred and forty pounds. But the same principle that flies and other animals
this cohesion is not observed, unless the surfaces have the power of walking on a perpendicular
are wetted or smeared with oil or grease, other- pane of glass, or on the ceiling of a room, with
wise the air gets between them, and they separate their backs downward. This has been proved to
without any trouble.  That this cohesion is arise from a power they possess of squeezing out
owinlg to the atmospheric pressure, is evident from  the air between the inside of their feet and the
tile ease with which the plates may be separated surface on which they tread, and thus being sup.
in ani exhausted receiver by means of the air- ported against the outside of their feet by the
pump.  The same cause contributes in a power- pressure of the atmosphere.
ful degree to give effect to the cohesion of bodies   4. It is owing, in a great measure, to the presby means of mortar and cements.  When two  sure of the atmosphere, that frosts occasion a
pieces of wood are to be glued together, their sur- scantiness of water in our fountains and wells.
faces are first made as smooth as possible; a glu- This is not caused, as is generally supposed, by
tinous substance is then applied to fill up all the  the freezing of the water in the bowels of the
porets and inequalities; they are then pr-,ssed to- earth.  IFh  most intense frost of a Si3berian win( 14 )




PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.                                      15
ter would not freeze the ground two feet deep, but the weight of a column of water, about thirtya moderate frost will consolidate the whole sur- two or thirty-three feet high, is equal to the
face of a country, and make it impervious to the weight of a column of air reaching from the surair, especially if the frost has beenl preceded by face of the earth to the top of the atmosphere.
rain, which has soaked the surface.  When this The pressure of the atmosphere upon the water
happens, the water which was filtering through  of the vessel, or cistern, produces this effect.
the ground is all arrested, and kept suspended in
its capillary tubes by the pressure of the air, in the              Fig. 4.
same manner as water is suspended in a tube
which is closed at one end, as in the third experiment stated in the preceding chapter (p. 13). A
thaw  melts the superficial ice, and allows the
water to run out in the same manner as it does
when the thumb, in that experiment, is removed
from the top of the tube.
5. It is well known that a cask full of water,
or spirits, will not run by the cock, unless a hole
be opened in the top, or some other part of the
cask.  The reason is. that the air presses upon    It might be shown, that the common pump for
the opening in the cock, and prevents the liquor raising water, the fire-engine, the steam-engine,
from flowing; whereas, when an opening is made the forcing- pump, and many other pneumatic and
at the top, the pressure of the air from  above hydraulic engines, derive their power and utility
forces it down. If, indeed, the hole in the cask chiefly from that extensive and universal agentis of large dimensions, it will run without any the pressure of the atmosphere; without the asother hole, because air will get in at the upper sistance of which many of our most powerful
side of the hole, while the liquor runs out by the engines would be arrested in their operations, and
lower part of it.  For the same reason, a small sink into feebleness and insignificancy.  But this
hole is made in the lid of a tea-pot to insure its chapter shall be concluded by a few general repouring out the tea, otherwise, when the tea-pot marks, suggested by this subject.
is quite full, it would be difficult to make the tea   The discovery of the pressure of the atmosphere,
run out at the spout, the pressure of the air from  and of its agency in the system of nature, formed
below tending to prevent it.                    a new  era in the history of science. However
On the same principle depends the performance common it is now to perform the Torricellian exof an instrument used by spirit dealers, for taking periment, and to talk about the pressure of the
Jut a sample of their spirits.  It consists of a long atmosphere, it was a subject which, less than two
Fi,. 3.  tin-plate tube, A B, fig. 3, open at the. centuries ago, struck with astoiiishment all the
A top at A, and ending in a small hole at B. learned throughout Europe. So wonderful and
The end B is dipped into the spirits, which incredible did it at first appear, that it was not
rise into the tube; then the thumb is until after the lapse of several years-until after
clapped on the mouth A, and the whole opinions which had prevailed for ages had been
is lifted out of the cask. The spirit re- overturned, and the most decisive experiments
mains in it until the thumb be taken had been performed, in every possible way, that
off; it is then allowed to run into a glass it was cordially received. And, indeed, when we
for examination.  We are informed by consider the effects of this powerful agent, in the
certarn tLavelers, that some of the rude numerous operations both of nature and art, there
tribes of Asia and Africa, with whom  is something which tends to excite our admiration
they have traveled, have a similar me- more than all the fairy tales which the human
fhod of acquiring a draught of water, though fancy has created. We behold its operation in
they do not understand the principle on which it compressing the bodies of all animated beingsdepends.  They provide themselves, in their jour- in counterpoising the internal pressure of the cirinys, with a long hollow cane, and, when they culating fluids, and preventing the elastic force
wish to drink, or to give their companions a of the internal air from bursting the arteries and
draught of water from a stream  or pool, they veins. We behold its operation in forcing-pumps
place the hollow  cane in the water, and apply and fire engines-in raising water from deep pits,
their mouth to the.upper end, and draw out the and carrying it to the tops of the highest buildair, when the water rushes in and fills the inte- ings-in giving motion to our spinning-machines,
rior of the cane; they then apply their thumb to and ini propelling large vessels along seas and
the upper end, take the cane out of the water, rivers-in the action of Hiero's fountain, of syand apply it to the lips of their thirsty companion, phons, and barometers; and in many other cases
when the water rushes into his mouth. This where its agency could scarcely have been susmode of taking a draught of water may, in some pected. What can be more unlike than the workcases, be very convenient when we cannot easily ing of a fire-engine, when spouting a column of
apply our lips to the surface of a running stream. water to the top of a building in flames, and the
The action of the syphon depends on the same crawling of a fly upon a window-pane, or the
principle. A syphon is a bent tube, the one end ceiling of a room?  Yet both these operations are
of which is longer than the other, as A B, fig. 4. performed by the same means, the pressure of
If the tube be filled with water, and the shorter the atmosphere.
leg be placed in a vessel of water, E, immediately    But what appears no less striking than such
upon withdrawing the finger from the longer leg, operations, is, the pressure of the atmosphere
the water will flow out until the liquid in the upon our own bodies. It has already been stated,
vessel is emptied. By means of this instrument, that this pressure amounts to above thirty thouwe can convey water from a cistern over a rising sand pounds. Were the half of this weight to
ground, provided its perpendicular elevation above fall on one side of our bodies, without being
the level of the fountain does not exceed thirty- counteracted by any other power, it would protwo feet, and that the leg, from which the water duce an effect similar to that of a heavy wall, or
runs off, is below the level of the cistern; bocausc the rotef of X house falling flat upoA us, and would




16               ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
Infallibly drive the breath from  our lungs, and a pressure of 1,244,160 pounds!  Without this
crush to pieces every bone. What is it, then, wonderful balance no house could be habitable,
which prevents such a terrible effect?  A small no creature could remain alive; our glass-windows
quantity of air within us, which would not weigh would be shattered to atoms; an army-tent, a peaabove a single ounce, by its strong elastic force, sant's house, or a shepherd's hut, yea, even our
counterpoises the effects of this tremendous pres- most stately edifices, would be crushed to atoms.
sure; so that, instead of lying as a mountain on    It appears, then, that we are immersed in an
our loins, it acts like wings to our feet, or like invisible fluid, which, on the one hand, by its
sinews to our limbs. When a flat bottle is empty, enormous pressure, threatens to crush us to the
and laid on its side, we might imagine that the earth, and, on the other, by its elastic force, to
weight of the air would break it to pieces; but burst our blood-vessels, and tear our whole frame
the air which is contained within the bottle, to pieces.  The equality or equipoise of these two
whether stopped or not, has the same power, by  formidable and death-menacing powers, is our
its elasticity, to prevent its breaking, as the air only safeguard and defense; and shows us how
without has to crush it to atoms.  But, if we "fearfully and wonderfully" we are every moapply a syringe to the neck of such a flat bottle, mest preserved by that Almighty Being, "in
and exhaust the air which is enclosed within, the whose hand our breath is, and whose are all our
extraction of that small body of air, which, by  ways."  Here we have a striking evidence of its
its elastic spring, supported the sides of it, gives benevolence and skill, in having, by his wisdom,
room to the external air to act on the surface of reconciled and balanced two such formidable and
the bottle with all its force, and the bottle will fly contending powers, and so tempered them, that
into a thousand pieces. Such would be the case tile impetuosity of the one is checked by the acwith respect to our own bodies, if an exact balance tivity of the other; and all nature, instead of bewere not kept up between the pressure of the ing shattered and destroyed, is preserved in safe
atmosphere without, and the elastic force of the and harmonious order. Were it his design to
air within; and, in this instance, as well as in a destroy the inllabitants of our world, or to render
thousand other instances, we have a striking evi- them  miserable, we see how easily this could be
denuce of the wisdom  and of the benevolence of effected.  He has only to permit one of those
Him  who at first created and arranged all the powers now described to act without control, and
powers and elements of nature, so as to render the work of destruction is at once accomplished.
them subservient to the preservation and comfort So that in his "hand is the soul of every living
of every species of animated existence.          thing, and the breath of all mankind."  He up.
It is owing to the same admirable arrangement holdeth our souls in life, and his merciful visitasof the Creator, that our dwellings are not crushed tion sustains our spirits.  It is the province of
to atoms. Suppose an apartment only twelve feet true philosophy to trace the attributes of the Alsquare, and nine feet high, the pressure of the air mighty, in every part of his operations, in the
upon the four sides, and the roof, containing five system of nature; and there is no scene through.
hundred and seventy-six square feet, is equal to out the universe, where his voice is not heard, and
one million, two hundred and fortv-four thousand, where his power and wisdom are not conspicuous.
one hundred and sixty pounds!  This enormous ly displayed to those who have ears to hear, and
pressure is balanced by the resistance of the small eyes to see, and spiritual discernment to recognize
quantity of the air in the room, which weighs the footsteps and the agency of an almighty,
only ninety-seven pounds; so tha' here is a small though invisible, Intelligence; "for in Him we
Weight of ninety-seven  pounds counteracting  live, and move, and have our being."
CHAPTER IV.
I'HE ELASTICITY OF THE AIR, AND THE PHENOMENA IT EXPLAINS.
TnHE atmosphere is that ocean of air which its thinness, it eludes our grasp; it cannot be persurrounds our globe on all sides, and in which we ceived by our smell or taste, nor even by our orlive and breathe. We are plunged into the bottom  gallns of hearing, unless when it is in a state of
of the vast aerial sea, as the fishes are plunged trenmor and agitation.  But we are fully assured,
into the depths of the ocean.  Before we were in numerous instances, that the powers of nature
brought into the world, we were furnished with may be in complete existence, though they are
a diaphragm and lungs, with cartilages, ribs, and imperceptible to every organ of sensation; and
muscles, to enable us to draw in this vital fluid. hence we ought to guard against an error comrn
The first rush of the air into the lungs, and'tile monll both to the vulgar and to philosophers, that
cries which accompany it, announce life and sen- "the things which we cannot see have no real
sation.  More than a hundred muscles are em- existence."  The atmosphere, though invisible, is
ployed in drawing in and expelling this aerial fluid; one of the most important and essential constitu.
and this operation is continued, without intermis- ents of our terrestrial habitation.  Mre could live
sion until death.  In this element we pass the for a few days without food, or drink, or sleep;
whole of our existence, from  the cradle to the we could pass weeks and months without the light
grave; it surrounds us wherever we go, whether of the sun, or the glimmering of a star; but if
on sea or land, and almost all our enjoyments we are deprived only for a few minutes of the
depend on its benign agencies. This element, vital air, the lungs refuse to play, the heart ceases
however, is impalpable to our senses. By its to beat, the blood stagnates in the arteries and
transparency, it escapes our ocular inspection; by veins; we faint, we sicken, we die. The powers




ELASTICITY OF THE AIR.                                          17
of the animal machine are broken; the thoughts  other vessels to pieces, force the blood through
and perceptions vanish; the dust returns to its  the arteries and veins, and plt an end to all the
kiintdred dust, and the spirit returns to God who  functions of the animal machine.  If an animal,
gawve it.                                         as a cat, mouse, or bird, be put under a receiver,
We, shall now chiefly attend to the illustration  and the air exhausted, the animal will be at first
of the elasticity  of the atmosphere.  By the  oppressed as with a great weight, then grow conelasticity of the air, is meant that property by  vulsed, their bodies will swell, and if they are
which it contracts itself into less space, when an  allowed to remain only for a few minutes, they
additional pressure is laid upon it. and by which  inevitably  die.  Were we to  take a shriveled
it recovers its former dimensions when the pres- apple, and put it under the receiver of the airsure is removed.  When I take a piece of whale- pump, and exhaust the air, the skin will gradnbone, or a watch-spring, and bring the two ends  ally swell as the pressure of the air diminishes,
together, as soon as the force thus employed is the wrinkles will be filled up, and the apple will
removed, the spring returns to its former position,. appear as if fresh-gathered.  When the air is let
In such cases, we say that the body is elastic. in, it returns again to its former withered state.
When I take a small quantity of wool into my  The effect now stated, is owing to the elasticity
hand, and compress it, upon opening my hand, it of the air in the inside of the apple, which exrecovers its former bulk, by the natural spring of pands when the atmospheric pressure is removed.
Its fibers; and hence we conclude that this sub-    From a variety of experiments it is dermonstratstance possesses a certain degree of elasticity. In  ed, that the spring of the air is equal to its
like manner, if I take a bladder and fill it with air weight, and produces the same effects as its presand apply a force to the sides of it, so as to con- sure; for, action being equal te re-action, the
press it into a smaller space, when the force is force which the elasticity of the air exerts, in
removed it immediately expands, and fills the  endeavoring to expand itself, is equal to the force
same space as before, which clearly proves that with which it is compressed, just as it is in the
the air contained in the bladder is of an elastic  spring of a watch, which exerts no force, but in
nature.                                           proportion as it is wound up.  If a quantity of
I1n consequence of this elastic property, the  air therefore, is included in a vessel, and is of the
air always endeavors to expand itself, and to oc- same density with the surrounding air, its prescupy more space.  This is proved by taking a sure against the sides of the vessel is equal to
bladder, containing only a small quantity of air, that produced by the external atmosphere. Hence
tying its neck close, so as to prevent the escape  it is that we can break a square glass bottle, either
of the air, and then placing it under the receiver by the direct pressure of the atmosphere, after the
of an air-pump.  So long as the bladder is ex- air has been extracted from it, or by removing
posed to the pressure of the atmosphere, it will the pressure of the atmosphere, and allowing
remain in the same state; but, when the air is the elasticity of the air within to exert its expanexhausted from  the receiver, and the external sive force.
pressure removed, the side of the bladder, which    It is owing to the elasticity of the air that it
was flabby and lax, stretches itself out, swells, is susceptible of dilatation and compression. To
and  becomes tight, being raised by the elastic  what degree air of the same density which it
power.  And, if the air be again let into the re-  possesses at the surface of the earth is capable of
ceiver, the bladder returns to its former shape. being compressed, has not yet been fully ascerBy a similar experiment it is shown, that the ex- tained. Dr. Halley informs us, that he has seen
pensive power of the small quantity of air in the  it compressed, so as to be sixty times denser than
bladder is capable of raising leaden weights of a  in its natural state.  Some have supposed that no
considerable size.  In consequence of this strong  bounds can be fixed to the condensation of air. But
elastic power of the air, a person, by blowing  it appears from some experiments made in Loninto a pipe connected with several bladders, has don, and by the. Academy of Florence, that no
been able sensibly to raise a mill-stone, which  force whatever is able to reduce air into eight
was placed upon the bladders; which demon-  hundred times less space than that which it nastrates the very strong expansive power of a very  turally possesses at the surface of the earth.  It
small quantity of air.                            is owing to the power of being artificially conOn the same principle, were a bladder, contain-  deused, that forcing-pumps produce their effects,
ing a very small quantity of air, taken to the  and that an air-gun is enabled to discharge a ball
higher regions of the atmosphere. it would gradu-  to a considerable distance with great violence
ally expand the higher it was carried, in conse-  The air is forced into a certain compartment of
quence of the pressure of the atmosphere being  the gun by means of a syringe or condenser,
gradually diminished, until, at length, it would  which drives the air in, and suffers none of it to
burst the bladder, by the expansive force with  come back  until it be sufficiently condensed.
which it is indued.  In like manner, heat in- When the valve which confines the air is opened,
creases the elasticity of air.  If a bladder, con- the air by its elastic power rushes in behind the
taining a small quantity of air, be placed, before  ball, and forces it out of the barrel with great
a strong fire, the small portion of air it contains  violence.  It would be better for mankind, howwill expand until the bladder appears quite full, ever, that no such instruments were ever conand ready to burst.  There is another striking  structed.  Science ought always to have for its
exeeriment which demonstrates this elastic force  object the construction of instruments and maof the air.  When a thin bottle with flat sides is chines which have a tendency to promote the
fir.ltly corked, so as to prevent the included air comforts of mankind, not those which may be
frioim  escaping, is placed under the receiver of  employed by unprincipled men as weapons of
an tir-punip, and the air exhausted, the spring of  destruction; and, therefore, the construction of
the air within it will dilate with so much violence  this instrument is alluded to merely as an illusas break the bottle to pieces.  In like manner, tration of the powerful effect. of the elasticity of
were the pressure of the external air completely  the air.  Would to God that guns, and cannons,
removed from  our bodies, and the escape of the  and warlike instruments of all descriptions were
internal air prevented, the elastic force of the air forever unknown among men; that swords were
within us would immediately tear the lungs and  beaten into plowshares, and spears into pruning



18                ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
hooks; that nation might no longer lift up sword  is the most elastic body in nature. But this is
against nation, but delight themselves in peace! only an explanation of elasticity by an assumpThe dilatation or expansion of air, in virtue tion of elasticity.  It removes the difficulty only
of its elastic force, is found to be very surprising. one step farther on, and leaves us still in the dark
Ill several experiments made by the honorable as to the nature of elasticity, and the reason why
Mr. Boyle, it dilated at first into nine times its caloric is endowed with an elastic power. In
former space, then into thirty-one times, then this, as well as in many other instances, we must
into sixty, and then into one hundred and fifty. rest contented in resolving it into the will of the
Afterward, it was brought to dilate 8,000 times Deity, that such a property should be possessed
its space, then into 10,000 times; and, at last, by atmospheric air in order to accomplish some
into 13,679 times the space it originally occupied, wise and beneficent purposes in the economy of
and all this was effected by its own expansive creation.
force, without the help of fire, or the principle    The elasticity of the air explains a variety of
of heat. Hence it appears that the air we breathe appearances in nature and art.  For example,
near the surface of the earth is compressed by its beer or ale, when bottled, contains in it a quanown weight into at least the 13,000th part of the tity of air, the elasticity of which is resisted by
space it would occupy in vacuo. And, as it has the pressure of the condensed air between the
been found that it may be compressed into a cork and the surface of the liquid.  On removing
space sixty times less than that which it gener- the cork, the liquid and the air which it contains
ally occupies, it follows, that the space which it are relieved from  this intense pressure.  The
will possess, when most dilated to that which it liquid itself, not being elastic, is not affected by
occupies when condensed, will be nearly as 820,- this; but the elastic force of the condensed air,
000 to one!  The amazing force of this elastic which has been fixed in it, having no adequate
power of the air, were it properly directed, might resistance, immediately escapes, and rises in bubbe made to act as a strong mechanical power, and  bles to the surface, and produces the frothy apthere can be little doubt that many of the terrific pearance consequent upon opening the bottle.
operations of nature-such as eartilquakes, vol- On a similar principle we may account for the
canoes, the rising of new islands from the bottom  following appearance. If a man fall into the
of the ocean, and the detachment of rocks and water, and is drowned, the carcass in a few days
fragments of mountains amidst the ranges of the rises and floats on the surface. The privation
Alps, the Andes, and other mountainous regions of life, and the stagnation of the fluids, are soon
— are to be ascribed, at least to the partial opera- followed by a putrid fermentation, which deconltion of this power, in combination with other poses the body. This fermentation disengages a
physical agents.                                great quantity of air, which  is disseminated
It has been a subject of inquiry among philoso- among the internal vessels, and as this air cannot
phers, whether the elastic power of the air is escape, the body swells by its expansion, until it
capable of being diminished or destroyed. Mr. becomes specifically lighter than the water, and
Boyle endeavored to discover how long air would rises to its surface. But, as the putrefaction goes
retain its spring, after having assumed the great- on, the parts give way, the air escapes, and the
est degree of expansion his air-pump could give body, being thus rendered specifically heavier
it, but he never observed any sensible diminution. than the water, sinks to rise no more. It is
M. Desaguliers says, that air, which had been likewise by the elastic property of air that fishes
inclosed half-a-year in a wind-gun, had lost none are enabled to rise and sink in the water.  They
of its expansive power; and Mr. Roberval asserts are furnished with an air-bladder, which they
that he has preserved air in the same manner for have the power of contracting or dilating at pleasixteen years; and after that period, he observed sure. When the fish compresses this bladder, its
that its projectile force was the same as if it had whole volume becomes less, and it sinks in the
been newly condensed.                           water; when the pressure is removed, the air in
Various causes have been assigned by philoso- the bladder instantly expands, and it is enabled to
phers to account for the elasticity of the atmo- rise to the surface.  A variety of instances of a
sphere.  The general opinion which now prevails similar kilnd, illustrative of the elasticity of the
is, that it depends upon the latent caloric, or air, might be exhibited: but instead of dwelling
principle of heat, which it contains, and which  on these, we shall now proceed to another departenables it to retain its fluid form; and that caloric ment of our subject




CHAPTER' V.
rHE IIIGHT OF THE ATMOSPHERE; OR, THE ELEVATION TO WHICH IH EX.
TENDS BEYOND THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.
THE hight of the atmosphere is considered, by  right-angled triangle c D a, the angle c D A is
many writers and lecturers on this subject, as a equal to 810; or, if we allow for refraction, 81~
point fully determined, and is treated as familiarly  30', A c, the radius, or half-diameter of the earth,
a, the hight of the Andes, or the Alps, or of  is nearly equal to 4000 miles.  Then by the rules
Mount Etna, or Mount Blanc.  But the hight of  of trigonometry,
the atmosphere has never' yet been fully ascertained, and it is probable will never be accurately  As the sine of the angle C D A.  810 30. 9.995203
determined.  If, indeed, the air were of an equal Is to the side A C.             4000      3.602060
density, from  the surface of the earth to the top  So is radius, sine of 90.10.000000
of the atmosphere, its hight might be easily de- To the side c D, 4044y2 miles. 3.606857
termined; for it is found by experiment, that the
weight of a column of air extending to the top of  From c D, equal to the semidiameter of the earth
the atmosphere is equal to the weight of a column  and atmosphere, subtract c A, or the semidiameter
of water of the same base and 32 feet high. Sup-  of the earth, and the remainder, E D, equal to 44/2
posing water to be 840 times heavier than air-  miles, will be the hight of the atmosphere.  In
multiply 840 by 32 feet, and tile product will be  this operation, the logarithms of the second and
26,880 feet, or 5 miles and 160 yards for the hight third terms of the proportion are added, and the
of the atmosphere, were its density at every ele. logarithm  of the first term  subtracted from  the
vation exactly the same as, at the surface of the  sum.
earth. But we know that the density of the air                       Thus 3.602060
decreases and is more rarefied and expanded the                          10.000000
higher we go; and, from  other considerations we
know  that it extends far beyond the limit now                            9.991203
stated; so that this calculation can afford us no
accurate idea of the highlt to which the atmosphere                       3.606857
extends.
Another method, therefore, of determining this The same result is produced by the following
point was devised by philosophers, which ap- propotion:proaches nearer to the truth.  It is found by ob- As Radius.....          10.000000
ser;:ation, that the sun is about eighteen degrees Is to A c 4000                           3.602060
below the horizon before twilight comes to an end  So is the secant of A c D-8y0..      10.00400
in the evening. Now, twilight is caused by the  To c D=4044...                             3.606860
rays of the sun being refracted and reflected from
the higher parts of the atmosphere to the earth; It appears, then, that in ordinary cases, the air,
otherwise, we should be involved in total darkness at the hight of forty-four miles and a half, is caat the moment the sun descended below the hori- pable of reflecting to ns the rays of light.  But,
zon. From  this circumstance, the hIight of the  as a sensible illumination has been perceived when
highest part of the atmosphere which is capable  the sun is much farther below the horizon than
of refracting the rays of light may be determined. what has been now stated, there is some reason
Let F A B (fig. 5) represent the horizon of an  to conclude, that the air is sufficiently dense for
reflecting a sensible degree of light at the hight
Fig. 5.                      of nearly two hundred miles.
Various considerations, founded on meteoric
phenomena, serve to prove that the atmosphere
extends to a nmuch higher elevation than fortyB   four or fifty miles.  Ill the year 1719, a remark —
able  luminous meteor, or fire-ball, was seen,
J3                               whose altitude was computed to be seventy-three
MIPTi iff  ~l  "  I miles above the surface of the earth.  On the
A' Ail J j II  m I  W ~  I  t.'18th of August, 1783, a brilliant fire-ball passed
Is.'4',;2'8}  I t \ t t ~1   - 1;!s*3z3l  over Britain and the adjacent countries; and, from
I.:\./.,.,.,i,,                           various circumstances which were particularly
~'/ —\ 7 )l.':;'.'/i       marked by different observers, it was calculated
that its elevation above the earth could not be less. than ninety or a hundred miles.  In passing over
certain parts of England a loud report was heard
and a hissing noise.  The meteor of 1719 is said
to have been attended with an explosion, which
observer at A; S D, a ray of light falling upon the  was heard over the whole island of Great Britain,
atnlosphere at n, and making an angle, s n B, of  occasioning a violent concussion of the atmo180 with the horizon; the angle s D A will then be sphere, and seeming to shake even the earth itself.
162'. From  the center c, draw c D, and it will Now, in these, and multitudes of similar pheno.
be perpendicular to the reflecting particles at D, mena, we have instances of fire and flame being
and will iikewise bisect the angle S D A. In the  supported, and sounds conveyed to the earth froan
VL. II.-46                                                                          (19)




20              ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
a hight of ninety or a hundred miles; and, conse- some fine elastic fluid or air, but of such rarity
quently, even in these elevated regions, notwith- as to be no sensible hindrance to the celestial orbs
standing the great rarefaction of the air, it must in their rapid motions through the regions of
still have the power of supportingflame and pro- space; and that this fluid accumulates itself around
pagating sound. Even although the fire-balls every planetary body, in proportion to the quanalluded to be supposed to consist of electrical tity of matter it contains-the larger bodies atmatter-which is the general opinion-yet the tracting more of it and the smaller bodies less;
difficulty is not thereby removed; for, it is found, and thus forming an atmosphere around each,
by some late experiments, that the electrical fire corresponding to its nature and destination. And,
cannot penetrate a perfect vacuum. And, there- if this be the case, the atmosphere of the earth
fore, thlere is reason to conclude, that we are still can have no definite boundary, but may be said
ignorant of the precise extent of the atmosphere, to mingle with the atmospheres of all the other
and of the nature of the fluids which occupy its planets which belong to our system. There is a
superior regions. That the meteors now referred certain portion of atmospheric air, however, which
to, however elevated, were not beyond the limits must always be considered as attached to the
of the atmosphere, appears from this considera- earth, and which revolves with it in its diurnal
tion, that the atmosphere revolves with the earth rotation, and is carried along with it in its course
in its course round the sun, at the rate of 68,000 round the sun. If the atmosphere did not revolve
miles an hour.  Now, as the meteor of 1783 along with the earth, we should constantly expemoved from north to south, if it had been beyond rience an easterly wind, blowing with an immense
the limits of the atmosphere, it would have been velocity of more than a thousand miles an hour,
left, in the course of a minute, more than a thou- which would produce a most tremendous hurrisand miles to the westward, by the earth flying cane, which would level with the ground houses,
out before it, both in its annual and diurnal trees, forests, and every prominent object on the
course.                                        surface of the earth. But the particular region
In short, it appears not altogether improbable where the motion of the atmosphere terminates,
to suppose, that the visible universe is filled with it is impossible for us to ascertain.
CHAPTER VI.
THE COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.
FoR a long series of ages, air was considered by according to some chemists, a thousandth part will
philosophers as one of the four elements of which  be fixed air, or carbonic acid gas.  In the first
all things are composed, the other three being fire, place, a few remarks shall be offered on the nature
earth, and water. But the discoveries of modern and properties of oxygen gas.
chemistry have fully demonstrated that all these   This gas, like common air, is colorless, invisible,
are compound bodies-that even the air itself, fine and elastic, and capable of indefinite compression
and invisible as it is, is not a simple substance but and expansion. Its peculiar and distinguishing
compounded of different ingredients. This is one properties are:-lst. It is essential to combustion,
of the most curious and interesting discoveries of and is the only principle with which we are acmodern times; and little more than seventy years quainted by which flame can be supported. When
have elapsed since it was first surmised that the acting by itself, it produces the most rapid conatmosphere is not a simple and homogeneous, but flagration of all combustible substances.  If a
a compound fluid. The experiments which led lighted taper be let down in a jar of oxygen gas,
to this discovery were first made by Dr. Priestley, it burns with suc h splendor that the eye can
on the 1st of August, 1774, on which day he ob- scarcely bear the glare of light, and, at the same
tained what was then termed dephlogisticated air, time, produces a much greater heat than when
now known by the name of oxygen gas, and burning in common air. If a piece of iron wire,
which forms one of the constituent principles a watch-spring, or a steel file, armed wi i a piece
of atmospheric air. It was also discovered in of wood, or phosphorus in an inflammable state,
the year 1775, by M. Scheele, a Swedish chemist, be put into this gas, the steel will take fire, throwwithout any previous knowledge of what Dr. ing out sparks, and producing the most brilliant
Priestley had done, and he gave it the name of appearance, almost dazzling the eye with their
empyreal air, from its powerful influence in sup- splendor. In the next place, it is essential to the
porting flame. But, instead of entering into the support of animal life; for it has been proved by
history of such discoveries, and of the processes many experiments, that no animal can exist for a
by which they were made, a few of the properties single moment in any kind of air which does not
possessed by the different ingredients of which contain a certain portion of oxygen; so thatman,
our atmosphere is composed maybe simply stated. and all the other ranks of animated beings, may
The air of the atmosphere, then, is found to be said to depend upon this substance, not only
consist chiefly of two very opposite principles or for their comforts, but for their very existence.
fluids, termed oxygen gas, and nitrogen gas, along   Again, the basis of oxygen gives the acid chawith a very small proportion of fixed air or car- racter to all mineral and vegetable salts, from
bonic acid gas. If any portion of the atmosphere, which property its name is derived; for the term
such as the air in our apartments, be supposed to oxygen literally signifies, the generator of acids.
to be divided into a hundred equal parts, twenty- In short, oxygen is the vehicle of heat to the ani.
one of these parts will be oxygen gas, about mal system —it imparts the red color to the blood
seventy-eight nitrogen, and a hundredth part, or in its passage through the lungs —it constitutes




COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.                                    21
the basis both of the atmosphere which surrounds narrator) at the present time, although eight days
the earth, and of the water which forms its rivers, have elapsed since he inhaled the gas. His health
seas, and oceans; for water is found to be nothing and spirits since that time have been uniformly
else than a combination of two kinds of air, oxy- good, and he attributes the restoration of strength
genl and hydrogen gas. It pervades the substance and mental energy to the influence of the nitrous
of' all the vegetable tribes, and enables them to oxyde.  He is quite regular in his mind, and now
perform  their functions.  In combination with experiences no uncommon exhilaration, but is hathe different metals, it serves the most important bitually cheerful, whereas, before, he was habitualpurposes in the useful arts; and, on the whole, ly grave, and even, to a degree, gloomy and memay be considered as the most extensively useful, lancholy."
and the most powerful and energetic agent in the   The writer has inhaled this gas, and can attest
system of' nature.                             its pleasing and exhilarating effects.  It produced
Oxygen gas may be procured from a variety of a disposition to laughter, which no consideration
substances, particularly from  niter, manganese, could resist, and a wish to flee from the apartment
and the red oxyde of mercury, and also from Ye- in which the experiment was performed, that
getables immersed in water and exposed to the so- laughter might be indulged without restraint. It
lar rays. It is heavier than common air, nearly  produced, likewise, an agility and a tendency to
in the proportion of eleven to ten; one hundred  skip and jump; and, during its effect, a flow of
and sixteen cubic inches of oxygen are found to pleasing ideas passed through the mind, and the
weigh about thirty-nine grains, while the same lapse of a few seconds seemed to be magnified inquantity of common air weighs only thirty-five to as many hours.  He has witnessed its effects
and a half grains.                             both on the male and on the female sex. He has
One of the most extraordinary effects of oxy- seen a little grave man, possessed of a meek and
gen appears when it is combined with nitrogen  well-cultivated mind, capering through the room
in a certain proportion, so as to form what is com- with all the airs of a king, brandishing his staff,
monly called nitrous oxyde. This gas consists and jumping until his head nearly touched the
of sixty-three parts nitrogen and thirty-seven ceiling of the room, about eight feet high. When,
parts oxygen. When it is put into abladder, and afterward, asked why he brandished his stick,
inhaled into the lungs, by means of a pipe, and as if he had been going to fight, he replied, that he
shutting the nostrils, it produces an extraordinary imagined there was a beautiful and extensive scene
elevation of the animal spirits —involuntary nmus- before him, which he wished to approach; but was
cular rmotion-a propensity to leaping and dancing prevented by the company around him, and, there-involuntary bursts of laughter —a rapid flow of fore, was obliged to clear his way, like a policeman
vivid and agreeable ideas, and a thousand delight- when keeping off a crowd. The writer has, also,
ful enotions, without being succeeded by any sub- seen a female rapt into perfect ecstasy in consesequent feelings of languor or debility. When quence of the feelings she experienced, expressing
Mr. Southey, the poet, inhaled this gas, he declar- her emotions in the most poetic exclamations, and
ed that it produced in him sensations perfectly new  tossing her shawl, her head-dress, and her slippers,
and delightful. His first sensations were a kind  from her as unworthy of attention, and altogether
of dizziness, so as to produce a fear of falling. regardless of the looks and opinions of surroundThis was succeeded by a laugh, which was invo- ing spectators. But, in order that this gas mnay
luntary but highly pleasurable, accompanied with produce its full effect, it requires some attention
a peculiar thrilling in the extremities perfectly and dexterity in breathing it. The nostrils must
new, and with the most delightful sensations. For be stopped, and no atmospheric air, if possible
many hours after this experiment, he imagined should beallowed to mix with the nitrous oxyde.
that his taste and smell were more acute, and is For want of attending to such precautions, some
certain that he felt unusually strong and cheerful. persons who attempt to breathe it never felt its
Ill Professor Silliman's American Journal of peculiar effects.
Science, we have the following account of the ef-   It has been ascertained from various experifects of this air on one of the professor's stu- ments, particularly from those made by the late
dents, at Yale College, New Haven. "'The person Sir Humphrey Davy, that the nitrous oxyde proon whom the experiment was made, was a mall of duces a somewhat similar effect upon insects, and
mature age and of a grave character. For nearly  other animals, which are found to jump and caper
two years previous to his taking the gas, his health about in a frolicsome manner, as if highly dewas so very delicate, and his mind so gloomy and lighted, when immersed in this gas.
distressed, that he was obliged almost entirely to   These, and other effects, arising from the breathdiscontinue his studies. In this state of debility, ing of this very singular fluid, show us with what
he inhaled about three quarts of the nitrous oxyde. ease the Almighty could produce in us either the
The consequences were, an astonishing invigora- most delightful or the most painful sensations,
tion of the whole system, and the most exquisite merely by a slight modification or change of the
perception of delight. These were manifested by principles of which the atmosphere is composed.
an uncommon disposition for mirth and pleasantry, Certain combinations of oxygen and nitrogen gas
and by extraordinary muscular power. The ef- would produce a fluid, which would inflict the
fects of the gas were felt without diminution for most excruciating pain, and destroy the corporeal
at least thirty hours; and in a greater or less de- system  in a few minutes. Sulphuric acid, or
gree for more than a week.  But the most re- aquafortis, a most deadly fluid, when taken into
markable effect was upon the organs of taste. the mouth or stomach, is composed of seventyBefore taking the gas, he felt no peculiar choice five parts oxygen and twenty-five parts nitrogen,
in the articles of food; but, immediately after that which is only a different proportion of the same
event, he manifested a taste for such things only ingredients which constitute the air we breathe.
as were sweet, and. for several days, ate nothing Were, therefore, our atmosphere composed of
but sweet cake. His singular taste was, indeed, such a proportion of these two gases, it is easy to
carried to such excess, that he used sugar and foresee the fatal consequences which would result
molasses, not only upon his bread and butter and from breathing such a fluid. On the other hand,
lighter foodl, but even upon his fresh meat and ve- we may learn how an intelligent mind connected
getables; and this he continues to do (says the with a corporeal frame, somewhat analogous to




22               ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
ours, may be preserved in a state of uniform  the gases, being considerably heavier than corn.
cheerfulness, and even of exquisite delight, by  mon air; and, therefore, may be poured from one
breathing an atmosphere somewhat similar to vessel to another, like water.  Its specific gravity
that of nitrous oxyde.  In other worlds, where  is 1.5123, that of common air being reclkoned
the inhabitants have retained their original integ- 1.0000, so that its gravity is more than one and a
rity, this may be the case. The other planets of half that of atmospheric air.  One hundred cubia
our system or of other systems, although encom- inches of oxygen weigh nearly thirty-four grains,
passed with atmospheres, may have them of very  while one hundred cubic inches of carbonic acid
different qualities from  ours, as to their transpa- weigh more than forty-six and a half grails.  It
rency, their refractive and reflective powers, and is this gas which has deprived of life many indithe influence they produce on the mental and  viduals who have descended into deep wells vhllicl
corporeal constitution of their inhabitants.  Our had been long shut up from  the air, and which
atmosphere exhibits evident marks of Divine wis- produces so many ravages in coal-mines, under
dom  and benevolence; but it is adapted to man the name of the cholke-damp; for it is almost inconsidered as in a state of depravity and imper- stantaneously fatal to all animals that breathe it.
fection, and appointed to a short mortal existence, Wherever it is found, it always occupies the lowand is not fitted to preserve him  in an immortal est place, on account of its superior weight; and,
existence in the present state, as was probably the therefore, in those caves where it abounds, a percase when  this world was first arranged, and son may walk elect without danger; but, were he
when man proceeded from the hands of his Crea- to lie down, he would be instantly suffocated.
tor as a holy being.                              The Grotto del Cani, or the Dog's Grotto, in
The next component part of the atmosphere is Italy, is well known.  It is an artificial cave, in
nitrogen gas, or what is sometimes termed azote. which there is a constant natural exhalation of
It is chiefly distinguished by its negative qualities. carbonic-acid gas.  The following feat is shown
In the first place, no combustible body will burn  to strangers:-A man carries in a dog, and places
in it; for, if a burning candle be immersed in a him  on the floor; the dog, if left long enough,
jar filled with nitrogen, it will be extinguished as dies; but the man is iot affected; for the carbonicinstantaneously as if plunged in water. If a light- acid gas, by its weight, occupies the lowest straed taper be put into a close vessel full of common  turn of about eighteen  inches depth, and the
air, it will burn until all the oxygen be consumed, stratum above that hight is pure air. But that it
after which, as nothing but nitrogen remains, it is poisonous to man, is evinced by the fate of perwill instantly go out.  In the next place, it is in- sons who incautiously expose themselves to the
capable of supporting animal life; for, if any liv- vapors of charcoal burning in ill-ventilated aparting being be obliged to respire it, it drops down  ments, or who venture into large vessels, in which
dead almost instantaneously; and. from  this cir- fermentation had been conducted, as in breweries
cumstance it derived the name of azote, which  and distilleries.  Many persons, from  ignorance
signifies life-depriver. It is this gas which passes of the prevalence of this gas in the vicinity of
from  the lungs at every expiration; and, were we lime-works, have lain down to repose, and in a
to breathe it again, without any mlixture of other short time have slept the sleep of death.  As this
air, we should be instantly suffocated.  But, being gas is destructive to animal life, so it extinguishes
lighter than atmospheric air, it rises above our flame.  This call be strikingly shown by letting
heads, and enters into new combinations.  It is down a burning taper to the bottom  of a glass
owing to the presence of this gas, rising from  jar, filling a bottle with carbonic-acid gas, and
several hundreds or thousands of lungs, that can- pouring it as if it were water into the jar; the
dies burn so dimly in the higher parts of crowded flame is imnmediately extinguished.  It is this gas
churches and assemblies.  It is, therefore, a strik- which gives briskniess and an agreeable pungency
ing consideration, that nearly four-fifths of the to fermented liquors, as porter and ale, and which
air we breathe consists of this noxious and de- appears on their surface in the form of a white
structive fluid.  But, though it is destructive to froth.  All kinds of spring and well-water conanimal life, it forms an important element in the tain carbonic-acid, which. they absorb fiom  the
system of nature: it enters extensively into com- atmosphere, and to which they are partly indebted
bination with other substances; and its existence for their agreeable flavor. Boiled water has an
in such a large  quantity is a chief distinction  insipid taste from  the absence of carbonic-acid.
between the constitution of animal and vegetable    The base of carbonic acid gas is distinfguished
mnatter. It likewise exists in the products of seve- by the name carbon, which is nearly allied to
ral vegetables, and appears to be favorable to plants charcoal.  It exists largely in animal substances,
and flowers, which vegetate freely when surround- and is extensively distributed ii the mineral kinged with nitrogen. This gas is permanently elas- dom.  The only body in which carbon has been
tic, transparent, colorless, and  inodorous.  Its found to exist in a state of absolute purity, is the
specific gravity is 0.9748, that of conimon air diamond-a precious stone which  has always
being 1.0000; asid one hundred cubic inches of it been esteemed as the most valuable of the gems;
weigh about thirty grains. It slightly tinges deli- a superiority which it owes to its hardness, luster,
cate blue colors with green.                       and high refractive power.  It uniformly occurs
The other ingredienlt mentioned as forming a crystallized, and presents a great variety of forms.
small portion of the atmosphere, is carbonic acid  Its specific gravity is 3.5, water being 1.  Its
gas, or what was fornierly called fixed air.  This hardness is extreme, so that it can be worn down
gas constitutes about a hundredth or, according  only by rubbing one diamond against another,
to some chemists, about a thousandth part of the and is polished only by the finer diamond powder
atmosphere. It is found in a state of combination  The diamond, by being intensely heated with a
with limestone, chalk, marble, manganese, and burning-glass in oxygen gas, burns with a bright
other substances, from which it may be extracted  red light, and converts the oxygen into pure carby the application of heat, or of the mineral acids, bonic-acid gas, as charcoal does.  Carbonic-acid
and in considerable abundance in mines, caves, gas is, therefore, to be considered as a solution of
the bottom  of wells, in wine-cellars, brewers' diamond in oxygen gas, even when it is prepared
yats, and in the neighborhood of lime-kilns.  It by the combustion of mere charcoal.  It may not
is invisilte and elastic, and is the heaviest of all be altogether useless to remark, that in all places




COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.                                          23
such as wine-cellars, vaults, and deep wells, where  "they shall build houses and inhabit them; and
the presence of carbonic-acid gas is suspected, i't they shall plant vineyards and. eat the fruit of
is proper to use the precaution of trying whether them;.... and mine elect shall long enjoy the
a canlle or taper will burn in such places before work of their hands."  "Then shall the earth
we venture into them.  If it be a deep well that yield her increase; and God, even our own God,
requires to he cleaned, a burning candle should  shall bless us."
be let down with a cord, and if it go out before    All the operations and ameliorations now  alreaching the bottom of the well, no person ought luded to are perfectly practicable, were the moral
to venture down before the noxious air is removed. state of man improved.  Could we undermine the
Such, then, are the three constituent principles principle of avarice and selfishness in the human
of the atmosphere in which we live and breathe. heart; could we promote a spirit of harmony and
We ought not, however, to conceive that the general benevolence among human beings; and
principles which form  our atmosphere, and the were the whole body of mankind to exert their
proportion in which they are combined, constitute  powers in unison, in tile cause of universal imthe only fluid ivliich is fitted for supporting ani- provement-this earth, which, in many places,
mal life and vigor.  It is a fluid which seems to appears like a world in ruins, might, ere long, be
be adapted only to mortal men, and calculated to transformed  into one wide terrestrial paradise
support the vital functions only to the period of But principles and dispositions directly opposite
eighty or one hundred years.  It is not at all im- to these have, for the most part, hitherto prevailed.
probable, that it is owing to the large proportion  The present state of tile moral world, and the
of nitrogen which enters into the composition of  infernal passions which have raged among manthe atmosphere that renders it unfit for supporting  kind for ages past, have rendered it expedient, in
human life beyond a certain short and limited  the moral government of the Almighty, that the
period; and that, were a much larger quantity of  life of mall should not extend much beyond " threeoxygen combined with other gases, in a certain  score years and ten," in order that wickedness
proportion, and some slight changes effected in may be kept within certain bounds.  And, therethe other elements of nature, the lives of men  fore, no extraordinary or extensive improvements
and other animals might be protracted to several in science and art, or in the general cultivation of
hundreds or thousands of years, and their spirits the earth, can be expected unitil the moral powers
preserved, at the same time, in uninterrupted  of mal be cultivated and improved along with the
cheerfulness and vigor. Nor is it altogether im- intellectual; until the religion of Jesus be uniprobable that, in tile course of those improve- versally recognized in all its bearings; until its
ments which are now  commencing throughout holy  principles and practical precepts pervade
the world, the air of our atmosphere may be great- every heart; and until a spirit of love, kindly
ly ameliorated, and rendered more salubrious and affection, and benevolence distinguish the general
invigorating to animated beings, when the stag- mass of society in every land.
nant marshes which abounld ill every part of the    But, to return from  this digression, it may be
globe shall be completely drained; when those further remarked, that it is highly probable that
immense forests which now cover a great part of  the component parts of the atmosphere, in the
Asia, of New Holland, and of the continent of  ages before the flood, were very different from
America, shall be cut down, and the soil laid open  what they now are, and that it was owing to the
to the influence of the solar rays-when the reefs peculiar constitution of the air which then exwhich are now  rising from  the ocean, by the isted, that the lives of the antediluvians were proagency of minute creatures, shall be formed into  longed to nearly a thousand years. At the period
continents and islands-when the barren deserts of that awful catastrophe, when the fountains of
of Africa shall be trantsformed, by human science  the great deep were broken up, and the windows
and industry, into fruitful fields-when the soil of heaven were opened, and the solid strata of the
throughlout every region of the globe shall be earth disrupted, it is probable that the atmosphere,
tiuniversally cultivated-when those immense thick- too, underwent an important change by the dissoets and jungles where the lion and the tiger now  lution of some of its elementary parts, so that it
roam  undisturbed, shall be changed into corn- had a tendency to cut short the lives of mankind
fields, oardens, and orchards, and become the seats in. all succeeding ages; and, until the ruins which
of civilization and of peace-in short, whien the were produced by that physical convulsion be in
whole earth shall form  one wide scene of rural some measure repaired, the same cause will proand architectural beauty-we have every reason  duce the same effects.
to believe that then the different climates of the    In short, an atmosphere is not peculiar to the
earth will be greatly meliorated; that the fury of globe on which we dwell.  We know, fiom
those storms which inow carry destruction in their observation, that tile -lanets Mars, Venus, and
train will be greatly abated-and that the very  Jupiter, are furnished with atmospheres; and it is
atmosplhere round us will be so modified, puri- probable that every planetary world has a similar
fled, andi improved, as to render it capable of appendage.  But their nature may be as different
prolonging tile life of mail for perhaps two or from  ours as are the nature of their inhabitanlts
three hundred years.  Suchi effects correspond to and the constitution of the globes on which they
what is predicted respecting the state of the reside.  While our atmosphere is fitted only to
world during the millenniumrn, when the instru- prolong the lives of mortal men for a limited
ments of warfare shall be beaten into plowshares number of years, the atmospheres of some of the
and prunling-hooks; when peace shall reign tri- other planets may be so impregnated withi the
umphant over the world, and when every man  vital principle as to support immortal bodies in
shall sit under his vine and fig-tree without fear undecaying vigor, and to cause such an elevation
of annoyance.  At which period it is predicted, of spirits as will produce uninterrupted ecstasy
that the life of man shall be extended beyond its and delight.  And all this may be effected by the
present boundaries. For thus saith Jehovah, "As same elementary principles of which our atmothe days of a tree* are the days of my people"-  sphere is composed, but differently modified and
compounded by the hand of the Almighty.  The
Certain species of trees are said to continue in vigor experimets with
dauring a period of five hundred years, as the oak and severalexperimen nitrous oxyde, formerly menother trees.                                      tioned, show  us what striking effects may be




.24             ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
produced by different combinations of the gaseous the vegetable kingdom, and almost all the diverfluids; and, therefore, it is not improbable that the sified phenomena of sublunary nature. And It
atmospheres of all the worlds in the universe are is not unlikely that different combinations of
only different modifications of these substances, these, and a few other substances, produce all that
suited to the constitutions of their inhabitants, variety which appears throughout the boundless
and the spheres they occupy in creation.  In the universe; and may give birth to all the changes
operations of the Almighty throughout the system  and revolutions through which the different sysof nature, we perceive a striking simplicity in the tems of creation may pass during every period of
means, producing an infinite variety of astonishing  infinite duration.  For He who arranged the sysresults.  From a few simple substances-caloric, tem of universal nature " is wonderful in counsel,
light, water, air, and carbon-are produced all the and excellent in working "-" his wisdom is undiversity of forms and colors which appear among searchable," his power irresistible, and the ways
the sixty thousand species of plants which adorn  of his providence " past finding out."
CHAPTER  VII.
THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE IN THE SYSTEM OF NATUR&
THIS subject presents an immense field of con- gardens, and for all that diversity of prospect and
templation, which it would require several volumes coloring which the vegetable tribes spread over
fully to illustrate: and, therefore, a few general the landscape of the world. It is true, indeed,
statements and illustrations can only be given.    that water is also necessary for the production of
1. In the first place, air is essentially requisite plants. But what is water?  It is nothing else
to the germination and growth of plants; and, than a composition of two kinds of air, oxygen
therefore, to the influence of atmospheric air all and hydrogen, combined in certain proportions.
the beauties of the vegetable creation are to be Now, it is found that plants have the power
chiefly ascribed. By experiment, it is found that of decomposing water into these two principles,
the access of atmospheric air is no less necessary throwing off a part of the one, and absorbing
for plants than it is for the continuation of animal a part of the other.  The elasticity of the air
life.  Like animals, they are found to die when has likewise an important influence on the airconfined within a vacuum, or deprived of the vital vessels of vegetables; for the contained air, al.
air. The influence of the atmosphere is equally  ternately expanding and contracting, according
essential at every period of their existence, from  to the increase or diminution of the heat, alterthe germination of their seeds to the full develop- snately presses the vessels, and eases them  again,
ment of all their organs in the perfect plant. thus keeping up a perpetual motion of their
Their leaves, acting in some measure like the juices.  It has likewise been ascertained, frorn
lungs of animals, absorb oxygen gas during the recent experiments, that the pressure of the at.
night, and carbonic-acid gas during the day; and mosphere has a powerful influence on vegetathis alternate process is found to be essential to tion, which suggests to us one of those causes
their growth and nourishment. Even the green which prevent trees froin flourishing on the elecolor of plants, which is produced chiefly by the vated sides of lofty mountains.
influence of light, is proved not to be perfected    2. The pressure of the atmosphere has an influnwithout the co-operation of oxygen gas. It is found ence in preserving water in the state in which we
that pure air, or oxygen gas, may be procured by find it.  Nothing is of more importance to the
putting the leaves of plants into water, and ex- comfort of man and other creatures, and to almost
posing them to the sun. In purifying contami- all the processes of the arts, than water-without
nated air, Dr. Priestly discovered that vegetables which our globe would be transformed into an
answered this purpose most effectually. Having  immense desert.  But, if there were no atmorendered a quantity of air very noxious, by mice sphere, all the waters on the face of the earth
breathing and dying in it, he divided it into two would boil, and be evaporatemd with a very slight
receivers, inverted in water, introducing a sprig degree of heat.  The ocean would be drained to
of mint into one of them, and keeping the other its lowest caverns, the rivers would cease to flow,
receiver, with the contaminated air in it, alone. the springs would be dried up, and the whole surHe found, in about eightor ninedays after, that the face of the land exhausted of that moisture so
air of the receiver into which lie had introduced the essential to the existence of the animal and vegesprig of mint had become respirable; for a mouse table world.  Indeed, it is not improbable, that all
lived very well in this, but died immediately upon the substances bn the earth, solid as well as fluid,
being introduced into the other receiver, contain- would be dissipated into vapor. That such effects
ing the contaminated air alone. It is likewise would actually take place, appears from a variety
proved by experiment, that the simple component of experiments.  If we fill a lonog-necked bottle
principles which are essential to the formation of with boiling water, and cork it close, so as to exvegetable matter are but three in number, namely, clude the air, and place it in a basin of cold water,
carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen; and these form  the water will sink in the neck of the bottle as it
the bases of carbonic-acid gas, oxygen gas, and cools. This shrinking of the water will produce
hydrogen gas.  Prom  the various proportions in a vacuum in the upper part of the bottle, and the
which these ingredienlts are combined, results al- water within it will be seen to recommence boilmost all the variety of vegetable matters which ing with great violence, which can arise from nofall under our notice.                           thing but the cork taking off the pressure of the
To the atmospheric influence, therefore, we are atmosphere from  the water.  In like manner, if
indebted for all the productions of our fields and we place water that has been cooled several do



BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE.                                    25
grees below boiling, under the receiver of an air- it is thirty times the surface of the human body.
pump, it will begin to boil as soon as the air is From  numerous experiments, it has been found
exhausted.  It requires a heat of 2120 of Fahreu- that the blood perpetually receives oxygen gas
heit's thermometer to make water bo I under the from the atmosphere by the agency of the lungs,
comm-on pressure of the atmosphere; but in the and that its red color is derived from this source.
exhausted receiver of an air-pump, it boils when  The blood is purple when it arrives at the lungs
heated to only about 67~0. The phenomenon ex- from  the heart; but, having there thrown off
hibited by what is called the pulse-glass, is also hydrogen and carbon, it imbibes the vital air of
owing to the same cause. This glass, having two the atmosphere, which changes its dark color to
bulbs, is partly filled with spirits of wine, the air a brilliant red, rendering it the spur to the action
is extracted, and the glass hermetically sealed; of the heart and arteries, and the source of moand when the hand is applied to one of the bulbs, tion and of animal heat. The blood is thus init causes a heat which produces an ebullition in debted every moment to the invigorating influthe spirits of wine.  It is likewise owing to this ence of the atmosphere, without which the heart
pressure that porter, ale, and other fermenited would cease to beat, the circulating fluids would
liquors are preserved in bottles; without which stagnate, and the body become a cold, putrid
they would either rush with violence out of their mass, without sensibility or motion.
mouths, or burst them to pieces. It is owing to the   The following are some of the results of exsame power that boiling water is preserved in our periments in relation to this subject, lately perpots and kettles, when used in cooking, without formed by Dr. S. Smith,  "1. The volume of
tile influence of which it would soon dilate itself, air ordinarily present in the  lungs is twelve
rush over the vessels, and be dissipated into vapor. English pints.  2. The volume of air received by
3. It is to the atmosphere we are indebted for the lungs, at an ordinary inspiration, is one pint.
the action of fire and flame. Fire is essentially  3. The volume of air expelled from the lungs, at
necessary to human existence, even in the warm- an ordinary expiration, is a little less than one pint.
est climates of the globe. By its means the in- 4. Of the volume of air received by the lungs at
habitant of the desert frightens from his dwelling  one inspiration, only one-fourth part is decomthe beasts of prey, and drives away the insects posed at one action of the heart, and this is so
which thirst for his blood. By its means also, decomposed, in the five-sixth parts of one second
man, in every country, prepares his food, dis- of time. 5. The blood circulates through tlhm
solves the metals, vitrifies rocks, hardens clay, system, and returns to the heart in one hundred
softens iron, tempers steel, and gives to all the and sixty seconds of time, which is exactly the
productions of the earth the form  and combina- time in which the whole volume of air in the
tions which his comfort and necessities require. lungs is decomposed. These circuits are performed
But, without the vital air, no flame can be extri- every eight minutes; five hundred and forty circated, nor fire made to burn. This is proved by culits are performed  every twenty-four hours.
putting a burning taper within the receiver of an  6. The quantity of blood that flows to the lungs,
air-pump, and when the air is extracted it is in- to be acted upon by the air at one action of the
stantly extinguished.  The act of combustion  heart, is two ounces, and this is acted upon in
eftfects an analysis of the air; it separates its less than one secoind of time. 7. The quantity
component parts: the oxygen of the atmosphere of blood in the whole body of the human adult is
combines with the combustible body; caloric, in twenty-four pounds avoirdupois, or twenty pints.
the form of sensible heat, is thrown off in every  8. In twenty-four hours, twenty-four hogsheads
direction; and therefore, where no oxygen exists, of blood are presented to the lungs, to receive the
it is imposssible to make even the most comrnbusti- influence of the vital air.  9. In the mutual acble body produce heat or flame.                 tion which takes place between the quantities of
4. It is on the influence of the atmosphere that air and blood which come in contact in twentyrespiration of all animals depends. The process of four hours, the air loses three hundred and twentyrespiration is carried on by means of the lungs. eight ounces of oxygen, and the blood, ten ounces'These are distinguished into right and left. The of carbon."
right, or larger lung, is divided into three lobes;    Such are the wonderful processes in reference
the left or smaller, into two. The internal fabric of to respiration as dependent on the atmosphere.
the lungs is composed of an infinite number of When we reflect that a stratum of blood, several
small membranous cells, full of air, comrnmunicat- hundred feet in surface, is exposed to a stratum
ing with one another, the number of which Dr. Keil of air still more extensive, and all compressed
and other anatomists have computed to be at least within the compass of a few inches, we cannot
1,744,000,000, that is, one thousand seven hun- but be filled with admiration at the Divine wisdred and forty-four millions. The air from with- dom displayed in this and many other functions
out rushes into these vesicles, and is again ex- of the human system, which so far surpass all
pelled 1200 times every hour: and during the the contrivances of genius, science, and art. In
same time we consume about 48,000 cubic inches every part of the workmanship of the Almighty,
of air, or, at the rate of seventy-seven wine even the most minute, we perceive the impress
hogsheads in a day. The chief uses of respira- of infinite goodness and intelligence, demonstrattion are-1, to bring the blood in contact with ing that He who formed the human frame and
the air; 2. to effect certain changes in the mass the surrounding elements is " wonderful in counof the bood; and 3, to produce animal heat. sel, and excellentin working."  Not only are terAccordimigly, the lungs are so constructed as to restrial animals and the fowls of heaven dependent
allow the largest possible quantity of deteriorated  for existence on the atmosphere, but even the
blood to enjoy the fullest intercourse with the fishes of the sea cannot subsist for any length of
largest possible quantity of vital air. It has been time without its invigorating. influence. Every
calculated by Dr. Hales, that each air-cell is the fish is furnished with an air-bladder, by which it
one-hundredth part of an inch in diameter, and is enabled to rise in the water, or sink into it at
that the amount of surface furnished by them, col- pleasure.  The lungs of fishes are their gills;
lectively, is equal to twenty thousand square inches. these consist of filaments, arranged somewhat
Others have estimated the surface to be more like the feathers of a quill; they are found to be
tlain 1500 square feet; and Dr. Monro states, that covered with minute processes, crowded, close




26               ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
together, and on which are observe., 7y the mi- they clung to the boat of the balloon until they
croscope,millions of capillary blood-vessels spread, were forced from it, when it appeared their fears
like a net-work, over the whole surface.  It is were not groundless; for their wings were nearly
through the thin coats of these vessels that the air useless, from  the rarity of the air, and they fell
acts upon the blood they contain.  When a fish  toward the earth with great rapidity.  The second
is taken out of the water, the reason it cannot struggled with eagerness to regain the balloon,
breathe is, that these filaments collapse, and ad- but in vain; and the third, thrown out at the
here together in a mass, and the air cannot sepa- greatest elevation, fell toward the earth like a
rate them.  If the air be extracted from  the stone, so that he supposed it did not reach the
water in which fishes swim, or if they have no earth alive.  This was evidently owing to tho
free communication with the air, they are soon extreme rarity of the air in those upper regions
deprived of existence.                            to which the balloon ascended.
5. The atmosphere is the medium in which the    7. The atmosphere is the region in which winds
process of evaporationl is carried on, and in which are produced, which  perform  many important
clouds, rain, and dew are produced.  By the heat offices in the ecofiomy of our globe.  Winds are
of the sun and other causes, an immense portion  nothing else than portions of air in motion; and
of matter is daily carried up into the atmosphere although they sometimes excite our fears by the
in the form  of vapor, in which state it occupies violence of their rage, and scatter destruction by
a space 1400 times greater than in its ordinary  sea and land; yet their agency, on the whole, is
liquid state.  It has been found, by experiment, highly beneficial, and even essentially necessary
that an acre of ground, in the course of twelve to mankind.  They purify the air by keeping it
hours of a summer's day, dispersed into the air in perpetual motion; they disperse the noxious
by evaporation, 16,000 gallons of water.  Every  vapors that are continually rising from  stagnant
hour there are exhaled in this way, from the sur- marshes and common sewers; they sweep the
face of the ocean, many millions of gallons, and chambers of the atmosphere; they ventilate the
every year about 40,000 cubical miles of water. streets of populous cities, and prevent the accuThis vast body of water, sometimes in an invisi- mulation of those noxious effluvia which would
ble form, and sometimes in the shape of clouds, produce pestilence and death; they scatter the
is carried by the winds over the different regions seeds of various plants over every region; they
of sea and land.  A  part of this water is con- faln the air under the scorching heats of summer,
densed into thickt clouds, and falls down in rains and diffuse refreshment over a fainting world;
on the continents and islands, to fertilize the soil; they make our millstones revolve as nimbly as the
a part descends on the seas anld oceans; and an- wheels of a chariot, and they serve as wings to
other part supplies the sources of the rivers, by our floating edifices, to impel them  across the
which it is again returned to the ocean, whence ocean, and to bring them  back laden with the
it was chiefly derived.  This continued circula- treasures of distant lands.
tion of vapor through the atmospherical regions,   Were the agitation to cease which the wind prois one of the most important processes in the duces, all nature would be thrown into the utmost
system of nature connected with our globe. By confusion.  Navigation to distant shores, as hithmeans of it, the Creator displays his wisdom and erto most generally  conducted, would be at a
unbounded benevolence, in conveying fertility to stand, and ships would be arrested in the midst of
the different climates of the earth, and thus sup- the ocean.  The vapors exhaled by the heat of
plying nourishment and comfort to mall and to the sun would remain forever fixed over those
all the inferior orders of animated existence. But particular spots whence they  arose, instead of
it is evident that, without the ministration of the being dispersed, as they now are, over every reatmosphere, these beneficent operations could not gioi. One part of the world, by the interposition
be carried on, and the earth would be left to parch  of stationary clouds, would be forever deprived
under the rays of the sun, until it were trans- of the direct influence of the solar rays, and of
formed into a bleak and barren desert.  It is ow- the light of the stars; while, in another part, the
ing to this process of evaporation that our clothes soil would be parched, and the grass burned up,
and linens are dried, after having been washed, for want of a vail of clouds to modify tile heat of
and that our roads are rendered clean for walking  the sun.  One region would be scorched for want
upon, after having  been drenched with heavy  of moisture, and another drenched with excesshowers of rain, orcovered with deep snows; with- sive rains.  The putrid exhalations of dunghills,
out the operation of which, a thousand discon- nmarshes, and populous cities, would remain perforts and inconveniences would be felt in all the petually suspended around the places whence they
scenes of domestic life, and the operations of art; arose, and produce diseases and pestilence, which
and this world would cease to be an abode of would sweep the inhabitants of the earth in rapid
happiness and enjoyment.                          succession to the grave.  But in the existing
6. The density of the atmosphere gives buov- economy of nature, all such disastrous effects are
ancy to the clouds, and enables the feathered song- prevented by the agency of the winds, which dissters to transport themselves with ease from one tribute the clouds in due proportion over every
part of the earth to another.  If the air near the land, and serve as ventilators to all the regions of
earth were much rarer than it is, the clouds would the atmosphere.
sink to the surface of the earth, involve the world   8. Air is the vehicle of smells, by the trans —
In a dismal gloom, and intercept our views of the portation of which we become acquainted with
beauties of the terrestrial landscape, and of the the good or bad qualities of the food which is set
glories of the midnight sky.  The birds would be before us, and are warned against sitting in places
unable to perch on the tops of lofty trees, or to that are (lamp and dangerous, or entering houses
wing their flight from shore to shore.  As a proof that are unwholesome or infectious.  By means
of this, Mr. Robertson, who ascended in a balloon  of the air, the odoriferous effluvia of plants and
from St. Petersburgh, in 1804, informs us tihat he flowers are diffused over the fields, and conveyed
took along with him some live pigeons, and, at to the nostrils, to increase our delighltfull sensations,
difl'erent hights, gave liberty to these birds, who I when wandering among the scenes of nature.
seemed very unwilling to accept of it.  The poor   9. Air is likewise the medium  of sounds.  Ix%
animals were so terrified with their situation, that consequence  of its elasticity  and  undulating




BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF THIE ATMOSPHERE.                                    27
motion, it convoys to us knowledge and enjoy- receiver of an air-pump; letit be rung, and the
ment of different kinds, which cannot be con- sound will be heard at a considerabie distance.
veyed to the organs of sight, of taste, or of smell. Exhaust the air from the receiver, and the sound
A few strokes otl a large bell will, in the course  call scarcely be heard by the nicest ear. Even in
of a few seconds, by the undulation of the atmo- places where the air is not excluded, but only
sphere, reach the ears of a hundred thousand men, highly rarefied, as in the higher regions of the
and convey intimations either of joy or terror. atmosphere, sounds are scarcely heard. FredliThe sounds produced by the undulations of the  chins, a gentleman of Hungary, informs us, that
air may be considered as so many couriers run- whenll he was on one of the loftiest tops of the
ning backward and forward, and in every direc- Carpathian mountains, he fired a pistol, which at
tion, to warn us of danger, or to inspire us with  first made no greater noise than if he had only
joy, and to communicate various delightful sen- broken a stick or a staff; but after a little time
sations. VWhen we walk along the road, musing, there was a murmuring  for awhile which filled
and unapprehensive of danger, a mail-coach may  the valleys and woods below. Descending to the
be whirling on in its rapid career, and just at our lower valleys and the rugged rocks, he fired again,
heels, ready to roll over us; but the air, like a which made a dreadful sound, as if great guns
watchful friend, dispatches a courier from  a con- had been discharged, and as if the whole mounsiderable distance to warn us that danger is ap- tain had begun to tumble about his ears.  The
proaching, and to remove to the path of safety. sound lasted for half a quarter of an hour, until
While we walk along the streets of London, and  it had reached the most secret caverns, where the
other cities, we are continually in danger of cabs, soulnd was enlarged' and reflected back in every
coaches, drays, and other vehicles, rolling uponI direction.  These facts show that the elasticity
us; and were it not that the air,lby its undula- of tile air, which is always greatest where the air
tions, gives us timely notice of their approach, is densest, is essential to the propagatioi of sound.
the accidents from this cause which occasionally    10. The atmosphere is the cause of that splenoccur, would be much more numerous than they  dor and universal light around us, which lays
now are.  To this property of the air, we owe all open to our view  the landscape of the world.
the advantages we derive from hearing sermons Were this atmosphere destroyed, we might see
and lectures, and all the pleasures we enjoy from  the sun without einjoying the light and brilliancy
friendly and instructive conversation. By means of day.  That luminary would, indeed, strike our
of the tongue and the lips we form  articulate eyes with a vivid brightness when we turned
sounds, which, by the previous consent of man- round to bellold his flaming orb; but it would
kind, become the signs of certain ideas; these appear only as a blazing fire during night in a
sounds are conveyed to the ears of our friends, spacious plain, where all is gloom  and darkness
and inform them of the thoughts and ideas that around.-It would suddenly burst on our view in
were previously passing through our minds, and  tie eastern horizon, in tihe morning, and would
their understanidings and hearts become impressed  not change its aspect ill the least. during its course
with the saime sentiments. Without the minis- through the heavens, until it suddenly disappeared
tration of the atmosphere in such cases, all would  ill the western sky.  The objects immediately
be sullen and unmeaning listlessness and silence, around us would be partially visible; but the rays
as in the intercourse of the deaf and dumb. So  of the sun which fell on distant objects would be
that the air may be considered as the cement of forever lost in the expanse of the heavens; and
society-the medium of communication between  when we turned our back to the sun, nothing
one mind and another, and the interpreter of the  would present itself, but an abyss of darkness,
thoughts and purposes of mankind.                and the whole horizon involved in a dismal gloom.
To the same cause, we are. indebted for all the  The number of objects in the heavens would, inpleasures and harmonies of music.  Music is one deed, be augmented, for the stars would shine
of the purest and most refined of our sensitive  through a canopy as black as ebony, even when
pleasures.  It possesses the power of charming  the sun was above tile horizon; but all the gay
our ears, soothing our passions, and affecting our coloring of the terrestrial landscape, which now
hearts; it dissipates the gloom  of melancholy, delights the eye and the imagination, would be
animates the vital spirits, and gives sublimity to  forever vailed from  the inhabitants of the world.
our tlloughts and sentiments. When a lady tunes Inm such a state of things, it would be always
her melodious voice, or touches with her fingers night; and the difference between such a night
the keys of the piano-forte, or the strings of tile and that which we now enjoy, would be, that the
lyre, tile air distributes every musical variation  celestial orbs, instead of being grounded osl. a
and every note, with the utmost precision.  It beautiful azure sky, would appear on a black
conveys its message with the greatest impartiality  canopy, like so many white points on a dismal
to the ear of every listener. Though many in- mourning carpet.
strumnelts may be employed, and a thiousand per-   But the Almighty, whose arrangements have
sons be present, and placed in every direction, it all a respect to the happiness of his creatures, has
distributes the harmnony alike to every ear. It enveloped our globe with an atmosphere, and has
keeps the mi-ost exact time-it conveys the slight- endowed it with a capacity of reflecting and reest inflections of the.voice, and the smallest varia- fiacting the rays of light in all directions. This
tion of a tone. It runs through the whole comnl- atmosphere, too, is charged with innulmerable
pass of music, swells the sounds, and makes them  myriads of watery particles, exhaled by evaporaeven thunder in our ears. The next moment, it tion from every region of the sea and land.  In
makes them  flutter and melt into dying strains. the serenest days of summer, when no clouds
After this, it swells the notes again, and sinks nor vapors are to be.seen, these rarefied particles
them  in their turns.  Thus it expresses, in the of water, which are imperceptible to the keenest
most lovely manner, every passion and emotion  eye, fill the whole  sphere of the atmosphere
of the soul, and charms every heart with its per- around us, both above and below the region of
suasive sounds.                                  the clouds.  It is among these rarefied waters in
That all the effects now stated are owing to the the higher regions of the air that the rays of light
ministration of the atmosphere, is proved by one reflected fiom  the surface of the land meet, and
decisive experiment.  Place a small bell under the are again reflected ill every direction to the earth;




A28               ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA
and hence is produced that beautiful azure color of the sun for thirty-two days while he is unwhich distinguishes the aspect of the heavens. der the horizon,  beside the long twilight which
This azure is sometimes lighter, according to the precedes his rising, and continues after his dequantity of the rays which enter the atmosphere, scent below the horizon.  But what would be
and sometinmes darker, when the absence of the the consequences if we had no twilight?   Not
twilighlt hightens the blue of the celestial concave, only should we be deprived of the advantages
by means of that black and void space which  now stated, but subjected  to many inconvenilies beyond the limits of the atmosphere.  In cor- ences and dangers. Should the day break in upon
roboration of these remarks, it may be noticed, us all at once in meridian brightness, immediately
that the higher we ascend above the surface of after the dark shades of night, our eyes would be
the earth, the darker does the sky appear.  And  dazzled, and in danger of being blinded by its exhence all travelers affirm, that, on the tops of cessive splendor. Should the night rush on in
lofty mountains, it sometimes appears as black as the same precipitate manner, and hurry us in. a
ebony, which causes the Milky Way to appear moment from  the splendors of the day to the
like a pure flame shot across the heavens, and  horrors of midnight, it would strike the living
the stars to shine with a greater brightness, and to  world with amazement.  The traveler would be
appear far more numerous than in the plains below. arrested in the midst of his journey, and bewilder11. The atmosphere is the cause of the morn- ed with terror; and if the sky were thlen covered
ing and evening twilight. We all know that the with clouds, the darkness would be so thick and
day is gradually ushered in after the darkness of black, that not the least glimmering ray would
the night.  More than an hour before the rising  strike  across the universal gloom  nor a single
of the sun, in this part of the world, a streak of  object be perceived, even within the distance of
light appears in the eastern horizon.  This light a foot.  Main  would then appear as if he were
increases in brilliancy every moment-the land- placed without an object near him in the midst of
scape of the earth, which had been previously  infinite space —
covered  with a mantle  of blackness, appears
gradually to emerge from  an abyss of darkness,         Was rolled together, or had tried his beams
like the light at the first creation-the circle of      Athwart the gloom profound."
the horizon becomes inflamed with a bright vermilion-the mountain tops are tinged with pur-    These arrangements, then, by which light is roe
pie; and at length appears the most beautiful and flected over the face of nature, and twilight is
sublime object in nature, tile sun rising in his produced, evidently show the wisdom and inltellimight and glory.  And, when this luminary has gence of the Almighty Creator, and his benevodescribed the circuit of the heavens, and passed  lent regards to his sensitive and intelligent offthe verge of the western horizon, darkness does spring.  A  few  small bubbles of air and water
not come on instantaneously, but by slow and appear very insignificant to the eye of masl. But
imperceptible degrees, so as to warn us to pre- in the hand of the Almighty they work wonders
pare for its approach.  The season of twilight, of love and beneficence.  He has distributed
particularly that of a summer evening, is perhaps them over our heads in every direction with so
one of the most agreeable and interesting periods  mucle caution and skill, in order that tile light of
of the day.  How many delightful walks and ex- his sun and his stars might not be rendered usecursions-how many cheerful and solemn  musings less to the world.  Withl these invisible particles
-how many endearing intercourses of love and  of water and air, he enriches and embellishes
friendship does it recall to our recollection, whes  whatever lie pleases; and in his hleunds they become
we strolled along the solitary walks, or reclined  an inexhaustible source of glory and happiness,
in the bower of fiienedship, until the rising moon From  these insignificant atoms, 11e fetclhes the
and the twinkling stars called us to our neightly  brightness of the aurora, and draws forth those
repose!                                           twilights which lengthen our days, and prepare
Now, all such pleasures and advantages, de- our eyes for receiving thle brightness of the merived from  the twilight, are owing to the agency  ridiac sun. From  thlese he produces the splendor
of the atmosphere.  When the sun approaches of day, which the sutn itself could never procure
in the morning within eighteen  degrees of the us. He inakes them contribute to the preservahorizon, his rays strike obliquely on the higher tion  of that heat whichl nourishes the vegetable
parts of the atmosphere, and, instead of passing kingdom, and which is essential to the comfort of
directly forward, they are refracted, or bent a " everythiing that lives."  Of them hle leas formed
little downward, and thus descend by inflectionI that magnificent arch which surrounds us onl all
to the earth.  In this way we reap the benefit sides, which enchalnts the eye of every beholder,
of those rays which would otherwise have been and forms the canopy of our terrestrial habitatotally lost, and enjoy tie light of day for a con- tion; for it is the light reflected from the air, and
siderable tihce before the sun reaches the horizon. the innurnerable particles of vapor it contains,
It is owing to the same cause that the sun is which produces that beautiful azure which adorns
visible several minutes before he is actually above the vault of heaven.  This azure canopy tche
tihe horizon in the morning, and after his setting  Creator might have painted with a darker hue,
in  the evening.  This increases the length of or even made it entirely black. But blackl is a
every day, about 6/1  minutes at all average, sad and dismal color, which would have thrown
which amounts to 31Y  equinoctial days in a year, a nielancholy gloom over the face of nature.  A
and nearly a whole year's sunshine in the course deep red would have beemc almost as disagreeable
of a century.  And, if we reckon an hour and  and hurtful to the sighlt; a white color, by its exa half of twilight in the, morning and as much  cessiveglare, would lhave been oppressive to every
inc the evening, at an average, through the dif- eye, and would have prevented the light of tile
ferent seasons, we have more than ninety equi- planets and stars from being distinguished. A yelnoctial days of twilight throughout the year. low would not have been quite so unsuitable; but
This is a circumstance of the utmost import- this color was reserved for the aurora which adorns
ance to those who inlhabit the polar regions; in the sky before the rising of the sun. Beside, a
consequence of which, the inhabitants of Nova whole arch of a yellow  color would uot have
Zembla and of Greenland enjoy the direct light presented a sufficient contrast to the light of tha




INVISIBILITY  OF THE AIR                                     29
celestial luminaries The green, which is a pleas- prove injurious to us through their invisibilty, the
ing color to the eye, would have formed a better good providence of God has forewarned us of
ground for the light of the stars; but it is with such danger, by imparting to us the sense of smell,
this lovely color that the Almighty has adorned and has also appointed the winds to disperse such
the surface of our earthly abode, and has spread nuisances, to carry them aloft, and to serve as the
It as a carpet under our feet; and it was necessary  ventilator of the atmosphere; for by the sense of
that there should be a contrast between the color smell, we are enabled to perceive when we are
of the eartih and of the sky, in order to complete within the range of pestilential effluvia; and tih
the beauty and the magnificence of the scene of winds seldom permit the air to remain in a stagnature. The blue is, on the whole, a mild and nant state, provided our habitations are so arrangpleasant color, without gloom  or sadness in it; ed as to be within the sphere of their influence.
and while it forms a contrast to the verdure of   If we wish to feel grateful to the Supreme Disthe fields, it has the additional merit of forming poser of the universe for the blessings of that
a proper ground on which luminous bodies may world in which he has placed us, it is requisite tuhat
be seen, and thus hightens the luster and beauty  we should frequently fix our attention on such
of the stars.                                   circumstances as those now stated. We pass from
In such admirable arrangements we cannot fail one day to another, and frequently from  one peto perceive the marks of intelligence and skill, in riod of human life to another, without reflecting
causing the assemblage of invisible atoms to pro- on those admirable contrivances which appear in
duce'so many sublime and beneficent effects; and every surrounding object, by which our comforts
we must be void of gratitude, if we do not recog- are secured, and the universe rendered a spectacle
nize the hand of Divine goodness in adorning our of beauty and grandeur. Because we have never
habitation with so many beautiful contrasts, and yet contemplated a world in confusion and ruins,
rendering every scene of nature subservient to we are apt to imagine that the arrangements
our convenience and delight.                    around us could not be otherwise than they pre12. The transparency of the atmosphere is not sently are.  But, were that Being who created
the least of its advantages. It is not, indeed, the atmosphere to make only a very slight alteraperfectly transparent, otherwise it would not re- tion in its constitution-were he just to alter two
fleet the blue color of the sky, nor would the apparently insignificant circumnstances-were lihe
distant mountains appear bedimmed and tinged  to deprive it of its refractive and reflective powers
with purple. But it has such a degree of trans- -and were he to render it visible by tinging it
parency, that every object on the terrestrial land- with any color, all other things remaining as
scape, within a reasonable distance, can be dis- they now are-immediately the scene of nature
tinctly perceived. Even objects at the distance would be divested of all its beauty and magnifiof a hundred and fifty miles, are visible through cence-and this earth which now cheers so many
the air; and the telescope, though it magnifies millions of animated beings with its comforts and
the aerial particles, can make objects, at the dis- embellishments, would be transformed into a scene
tance of twenty miles, appear as if they were of misery, an abode of darkness and desolation.
placed at the distance of three hundred yards.    13. Were the atmosphere capable of being
Were the air tinged with the least degree of yel- frozen, or congealed into a solid body, the most
low, red, or green, it would give the same color disastrous consequences would immediately ensue.
to every other object, just as a stained glass All other fluids with which we are acquainted are
makes every object seen through it appear of the subject to congelation.  Even spirits of wine,
same color as itself. Were its particles much  which long resist the influence of the cold, and
larger, and more opaque than they now are, so are, therefore, used in our thermometers, have
as to become perceptible to the eye, we should been converted into a solid mass, by the cold of
never obtain a distinct view of any other object. northern regions; and quicksilver, which is natuWe should then see the air and the exhalations rlly a fluid substance, has been converted by cold
rising from the surface of the earth continually into a compact body, capable of being hammered
before us, like the particles of dust in a darkened like a piece of lead. Nay, even some of the gases,
chamber, when the rays of the sun are admitted or a6rial fluids, show a disposition to congeal by a
through a small hole.                           reduction of temperature. The oxygenized muBut the Almighty, by rendering the air invisi- riatic acid gas becomes concrete, and forms into
ble, has enabled us, in the first place, to take anl crystals, at a temperature of near to that at which
extensive and delightful view  of his wonderful water freezes. All the gaseous substances, when
nperations in heaven and earth, and of all the ob- they have lost their elasticity, by forming certain
jects which immediately surround us-and, in the combinations, are disposed to assume the solid state
next place, has concealed from our eyes those ob- if the temperature allow it. Ammoniacal gas, and
jects which would have excited disagreeable sen- carbonic acid gas become solid, as soon as they
sations and even disgust. If the air, like all other enter into combination; and hydrogen gas, the
bodies, were an object of sight, the exhalations most subtile of the ponderable elastic fluids, forms,
from the earth and waters would be much more along with oxygen, that very water which is afeasily discovered.  The smoke of our chimneys terward congealed into ice. What is the reason,
still remaining visible as it ascended, would disfi- then, that the atmospheric air which we every mogure the rich landscape of the world and obscure ment breathe, is not subject to congelation?  We
the canopy of heaven. We should perceive all know no other reason than the will of the Creathose gross humors which an incessant perspira- tor. Were we thoroughly acquainted with every
tion drives out of the bodies of all animals, and all particular respecting the nature of the gases of
the filthy exhalations that rise from  kitchens, which it is composed, and the mode of their corndunghills, stagnant marshes, streets, and common  hbination, we might, perhaps, discover the pihysical
sewers. We should be apt to imagine our situa- cause of this singular property; but still we should
tion both unsafe and contagious, unless we fled ultimately have to refer it to the Divine purpose
into deserts and mountains, to avoid those inces- and will that such a cause existed.  We know
sant annoyances which would be the unavoidable that the vapors which are suspended in the higher
result of such a visibility of the air and its exhala- regions of the atmosphere, are frequently congealtians. At the same time, lest these vapors should  ed into hailstones of considerable size, and were




80              ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHE.NOMENA.
any large portions of the air around us to be con- and rivers would cease to flow, even the waters of
gealed in a similar manner, it is easy to foresee what the mighty deep would be dried up, and its lowdisastrous effects would quickly be produced; and est caverns be exposed to view, like frightful and
were the whole atmosphere to be frozen into a hideous deserts.  No fire nor heat would cheer
solid body, destruction would  inevitably seize the abodes of man, either by day or by night, no
upon all the tribes of the living world, and the rains nor dews would refresh the fields, no gentle
beautiful face of nature we now behold, would be zephyrs would blow, nor aromatic perfumes be
transformlled into a chaos.                     wafted from blooming flowers.  The birds would
Such is the intimate connection that subsists no longer wing their flight on high, nor would
between every part of the system  of nature, and their warblings be heard among the groves. No
such is the exquisite mechanism with which all sound whatever would be heard throughout tilhe
its parts are constructed and arranged, that if a whole expanse of nature, universal silence would
single wheel or pinion of this vast miachine were reign undisturbed over the world, and the delights
either wanting or deranged, the whole system  of music be forever unknown.  The morning
would soon be dissolved and fall into ruins. But would no longer be ushered in by the dawn, nor
that Almighty Being who sits on the throne of the day protracted by the evening twilight. All
the universe, presides over all its subordinate move- would be gloom  and obscurity by day except in
inents, preserves every element in its respective that quarter of the heavens where the sun apstation, and directs the apparently jarring princi- peared, and no artificial light nor flame could be
pies of nature to accomplish his wise and bene- procured to cheer the darkness of the night. The
volent designs.                                  whole surface of the globe would present one
In fine, we may just farther remark, that raan wide prospect of barrenness and desolation, withhas acquired a certain degree of sovereignty over out a single object of beauty to relieve the horthe atmosphere, by which he renders it subservi- rors of the scene; and this earth, which now preeout to his comforts, and to the execution of his sents to the beholder so many objects of sublidesigns.  He causes it to sigh in the pipe, to corn- mity and beauty, would appear as if it had sunk
plain in the flute, to thunder in the trumpet and into the primitive chaos whence it arose.  But,
the gong, and to utter a thousand melodious strains as we are certain that, according to the present
in the piano-forte and the organ. He causes it to economy of the animal system, no living creatures
announce tidings of joy or sorrow.  He forces it could exist il such a state of things, it would be
to grind his corn, to blow his furnace, to winnow  an inevitable consequence of the annlrihilation of
his grain, to raise water from  the deepest pits, and the atmosphere, that all the myriads of living beto extinguish the flames when his buildings are ings which now people the waters and the earth,
on fire.  He compels it to act as a prime mover would sink into remediless destruction, and the
in an endless variety of machinery, and by its great globe we inhabit be transformed into one
agency, in combination with other powers, tell immense sepulcher, without enjoyment, motion,
thousands of wheels and pinions are daily set in or life.
motion-power looms are weaving fabrics of va-   If, therefore, the Creator had not a regard to the
rions descriptions-spinnling-jennies are set ine happiness of his sensitive and intelligent offspring
action, steam  vessels impelled along rivers, and -or, if he wished to transform this globe into an
across oceans.-and railway trains carried forward abode of darkness and a scene of misery, he has
in every direction with the most rapid motions. only to support the functions of animal life on a
He yokes it to his ships, and compels it to expand new principle, and then to sweep from the earth
the sails, and to waft him across the billows of the the atmosphere with which it is now environed,
ocean to the remotest shores.  And, in short, it is and the dismal catastrophe is at once accomplishon the wings of the atmosphere that he raises him- ed. Such a consideration shows us the propriety
self, with his balloons, above the mountain-tops,.and the emphasis of the language of Inspiration,
looks down from on high on the dusky earth, and "In Him we live, and move,and have our being"
ranges at large through the region of the clouds.  -" In his hand is the soul of every living thing,
T'lus, a few of the beneficial effects produced and the breath of all msankind."  But since we
by the atmosphere in the system  of nature have are assured that " the Lord is good to all: and his
beeni briefly stated.  Its influence is essential to tender mercies are over all his works," and as we
the germination and growth of plants, to the pre- find no arrangement in the system of the universe
servatiosn of water in a state of fluidity, to the whose ultimate object is to produce painl or misery
existence of fire and flame, to the respiration of to any sensitive being; we have no fear that such
all kinds of animals, to the process of evaporation, a catastrophe will ever be permitted to take place.
and the production of rain and dew; to support At the same time, we know not what the great
the clouds and to give buoyancy to the feathered elsds of his moral government may incline the
tribes. It is the region of winds-the vehicle of Deity to perform. We know that, at one period,
smells-the mediurm of sounds, and the source of the system  of nature connected with this globe
all the pleasures we derive from the harmonies of was disarranlged on account of the wickedness of
music; it is tile cause of that universal light and its inhabitants, and a deluge of waters overwhelmsplensdor which are diffrused around us, and of the ed all the abodes of men.  This catastrophe
advantages we derive (orom the morning and even- changed the aspect of the earth and atmosphere,
ing twiliglht; and all these advantages are more and produced convulsions which shook the fosnfully secured by tire transparency of its particles, dations of the earth, and disrupted its solid strata;
and by its being rendered incapable of being con- the vestiges of which are still visible ill every land,
gealed into a solid body.                       and form some of the subjects of scientific invesWhat, then, would be the consequelnces were tigation.  And, therefore, were the inhabitants of
the earth to be divested of its atmosphere? Were the world ever again to rise to the same pitch. of
the hand of Omnipotence to detach this body of wickedness as they did before the flood, we know
air from our globe, and could we suppose living not but the Almighty, instead of covering the
beings at the same time to exist, the landscape of earth with an abyss of water, might detach from
the earth would be disrobed of all its vegetable it the surrounding atmosphere, and leave its inha.
beauties, and not a plant nor flower would be bitants to the effect of such an awful catastrophe
seen over the whole face of nature; the springs   We learn from Revelation, that a period is tup



WISDOM DISPLAYED IN THE ATMOSPHERE.                                       31
proaching, " when the elements shall melt with atmosphere, to be swept away, and the oxygen left
fervent heat, the earth also, and the works that are I to exert its native energies, all the combustible
therein shall be burned up."  In the hand of Him  substances on the face of the earth would instantly
who sits on the throne of the universe, the atmo- take fire, nay, the hardest stones, the most solid
sphere is fitted to become the means of producing rocks, and even water itself, would blaze under
this tremendous event.  The atmosphere, as for- its force with such energy as to carry destruction
merly stated, consists chiefly of two fluids, or throughout the expanse of nature.  Such are the
gases, of very opposite qualities; one of these, elementary principles in the hand and' under the
namely oxygen gas, is the principle of combus- superintendence of the Almighty, which are ready
tion, and forms about one-fifth part of atmosphe- at his command to bring into effect all the events,
ric air; the other, namely nitrogen, instantly ex- changes, and revolutions, in relation to our world,
tinguishes every species of fire or flame.  Were which are predicted in the word of Divine Revethe nitrogen, then, which forms four-fifths of the lation.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE WISDOM AND BENEVOLENCE OF THE CREATOR, AS DISPLAYED IN THE
CONSTITUTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.
As this topic has been partially alluded to in and, at the same time, the infinite comprehension
tle preceding chapter, only two or three additional of the Divine Mind, in foreseeing all the effects
illustrations may now be given.                  that would be produced by the different combina1. The wisdom and goodness of God are mani- tions of these gases, and in selecting that particufest in the proportion which subsists between the lar combination for the atmosphere which is predifferent gases of which the atmosphere is com- cisely adapted to the existence and the comfort of
posed. Were the oxygen less in quantity than it living beings?
now is-were it, for example, in the proportion of   2. The Divine wisdom and goodness are no less
fifteen to eighty-five, in a hundred parts of nitro- conspicuous in determining the relative specific
gen, instead of twenty-one to seventy-nine, fire gravity of these gases.  The oxygen gas is found
would lose its strength, candles would not diffuse to be a little heavier than common air, and the
a sufficient light, plants would wither, and animals nitrogen a little lighter, which enables it to rise to
could not breathe without the utmost difficulty and the higher regions of the atmosphere.  In respipain.  On the other hand, were the nitrogen di- ration (or breathing) there are four stages or pe~minished and the oxygen greatly increased, the riods:-1. Inspiration, or drawing in the air.-2.
least spark would set combustible bodies in a flame, A pause when the lungs are filled.-3. Expiration,
and, in a few moments, they would be entirely  or breathing out the air from  the lungs;-and 4.
consumed. Candles would be wasted in a few  A pause when the lungs are emptied.  In breathminutes after they were lighted, and would serve  iug, the air which is evolved from  the lungs at
no other purpose than to dazzle our eyes with a every expiration, consists chiefly of nitrogen (and
transient blaze. Were a few houses in a large city a small portion of carbonic-acid gas), which is
set on fire such would be the rapidity with which entirely unfit to be breathed again, and therefore,
the flames would spread on every side, that in a by its levity, rises above our heads before the next
few hours, or even minutes, the whole city would inspiration.  The pause which takes place between
be wrapt in one wide and unquenchable blaze, every inspiration is evidently intended to allow
and no human art could arrest the progress of time for the nitrogen gas which is thrown out of
the destructive conflagration.  In such atmosphe- the lungs to rise in the air, in order that a fresh
ric air, iron would be calcined, instead of acquir- portion of the atmosphere may be taken ill, and
ing from the fire that softness necessary for form- that the same air may not be breathed again.
ing it into various instruments; it would accele- During that remarkable interval, there is time left
rate to a dangerous degree the circulation of the for the noxious fluids to separate, the nitrogen to
fluid(s in animal bodies, and produce a degree of ascend while the carbonic-acid gas preponderates,
heat through the influence of which they would leaving a space between for a fresh current of
rapidly waste and decay. We know by experience pure atmospheric air to rush into the lungs. But
that nitric oxyde, which consists of forty-four what would be the consequence if nitrogen gas,
parts of nitlroen and fifty-six of oxygen, produces instead of being a little lighter, had been a slight
instant suffocation in all animals that attempt to degree heavier than common air, or of the same
breathe it. We also know that the nitric acid, one specific gravity?  Then we should not only lhave
of the most corrosive substances, is composed of been obliged to breathe a portion of it again at
seventy five parts oxygen and tweinty-five parts every inspiration, but the vast quantity of it
nitrogen, which are only different proportions thrown off by the respiration of men and other
of the substances in atmospheric air; so that animals would have  perpetually occupied the
were the atmosphere composed of the same pro- lower regions of the atmosphere; and especially
portion of ingredients, our breathing it might pro- in our chambers it would have accumulated to
duce the same effect as if we were to swallow a such a degree as to have produced diseases, pestipint of aquafortis, or nitrous acid, which we all lence and death, in rapid succession. But, being
know would produce our immediate destruction. a little lighter than the surrounding atmosphere,
Can we, then, be at a loss to perceive, in the ad- it flies upward, and we never breathe it again
justment of the gases which compose our atmo- until it has entered into new and salutary comtibisphere, the wisdom andl benevolence of theDeity; nations. Such is the benevolent skill which the




32               ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
great Author of nature has displayed for the pre- coveries, that all the functions of the vegetable
servation and comfort of the human family and kingdom, and all the comforts enjoyed by aniof every species of animated existence.          mated beings, are dependent upon the operation
3. The wisdom  of the Creator is displayed in of a few invisible fluids, and that all the beauties
the process for supplying the waste of oxygen, of this lower creation are owing to the composiand promoting the renovation of the atmosphere. tion and decomposition, in a thousand different
The quantity of carbonic-acid which is daily ways, of those gaseous substances whose operaformed, by combustion and the respiration of ani- tions are imperceptible to the keenest eye?  And
mals, is so great, that it must have rapidly in- yet, the researches of modern chemistry have
creased to a most dangerous extent, had not the proved this fact to a demonstration, and shown us
Almighty provided means for its being as rapidly that every breath we draw, every pleasing sensadecomposed.  It is well known that whenever tion we feel, every portion of food we eat, every
atmospheric air becomes charged with one-tenth  particle of heat that warms our apartments, every
of this gas, it is unfit for promoting combustion, ray of artificial light that illuminates our streets
and is fatal to most animals that breathe it. Hy- and habitations, and every musical sound that endrogen too, and carbureted hydrogen gas, are chants our ears, are owing to the unremitting
perpetually evolved at the surface of the earth motion and energy of invisible substances.  And
from various sources, particularly from  marshes, shall we, then, assert that the invisible principle
dunghills, and stagnant pools; and these are like- of mind is not in existence or in action beyond
wise prejudicial, and even destructive, to the ani- the limits of this diurnal sphere, because its operamal creation.  On the other hand, oxygen gas, tion in that state lies beyond the range of our
which is the support of fire and animal life, is senses? We behold multitudes of rational beings
continually wasted by the various processes of daily departing from  the living world; their orcombustion, as in the case of furnaces, burning ganical frames crumbling into the dust, and the
candles, and domestic fires, and by the breathing intellectual principle which animated them  disof all animals.  How, then, has the Allwise Crea- appearing from  mortal view.  But we have no
tar contrived to supply this waste, and to protect more reason to doubt that it is existing and operatthe inhabitants of the world from  the baneful ing in another sphere, than we have to doubt of
effects of the other gases with which the atmo- the incessant energy of the invisible gases in givsphere is contaminated?  The process appears to ing life and beauty to sublunary nature.  The
be this:-Vegetables are so constituted that car- disembodied spirits of men, whether existing in a
bon and hydrogen are the necessary food of plants, pure ethereal form, or invested with fine material
and are conducive to the support of vegetable life. vehicles, may be employed in active services, and
Their vegetating organs seize the carbonic-acid in sublime contemplations and investigations, of
gas that comes within their reach, and while they  which we can at present form  no adequate conappropriate the carbon to themselves, the oxygen ception. We may, on the same grounds, form a
is thrown off to renovate the atmosphere, by its conception of spirits suffering pains, anxieties,
union with the nitrogen ejected by animal respi- sorrows, and miseries, of different kinlds, from  a
ration.  The leaves of trees, shrubs, and other retrospective view of their former feelings, affeec
vegetables, give out, during the day, a large por- tions, and conduct, even when separated  from
tion of oxygen gas, which unites with the sur- those material organs with which they were forrounding air, keeps up the equilibrium  of the merly connected.
gases, and preserves the salubrity of the atmo-   With regard to the great objects of religion,
sphere; for it is found by experience that the air many of them lie beyond the range of our corpoin every region, in the most crowded cities, as real vision, as some of the agents employed in
well as in the open fields, contains the same quan- certain chemical processes elude our senses. Faith
tity of oxygen gas. Thus it appears, that what is described to be " the confident expectation of
is noxious to man is rendered beneficial to the things hoped for, and the conviction of things
vegetable tribes, and the oxygen, of which they  which are not seen."*  It substantiates and realdo not stand in need, is separated by them, in its izes those objects which are invisible to the eye
utmost purity, for the use of man.  The wisdom. of sense, or which lie far beyond its present range
the simplicity, and the beneficence of this ar- of view. Hence we are told that, in the present
rangement, cannot fail to produce conviction in world, we should "walk by faith, not by sight."
every reflecting mind, that the laws of nature are The objects connected with a future world are
not to be referred to blind chance, but to unerring real, although they are placed at such a distance
intelligence combined with boundless beneficence. as not to be cognizable by our present visual
In every breath we draw, we may perceive, if we organs.  They are not all merely of a spiritual
reflect on the above stated arrangements, that we nature, they are also connected with material obare every moment indebted to an all-wise and jects; but, between our sensitive organs and such
almighty Being, in whom we live and move, for objects, immeasurable regions of space intervene.
the continuance of our existence and for every  The glorified body of the Redeemer of mankind
comfort we possess, and therefore praise, adora- is a material substance and an object of sense,
tion, and thanksgivings, are due to him from all the and it inhabits a region somewherev within the
ranks of his intelligent offspring.              bounds of the material creation, but its distance
from the sphere in which we now reside removes
it from our view; and we want that vigor and enThe department of the subject already treated, ergy of our corporeal organs which the martyr
may now be concluded with a reflection or two, Stephen seems to have enjoyed, when the heavens
founded on the statements previously made.       were opened, and "' he saw the glory of God, and
1. From the invisibility of the atmosphere, and Jesus standing on the right hand of God."
Its numerous and important effects in the system    In certain pools of water, animalcules are found,
of-nature, we may learn the folly of denying the whose bodies, when magnified a hundred thoureality of a future and invisible state of existence, sand times their natural size, are visible only as
because the objects connected with that state are so many moving points.  A considerable portion
not perceptible by our corporeal senses. Who
could have imagined, previously to modern dis-          ~ Doddridge's Translation of Heb. xi. 1.




REFLECTIONS.                                        33
of the watery element on our globe is filled with be extended-the useful arts improved and carried
such invisible inhabitants, which have never been to perfection-and the comforts and enjoyments
perceived by the millionth part of mankind. In  of mankind promoted and increased. In the next
this and similar instances, we have an invisible place, and chiefly, that our conceptiofis of the
world of animated beings existing around us, but Creator's power, wisdom, benevolence, and superno one calls in question their existence because intending providence, may be enlarged, and that
they can only be observed by powerful micro- we may be more disposed to pay him that tribute
scopes, and are not perceptible by the majority of of adoration and gratitude which is due to his
mankind.  In short, the Divine Being pervades name. Every study which sets the supreme Being
every part of space with his essence, and is inti- on one side and nature on the other, is nothing
mately present with every one of his creatures, more than an idle amusement-it is lost labor, and
yet remains forever invisible to mortal eyes. But, productive of little else than ignorance and error,
on this ground, no one but an atheist ever calls pride and arrogance. To employ our thoughts on
in question his existence. In like manner, the a thousand particulars in nature without directing
invisibility of the objects connected with a future them to the great Creator of all things-to profess
world ought to form no ground of doubt respect- to admire the displays of his wisdom, olnuipoing the certainty and reality of their existence.   tence, and goodness, while we violate his laws,
2. We may learn what ought to be our great and persist in a course of avarice or of dissipaobject in the study of the sciences, and in the in- tion-to be conscious of the blessings we every
vestigation of the phenomena of nature.        moment receive, and, at the same time, to be
Some persons are disposed to consider science utterly unmindful of the hand from whence they
and natural history merely as genteel studies; flow-is a most glaring inconsistency, a shameothers apply their minds to such subjects with the ful abuse of our understanding, and an act of the
view of bearing a part in the conferences of men most flagrant ingratitude. All our knowledge is
of learning. Some, again, prosecute such pur- of no further importance to us than as it has an
suits for the purpose of making collections of influence on our affections and conduct, and leads
scarce and valuable curiosities, and of displaying us to entertain impressive and reverential ideas of
a degree of knowledge and taste superior to those that almighty Being, " in whose hands our breath
of their neighbors; and the greater part of man- is, and whose are all our ways."
kind consider such studies as only an amusement,   Let us, then, for the air we breathe, and the
or a relaxation of mind from the fatigues of their numerous benefits we derive from the surrounddaily avocations. But the study of nature and of ing atmosphere, display our gratitude, and consescience is highly dishonored by such groveling crate all our powers and faculties to the service
and contracted views.  The prospect of the uni- of Him who " made the earth by his power," and
verse was exposed to our view for more noble and "hath established the world by his wisdom;"exalted purposes-to make us wiser and better who " causeth the vapors to ascend from the ends
men, to expand our views of the perfections of of the earth;" who " maketh lightnings with rain,
our Creator, and to inspire us with a grateful sense and bringeth the wind out of his treasures," and
of all the blessings we daily receive from  his whose "tealder mercies are over all his works.'"
bountiful hand.                                To Him who hath created and redeemed us, all
There are two great objects which we ought our powers and energies ought to be devoted from
always to keep in view in our investigations of henceforth and forever, for he is worthy to receive
the laws of nature and of the principles which all praise, honor, and dominion from men, from
operate in the material world. In the first place, angels, and from the inhabitants of all the worlds
to deduce from our observation of physical facts, dispersed throughout the regions of the unithose principles by which the powers of man may verse




PART II.
ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA.
THIS is a subject which would admit of illus-   I. Aqueous meteors; as evaporation, rain, snow,
tration sufficient to occupy a distinct volume; but     hail, clouds, etc.
the present limits will admit of only a very con-   II. Winds, sea and land breezes, monsoons,
densed and superficial view  of the diversified         hurricanes, etc.
objects connected with the phenomena of the   III. Luminous and fiery meteors, as fire-balls,
atmosphere.                                             falling-stars, thunder and lightning, lumi.
The atmospherical phenomena may be arranged           nous arches, fata morgana, aerial specters,
under the following heads:-                             etc.
C    A P T E R I.
AQUEOUS METEORS.
1. EVAPORATION.-This is a process by which  he took the heat of the earth by a thermometer
water and other substances are converted into laid on the grass, which in the first experiment
elastic fluids by the influence of heat or caloric. was ninety-six degrees, when the evaporation was
Vapors being lighter than air, are raised into the at the rate of 1973 gallons from an acre in twelve
upper regions of the atmosphere, and afterward, hours.  The other experiment was made when
by a partial condensation, form  those clouds there had been no rain for a week, and when the
which we see floating around us. They are elas- heat of the earth was 110 degrees; this experiment
tic, invisible substances, like common air, but gave after the rate of 2800 gallons from an acre
lighter; being to common air, according to Saus- in twelve hours; the earth was hotter than the air,
sure's experiments, as ten to fourteen.  If we being exposed to the reflection of the sun's rays
expose water to heat, bubbles at first adhere to from a brick wall.
the sides of the vessel, which by degrees ascend    Hence it appears that evaporation must form a
to the surface and burst.  These bubbles rise the very important process in the economy of nature.
more rapidly in proportion to the heat.  Water The following are some facts in relation to this
is evaporated by the heat of the sun merely, and process. A much greater quantity of vapor rises
even without it in the open air; and the vapor during hot weather than during cold, as appears
rising into the air is condensed into clouds.  An  from  the preceding experiments.  Even where
immense quantity of vapor is, in this way, raised the temperature is the same, it varies according
from the different regions of the earth.  In order to circumstances.  It is least of all in catll weanto estimate. the quantity thus raised, Dr. Watson, ther, greater when a breeze blows, and greatest
bishop of Landaff, made the following experi- with a strong wind.  In our climate, the evaporaments:-Having provided a large drinking-glass, tion is about four times as great between the verthe area of the mouth of which was twenty square nal and autumnal equinox as in the rest of the
inches, he placed it with its mouth downward on  year.  The degree of cold produced by evaporaa grass-plat which was mown close. The sun  tion is much greater when the air is warmer than
shone bright and hot, and there had been no rain  the evaporating surface, than when the latter is
for upward of a month. When the glass had  the warmer of the two.  From  these and other
stood on the grass-plat one quarter of an hour, facts, it is plain that tracts of land which are coand had collected a quantity of condensed vapor, vered with trees are much colder than those
he wiped its inside with a piece of muslin, the where there is a less surface of vegetable matter,
weight of which he had previously ascertained, such grounds being found to emit one-third more
and, as soon as the glass was wiped dry, the mus- vapor than the same space covered witll water.
lin was weighed.  The medium increase of weight Hence the important change of climate which a
from  various experiments, between twelve and country undergoes by beingcleared and cultivated
three o'clock, was six grains in one quarter of an America is not the same country at present, either
hour, from  twenty square inchies of earth.  At with respect to temperature or salubrity, as it was
this rate of evaporation, computing seven thou- several centuries ago, whern it was covered with
sand grains troy to one pint of water, and eight woods.
pints to a gallon, it may be shown that one thou-   By this perspiration of the globe, it has been
sand six hundred gallons of water would be raised estimated that thirty-six inches of water per anfrom  one acre of ground in twenty-four hours. numn are raised from  the surface of all tihe seas
It is evident that the quantity will be still greater and rivers, and at least thirty inches from all tile
when the ground has been drenched with rain.  regions of the land. Hence it follows, that by
To prove this, the same philosopher made two  this constant process of evaporation, 100,000 cubic
other experiments, one of them  the, day after the miles of water are, every year, raised into the
ground had been wetted by a thmunder-shower; atmosphere; the greater part of which, at a ceranri to ascertain the circumstances more exactly, tain hight, parts with its heat, and is condensed
(34)




AQUEOUS VAPORS.                                           35
Into clouds. Were this prodigious mass of water in a few fibers spreading through the atmosphere.
all to subsist in the atmosphere at once, it would It sometimes looks like a fine whitish thread Denincrease about a twelfth part, and raise the baro- ciled on a clear blue sky.  These fibers, by demeter nearly three inches.  But this never hap- grees, increase in length, and new fibers attach
pens; no day passing without rain in some parts themselves to the sides. The duration of the cirof the earth, so that part of the evaporated water rus is uncertain: in some kinds of weather, its figis again  constantly precipitated.  The clouds ure is so rapidly and continually changed, that, after
formed by evaporation are carr ied by the winds turning the eye from it for a few minutes, it will
over the land, broken, and precipitated by the ac- frequently be found almost completely changed.
tion of mountains and trees, and thus rendered  In other cases, it is sometimes visible. for many
the means of watering the soil, and producing  hours and even days together, without much
fertility throughout every region of the globe. It changing its appearance. From its usually curlis owing solely to this process that our clothes, ing appearance, this species of cloud is called the
when washed and spread out to the open air, are mare's-tail cloud.
soon dried.  Were there no such process as eva-   The cumulus is a cloud of a dense structure,
poration in the systemrn of nature, our linens and formed in the lower region of the atmosphere,
other clothes, when drenched in water, might re- and moving along in the current of wind which
main for centuries without being dried —a circum- is next to the earth.  Its first appearance is genestance which is seldom thought of by thoughtless rally a small irregular spot, which increases in
men, but which demands our thanksgiving and size, preserves a flat horizontal base, and assumes
gratitude.  Hence we are called upon by the sa- more or less of a conical figure.  Such clouds
cred writers to praise "the name of the Lord," are sometimes pretty well-defined hemispherical
who "causeth the vapors to ascend from the ends masses; at other times, they rise into mountains,
of the earth."  Psalm cxxxv. 5.                  ranged in one plane, their silvery summits pre2. Glouds.-The aqueous vapors, condensed by senting a beautiful appearance.  Before rain they
cold, or rising in the atmosphere to a region of increase very rapidly, and descend low  in the
air lighter than themselves, form strata of visible atmosphere. Great masses of them, during high
vapors, which we call clouds.  These masses as- winds, are seen in the quarter of the heavens
sume a great variety of shapes and configurations, toward which the wind blows, and indicate apwhich sometimes enliven the face of the sky, and proaching calm and rain.
at other times cause a gloom and shadow of dark-   The stratus has a mean degree of density; it is
ness to overspread the landscape. * The distance the lowest of clouds, and its inferior surface freof the clouds above the surface of the earth varies quently rests on the earth or on the water. The
at different times, and according to the nature of time of its appearance is about sunset, and it disthe cloud.  Thin and light clouds frequently rise appears soon after sunrise.  It comprehends all
to the hight of four or five miles, as they are those creeping mists which, in calm  evenings,
sometimes seell above the tops of the highest ascend in spreading sheets, like an inundation of
mountains.  Their averagre hight may be reckon- water, from the bottom of valleys.  Sometimes it
ed about two and a half miles; but some dense remains quiet, and accumulates in layers, until
clouds frequently descend so low  as to touch  the atmosphere is capable of sustaining its weight,
zmounltains, hills, steeples, and even high trees, when it assumes the position of the dark nimbMs,
particularly during thunder-storms.  The size of and falls in a shower of rain.
sonic of these clouds has been estimated to cover   The other species of clouds may be briefly
a space of fifteen or twenty square miles, and stated, which are compound modifications.  The
their thickness above a thousand feet.  Their cirro-cumulus consists of a collection of small
motions are generally directed by the winds, ex- white clouds, of a roundish form, which give to
cepting when thunder is about to happen; in the sky the appearance called dappled, and are, in
which case, they seem  to move very slowly, and summer, considered as a prognostic of settled
sometimes remain absolutely stationary, which is weather; or, at least, of an increase of temperaprobably owing to their being impelled by two ture.  They form  a very beautiful sky, and are
opposite currents of air.                        more frequent in summer than in winter. The
Clouds have been arranged by modern natural- cirro-stratus is generally in the form of long horiists into several classes, according to their different zontal streaks, which are ever shifting their figure
configurations, and the regions of the atmosphere and position.  It precedes wind and rain, the near
where they are generally found. They have been or distant approach of which may sometimes be
distinguished by Howard into seven modifications, estimated from  its greater  or less abundance.
the peculiarities of which are supposed to be It is frequently seen in the intervals of stormscaused by the agency of electricity.  There are The form and relative position, when seen in the
three primary modifications-the cirrUs, the cu- distance, frequently give the idea of shoals of fish.
mulus, and the stratus; two which may be con- It is that modification which most frequently exsidered as intermediate in their nature-the cirro- hibits the phenomena of the solar and lunar halo.
cumulus, and the cirro-stratus; one which appears The cumulo-stratus is a large, lofty, dense cloud,
to be a compound-the cumulo-stratus; and, which may be compared to a mushroom, with a
lastly, the  cumulo-cirro-stratus, or nimbus, a very thick, short stem.  It rises through the instate which immediately precedes the resolution  terstices of the superior clouds; and the whole,
of clouds into rain. These clouds are generally  seen as it passes off in the distant horizon, preassigned to three atmospherical regions, the upper, sents to the fancy mountains covered with snow
the middle, and the lower one; to which a fourth, intersected with dark ridges, rocks, towers, and
the lowest, may be added.  In the upper region, other objects. Before thunder-storms, it frequently
the atmosphere is in such a state that it can receive appears reddish. The nimbus is the cloud of rain.
and sustain only light and thin vapors, and to this Before rain takes place, the clouds are uniformly
district belongs the cirrus.                     found to undergo a change, attended with appearThe cirrus has the least density of all the forms ances sufficiently remarkable to indicate this as a
of cloud, but the greatest high.t and variety of distinct modification of clouds. It consists of a hoshape and direction.  It is the first indication of rizontal sheet, abovewhich thecirrus spreads,while
serene and settled weather, and first shows itself the cumulus enters it laterally, and from beneathl
VOL. II.-47




36               ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
Clouds are frequently highly charged with elec- the generality of this fact, Dr. Heberden, In the
tricity.  These not only produce violent storms year 1776, made the following experiment.  He
of thunder and lightning, but are sometimes the  placed a rain-gauge on the square part of the roof
cause of the destruction of life and the most dread- of Westminster Abbey, another on the top of a
ful devastations.  In the year 1772, a bright cloud  neighboring house, considerably lower than the
was observed, at midnight, to cover a mountain  first, and another on the ground, in an adjoining
in the island of Java, which emitted flames of fire garden.  The rain collected in each was as folso luminous, that the night became as clear as lows:-top of Westminlster Abbey, twelve inches;
day.  It destroyed everything for twenty miles  top of the house, eighteen inches; and on the
around: buildings were demolished, plantations  ground, twenty-two inches; so that more rain
buried in the earth; fifteen thousand cattle, a vast was collected in the lower than in the upper rainnumber of horses and other animals, and above  gauge.  The proportions of rain vary in different
two thousand human beings, were destroyed by  months of the year.  In summer, we have not so
the agency of this tremendous cloud.  On the  many rainy days as in winter; but the showers
29th of October, 1757, in the island of Malta, a  are thesn heavier, the streams of rain closer tolittle after midnight, a great black cloud appeared, gether, and the quantity whichl falls is greater
which changed its color as it approached the city, than during any other season.  Dr. Dalton states
until it became like a flame of fire, mixed with  that the first six months of the year may be reblack smoke, and a dreadful noise was heard on  garded as dry, and the last six as wet months.
its approach.  It tore an English ship to pieces, From  certain long-continued observations, it has
and carried the masts, sails, and cordage, to a  been inferred that, in spring, it rains oftener in
great distance.  Small boats, in its course, were  the evening than in the morning; but that toward
broken to pieces and sunk.  In passing through  the end of the summer, oftener in the morning
the city, it laid in ruins everything in its way; than in the evening; and that storms at this time
houses were leveled with the ground, the roofs of  are apt to occur a little after sunrise.  In the prochurches were demolished; not one steeple was gression of the seasons, rain falls at all times during
left in its passage, and the bells, together with the  the twenty-four hours, but it has been ascertained
spires, were carried to a distance.  In this awful that much less falls by day than by night.*
catastrophe, the number of human beings killed    The annual quantity of rain is greatest in tropand wounded amounted to nearly two hundred. ical countries, and diminishes as we approach the
Thus it appears that, while clouds serve occasion- pole, owing to the greater evaporative qualities of
ally as so many screens to abate the heat of the  the atmosphere in warm  than in cold countries.
sun in warm countries, and form  depositories of  Within the tropic, rain is not of the drizzling
rains, which water and fertilize the earth, they are  character of rain in the temperate zone, but genealso sometimes used in the hands of the Almighty  rally falls in such torrents as in other zones would
as instrumnents for the infliction of his judgments  be called waterspouts, and they produce greater
upon the nations; for the clouds are his chariots, floods in a single day than in Europe in six days.
the thunder his voice, and he "walketh upon the  Winter is distinguished from  summer chiefly by
wings of the wind."                               the quantity of rain. which, for six months, is
3. Rain.-We have already stated  that the  often constant for many days together, and lasts
waters of the earth, by evaporation, yield a cer- a certain number of hours per day.'The rivers, ia
lain quantity of moisture to the air, which, being  consequence, overflow, and in many countries
condensed, assumes the form of clouds, floating  produce inundations, which intercept all commuat different distances above us in the atmosphere.  nications between neighboring towns and villages,
Whatever suddenly disturbs the heat or density of  The mean quantity of rain which falls annually
the air, or the electricity of the clouds, occasions is'England is thirty-two inches.  In the western
the particles of vapor to rush together, and form  parts of Scotland, the depth is from  thirty to
drops of water too heavy to continue suspended  thirty-five inches; in  the  eastern  parts, from
in the atmosphere; they fall in the shape of rain, twenty-four to twenty-eight inches.  At Edinand increase in size as they fall, by combining  burgh, it is twenty-four inches and a half; and in
with the floating vapors as they pass through them. London, twenty-two and  one-fifth.  There  is
We have but an obscure conception, however, of  more rain in the western part of Britain than in
the chemical nature of vapor, and of the cliemi- the eastern, because these parts receive the first
cal processes which are going on in the produc- clouds as they are brought from the Atlantic by
tion of vapor, and its subsequent resolution into  the westerly winds.  In the West Indies, one
rain.  Dr. Thomson has this general remark on hundred and twenty inches fall annually; and, in
the subject, after quoting the opinions of Dr. Wat- the East Indies, from eighty to one hundred inlches.
son, Dr. Hales, and others, that "the formation  At Bombay, eighty-two inches, and at Calcutta,
of the clouds and rain cannot be accounted for by  eighty-one inches fall asnnually.
a single principle with which we are acquainted.    When mountain-ranges, and other distant obIt is neither owing to the saturation of the atmo- jects, appear nearer to us than usual-when sounds
sphere, nor the diminution of heat, nor the mix- are heard more clearly from a distance-when the
ture of airs of different temperatures; for clouds  odor of plants is more than usually powerful, rain
are often formed without any wind at all, either may be soon expected.  Ducks, geese, and other
above or below them: and even if this mixture  water-fowls, before the approach of aisn, may be
constantly took place, the precipitation, instead of  seen to throw  water, with their bills, over their
accounting for rain, would be almost impercepti- heads. Cattle may likewise be seen stretching
ble"  Instead, therefore, of detailing conflicting  out their necks, and snuffing in the air with disopinions on this subject, we shall state only a few  tended nostrils. Dogs, closely confined in a room,
general facts in relation to rain.                become drowsv and stupid before rain; the same
It is worthy of our notice, that drops of rain  is observed in cats, though in a less degree; horses
are always found larger in the lower regions of
tile atmosphere.  In going down a high mountain
inthe timem     of rain, the  drops gladually increase, m   It is said, that on the 29th of October, 1827, there fell,
i  s time of rain, the drops gradual, at Joyeus, in France, twenty-nine inches of rain in twenty.
until, reaclling the bottom, they increase from a  two hours; and, in eleven days, thirty-six inches; which is
drizzling shower to a heavy rain.  To ascertain diouble that at Paris during the year.




THE SEASONS.                                           37
neigh frequently; cattle low; the fallow-deer be- examined by a magnifying-glass, the whole of it
come restless; and swallows fly in a low course. will appear to be composed  of fine  shining
Delicate persons are often affected, before rain, spicula, diverging like rays from  a center.  As
with. headaches, pains in old sores which have the flakes fall down through  the atmosphere,
healed, irritability of temper, the aching of corns, they are continually joined by more of these
and excessive nervousness. Several flowers and radiated spicula, and thus increase in bulk, like
plants are prognosticators of rain. When the the drops of rain or hailstones.  Many of the
flower of the chickweed closes, showery weather flakes of snow  are of a regular figure, for the
or continued rain may be expected.  The trefoil, most part stars of six points, and are as perfect
the collvolvulus, and other plants, contract their and transparent ice as any we see on a pond or
leaves before the approach of rain. When the river.  Their forms present an almost endless
moon is of a pure silvery color, good weather is variety, are often very regular and beautiful, and
indicated; but when it has a brownish tint, rain  reflect, with exceeding splendor, the rays of the
may be expected.  When stars are surrounded  sun. When they are very large, they are said to
with colored halos, the approach of rain is indi- indicate the approach of thunder.  The different
cated.                                           forms which the flakes of snow  exhibit, when
In the present constitution of our globe, rain-  viewed through microscopes, are represented in
though sometimes attended with a few inconveni- figure 6.  These crystals of snow are from  oneences-is essential for promoting the enjoyments third to one thirty-fifth of an inch in diameter,
both of man and beast. It moistens and softens the in their natural size.  Experiments have been
earth, and prepares it for being cultivated, and for made, which prove  that snow  is twenty-four
affording nourishment to the vegetable tribes,which  times lighter than water, and that it fills up ten
both adorn the landscape of the world, and afford
nourishment to the human race and to every                            Fig. 6.
species of animated existence. By falling on high
mountains, it carries down with it many particles
of loose earth, which serve to fertilize the surrounding valleys, and purifies the air from  noxious exhalations, which tend, in their return to
the earth, to meliorate the soil. It moderates the
heat of the air, and forms one of the sources           v,.           w      %  
whence fountains and rivers are supplied.  With- 
out the  influence of rain, trees, shrubs, and
flowers would soon wither, sicken, and die, and  
every land be then turned into a barren wilderness. But when the clouds, at seasonable periods,       A. _.?-tpour down their watery treasures, all sublunary             /, t
nature is invigorated and refreshed, and the vegeta-                    
ble productions of the soil are made verdant and
flourishing, and adorn the surface of the earth          s
with their gay attire and diversity of colors. In
the language of the Psalmist, "The little hills
rejoice on every side. The pastures are clothed
with flocks; the valleys also are covered over                                     A 77 
with corn; they shout for joy, they also sing." 
He who at first formed the earth for man, "ewatereth the ridges thereof abundantly," maketh it                       -.         A,
"'soft with showers," blesseth "the springing there-          W.
of," and crowneth the year with his goodness.
It is represented by the inspired writers as the  or twelve times more space at the moment of
peculiar prerogative of Jehovah to send rain upon  falling, than the water produced from  it, when
the earth: "Are there any among the vanities of  melted. It is worthy of remark, that previous to
the Gentiles that can cause rain? or can the hea- the fall of snow, and during its continuance, the
yens give showers?  Art not thou He, O Lord our temperature continues at about 32 degrees.  The
God?-for thou hast made all these things."  lightness of snow., although it is firm  ice, is owThe effects produced by the want of rain are em- ing to the excess of its surface in colnparison to
phatically described  by these  writers:  " Thy  the matter contained under it.  Its whiteness is
heaven that is over thee is as brass, and the earth  owing to the small particles into which it is
that is under thee as iron." " The field is wasted, divided; for ice, when pounded, will become
the land mourneth; for the corn is wasted. *  * equally white.
Be ye ashamed, O ye husbandmen; howl, 0 ye    Snow is frequently formed in the lower regions
vine-dressers, for the wheat and for the barley; of the atmosphere.  A  very cold stream  of air
because the harvest of the field is perished.  The admitted into a room in which the contained air
vine is dried up, and the fig-tree languisheth; the is much warmer, and loaded with watery partipomegranate-tree, the palm-tree also, and the cles, will occasion its formation.  In the huts
apple-tree, even all the trees of the field, are 1 of those who inhabit the arctic regions, snow is
withered.  *    *  3 How do the beasts groan! frequently formed in this manner.  Dr. RobertThe herds of cattle are perplexed, because they  son states that, in a crowded assembly —oom  in
have no pasture; yea, the flocks of sheep are made St. Petersburg, a stream of cold air was accidentdesolate;  *  *  *  for the rivers of waters are ally admitted  into  the room  by a gentleman
dried up, and the fire hath devoured the pastures breaking a pane of glass, on which the vapor in
of the wilderness.'"  Joel i. 10-12, 18, 20.     the air was immediately congealed, and fell in the
4. Snow.-Snow consists of such vapors as are form of snow-flakes.  In Siberia, Nova Zembla,
frozen while the particles are small. It differs and other northern regions, the same phenomenon
from  hail and hoar-frost, in being crystallized, frequently happens. Snow occurs in all regions
which they are not. When a flake of snow  is of the globe at a certain hight above the level oi




38              ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
the sea, but it falls more abundantly on plains as picked up weighing fifteen ounces; and on Octo
we proceed from  the equator to the poles.  In  ber 5th, 1831, one fell at Constantinople which
the arctic regions, snow falls nine days out of weighed  more  than  a  pound!  The  average
tenl in the months of April, May, and June, and velocity with which they fall, has been estimated
often to a depth of two or three inches in an hour. at seventy feet per second, or at the rate of fifty
Among the mountains of Germany, Italy, and miles an hour; and consequently, their great
Switzerland, snow  is sometimes accumulated to momentum, arising from this velocity, frequently
such an extent as to produce the most terrific and renders them very destructive, particularly in hot
destructive effects, as in the case of the rolling climates.  They beat down the crops, strip trees
avalanche.  All avalanche is a mountain-mnass of of their leaves, fruits, and branches, and someice, or frozen snow, which is sometimes loosened  times kill even large beasts and men. A  few
from its base, and descends from the mountains years ago, a tremendous storm happened in Glenouwith a force so terrible, that it crushes the tra- cestershire, accompanied with a most remarkaVeler beneath its power, and buries hamlets and ble hail-shower.  The masses of ice which fell
villages in a common grave. In the year 1749, the in places where the storm  most fiercely raged,
whole village of Rucras, in the canton of Grisons, bore no resemblance to the usual state of hail-.
ill Switzerland, was covered, and at the same stones in magnitude or formation, most of them
time, removed from its site, by an avalanche of being of a very irregular shape, broad, flat, and
this description. But this change, which hap- ragged, and many of them measuring nine inciles
pened in the night-time, was effected without the in circumference.  They appeared like fragments
least noise; so that the inhabitants were not of a vast plate of ice, broken into small masses,
aware of it; and, on awakening in the morning, by its descent toward the earth.
could not imagine why day-light did not dawn.   The phenomena attending the formation and
A  hundred persons were dug out of the snow, fall of hail are but imperfectly understood, though
sixty of whom  were still alive, the interstices it is certain they are connected with electricity,
between the snow  containing sufficient air to and  hence, the  frequent occurrence  of hailsupport life.  Not many years ago, an instance showers during violent storms of thunder and
occurred of a family buried under one of these lightning.  They occur principally in the ternavalanches, and who continued in that situation  perate regions of the globe, less frequently befor above a fortnight, remaining all that time in tween the tropics, and are almost unkinown in the
utter darkness, and incrusted in a body of snow  frigid zones. They are, also, more fiequent in
several hundred feet in  thickness.   A  massy summer than in winter.  In the south of France,
beam supported the roof against this enormous and the adjacent countries, much damage has been
pressure; and a milch ass, that happened to be produced by the ravages of hail-storms. To avert
thus incarcerated with the people, furnished suf- such ravages, hail-rods have lately been erected on
ficienit nourishment for the support of life, until the same principle as lightning rods.  They conthey were, at length, restored to the light of sist of lofty poles tipped with metallic wires come
day.                                             municating with the earth.  By thus subtracting
The great Dispenser of universal bounty has the superabundant electricity of the clouds, it is
so ordered it, that snow is eminently subservient, supposed that the formation of hail might be preas well as all his other works, to his benevolent vented. It has been estimated by the " Linnean
designs. As the winter cold is much more hurt- Society of Paris," from  numerous experiments
ful to vegetables than to animals, the plants would  made in diffelent districts, that "if these hailperish, if their roots were not preserved by some rods were established through the whole of France,
covering.  God has, therefore, ordained that the it would occasion an annual saving to the revenue
rain, which in summer cools and revives the of fifty millions of francs."  It is also stated that,
plants, should, in winter, fall in the form  of a in many districts which were formerly year after
soft wool to cover the vegetables, and to guard year devastated by hail, the instrument has been
them  from  the inclemency of frosts and winds. adopted with complete success, while, in neighIt prevents the internal heat of the earth from  boring districts, not protected by hail-rods, the
escaping, and forms a safe covering to the tender crops have been damaged as usual.
herb, until the winter cold has abated under the    6. Dew.-Dew is vapor condensed into visible
influence of the genial spring.                  drops.  It begins to be deposited about sunset,
5. Hail.-Hail, which is a more compact mass and is most abundant in valleys and plains near
of frozen water than snow, is formed by the con- rivers and other collections of water, and abomlsnds
gelation of vapor in the higher regions of the on those parts of the surface which are clothed with
atmosphere.  The drops of hail assume various vegetation.  In England, the dew is observed, like
figures, being sometimes round, at other times the drops of drizzling rain, upon the leaves of
pyramidal, angular, thin, and flat, and sometimes grass and other vegetables, upon wood, glass, porstellated with six radii, like the small crystals of  celain, etc., or upon the earth, which is thereby
snow.  When hail-stones are broken open, or cut rendered sensibly moist. It falls more copiously
across, they are sometimes found within to be of in spring and summer than at any other times of
a spongy structure; sometimes the interior presents the year.  In countries situated near tile equator,
a very beautiful radiated appearance, and not un- the dews are generally observed in the morning
frequlently exhibits regular and very remarkable  throughout the year; and in some places in the
concentric plates. They are often of considerable east, where rain seldom falls, they are so copious,
dimensions.  They vary in size from  that of a as, in a great measure, to supply its deficiency
small seed, to that of a boy's marble; and, in During the heat of the day, a great quantity of
some instances, they have been found as large as vapor is thrown into the atmosphere from  the
the eggs of a goose; the small generally falling surface of the earth and waters.  When the
in the more northerly climates, and on the tops evening returns, if the vapor has not been carried
of mountains, and the larger in France, Spain, off by currents, it will happen that more remains
Italy, and other countries, toward the south of diffused ill the general atmosphere than the temEurope.   Hailstones have fallen in Scotland, perature of the night will permit to subsist.  A
which have been proved to weigh five ounces. decomposition of the aqueous atmosphere then
In North America, they have sometimes been commences, and is continued until the general




WINDS.                                            39
temperature and aqueous pressure arrive at an plants are protected from the severity of a freezequilibrium, or until the returning sun puts an ing cold atmosphere. Fogs are clouds which float
end to the process.                              on the surface of the earth; and clouds are fogs in
Hoar-frost, which appears like a powdery crys- thehigher regions of the atmosphere. From many
tallization on trees and herbage, is only frozen elevated places they may be seen moving in the valdew. The conversion of dew into hoar-frost is leys, and fromn the valleys they may frequently be
another wise arrangement of Nature, by which seen creeping along the sides of the mountains.
CHAPTER  II.
WINDS.
1. WINDS in general.-Wind is the motion of a tion, but never extend farther than 300 from the
body of air flowing from  one place to another. equinoctial, either north or south. In the AtlanThe earth, being surrounded by a fine invisible tic and Pacific oceans, under the equator, the
fluid, extending several miles above its surface, wind is almost always easterly; more to the northis acted upon by heat and cold arising from dif- ward, it generally blows between the north and
ferent causes. This appears to be the general east; and, more to the southward of the equator,
cause of the phenomena of winds; and, according it blows between the south and east.- The origin
to the force or velocity with which the masses of of these winds appears to be as follows:-the
air move, we use the terms, a breeze, a gale, a powerful heat of the torrid zone rarefies the air of
storm, a tornado, a whirlwind, a hurricane, etc. that region; in consequence of this rarefaction,
When a fire is made in the open air, the rarefied the air rises, and, to supply its place, a colder body
part of that fluid will ascend in a current, and the of air from  each of the temperate zones, moves
cooler and denser air will rush in on all sides, in toward the equator. But these north and south
consequence of which a wind is generated, and winds pass from regions where the rotatory motion
blows constantly toward the fire.  The wind thus of the earth's surface is less, to those where it is
produced will be too inconsiderable to be perceived greater. Unable at once to acquire this new veat any great distance, but the rarefaction which locity, they are left behind; and, instead of being
arises from natural causes may be such as to agi- north and south winds, as they would be if the
tate our atmosphere sufficiently to produce those earth's surface did not turn round, they become
torrents of air which have always a powerful north-east and south-east winds.
effect in nature, and which sometimes overwhelm    3. Periodical winds, or monsoons.-Those winds,
and destroy the fairest and most superb pro- which blow in a certain direction for a time, and,
ductions of human art.  Among  the  causes at certain stated seasons, change, and blow for an
which produce this rarefaction of the atmosphere, equal space of time from the opposite point of the
and generate wind, the heat of the sun is not the compass, are called monsoons. During the months
least powerful. When the solar rays, by their of April, May, June, July, August, and Septemreflection from the earth's surface, have heated or ber, the wind blows from the southward or southrarefied a portion of the surrounding air, the air -eastward over the whole length of the Indian
so rarefied ascends into the higher regions of the ocean, namely, between the parallels of 280 north,
atmosphere, and the colder air, by which it was and 280 south latitude, and between the eastern
surrounded, moves forward in a sensible current coast of Africa, and the meridian that passes
to fill the vacuity.  Likewise, when a condensa- through the western part of Japan; but, in the
tion of vapor in the atmosphere suddenly takes other months, October, November, December,
place, giving rise to clouds which speedily dissolve January, February, and March, the winds in anll
in rain, the temperature of the surrounding air is the parts of the Indian ocean shift round, and
sensibly altered, and the colder rushing in upon blow directly contrary to the course they held in
the warmer, gives rise to a sudden gust of wind. the former six months.  These winds suffer parIn regard to the particular causes which produce tial changes in particular places, owing to the
the various winds which prevail in different regions form and position of the lands, and other circumof the globe, different opinions have been enter- stances. When they shift, or when the southtained by philosophers.  And, therefore, instead west monsoon is about to commence, it is ushered
of examining theories and doubtful opinions on in by vast masses of clouds from  the Indian
this subject, the writer will confine himself to the ocean, accompanied with violent blasts of wind,
statement of a few facts respecting the different which are succeeded by floods of rain, during
species of winds as they are found to operate in which, the lightnings flash without intermission,
different countries.                             and the thunders roll with loud and deafening
2. General or permanent winds.-Winds are peals; and, when it ceases, the rain pours down
commonly divided into three classes, namely, in large volumes.  This terrific commotion of
general, periodical, and variable winds. General the elements lasts for many days.
winds are those which are permanent, and blow    4. Land and sea-breezes.-These are another
always in the same direction, and have received kind of periodical winds which are common on
the name of trade-winds. These winds prevail the coasts and islands situated between the tropics.
chiefly within the tropics, and a few degrees be- During the day, the wind blows for a certain
yond. On the north of the equator their direc- number of hours from  the sea to the land; but,
tion is from  the north-east, varying at times a when evening arrives, it changes its direction,
point or two of the compass each way. On the and blows as many hours from the land to the sea.
south of the equator, they proceed from the south- The cause of these alternations appears to be as
east. These winds constantly range in one direc- follows:-water, being a better conductor of heat




40               ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
than earth, is always of a more even tempera- wherries, 300 ship-boats,. and 100 lighters and
ture. During the day, therefore, the land becomes barges, were entirely lost.  The Eddystone Lightconsiderably heated, the air rarefied, and, conse- house was precipitated in the surrounding ocean,
quently, in the afternoon, a breeze sets in from  along with its ingenious architect and those that
the sea, which is less heated at that time than the were with him.  The damage done in the city of
land.  On the other hand, during the night, the London alone, by this storm, was computed at
earth loses its surplus heat, while the sea con- above two millions of pounds sterling! Such are
tinues more even in its temperature.  Toward some of the dreadful effects of that invisible fluid
morning, therefore, a breeze regularly proceeds which surrounds us, when put in rapid motion by
from  the land toward the ocean, where the air the force of currents.  Light as its particles seem
is warmer, and, consequently, more rarefied than  to be, no human wisdom or power can, in such
on the shore.                                     cases, avert its force, or withstand its dreadful and
5. Variable winds. —In most countries to the destructive agency, in allusion to which the Alnorth and south of the tropics, the winds are very mighty is represented as riding " on the wings of
irregular and uncertain, and vary in their direc- the wind," and directing " the whirlwind and the
tion at certain seasons of the year.  In Germany, storm."
the east wind is most frequent at Gottingen, Mu-   6. Noxious and poisonous winds.-These winds
nich, Weissemburg, Dusseldorf, Erford, and Buda; prevail most generally in southern climes.  Of
the south-east, at Prague and Wirtzburg; the these, the harmattan is a very singular wind,
north-east, at Ratisbone; and the west, at Man- which blows periodically from  the interior parts
helm  and Berlin. Along the whole south-west of Africa toward the Atlantic ocean.  The season
of France, the wind blows most frequently from  in which it prevails is, during the months of Dethe north, north-west, and north-east; on the west cember, January, and February.  It comes on at
coast, from  the west, north-west, and south; and, any hour of the day, and continues five or six
on the north coast, from  the south-west.  In  days; and there are generally three or four returns
Great Britain, the  north-east and south-west of it every season.  This wind is distinguished
winds more frequently prevail, along with occa- by a fog or haze, and extreme dryness; no dew
sional north-west and south-east winds.  From  falls during its continuance, vegetables wither,
ten years' registers kept by the Royal Society, it and the grass becomes dry like hay.  The dryness
appears that, in London, the winds blow in the is so extreme that the covers of books, though
following order: from  the south-west, 112 days; closely shut up in a trunk, are bent as if exposed
north-east 58; north-west, 50; west, 53; south- to the fire.  Household  furniture is damaged,
east, 32; east, 26; south, 18; north, 16. From  panels of wainscots split, and veneered work flies
the same register, it appears that the south-west to pieces.  The human body, likewise, feels the
wind blows at an average more frequently than  parching effects of the harmattan: the eyes, nosany other wind during every month of the year; trils, lips, and palate, are rendered dry and uneasy;
that the north-east blows most constantly during the lips and nose are inflamed, and there is a
January, March, April, May, and June, and that troublesome sensation of pricking heat on the
the north-west wind blows oftener from Novem- skin.  If the harmattan continue, the scarf-skin
her to March, and more seldom during September peels off, first from the hands and feet, and afterand October, than ally other months.  In Scot- ward from the rest of the body.
land, the south-west is by far the most frequent   The sirocco is a wind which resembles, in some
wind over all the country, especially on the west of its effects, the harmattan.  It sometimes blows
coast.  At Edinburgh, the westerly winds have for several days together, and its medium  heat is
been found to blow 2930 days, and the easterly 135. calculated at 1120; it is fatal to vegetation, and
At Saltcoats, in Ayrshire, the south-west wind destructive to mankind, especially to those who
blows three-fourths of the year, and along the are not natives of the country; it depresses the
whole coast of Moray, on the north-east side of spirits i-i an unusual degree; it suspends the
Scotland, it blows for two-thirds of the year. powers of digestion in such a manner, that those
East winds are common over all Britain, during who venture to eat a heavy supper generally die
April and May, but their influence is felt most during the night.  The sick frequently sink under
severely on the eastern coast.                   the pressure of their diseases, so that it is cusIn our northern region, winds seldom  excite tomary, in the morning after this wind has conmuch alarm, nor are they often attended with the tinued a whole night, to inquire who is dead.
disastrous results which are frequent in the tropi- During the continuance of this wind, all nature
cal regions.  It has, however, sometimes hap- appears to languish, vegetation withers and dies,
pened, even in England, that winds have produced  the beasts of the field droop; the animal spirits
the most appalling and destructive effects,  In are too much exhausted to admit of the least bothe great storm which happened on the 27th of dily exertion, and the spring and elasticity of the
December, 1703, the extraordinary power of the air appear to be lost.  In the city of Palermo, in
wind created a noise hoarse and dreadful, like thun- Sicily, where it frequently prevails, the inhabitder, which appalled every heart.  Horror and con- ants shut their doors and windows to exclude the
fusion seized upon all, whether on land or at sea. air; where there are no window-shutters, wet
One hundred and twenty-three persons were killed blankets are hung on the inside of the windows,
by the falling of dwellings, among whom  were and the servants are kept constantly employed in
the bishop of Bath and his lady, by the fall of the sprinkling the apartments with water, and the
episcopal palace. Eight thousand perished in the streets and avenues of the city appear at such
Severn and the Tharnes, and in ships blown away, times to be nearly deserted.  This wind is froand never heard of afterward.  Land, houses, quently felt in Greece, Italy, the Levant, and
churches, corn, trees, rivers-all were damaged other parts of southern Europe; it is occasioned
by its fury.  Small buildings were swept away by currents of heated air from the deserts of Zap
as chaff before the whirlwind; above 800 dwel- hara in Africa; but happily it is not of long cons
ling-houses were laid in ruins: 2000 stacks of tinuance.  In Sicily, it seldom lasts longer thau
chimneys were blown down in London; 15,000 thirty-six or forty hours.
sheep wvere destroyed on the banks of the Severn,   The samiel, or mortifying wind, is, perhaps;
and 20,000 in the county of Kent; 300 ships, 500 beyond all others, dreadful in its effects.  It geno



WINDS.                                             41
rally blows on the southern coasts of Arabia, and  focation.  For my part, I found distinctly in my
the deserts near the city of Bagdad; and is sup- breast that I had imbibed a part of it, nor was I
posed to have been the pestilence of the ancients, free from  an asthmatic affection, until I was in
frequently killing all those who are involved in  Italy two years afterward."
its passage.  What its sL alignity consists in, none    Hurricanes are violent tempests of wind, accan tell, as no one has ever survived its effects to  companied with thunders and lightnings, rain, or
give information.  It has been said that it fre- hail.  These fearful concussions of the atmoquently assumes a visible form, and darts in a sphere happen most frequently in the range of
kind  of bluish vapor along the surface of the the West India Islands, and about the Cape of
country.  The natives of Persia and Arabia talk  Good Hope.  The forerunner of these hurricanes,
of its effects with terror; they describe it as under when first seen, is only like a small black spot on
the conduct of a minister of vengeance, who  the verge of the horizon, called by sailors the
governs its terrors, and raises or depresses it as lie bull's eye. All this time a perfect calm  reigns
thinks proper.  The camels, either by instinct or over sea and land, while at length, coming to the
experience, have notice of its approach, and are place where its fury is to fall, it invests the whole
so well aware of it, that they are said to make an  horizon with darkness. During its approach, a
unusual noise, and cover their noses in the sand. hollow murmur is heard in the cavities of the
It blows over the desert in the months of July  mountains, and animals, sensible of its approach,
and August, and rushes with violence to the very  run over the fields to seek for shelter.  Nothing
gates of Bagdad, but never injures any person in can be more terrible than its violence when it
the city.  To escape its effects, travelers throw  begins.  The sun, which, but a moment before,
themselves as close as possible to the ground, and blazed in meridian splendor, is totally shut out,
wait until it has passed by, which is commonly a and a midnight darkness prevails, except that the
few minutes.  As soon as they who have life dare air is incessantly illuminated with gleanms of lightto rise up, they examine how it fares with their ning, so vivid that one can see to read, and the
companions by pulling at their arms or legs; for, rain pours down in torrents.  All the elements
if they are destroyed by the wind, their limbs are seem  to arm  themselves for the destruction of
absolutely mortified, and will come asunder.  A1n human labors, and even of the scenes of nature
extraordinary blasting wind is felt occasionally at herself.  The velocity of the wind is such, that
Falkland's Islands, but it seldom continues above corn, vines, sugar-canes, forests, houses, boats,
twenty-four hours.  It cuts the herbage down as ships, are swept away, or buried in the deep.
if fires had been made under it, so that the leaves   A tornado is a sudden and violent gust of wind
are parched up and crumbled into dust.  Fowls from all points of the compass.  It partakes someare seized with cramp, so as never to recover; and  what of the nature of a hurricane, but is still
men are oppressed with  a stopped perspiration, more violent in its effects. The winds seem  to
heaviness at the breast, and sore throats.        blow from every quarter, and settle upon one des.
The simoon is a hot wind which prevails ini tined place, with such fury that nothing can reEgypt, Arabia, Syria, and the adjacent countries. sist their vehemence.  When they have met in
When it begins to blow in Arabia, the atmosphere their central spot, the whirlwind begins with cirassumes an alarming aspect.  The sky becomes cular rapidity.  The sphere every moment widens,
dark and heavy, the sun loses his splendor, and  as it continues to turn, and catches every object
becomes of a violet color, and the air is thick from  that lies within its attraction.  The mariner,
the subtile dust with which it is loaded.  At first, within the reach of its influence at sea, must try
the wind is light and rapid, and not remarkably  all his power and skill to avoid it, which, if he fait
hot; its temperature, however, soon increases, of doing, there is the greatest danger of his going
until it ranges at upward of 1280.  When it to the bottom.  Tornadoes most frequently  rage
occurs, all animated  bodies discover it by the along the coasts of Guinea, and other parts of
change it produces in them.  The lungs are con- western Africa.
tracted and become painful, respiration is short   Such are a few brief sketches of the pheoneme.
and difficult, the skin parched and dry, and the lna of noxious and stormy winds.  It is evident
body consumed by an internal heat.'1The streets that they did not exist in the primitive state of
are deserted, and the dead silence of night reigns our globe; for the operation of such agents of
everywhere.  The inhabitants of towns and vil- terror and destruction appears altogether inconlages shut themselves up in their houses, and those  sistent with the idea that man is at present in a
of the desert in their tents, or in wells dug in the paradisaical state, and possessed of that innocence
earth, where they wait the termination of this and moral purity in which he was created.  It
destructive heat.  The only refuge travelers have appears incompatible with the idea of an Almighty
from it is, to fall down with their faces close to Intelligence, possessed of boundless benevolence,
the ground, and to continue as long as possible  that innocent beings should be so frequently subwithout drawing in their breath.  lr. Bruce thus jected to the influence of such dreadful agents,
describes it, in his journey through the desert:-  by which they are swept from the living world in
"At eleven o'clock, while we contemplated the a manner so appalling and terrific.  Man is,
top of Cliiggre, where we were to solace our- therefore, a creature who has fallen from his priselves with water, Idris, our guide, cried out with  mitive state of integrity; and such fearful agents,
a loud voice,'Fall upon your faces, for here is and many others, as the volcano and the earththe simoon.'  I saw from  the south-east a hlaze, quake, are so many proofs and evidences of the
in color like the purple part of the rainbow, which  depravity and fallen state of the human race;
did not occupy twenty yards in breadth, about otherwise they would not be perumitted te inhabit
twelve feet fronm the ground, and it moved very  a world where so many destructive influences are
rapidly, for I could scarce turn to fall upon the in operation.  An important change appears to
ground, with my head to the north, when I felt have taken place in the constitution of the atmorthe heat of its current plainly on my face. We sphere at the period of the universal deluge, which
all lay flat on the ground as if dead, until Idris probably may have given rise to many of the phytold us it was blown over.  The meteor or purple sical evils connected with this part of our terreshaze which I saw was indeed passed, but the light  trial system; which may, in after ages, bhe in a
air which still blew was of heat to threaten suf- great measure removed, when the earth shall be




42               ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENO MENA.
cultivated throughout its whole extent, and uni- ty-five miles; a strong gale, from thirty to thirtyversal peace and brotherhood prevail among all five miles; a hard gale, from  forty to forty-five
nations.  Notwithstanding, however, the occa- miles; a storm  or tempest, fifty miles; a great
sional operation of these destructive agents to storm, sixty miles; a hurricane, eighty miles; a
which we allude, the arrangements connected violent hurricane, tearing up trees, throwing down
with our globe, in their prominent bearings, and houses, etc., moves at the rate of one hundred
considered as a whole, evidently display the long- miles an hour.
suffering, the tender mercy, and the goodness   Notwithstanding  the  occasional ravages of
of Jehovah, and should lead us to humble our- winds, they produce many beneficial effects in the
selves in his presence, under a sense of our maui- system of nature.  They serve as ventilators foi
fold deviations from  the path of his command- purifying the atmosphere; they dispel fogs and
nmelts.                                           noxious vapors; they agitate the waters of the
The velocity of winds varies, from the gentlest ocean, and prevent them from stagnation and pubreeze or an imperceptible movement, to a hundred  trefaction; in the heat of summer they fan us
miles an hour.  Light airs may be considered as with gales and gentle breezes. By their mechanimoving at the rate of from one to three miles an cal force, windmills and other machinery are set
hour, or from a foot and a half, to four feet and in motion, and ships impelled across seas and
two-fifths, per second; a breeze, from  four to six oceans to the remotest corners of the globe, tr
miles an hour; a brisk gale, from ten to sixteen promote commerce, learning, religion, and the
miles an hour; a fresh gale, from twenty to twen- mutual intercourse of human beings.
CHAPTER  III.
LUMINOUS AND FIERY METEORS.
1. The Aurora Borealis.-This is one of the by the remarkably red appearance of the clouds
most splendid phenomena which appears in the to the south, which afforded sufficient light to read
visible sky, especially when its coruscations dif- by at eight o'clock in the evening, though there
fuse themselves over the whole face of the hea- was no moonlight in the north.  From  half-past
yens.  The appearances of the aurora may be nine to ten, P. M., there was a large luminous
arranged under the following particulars:-l. A  horizontal arch to the southward, and one or more
horizontal light, like the morning twilight or concentric arches northward.  At half-past ten
break of day.  This light generally appears in o'clock, streamers appeared very low in the souththe north or north by west, and sometimes seems east, running to and fro from west to south; they
as if it broke out from a few darkish clouds. 2. increased in number, and began to approach the
Fine, slender, luminous beams, well-defined, and zenith apparently with an accelerated velocity,whenl
of a dense light.  These frequently continue a all of a sudden the whole hemisphere was covered
half or a whole minute, apparently at rest, but with them, and exhibited such an appearance as
more frequently with a quick lateral motion, that surpasses all description.  The intensity of the
is, froin east to west, or the contrary.  3. Flashes light, the prodigious number and velocity of the
pointing upward, or in the sanme direction with beams, the grand intermixture of all the primitive
the beams, which they always succeed.  These colors in their utmost splendor, variegating the
are only momentary, and have no lateral motion, glowing canopy with the most enchanting scenery,
but they are generally repeated many times in a afforded an awful, but, at the same time, pleasing
minute.  They appear much broader, more dif- and most sublime spectacle.  Every one gazed
fuse, and of a weaker light than the beams; they with astonishment, but the uncommon grandeur
grow  gradually fainter until they disappear, and of the scene lasted only one minute; the variety
sometimes continue for several hours, flashing at of colors disappeared, and the beams were conintervals.  Sometimes they are confined chiefly verted into the flashing radiations; but even then
to the northern region of the heavens, and at it surpassed all other appearances of the aurora;
other times illuminate the whole sky with their in short, the whole hemisphere was covered with
fantastic coruscations.  Such are some of the it."
general appearances of the aurora borealis, but   The writer had occasion to witness a splendid
they are strikingly varied at different times, and and somewhat terrific display of this phenorneit is difficult accurately to describe the shifting  non, in the vicinity of Dundee, on the 17th Noand splendid phenomena they present.             vember, 1835. A little before nine o'clock, p. M.,
The aurora has been occasionally seen in all the coruscations first began to appear, which inl a
ages: it is spoken of by Herodotus, Xenophon, short time diffused all the brightness which apDiodorus Siculus, Homer, Virgil, and Ossiain, the pears in amoonlight evening.  About ten o'clock,
Highland bard.  Aristotle, in his work on me- the aurora shone in all its splendor, when corusteors, describes it as " an appearance observed by cations, or streams of light, more than thirty or
night in calm weather, resembling flame mingled  forty degrees in length, appeared to issue from a
with smoke, or the distant appearance of burning central point near the zenith, and to extend themstubble; the predominant colors being purple, selves in every direction, south, north, east, and
bright red, and blood color."  It has been more west, like the meridians on an artificial globe.
frequently observed in Great Britain since the The most singular feature displayed by this auro.
year 1716, when, on the 6th of March, it appear- ra was that of a number of streams of light of a
ed with a splendor which attracted universal at- dark red color, lilke blood, and resembling expantention, and was considered by many as prognostic sive sheets of flame, which were seen in all diof wars, famine and pestilence, and a foreign race rections mingling their streams with the more brilof princes.                                      liant yellow coruscations, and giving to the whole
The following is a description of an aurora, as celestial concave an appearance of terrific granseen by Dr. Dalton.-'6Attention was first excited  deuar, which seemed to impress the mnind of every




THE AltRORA BOREALIS.                                        43
qeholder with awe and terror.  This display con- grand and diversified scenery-and although their
tinued during the night until four o'clock next mode of operation is not thoroughly discovered,
morning, and was visible over the whole island  they are, doubtless, intended to subserve beneficial
of Great Britain.  In London, it produced such  purposes iu the system  of creation.
an effect, that the policemen, ignorant of its na-   2. Luminous arches.-These are somewhat strike
ture, hurried to and fro through all the avenues ing phenomena, which sometimes precede, or acof that city in search of fires. which they imagined  company the aurora borealis, but they make their
had burst forth from every quarter.  On the even- appearance only at very distant intervals.  The
ing of September 29, 1847, about ten o'clock, a writer has seen only four or five of these arches
brilliant and rather uncommon aurora made its within the space of the last thirty years.  One of
appearance, near Dundee.  Thle sky was strongly  the most'brilliant of the arches appeared on the
illuminated in the north, and numbers of spiral 27th of August, 1846, and was first perceived
coruscations shot upward toward the zenith. But a few minutes before nine o'clock in the evening.
its mnost striking peculiarity was that, on a snd- It was a grand and beautiful luminous arch, which
den, and in a portion of the sky which was per- stretched from  one side of the heavens to the
fectly clear, an immense stream of light began to other, forming a most resplendent object in a clear
blaze with a quivering motion, like a huge ser- and serene sky.  Its highest point was about
pent, or in a form like the letter s, extending forty  seventy-five degrees above the southern horizonor fifty degrees in length, and several degrees in a little above. tile brilliant star Vega Lyre.  Like
breadth.  Such streams of brilliant light, which all the other arches of this kind he has seen, it had
appeared and vanished with all the rapidity of a gradual motion downward toward the southern
lightning, were to be seen over most regions of horizon, so that in the course of tvaenty minutes
the sky.                                         it was considerably below the star now mentioned.
This phenomenon appears more frequently, and  Its direction was from  east by north, to west by
displays itself in still greater splendor in the polar south, or nearly at right angles with the magnetic
regions than in our country.  It is also said that, meridian-which seems to indicate that it is conin those regions, a hissing sound is heard during nected with the operation of the magnetic princiits continuance.  During the long nights of win- pie. This is the exact'direction of all the luminous
ter in those countries, particularly in Lapland and arclles now referred to, and they are all evidently
Greenland, its radiations, along with the light of connected with the appearance of the aurora borethe heavenly bodies, are sufficient to guide the in- alis, and may be considered as a peculiar modificahabitants in their journeys, and to enable them  to tion of thisphenomenon. Its breadth was greater
engage in all the other avocations of life. In the than that of a common rainbow; there appeared no
northern parts of Siberia, the aurora begins with prismatic colors, but a pure brilliant white, consingle bright pillars rising in the north, which gra- trasting most beautifully with the deep azure of
dually increasing, comprehend a large space in the the sky.  An aurora appeared at the same time
heavens, rusel about from place to place with in- in the north and north-west, but its coruscations
credible velocity, and at last cover almost the whole were not very vivid, and continued only for a
sky up to the zenith, and produce an appearance very short time. The arch began first gradually
as if a vast tent were expanded in the heavens to disappear at its extremities, near the eastern
glittering with gold, rubies, and sapphires. It has and western horizon, and, about forty iminutes after
been found likewise, that these brilliant pheno- having been first seen, it was completely dissipated.
mena are visible in the south polar regions as well The hight of such phenomena above the earth
as in the north.  The general appearance of the has been variously estimated.  Euler estimated
aurora borealis is pretty well described by Thom- them  at 1000 miles; Boscovich, at about 800;
son, the poet of the "Seasons."                  Bergman, at 460; and Dr. Dalton, at 150 miles,
which is, perhaps, nearest the truth.  Whatever
A blaze of meteors shts; enweepin g first  may be the hight of the luminous arches, we have
The lower skies, they all at once converge  reason to believe that the elevation of the aurora
High to the crown of heaven, and all at once  borealis above the earth is the same, as they eviRelapsing quick, as quickly re-ascend      dently are produced by the operation of the same
And mix and thwart, extinguish and renew
All ether coursing in a maze of light"     cause.
All etecoursin in.amaze oflight."3. Fire-balls. —These are a species of luminous
Various opinions have been formed as to the or fiery bodies, which are occasionally seen to
cause which produces the phenomena of the au- wing their flight through the upper regions, with
rora.  Most philosophers seem to agree that it is a considerable degree of velocity and splendor.
of an electrical nature, as its appearance call be In tropical climates, these bodies are more freimitated by artificial electricity. Dr. Faraday con- quently seen than in our more temperate regions.
aiders it as highly probable, "that it is a lumi- The following are a few brief descriptions of some
nous accumulation of electricity flowing from the of the meteors.  Mr. Barham relates that, when
equator to the poles, for the restoration of electric he was riding in Jamaica, one evening, he beheld
equilibrium."  But whatever may be the physical a ball of fire apparently about the bigness of a
cause of the aurora, it presents to our view one of bomb, swiftly falling down with a great blaze.
the most beautiful, sublime, and at the same time Approaching the place where it fell, he found the
awful and mysterious phenomena which appear in ground strangely broken up and  plowed, and
our sky-while its coruscations sometimes cover several holes appeared of the bigness of a man's
with inconceivable magnificence, the concave of head, and all the green herbage burned up near
the whole hemisphere, changing their positions the holes; at the same time, a strong smell of
every moment, now resembling vast pyramids, or sulphur.  In the year 1676, a great globe of fire
innumerable columns, now vanishing in amoment, was seen at Bononia, in Italy, about forty mileaving thile  eavens somber and black, and now  nutes after sunset.  It passed with a most rapid
returning  with increased  splendor, shedding a course, and at the rate of not less than one husnmatchless glory over the heavens. Such striking  dred and sixty miles a minute, and at last stdod
phenomena evidently display the majesty and over the Adriatic sea.  It crossed all Italy in its
glory of the Creator and his power to cause the course, and by computation, it was found that it
invisible elements of nature to produce the most could not have been less than thirty-eight miles




,X44              ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
above the surface of the earth.  Wherever it ap- alter their former opinions respecting them. It approached, the inhabitants below could distinctly  pears, from certain late observations made at Breshear it, with a hissing noise, resembling that of a lau by Professor Brandes and his pupils, that the
firework.  It was heard to go off with a violent hight of some shooting stars is not less than five
explosion.  Its magnitude, when at Bononia, ap- hundred miles, and that they move at the rate of
peared twice as long as the moon, one way, and eighteen miles in a second.  A most extraordiabout as broad the other.  It was estifiated to be nary and wonderful display of the phenomena of
a mile long and half a mile broad.               shooting stars has of late occurred in different
One of the most striking and extraordinary me- places, particularly in America.  On the evening
teors of this kind made its appearance on the 18th of the 12th and the morning of the 13th Novemof August, 1783, about nine o'clock in the even- ber, 1833, a shower of these meteors happened at
ing.  it was seen in all parts of Great Britain, Boston, New  York, and other places, and their
from the Shetland isles to the English channel, number was considered to equal one-half of the
over all France, and the greatest part of Italy, and flakes which fill the air in an ordinary fall of snow.
is supposed to have described a tract of at least It was calculated that, in somrne places, they fell at
one thousand miles over the surface of the earth. the rate of 36,000 per hour, and the phenomena
It appears to have burst and re-united several lasted more than seven hours.  At Boston, the
times, and the first bursting which was noticed  number of shooting-stars which were seen was
was somewhere over Lincolnshire, in [l-ngland. estimated at two hundred and forty thousand. SiIts appearance produced  universal wonder and milar phenomena, though not'in such numbers,
alarm. When it was observed at Brussels, the have appeared in various other places, and in the
moon appeared quite red, and the illumination was subsequent years, from the 12th to the 15th Noso great as totally to obliterate the stars. A report vember, and henlce they have been denominated
was heard some time after it disappeared, which the November meteors.  M. Alago, the French
was loudest in Lincolnhshire, and afterward in the philosopher, is of opinion, that such extraordinary
eastern parts of Kent.  A hissing sound was said phenomena cannot well be accounted for, unless
also to accompany its progress.  At Greenwich, it be supposed that, beside the planetary bodies
two bright balls, parallel to each other, led the way, which revolve around the sun, there are myriads
and were followed by an expulsion of eight others. of smaller bodies, which only become visible at
The balls were tinted first with a pure bright light, the moment when they come within our atmothen followed a yellow mixed with azure, red, and sphere and assume a meteoric appearance; and
green, which, with a coalition of bolder tints, and  that they move in groups, and also singly. Dr.
a reflection from  the other balls, gave the most Olmsted, of New Haven, who particularlr invesbeautiful rotundity and variation of color with  tigated the meteoric showers of 1833, deduces the
which the human eye could be charmed.  The following among other conclusions:-That the
hight of this fireball was reckoned at from seventy  distance of the body whence they emanated was
to ninety miles, its diameter was estimated at about 2238 miles-that they entered the earth's
nearly two miles, and its velocity at about 1000 atmosphere with a velocity of four miles per second
miles a minute.  The same year, on the 4th of -that somne of the larger meteors must have been
October, at forty-three minutes past six in the bodies of great size, not less than a mile in diameevening, another meteor appeared nearly of the ter-and, that they consisted of portions of a nesame description, but much smaller and of shorter bulous body which revolves around the sun, in
duration.  It was first perceived to the northward one hundred and eighty-two days.
as a stream of fire, like the common shooting stars,   We may learn from  such phenome.a that, if
but large; and presently burst out into that in- the universe were not under the superintendence
tensely bright bluish flame, which is peculiar to of a wise and benevolent Being, or if the powers
such meteors.  It was nearly globular, but left of nature were left to act at random, the world
behind it a dusky red streak of fire. After mov- in which we live might be subjected to manifoid
ing tell degrees in this state, it became suddenly  disasters from unknown bodies and unseen causes,
extinct without any explosion.  Its hight was es- from which we have hitherto been protected.
timated at between forty and fifty miles.           5. Parhelia, or mock suns. —A  parlelion is a
As to the physical causes which produce these meteor in the form of a very bright light appearextraordinary meteors, we are still in a great mea- ing on one side of the sun, and resembling that
sure igmnorant.  The general opinion among phi- luminary.  They generally seem  about the size
losophers is, that they owe their origin to the ope- of the true sun, not quite so bright, though someration of electricity.  The velocity with which  times they are said to rival their parent luminary
these meteors wing their flight-the electrical phe- in splendor.  When there is a number of them,
nomena attending them, the lambent flames and they are not equal to each other in brightness,
sparks proceeding from  them-their connection  and externally they are tinged with colors like
with the aurora borealis, on whose appearance lu- the rainbow.  They differ il numiber and size;
minous balls have been seen formed and darting but they all agree in breadth, which is that of the
about with great velocity-and their general mo- apparent diameter of the sun.  Appearances of
tions, which are constantly from  or toward the this kind have been observed, both ill ancient and
nortbh, or north-west -  have been viewed as so in modern times, Gassendi, the Italian astronomer,
many arguments corroborative of their electrical relates, that in 1635 and 1636, he often saw one
origin.  Still it is difficult to account for all the mock sun.  Two were observed by M. de la Hire,
phenomena exhibited by these bodies by electricity  in 1689, and the. same number by Cassini, 1693;
alone, since some of these bodies appeared to be Mr. Grey, in 1700; Dr. Halley, in 1702; the Rev.
of a denser and more compact structure than  Mr. Hamilton, in Dublin, in 1783; but the most
electricity could produce.                       remarkable appearances of this kind were seen at
4. Shooting or falling stars.-These are meteors Rome by Scheiner; by Muschenbroeck, at Utrecht;
which are frequently seen darting through the and by Hevelius, at Sedan; by the former, four
sky. in the form of stars, and most frequently ac- mock suns were observed, and by the latter seven.
companieid. with a train of light.  The nature of    The phenomenon of these meteors observed by
these bodies has not yet been well ascertained, Scheiner, at Rome, is represented at figure 7, il
and philosoI hers have of late been disposed to which A is the place of the observer; B, his zae



THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.                                         45
nith; c,,the true sun; A r, a plane passing through  ceases. The scene of a thunder storm  is gene-,he observer's eye, the true sun, and the zenith. rally in the middle regions of the atmosphere; and
it is not a frequent case that an electrical discharge
Fig. 7.                      is made into the earth.  The lightning darts from
one cloud illto another, and when the clouds are
high, the]e is no danger to persons or objects on
the surfaSe of the earth. But when the cloud is
/.,,M        low, and within the striking distance of the earth,
when the flashes appear to strike licrpendicularly,
and when only a second or two elapse between
seeing the flash and hearing the report of the
thunder, every object around may be considered
1~                 as within the limits of danger; for then the
\It&    \      g/:       lightning strikes into some parts of the earth,
and every object in the line of its course is liable:1 i       i'to be injured.  We may ascertain the distance of
a thunder-cloud, by counting the number of seI    j c                    conds or pulsations that intervene between seeing
3,D    P                 the lightning and hearing the first sound of the
thunder, allowing about 1142 feet, or [80 yards
for every second. Thus, if two seconds intervene,
the distance is 760 yards; if three seconds, 1140
yards, if four and a half seconds, 1710 yards, or
nearly a mile, etc. During a thunder storm, the
About the sun, c, there appeared two concentric  lightning  sometimes  assumes different forms.
rings, not complete, but diversified with colors. Sometimes it appears as balls of fire, moving with
The lesser of them, D E F,was fuller and more  greatvelocity: this is the most dangerous species
perfect; and though it was open fromn D to F, yet of lightning, and where they strike, corn-yards
those ends were perpetually endeavoring to unite, are set on fire, and sometimes flocks of sheep,
and sometimes they did so.'I'he outer of these  herds of cattle, and human beings are instantly
rings was much fainter, so as to be scarcely per- killed.  Another form  is that of zigzag lightceptible. It had, however, a variety of colors, but ning, which most frequently accompanies thunder
was very inconstant. The third circle was very  storms. It is likewise destructive, but not to the
large, and entirely white, passing through the same extent as the ball-lightning. The next spemiddle of the sun, and everywhere parallel to the cies is the sheet-lightning, which appears in the
horizon. In the intersection of this circle, and  form of a lambent flame, or a sudden illumination,
the outward iris, G K I, there broke out two par- without any determinate form. It is never known
lelia, N and K. The brightness of the middle of to do any injury.
them was something like that of the sun, but to-   As to the cause of thunder storms, it is now asward the edges they were tinged with colors like  certained, beyond dispute, that lightning and electhe rainbow.  The parhelion N was a little waver- tricity are identical.  This had been long ago,
ing, and sent out a spiked tail, N Pr, of a color some- surmised, after the attention of philosophers had
what fiery.  The parlhelia at L and M were not so been directed to the subject of electricity. It wavs
bright as the former, but were rounder and white, observed that lightning, in its course, tookl the
like the circle in which they were placed. The  best conductors of electricity, such as bell-wires,
parhelion N disappeared before K, and while m grew  and gildings; that it burned, exploded, and desfainter, IK grew brighter, and vanished the last of  troyed conducting substances, as electricity does;
all. Parhelia have been visible for two, three, and  that it struck the most elevated objects, as trees
four hours together, and in North America they  and spires; that the crooked form of zigozag lightare said to continue some days, and to be visible  ning was similar to that of an electric spark; and
from sunrise to sunset.                          that it affected the nervous system, aind changed
6. Thlunder and lightning.-These sublime and  the polarity of the mariner's nieedle, as electricity
terrific phenomena are well known to every indi- was found to do.  This was, at last, put to the
vidual, and are occasionally displayed in every  test of experiment by Dr. Franklin, Iby elevating
region of the globe. A  thunder storm  usually  during a thunder storm, a kite, with a metallic
happens in calm weather, though sometimes it has point on the head of it, when he drew an electric
been accompanied with fulrious winds. A  dark  spark fromi the cloud by means of a key, connected
cloud is observed to attract other clouds to it, by  with the wet string, which was connected with
which it contintially increases both in magnitude  the kite. Nearly at the same time an experiment,
and apparent density; and when it has thus accu- somewhat similar, was performed by  M. Da iiubar,
mulated to a great size, its lower surface swells in  at Marly de Ville, about fifteen miles froti Paris.
particular parts toward the earth, and light flimsy  These experiments were made in 1752, and since
clouds are sometimes seen flyi llg under it, and con- that period, lightning, and the electric malteri, hiave
tinuallychlanging their ragged shape. During the  been considered as the same; though thlere are
time the cloud is thus forming, the heavens begin  still many phenomena connected with thunder
to darken apace, the whole mass sinks down, storms of which we are ignorant. lThie gralnd
wind arises, and frequently shifts il squalls, flashes practical use to which Dr. Frankliin applied his
of lightning are seen to dart from one part of it discovery, was to secure buildinigs from  being
to another, and often to illuminate the whole mass damaged or destroyed by lightning; which is acand the surrounding landscape. When the cloud  complished by fixing a poiinted metallic rod higher
lhas acquired a sufficient expansion, the lightning  than any part of the building, anld communiicatstrikes the earth in two opposite points; its paths imng with the earth. This wire the lightning will
lyiing through the -hole body of the cloud. Heavy  seize upon, ill preference to any other part of the
rains, and sometimes hail showers, accompany  building, by which it is conducted to the earth
these dire phenomena, until, after numerous suc- without injuring the inhabitants.
cessive discharges, the cloud rarefies and the storm    lIaxisms during a thunder-storm.-When in the




46              ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA.
open fields, avoid trees, but be near them-say at deities were distinguished for everything that was
the distance of thirty or forty'feet-as high ob- wicked, base, cruel, and licentious.  The light of
jects are more likely to be struck with lightning  nature can afford us no certain and indubitable
than those which are low.  When walking in the evidence of the immortality of the soul, a future
open air, avoid ponds, rivers, streamlets, and every state of eternal rewards and punishments, or of a
mass of water; for water, being a conductor of future and glorious resurrection: for many oppoelectricity, might determine the lightlling to the site and discordant opinions prevailed on this, sub.
place we occupy.  Do not avoid rain, as it is ject among those who were destitute of Divine
safer, in a thunder-storm, to be completely drench- revelation; some of them absolutely denying the
ed than otherwise. When in a house, persons existence of such a siate as a vulgar error; while
should avoid sitting near the fireplace, as it brings others represented it as altogether uncertain, havyus in connection with the highest part of the ing no solid foundation for its support.  The
building, and which contains such conducting light of nature can convey no proper notion of a
substances, as the grate, the fender, and fire-irons. creative Power that could produce the universe
Bell-wires, mirrors, gildings, lusters, and other out of' nothing, nor of the time and manner ini
imetallic substances, should also be avoided. The which the world was created and arranged. Hence,
safest position is in the middle of a large room, one sect of heathen philosophers held that the
at a distance from conducting substances, with world was eternal; and another, that it was formed
our chair placed on a mattress.                 in its present admirable order by a fortuitous conIn the preceding pages, we have taken a cur- course of innumerable atoms. It cain afford us
sory survey of the nature and properties of the no certain information respecting the origin of
atmosphere, and of the phenomena it frequently evil, and the cause of that depravity and misery,
presents, and have noticed the evidences of Di- which exist among mankind; and, in short, it can
vine wisdom  and beneficence as displayed in the point out no method by which those who have
arrangements connected with this admirable ap- offended God may be certainly restored te his
pendage to our globe. A devout contemplation favor, and a reconciliation effected between God
of this subject is worthy of the serious attention and man; so that his mercy may be exercised
of every rational and Christian mind; for all the without the violation of his justice, and the parworks of God are intended to display to intelli- don of sinners rendered consistent with the honor
gent beings certain parts of the character and of his laws and the wisdom  and equity of his
attributes of the Almighty, and to inspire us with government. From nature, therefore, there arises
love and gratitude for those merciful and benevo- no sufficient comfort to sinners to warrant hopes
lent arrangements by which our lives are pre- of forgiveness; but, on the contrary, anxious and
served, and our happiness and comforts secured. endless solicitude about the means of appeasing
The system of the material world, in all its varie- the Deity. Hence the various modes of sacrities, may be considered as one of the revelations ficing, and the numberless superstitions which
given by God to man, in order that we may trace, overspread the heathen world, but which were unfrom his external operations, visible to everv eye, satisfactory to the wiser part of mankind, even in
something of the nature of that Almighty Being the times of pagan darkness and ignorance.
who at first brought all things into existence, and   While ignorant of the important and interestwho, every moment, superintends all their move- ing truths now adverted to, we can enjoy no solid
meats. Hence we are informed, by an inspired happiness in the present state, nor any cheering
writer, that the "invisible things of Him  from  prospects in reference to a future and eternal
the creation of the world are clearly seen, being world. But, on all these subjects, so interesting
understood by the things that are made, even his to every human being, the Christian revelation
eternal power and Godhead."                     throws an effulgence of light and evidence, and
Had man continued in primeval innocence, in affords every satisfaction to the anxious mind
the complete exercise of his moral and intellectual  which it can desire. It has " brought lifer and
faculties, this would, perhaps, have been the only immortality to light," and shed a radiance over
revelation of which he stood in need. But, in his the mansions of the tomb, and the scenes of a
present fallen state, the investigation and study future world; it has unraveled the origin of evil,
of the material world are not sufficient to lead and the cause of all those miseries and moral
him  to the knowledge of the true God, and to abominations which have prevailed in the world;
guide him in the way that leads to immortal hap- and, above all, it has disclosed the gracious purpiness. Hence it happened that even the wisest poses of the God of mercy and love toward our
sages of antiquity, who were destitute of any fallen and apostate world, and opened the way by
other revelation, completely failed in attaining to which sinners may be pardoned and restored to
just conceptions of the Etornal Divinity, of the the Divine favor, in full consistency with all the
worship and homage he required, of the duties perfections of the Divinity, and the honors of his
they ought to perform, and of their eternal desti- universal government.  For thus runs the declanation. "Professing themselves to be wise, they ration of the Most High to all the children of nmen:
became fools, and changed the glory of the incor- "God so loved the world that he gave his only
ruptible God into an image made like to corrupti- begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him
ble man, and to birds, and to four-footed beasts, should not perish, but have everlastilg life."  He
and creeping things."                           sent his Son into our world, as a messenger of
The religion of nature is glaringly deficient in peace, " to bear the sin of many," " to bring in
directing us to correct views of the attributes of everlasting righteousnless," to make "intercession
the true God, and particularly of the conceptions for the transgressors," to vindicate the honors of
we ought to form of his moral character, as a his broken law, to abolish death, and to open the
Being possessed of strict and impartial iustice and way to the mansions of glory in the heavens, to
eternal rectitude, and whether he be disposed to men of all nations, kindreds, and languages, who
the exercise of mercy and love.  Hence, some of receive the record he lhath given of his Son, and
the ancient philosophers denied his existence, and submit to the method of salvation lie hath devised.
others embraced the notion of a multiplicity of He hath set forth his Son) to the world to be "a
gods, celestial, aerial, terrestrial, and infernal; and propitiation through faith in his blood, to declare
the moral characters and actions attributed to such his righteousness for the remission of sisn.,.




CONCLUDING REFLECTIONS.                                      47
that he might be just and the justifier of him  works!-how precious are thy thoughts unto ne,
which believeth in Jesus."  It is, therefore, "a 0 God! how great is the sum  of them! If I
faithful saying, and worthy of all acceptation, should count them they are more in number than
that Christ Jesus came into the world to save sin- the sand."  When we consider the amazing strucners," even the chief. And all who receive the ture of the heavens-the immense magnitude and
salvation thus proffered, will consecrate themselves number of the mig'hty orbs contained within the
to his service, and, by the aid of the Holy Spirit, canopy of the sky-that millions upon millions
prosecute a course of obedience, " denying un- of suns and worlds stretching into the immensity
godliness and worldly lusts," and living "soberly, of space far beyond the limits of our vision, or
righteously, and godly in the present world." even of our imagination, form only a small porEvery sin and violation of the Divine law will be tion of the universal empire of the Almighty;
carefully avoided; every holy disposition, every  and when the mind is overwhelmed and lost, on
heavenly temper, and every Divine virtue and the view of this stupendous scene-where shall
grace will be sedulously cultivated; love to God we find language to express our emotions, more
and man will pervade all the faculties of the soul, emphatic and appropriate, than in such passages
and be displayed in the general tenor of the con- as these? "Calst thou by searching find out
duct; and, by pursuing such a course of action, God? Canst thou find out the Almighty unto perthe individual will be gradually prepared for the fection? Great is our Lord and of great power:
nobler contemplations and exercises of that higher his understanding is infinite;-his greatness is
sphere of existence, where there is "fullness of'unsearchable.-The heavens declare the glory of
joy," and "where there are pleasures forever- God; and the firmament showeth his handiwork.
more."                                         -All nations before him  are as nothing; and
From what we have now stated, we may fairly  they are counted to him less than nothing, and
conclude, that all our contemplations of the works vanity-who doeth great things past finding out;
of nature, and all our investigations of the sys- yea, and wonders without number.-Great and
tem of the visible creation, ought to be conducted  marvelous are thy works, Lord God Almighty!
in connection with the views and discoveries un- Who can utter the mighty acts of the Lord?
folded by Divine revelation.  The two revelations Who can show forth all his praise?"
which God has made to us, when properly studied,   In short, the man who recognizes the truths of
will be found not only in perfect harmony, but to Divine revelation must feel a higher degree of
throwT a mutual light on each other; so that what pleasure and satisfaction in contemplating the
may appear deficient in one is supplied by the scenes of creation, than the man who either disother. While we contemplate the manifestations cards or overlooks the revelations contained in
of Divine power, wisdom, and goodness, in the the sacred oracles.  To a man who is hastening
arrangements and operations of nature, we per- to the grave, uncertain whether his intellectual
ceive the same attributes illustrated in the records powers and consciousness shall exist beyond the
of revelation; and, in addition to these, we per- limits of the present state-of what avail is it that
ceive what nature cannot teach us, that God is a he has acquired a partial knowledge of some of
Being of perfect and eternal rectitude, of inviola- the departments of the visible world, when all his
ble faithfulness, of boundless benevolence; ready knowledge shall be lost at the hour of dissolution,
to forgive, and rich in mercy to all who call upon  and no further prospect remains of his ever agairn.
him in truth: —a Being who fills immensity of resuming such studies and investigations, and of
space with his presence, who possesses the most beholding the mysteries and wonders of the uniintimate knowledge of all creatures and events verse more fully unfolded? He may be filled with
throughout creation, and who superintends all the wonder at many of the astonishing processes
movemnents of the material universe. To what- going forward in the animal, vegetable, and mineever scene of nature we direct our attention, we ral kingdoms; his mind may be overpowered with
find sentiments in Scripture adequate to express admiration and astonishment at the vast extent of
every emotion of the soul while engaged in such  the material universe, and at the myriads of worlds
contemplations.  Are we contemplating the im- it contains, but he can entertain no hopes of seeing
mense number and variety of animated beings such wondrous scenes more fully unraveled and
which people the earth, the waters, and the air, displayed in the light of' immortality. But the
and the ample provision made for their accommo- Christian, who looks forward to the nobler emdation and subsistence-where can we find lan- ployments of a future world, may with certainty
guage more appropriate to express our feelings indulge in the hope that in the light of that world,
than in these words of the Psalmist, "O  Lord, the vail which now intercepts our view of the
how manifold are thy works, in wisdom hast thou  wonders of creation will be removed, and the
made them all: the earth is full of thy riches! glories of the Divinity, as displayed in all his
So is this great and wide sea, wherein are things works, more fully unfolded. For the inhabitants
creeping innumerable, both small and great beasts. of that world are represented as celebrating the
— These wait all upon thee; that thou mayst give perfections of the Most High in such strains as
them their meat in due season. That thou givest these —" Great and marvelous are thy works,
them-they gather; thou openest thy hand-they  Lord God Alnighty!" evidently indicating that
are filled with good."  When we survey the the vail is partially removed from  the hidden
structure of the human frame, and consider the scenes of creation, and their minds expanded to
vast number of bones, muscles, veins, arteries, take in large and comprehensive surveys of the
lacteals, and other parts, all curiously combined, wonders of the universe, so as to perceive them
performing such a variety of functions, and all to be " great and marvelous."  And again, they
contributing to life and enjoyment-can we re- exclaim, " Thou art worthy, O Lord, to receive
frain from adopting the expressive language of glory, and honor, and power; for thou hast created
the Psalmist? "I will praise thee; for I am fear- all things, and for thy pleasure they are and were
fully and wonderfully made: marvelous are thy  created.'
TIlE END