A DICTIONARY SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND ART: COMPRISING THE HISTORY, DESCRIPTION, AND SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF EVERY BRANCH OF Reuman UnoWtlelge; WITH THE DERIVATION AND DEFINITION OF ALL THE TERMS IN GENERAL USE. EDITED BY W' T'. BRANDE, F.R.S.L. & E.. ~f air ^afestg's fnit; PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AND MATERIA MEDICA TO THE APOTHECARIES' COMPANY ETC., ETC., ETC. Assisted by JOSEPH CAUVIN, ESQ. THE VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS BY EMINENT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC GENTLEMEN, ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, NOS. 329 AND 331 PEARL STREET, (FRANKLIN SQUARE.) 1853. Lit of the principal a4uthors of the work, with the departments for which they are respectively responsible. GENERAL EDITOR, W. T. BRANDE, F.R.S.L. & E., Of Her Majesty's Mint; Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution of Great Britain; Prof. of Chemistry and Materia Medica to the Apothecaries' Company, &c. Assisted by JOSEPH CAUVIN, ESQ. 1. ARCHITECTURE, MUSIC, AND THE FINE ARTS.... JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A. & F.R.A.S. J. LINDLEY, Pii.D.F.R.S.L.S., &C, 2. BOTANY................ Professor of Botany in University College, and in tl Royal lnstitution. 3. CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, MEDICINE, AND THE ARTS AND SCIENCES DEPENDING ON CHEMICAL PRINCI- W. T. BRANDE, ESQ. (Editor.) PLES................ 4. GARDENING AND AGRICULTURE........ J. C. LOUDON, F.L S.H.S., &c. 5. LAw HERMAN MERIVALE, A.M.,.*................. * * * * * * Late Fellow of Baliol College. 6. GENERAL LITERATURE........... JOSH CAU, ESQ., JOSEPH CAUVIN, EsQ. 7. MATHEMATICS, AND THE ARTS AND SCIENCES DEPENDING THOS. GALLOWAY, M.A.F.R.S. ON MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES...... 8. NAUTICAL SCIENCE............. LIEUTENANT RAPER, R.N., &c. 9. POLITICAL ECONOMY AND STATISTICS...... J. R. M'CULLOCH, ESQ. 10. THEOLOGY.............. TIlE REV. CHAS. MERIVALE, M.A. 11. ZOO Y, ANATOM ANT, AND PHYSIOLOGY...... RICHARD OWEN, F.R.S., &c. PREFACE. THE advantages of Encyclopsedias are now so universally acknowledged, that it would be wholly superfluous to endeavour to recommend the present work by dwelling on their peculiar merits. But though the utility of such works be no longer in dispute, it may, notwithstanding, be reasonably supposed that at a period when so many voluminous Encyclopaedias and special Dictionaries have recently issued, and are still daily issuing from the press, this department of literature must be fully occupied, and that there can be no well-founded call for any farther addition to the number. It will be found, however, on a little consideration, that this is by no means the case. By far the greater number, or, rather, perhaps we might say, all the Encyclopaedias and Dictionaries of modern times, are either too voluminous or too special for ready reference and general use. The Encyclopedie Fran aise, Rees's Cyclopacdia, the Encyclopedia Britannica, the Encyclopedia Metropol itana, and the Penny Cyclopcedia, are all works of vast extent, comprising many volumes, and embracing an infinite variety of articles, or rather treatises, which, if published separately, would each make a considerable work. Now it is obvious that such voluminous publications, whatever may be their merits in other respects, want that facility of reference and precision of statement which ought to be the distinguishing features of a useful Dictionary. No man can carry about with him any of the great modern EncyclopTedias; while the extensive plan on which they are compiled renders them at once far too expensive for general circulation, and wholly unsuitable for ready consultation. The supply. indeed, of that concise and authentic information on the various subjects of science, literature, and art, which a book of reference should furnish with the utmost facility to all classes of readers, has been but a secondary object with the compilers of our great Encyclopaedias; and though it had been otherwise, the length, theoretical character, and frequent obscurity of the articles in such works, must have effectually precluded their ever being used for mere purposes of reference. They are valuable as substitutes for libraries, as repositories of the various knowledge connected with the different departments of which they treat; and being so, they cannot be convenient manuals. Special Dictionaries, on the other hand, though they may exhaust some one branch or department of science, literature, or art, and be invaluable to those engaged in its cultivation, and to those who wish to become acquainted with its details, are not intended to supply information on other branches. A work, therefore, like that now offered to the public, possessing the comprehensive character of a general Encyclopaedia without its amplitude, and affording in a convenient form an abstract of the principles of every branch of knowledge, and a definition and explanation of the various terms in science, literature, and art which occur in reading and conversation, appears to be still wanting. May we hope that this desideratum, which has been long felt to exist in encyclopedical literature, has been at length supplied? Such, at least, will be the case, should the present work answer the expectations of its authors and publishers. They have endeavoured to produce a condensed and compendious Dictionary, of a convenient size, and adapted to the wants and means of all classes, that may be advantageously used as a manual or reference-book in ev iv PREFACE. cry department of science, literature, and art; and they flatter themselves that, by rejecting all discussion and details not indispensable to the proper elucidation of the different topics, the work will be found, notwithstanding its comparatively narrow limits, to furnish, in the readiest possible manner, precise and accurate information on the all but infinite variety of subjects which it embraces. Great pains have been taken to make the definitions and explanations correct, clear, and concise. The principles of the most popular and important departments of science, literature, and art, are also distinctly, though briefly explained; and notices are given of their rise, progress, and present state. Neither must it be supposed that because these articles are for the most part brief and compendious, they are either flimsy or superficial. On the contrary, they have been compiled throughout with the greatest care. Popularity has not been sought for at the expense of science, nor brevity by the sacrifice of useful facts or appropriate illustrations. The work contains not a few new and original views; and it is confidently believed that in every department it will be found to imbody the latest information, and to be on a level with the most advanced state to which knowledge has attained, not merely in this, but also in other countries. No statement has been made as to any unusual or doubtful matter, without referring to the authority whence it has been derived; and when subjects of general interest and importance are noticed, the reader is referred to the works relating to them in which they are handled with the greatest ability. Not only, therefore, will those who may consult this work have a guarantee for the authenticity of its information, but they will learn the sources to which they may resort with the greatest advantage, should they wish to make farther in quiries. Such, in a few words, is the design of this work; and unless its publishers be greatly deceived as to its execution, it can hardly fail to be useful to individuals of all ranks and conditions: to the man of business and the man of pleasure, the student and the superficial reader, the busy and the idle. Every one who takes any share in conversation, or who dips, how cursorily soever, into any newspaper or other publication, will every now and then find the advantage of having access to the DICTIONARY OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND ART. In finally submitting the work to the judgment of the public, the publishers may, perhaps, be allowed to say that they have left no means untried that appeared likely to ensure the accuracy and excellence of the work. It was distributed into divisions or departments, each embracing a single subject, or a class of closely-allied subjects; and these were respectively assigned to gentlemen distinguished by their attention to, and proficiency in, the topics to be treated of. This seemed to be the most likely means to avoid mere compilation, to ensure accryacy and adequate information, and to make the work not only a comprehensive and correct, but in some measure also an original, digest and synopsis of human knowledge. A DICTIONARY OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND ART. A. ABATON. A. The first letter of the Alphabet, in all known lan- use formed an essential part of the education of every no. guages, with the exception of the Amaric, a dialect of the ble Roman youth:Ethiopian, in which it is the 13th, and of the Runic, ine qui abaco umeros, et stoinpulveremetas, which it is the 10th. It was called Alpha by the Greeks, Scit risisse v merafe r Pets. Sat. I. 13. and Aleph by the Hebrews. ABACI'SCIJS (see ABACUS.) In Architecture, any flat The Chinese, like the Greeks, employ wires with beads; member. The square compartment of a mosaic pavement, and with them the abacus or Swan-pan is in universal use, ABA'CK, in sea language, denotes the position of the sails as it conveniently adapts itself to their decimal divisions of when flatted against the mast by the force of the wind. This weights and measures. The abacus continued to be used may happen either by a sudden change of the wind, or an in European countries during the middle ages. Instead of ilteration of the ship's course; or the sails may be laid a- a board, however, with bars or wires, it became the prachack for the purpose of avoiding some imminent danger. tice to cover a bench or bank with chequered cloth, on A'BACOT. Acap ofstate worn by the old English kings. which the counters were disposed. Hence our terms exA'BACJUS. (Gr. aGa, a slab.) In Architecture, the up- chequer, bankrupt, &c. A chequered board, such as is per part or crowning member of the capital of a column. still sometimes seen as a sign at the doors of public houses, Ihis member alone seems to have constituted the primitive was formerly used in England as an abacus. For an excelcapital. It is an essential and constituent part of the capi- lent account of the abacus, and of palpable arithmetic genetal. In the Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic orders it is square, rally, see the article on Arithmetic, in the Encyclopaedia and in the Corinthian and composite curved inwards on its Britannica, by Sir John Leslie. Dr. D. B. Reid, of Edinplane and truncated at the quoins or angles at 45 degrees burgh, has applied the abacus to facilitate the study of the with the face of the entablature. The use of the abacus composition of chemical compounds. See Reid's Chemis to give breadth to the top of the column, and present a istry, Edinburgh, 1839. larger surface of level bed for the reception of the archi- ABA'FT, or AFT, in sea language, signifies towards the trave. stern, or hinder part of the vessel Thus a thing is abaft ABACUS. An ancient instrument used for assisting nu- the foremast when it is between the foremast and the merical calculations. This term has been variously de. stern. rived; from the Greek word, abax, signifying a table; a ABA'NDONMENT. A term used in insurances, where, Phoenician word, abak, signifying sand (because when co- before compensation can be demanded, the insured must vered with sand it served for the purposes of writing); but abandon his interest in any portion of the rescued property. its derivation is most probably to be referred to the three It is also used in the language of the customs, to signify the first letters of the Greek alphabet. abandonment of an article by the importer to avoid payThe use of the abacus will be readily understood from mpnt of the duty. the annexed figure. A parallelogram is divided by parallel ABA'TEMENT, Plea of, in Law, is pleaded to a decla. bars, on which small pebbles or coun- ration, writ, &c., on account of some defect in form. (See ters are placed. The counters on the PLEADING.) lowest bar denote units, those on the -v- ABATEMENT. In Ileraldry, symbols of disgrace intro. second tens, those on the third hun- -*- 4-~ - ~diiced into arms: mentioned for the most part only by dreds, and so on; one counter on a English heraldic writers. A def, or quadrant spot, is the superior bar being equal to ten on the sign of a revoked challenge: an escutcheon reversed, behar immediately below it. Bymeans ~ —_.e longs to an ungallant person or deserter. apoint dexter of nine counters for each bar, it is ob-. parted, to a boaster: a point inpoint, to a coward: a point vious that any number may be thus champain, to one who kills a prisoner of war: a gore sinis. expressed. But the number of coun- E~ ~ ~ ter, to effeminate persons: a gusset dexter denotes volupters may be diminished by placing a counter on the inter- tuousness, a gusset sinister intoxication. The only abatemediate space between two bars, giving it the value of five ment now used in practice is the baston, which belongs to on the bar below. When seven bars are used, any number bastards; it is in the form of the bend sinister, contains may be expressed under ten millions. The number re- one fourth of its dimensions, but does not reach quite to presented in the figure is 845,398. It will be observed that the circumference of the escutcheon. the artificial value given to the counters, according to the A'BATIS. (Fr. abattre, to knock down.) A military positions which they occupy, is entirely analogous to our term, signifying trees cut down, and laid with their branches numerical system of digits. The form of the instrument towards the enemy, so as to form a defence for troops sta. admitted of considerable variety. The Grecian abacus tioned behind them. Abatis, among the writers ofthe barwas an oblong frame, having wires stretched across it, barous ages, denotes an officer in the stables, who had the strung with perforated beads or little ivory balls. In the care and distribution of the provender. Roman abacus the counters were slid along grooves. Its A'BATON. (Gr. a&arov, an inaccessiblepleo.) An odi I A ABATTOIR. ABERDEVINE. fice at Rhodes so called by Vitruvius, lib. 2., the entrance Miscellaneous, Diplomatical, &c. whereof was forbidden to all persons, because it contained A D., the year of our Lord. A. C. or B. C., the yer be. a trophy and two bronze statues erected by Artemisia in A H.the yearof the He fore Christ. memory of her triumph on surprising e city. gira. A. U. C., the year from the ABATTOIR. (Fr. abattre, to knock down.) A building A. of ome. appropriated to the slaughtering of cattle. In Great Britain i. e., t.bat is to say. Nem. con., no one contra. there is no example of such a structure, the slaughter- iiien the same place. dieting. houses not deserving the appellation as applied by the he same. Nem. dis.no one dissenting. French. Paris possesses some fine specimens of this sort N B" of architecture, constructed in 1809; the most magnificent rv M., m ri. viz., for videlicet, to wit. A. morning. is that in the neighbourhood of Montmartre.., in a deed) the place P. M., ternoo. ABBE'. The French term for the superiorofan abbey. of the seal. H. M. S., His Majesty's sPahi Before the Revolution the title was assumed also by a class R. St and L. S., right and or service. of persons who had not in all cases received the tonsure, left side. DS G., by the grace of od or undertaken to connect themselves with the church. They N S., new style, (since F.D., DefenderoftheFaith held a conspicuous place in society, and generally attached 2.) H. R. E., Holy Roman themselves to fashionable or literary patrons. This ano- S., old style, (before.ire malous class seems to have taken its rise from the great United Statle of Ame number of abbeys, the revenues of which were allowed to 72 andi e U. be bestowed upon laymen, upon condition of their taking olders within a year after their preferment, which latter ABDICA'TION. (Lat. abdico, Iabdscate.) In Politics, clause was frequently evaded. the renunciation of an office or dignity by its holder; but it A'BBESS. (Fr. Abbesse.) The governess or superior is commonly meant to express the voluntary renunciation of a monastery or abbey for females. By a decree of the of supreme power. The most famous examples of this on Council of Trent she must be of the age of forty years, and record, are the abdication of the dictatorship by Sylla, 75 have professed eight years at least. years B. C.; of the imperial throne, by Dioclesian, anno A'BBEY. (Fr. Abbaie.) In Architecture, properly, the 305; of the Emperor Charles V., in 1556; and of Christina, building adjoining or near a convent or monastery, for the queen of Sweden, in 1654.-Of all the sovereigns who have residence of the head of the house, abbot or abbess. It is made voluntary abdications, Dioclesian is, perhaps, the often used for the church attached to the establishment. only one who did not regret the step. Examples of forced In ecclesiastical history an Abbey was a monastery under or voluntary abdication are too numerous to require to the superintendence of an abbot, maintaining in later times be pointed out. The modern history of France and Eng. the highest rank among religious houses, and enjoying land furnish some very striking instances with which every some superior privileges, one is familiar. The convention parliament of 1688 used A'BBOT. The superior of a monastery for men. Mo- the word abdication to express the act of James II. in nastic societies, being originally composed of laymen, were abandoning the government and kingdom. The word obliged to have recourse to the assistance of a neighbour- "desertion" was rejected as implying the possibility of a ing priest to administer the sacrament and perform other return. The Scottish convention of estates declared that clerical functions among them. Afterwards the superior James had " forfeited" the kingdom. Abdication is said to of the society in many cases entered into orders, and ex- differ from resignation, the former being unconditional, the ercised the ministerial office for the convenience of his' latter done in favour of some other person. community, under the title of abbot. (Heb. abba, father.) ABDO'MEN. (Lat. abdo, I conceal.) The great cavity From the beginning of the sixth century this practice be- of the animal body, which is liable to temporary changes came universal, the abbot having absolute power within his in its dimensions, independently of respiration. In ento own monastery, but being himself subject to the authority mology it forms, in insects the third, in arachnidans the of his diocesan. This subjection, however, the abbots second, in both classes the most posterior, of the sections gradually threw off to a great extent, and in many places into which the body is externally divided, and contains the themselves assumed the titles and authority of bishops. principal digestive and respiratory, and the whole of the Such were the mitred abbots, and the crosiered abbots; generative organs. The enlargements of the abdomen, in the former of whom, to the number of 26, sat inthe English relation to the activity of the generative functions, is most parliament with the bishops and two priors in the reign of remarkable in insects; in some of which, as the white ant, Henry VIII. or termite, it constitutes at the full development of the Abbots are properly superior in rank to Priors; the latter ova an immense proportion of the entire body of the febeing often appointed by the abbot to superintend a de- maled. In vertebrates the abdomen is not divided externa-. pendent foundation. But the distinction does not appear ly from the thorax; and only in one class, the mammalia, to have been regularly observed, and there are certain or- by an internal partition, or diaphragm. ders whose superiors are always called priors;-as the The abdomen is the first-formed cavity in the developmonks of Vallombrosa, the Cistercians, Bernardists, Feuil- ment of the animal body, and is the most constant in its lants, Trappists, Grandmontanists, and Preemonstratenses. existence throughout the animal series. (See CRANIUM ABBREVIA'TION. (Lat. brevis, short.) In Aritbhme- and THoRAX.) tic. The process by which a fraction is reduced to lower ABDO'MINALS. Abdominales. An order of malacop. terms; thus the division of the numerator and denomina.- terygious fishes, including those which have the ventral tor of.1 by 8 reduces or abbreviates the fraction to 2. fins situated under the abdomen, behind the pectorals. A-2 ~BEvTWON. In Music. A stroke which, pd ABDUTCTION. (Lat. ab, from, and duco, Ilead.) In ABBREVIATION. In Music. A strokeLaw, the forcible carrying away of a woman, for the purover or under a note, divides it into quavers if there be only pose of marriage or defilement. Where the female has one: if two, into semiquavers; if three, into demisemione: if two, into semiquavers; if three, into demisemi- property, oris presumptively entitled to it, such abduction quavers..EVIATION.InWriting.Beforetheinventionof is felony: and in all cases the taking of a girl under sixteen AsBRVIATInOgN. In Writing. Before the invention of from under the protection of her parents is a misdemeanprinting, a variety of abbreviations were used, most of The crime of abduction. according to SirW.Scott which have gradually fallen into disuse: they generally ( ntrodction to Rob Roy), was at one consisted in substituting the initials for the words. Of the on t abbreviations at present in use, the following are those period extremely common on the border ofn Ireland: the which most commonly occur:-in Titles, Highlands; it is now an ordinary offence in Ireland: the number of convictions in the last 7 years amounts to 61; A. M., Master of Arts. K. C. H., Knight Command. executions. 5. A. B., Bachelor of Arts. er of Hanover. ABDU'CTOR. Abductor muscles are those which pull B. C. L., Bachelor of Civil K. G., Knight of the Garter. back or separate the limbs to which they are affixed. Law. IL. D.. Doctor of Laws. A'BELITES, or Abelians, in ecclesiastical history, a sect B. D., Bachelor of Divinity. M. A., Master of Arts. mentioned by St. Augustine, in Africa. They are said to Clk., Clerk or Clergyman. M.D., Doctor of Medicine. have enjoined marriage and virginity, after the pretendel C. B., Companion of the M.P., Member of Parlits- I example of Abel. (See Mosheim, Eng. Trans. i. 233.) Bath. ment. A'BER. A Celtic term, implying the mouth of a river; D. C. L., Doctor of Civil M. R. I. A., Member of the as Aberdeen, the mouth ot the Dee; Aberystwith, the Law. Royal Irish Academy. mouth of the Ystwith, &c. D. D., Doctor of Divinity. R. A., Roval Academy. ABE'RDEVINE, or European Siskin; ( Carduelis spinus F. R;., Fellow of the Roy. R. E., Ro;al Engineers. Cuv.) A small green and yellow finch, belonging to the al Society. R. M.. Royal Marines. same sub-genus as the goldfinch of England. Its song G. C. B.,Grand Cross of the R N.. Royal Navy. is similar to that of the goldfinch, but is not so sweet, and Bath. S. T. P.. Doctor of Divinity, ends with a harsh jarring note. Its flight is a series of G C.H. Grand Cross of or Sanctae Theologiae successive undulating courses, accompanied by a chirp, at Hanover. Professor. each propelling motion of the wings, as in other species of K. B., Knight of the Bath. E. 1. C., East India Corn- Carduelis. The Aberdevine winters in the south of Eng K. C. B Knight Command. pany. land, and flies northward in the month of March, to breed er of the Bath. W. S Writer to the Signet. in the pine forests of Scotland. The nest is bui't among 2 ABERRATION. ABIETINXE. tne higher branches of the pine: the eggs are four or five aberration; but in this case, as the body from which the in number; of a bluish white colour, speckled with pur- light emanates is also in motion, we must consider that the plish-red. They begin to re-appear in the south in the ray of light which enters the eye has proceeded, not from month of September. The Aberdevine resembles in the the place which the planet occupies at the instant of the markings of its plumage the common redpole. (Linaria observation, but from that which it did occupy at as long ~usilla, Cuv.) but the colours are different, an interval previously as light requires to traverse the disABERRA'TION. (Lat. ab, from, and erro, I wander.) tance between the planet and the earth. To this small va. A term used in astronomy, to denote a change in the posi- riation in the place of the planet must be added the space Uions of the celestial bodies arising from the combined ef- described by the earth in the same interval; and it is easy fects of the motion of light and the motion of the earth in to see that the sum is the apparent or relative motion of its orbit. the planet during the time which light takes to pass from it To explain the cause of this remarkable phenomenon, to the earth. conceive a ray of light to proceed from a star S to an ob. The aberration was discovered, and its physical cause server at 0. If the station of the observer wvere \' - first explained, by Dr. Bradley. It is the most direct proof at rest, or if the motion of light were instanta. which astronomy furnishes of the motion of the earth neous, the star would be seen in its true place D round the sun. atS. But neither of these circumstances has ABERRATION. In Optics, denotes the deviation of the place; the observer is carried rapidly forward rays of light from the true focus of a curved lens or specuby the motion of the earth in its orbit, and light lum; in consequence of which they do not unite in a occupies a certain time in coming from any of B o A single point, but are spread over on a small surface, and the heavenly bodies to the earth. Suppose, then, that form a somewhat confused image of the object. This while a particle of light advances from D to 0, the observer arises from two causes: 1st, the figures of the lenses or has been carried forward by the earth's orbital motion from specula; and, 2dly, from a difference in the physical naA to 0. At 0 the particles of light will strike the eye with ture of the rays of light. a velocity proportional to D 0, and the eye will impinge The surfaces of the lenses or mirrors of optical instruagainst the particle with a velocity proportional to A 0. ments are worked into a spherical form, because there is Thus a double effect will be produced: first, that of the no practical means of accurately obtaining the parabolic motion of light proportional to D 0, and, secondly, that curvature which theory shows to be necessary to collect arising from the motion of the observer proportional to parallel rays into a single point or focus. Hence the rays A 0. But it is obvious that the question will in no way be meet the axis of the lens at different points, the amount of affected, if we suppose that, instead of the observer having deviation depending on the magnitude and curvature of the been carried forward from A to 0, he had remained at rest lens. This is called the Aberration of Sphericity. The in 0, and the light had advanced to him in the opposite di- second cause of aberration arises from the different de. rection, and with a velocity B 0 = A 0. Thus the eye grees of refraction which the rays composing a beam of would receive two simultaneous impressions in the direc- light undergo in passing from one medium into another. tions D 0 and B O of the parallelogram B C D 0; and by On account of this difference of refrangibility, the rays of the theory of the composition of velocities the effect would light are separated, and the colours of the spectrum ap be exactly the same as if the eye had received a single im- pear. It was long believed, and even by Newton himself, pression from a particle proceeding in the direction of the that it was impossible to refract, without decomposing Jiagonal C 0, and with a velocity proportional to C 0. light; and hence the attempts that have been made to perlfence the apparent place of the star will be at S', in ad. feet reflecting telescopes, and adapt them to circular invance of its true place at S. struments. But it has since been discovered that the refracThe angle C 0 D is the aberration, and its magnitude can tive and dispersive powers of different diaphanous substaneasily be determined when we know the relative magni- ces are in different proportions, and that the decomposition tudes of D 0 and B 0, and the inclination of those lines; of the light may be prevented by combining substances of that is, when we know the relative velocities of light and of different refractive powers; for example, crown and flint the earth, and the relative direction of their motions. It is glass. in the same lens. (See AcHROMATISM.) obvious that the aberration will be greatest when those ABE'TTOR. (Sax. abedan, to incite.) In law. An in. lines are perpendicular to each other; when they are par- stigator or incitor; a person who promotes or procures ailel, it vanishes altogether. the commission of an offence or felony, by his advice or From the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, and other phe- encouragement. If an abettor, or as he is then termed, an nomena, it has been ascertained that light is transmitted aider and abetter, be present at the commission of the through space with a velocity of 192,000 miles per second. crime, he is treated as a principal; if absent,'he becomes The mean velocity of the earth in its orbit is about 19 miles an accessory before the fact. But in almost all cases of felper second; we have, therefore, when B 0 and D 0 are at ony the abettor is considered as much a principal as the right angles, the proportion actual felon, especially in the case of murder; and the 192,000: 19 = D 0: B 0= rad.: tan. C 0 D; abettors of offences punishable summarily by justices of the peace, are subjected to the same penalties as the hence the tangent of C 0 D, or the aberration (or in so small principals. an angle the tangent is equal to the arc), is found by the ABE'YANCE. (Norm. Fr. beyer, to expect.) In law. Trigonometrical Tables =20-"-5. This being the greatest The fee simple, or inheritance of lands, is said to be in value of the angle, is called the Constant of Aberration. abeyance, when there is no person in esse in whom it can From Bradley's observations the Cqnstant of Aberration vest and abide, although limited and ready to vest whenwas determined by Bessel (Fundamenta Astronomis) to be ever the proper heir appears. Thus, in a grant to A for 20"-25. Dr. Brinkley found it=20"-37. Mr. Richardson, life, and afterwards to the heirs of B, the inheritance refrom a series of 2000 observations made with the two mu- mains in abeyance until the death of B, as there can be no ral circles in the Greenwich Observatory, found the value heir to a living person. A peerage descending to co-heirof this important element=20"'307. (Memoirs Royal esses is said to be in abeyance. Astr. Society, vol. iv.) A'BIB. The first month of the Hebrew year, more genThe effect of aberration on any particular star depends erally known by the Chaldean name of Nisan. It is first on the position of the star with reference to the ecliptic. mentioned in the 4th verse of the 13th chapter of Exodus. Let A B C D be the orbit of the earth, and S, A'BIES. (Lat. abies, a fir tree.) The name of all those a star in the plane of the ecliptic. When8 a ~ fir trees which, like the spruce, the larch, the cedar of Lethe earth is at A the star will be thrown banon, have their leaves growing singly upon the stem, forward by the effect of aberration to s. A and the scales of the cones round and thin. The wood When the earth arrives at the opposite called by timber-merchants "white deal" is produced by point of its orbit C, the star will be thrown [ D Abies excelsa, and a resinous, or terebintaceous substance nack to s'. At B and D the earth is mov-B5 by others; as Canadian balsam by A. balsamea, the balm ing in a direction parallel to the ray of light of Gilead; Strasburgh turpentine by A. pectinata, the silver proceeding from the star, and there is, con- c fir; Venetian turpentine by A. larix, the larch. Besides 1equently, no aberration. Hence a star these, the substance called extract of spruce is furnished situated in the plane of the ecliptic appears to oscillate partly by A. canadensis, and partly by A. nigra. All the backwards and forwards in a straight line, always returning species are hardy, and, with the exception of larches, are to its former position at the end of a year. evergreen, and in cultivation in England. The most valuA ray of light proceeding from a star situated in the pole able for the timber are, A. Douglasii, A. excelsa, and A. of the ecliptic, is always at right angles to the direction of larix; the most ornamental are, A. cedrus, the cedar of the earth's motion; consequently, a star having this posi- Lebanon, deodara, and larix. The most worthless in lion will appear to describe annually, about the pole of the Great Britain are, A. canadensis, picea, balsamea, and pec. ecliptic, a circle of which the radius =20"'3. tinata; the three latter form, however, fine trees in fa. In any other position, the apparent path of a star, so far vourable situations. The wood of the fir is in very exis depends on aberration, is an ellipse whose major axis tensive use, and it is. perhaps, the most serviceable of all = 40' -6, and its minor axis = 40"-6, multiplied by the sine trees, of the star's latitude. ABIETI'NE. A division in the natural order of conifeThe apparent places of the planets are also affected by rous plants, comprehending the true firs, pines, and arau3 ABJURATION. ABSCISS. caria'like pines, all which have cones with many rows of flpayXla, gills.) An order (the third in Cuvier's arrange scales in which the seeds are formed. merit) of anellidans, so called because the species compos AB.JURA'TION. Oath of. (Lat. ab, from, and juro, I ing it have no external organs of respiration; they are diswtrear.) Introduced/ by slat. 13 W. III., and regulated by 6 vided into the setigerous abranchians, or worms, and ths G. III. An oath asserting the title of the present royal non-setigerous abranchians, or leeches. fanlily to the crown of England. By this oath the juror re- ABRA'SION. (Lat. abrado, Irub off.) In Numismatocognises the right of the king under the Act of Settlement; logy, implies the waste of coins, or the loss by wear and engages to support him to the utmost of his power; prom- tear in the pocket. This forms a considerable item in the ises to disclose all traitorous conspiracies against him; and expense of a metallic currency; and various means have expressly disclaims any right to the crown of England in been employed to lessen it, by alloying the coins so as to the descendants of the Pretender. render them harder, by raising the borders so as to lessen ABJURATION of the Realm (in law) signifies a sworn ban- the surface exposed to be rubbed, &c. ishment; or the taking of an oath to renounce and depart ABRA/XAS. A genus of Lepidopterous insects, of the from the realm for ever. family Geometridse: founded by Dr. Leach for the cornABJURATION also signifies a solemn recantation of opin- mon magpie moth (Abraxas glossulariata) and other allied ion: as, the abjuration of heresy required by the Romish species. It is the larvae of the Abr. glossulariata which Church. Henry IV. abjured Protestantism at Saint ]Denis commit the well-known ravages upon the gooseberry trees in 1593. Galileo was compelled to abjure his philosophi- of our gardens: consuming the leaves almost as soon as cal opinions by the Inquisition at Rome, in 1633. they appear. They feed early in the morning, before the A'BLATIVE case. (Lat. ablatus, taken away.) The dew is off or the sun has much power; and it is at this sixth case of the Latin nouns implied in English by the time that they should be sought for and removed. preposition from. (See Grammar.) ABRI'DGEMENT. In Literature. (Lat. abbrevio, I A'BLU'T'ION. (Lat. ablutio, washing.) A religious cere- shorten.) A compendious arrangement of the matter coumony, consisting in bathing the body or part of it. It con- tained in a larger work. Before the invention of printing, stituted a part of the Mosaic ceremonial, and was after- when manuscripts were valuable, and the labour of writing wards practised among the Jews, both by the priests and them great, the compiling abridgements of considerable people. But ablations are most rigidly enforced by the works was an important branch of authorship; and it has Mahometans. The term is also applied to the cup given, been doubted whether we have lost or gained more by the without consecration, to the laity in the popish churches. practice: since, on the one hand, the contents of many lost ABNO'RMAL. (Lat. ab,from, and norma, a rule.) Any authors are thus partially preserved to us: and, on the other, thing without, or contrary to, system or rule. Thus Horace the abridgement becoming popular may, in some cases, calls a well-informed sagacious countryman,- have caused the loss of the original. Among the best Rusticus, abnormis sapiens, crassaque Minerb.. known abridgements of antiquity are the History of Justin, being an abridgement of the lost History of Trogus PomIn botany. if a flower has five petals, the rule is that it peius: the Natural History of Solinus, chiefly abridged from should have the same number of stamens, or some regular that of Pliny, &c. Few modern abridgements, taking the multiple of that number; if it has only four or six stamens, phrase in its strict sense, merit peculiar notice, or have then, in such a case, the flower would be abnormal. been compiled with any other view than that of assisting ABOA'RD, within the ship; also one vessel is said to education. This, however, is not the case with some of get aboard of another when she gets foul of her. those works called abridgements, intended to exhibit a ABORVGINES. The first, or original (aprima origine) summary view of some science or department of lite ainhabitants of a country, that is, those who occupied it at ture. The Abrige Chronologique de l'Histoire de France, the period when it began to be known, and who either by the president Henault, is a work of this kind. It has, were indigenous to the soil or had immigrated thither be- perhaps, been praised beyond its deserts, but still it posfore the dawn of history. Some of the ancients supposed sesses uncommon merit. Its success led to the publicathey had always inhabited the same soil, and were created tion of various works of the same kind, of which the from it, as the Athenians, who thence called themselves Abrgeg Chronologique del'Histoire de l'Allemagne, by autochthones, coeval with and sprung from the land. But Pfeffel, is probably the best. Dr. Robertson drew from it the Romans and modern nations use the word Aborigines most of his knowledge of the constitution of the German to designate those inhabitants of a country of whose origin empire. To abridge well requires a thorough knowledge nothing certain is known. Thus the Indians of America of the subject. with tact to seize upon the prominent points, are properly called Aborigines, because they were found and ability to sltate them clearly and succinctly. Tacitus, there at its discovery, and we have no accounts of their says Montesquieu, "abridged all because he knew all," but having immigrated from any other quarter. Tacituses are rare. ABO'RTION. (Lat. abortus, miscarricge.) This term ABROGA'TION. The annulment of a law by compe-.A usually applied to the morbid or unnatural expulsion of tent authority. (From the Latin ab, from, and rogo, Iask.) the foetus in the human subject after the sixth week, and A phrase derived from the practice of the Roman popular before the sixth month, of pr.gnancy. Before the sixth assemblies, in which the several tribes, curiga, &c. were week it is called a miscarriage, and after the sixth month, said rogare suffragia, to demand the suffrage; whence also premature labor. the modern word prerogative. (See COMITIA.) ABO'RTIVE. Is said of parts in plants that do not ac- ABRU'PT. (Lat. abrumpo, I break off.) A term in Boquire theirusual state of perfection; a flower only partially tany, applied to any thing which happens suddenly. A leaf formed, a stamen whose filament has no anther, a seed which is suddenly terminated without tapering to a point, a which contains no embryo, or which consists only of skin, stem which is suddenly bent, a pinnated leaf without a terare cases of abortion. The term is also applied to parts minal leaflet, are all abrupt. which, although perfect in the beginning, cease to grow, ABRUPT. In Ichthyology is applied to the lateral line and so end in being imperfect; thus ovules, which are not when divided into two or more parts not contiguous. impregnated, and which shrivel up instead of growing into A'BRUS. (Gr. d6pos, delicate, or elegant.) A West Inseed, are called abortive. dian tree with papilionaceous flowers, and pods containABO'UHANNES. An African bird, supposed to be the ing bright red seeds with a broad black scar on one side Ibis of the ancients. of them. The seeds are often strung into necklaces for ABRACADA'BRA. A celebrated term of incantation: children. especially used as a spell against fevers. The manner in A'BSCESS. (Lat. abscedo, Iseparate.) Inflammation in which it was written and carried for that purpose may be the membranous or fleshy parts of the body, attended by seen in Defoe's History of the Plague at London. The the formation ofpus, and the consequent separation or disword seems to be connected with Abrasax or Abraxas; a tension of the parts affected; thus the integuments sepaname found inscribed on certain stones or amulets, in such rate from the parts beneath, and form a tumour. characters, together with the figure of a human body, with A'BSCISS, or ABSCISSA. (Lat. ab scindo, Icut off.) the head of a cat and feet of a reptile. Various explana- A term used in geometry to denote a segment cut off from lions have been attempted of the object of these curiosi- a straight line, by an ordinate to a curve. The position of ties: some from the cabalistic and an Egyptian derivation. a point on a plane is perfectly determined when its disBellermann (Berlin, 1517,) and Neander, have written on tances, measured in given directions, from two straight ne subject of the Abraxas stones. lines given by position, are known; and as curve lines ABRA'DING. In Agr. (I.at. ab, from, and rado, I may be regarded as formed by the continuous motion of a scrape or rub off.) Applied to the sloping surface of banks point, their various properties may be investigated by of earth,which crumbles down from the effects of frost, or means of the relation common to all points of the same the alternate action of drouglht and moisture. curve between the two distances so measured. Thus, let ABRA'MIS. (Abramis, Cuv.) The name of a subgenus A B and A C be two straight lines given of Malacopterygious or soft-finned abdominal fishes, char- by position, and P any point in a curve acterised by the absence of spines or barbels; by the C X Y. Draw P Q parallel to A C, and dorsal fin being short and placed behind the ventrals, and p meeting A B in Q, then P Q is called the anal fin being long. The common bream is a species X the ordinate of the point P, and A Q is of this genus. ~ the absciss. The absciss and ordinate, ABRA'NCHIANS. Abranekia, Cov. (Gr. i, withosa, considered together, are called the co. 4 ABSENTEE. ACADEMICS. ominates of the curve, and the point A, where they inter- remove and carry to the same organs the decayed and mect, Is called the origin of the co-ordinates. For every useless parts of the body. See LACTEALS. point of the same curve a certain unavoidable relation ex- A'BSTRACT (Lat. abstraho, I take away), signifies a ge. ists between A Q and P Q, which is called the equation of neral view or analysis of a whole work, or part of a work. the curve. In order to represent this equation algebraic- It differs from abridgement chiefly in this, that while in the ally, the absciss A Q is represented by x, and the ordinate latter it is often necessary to enter into somewhat minute P Q by y. The co-ordinates may be inclined to each other details, the former is always confined to a notice only of at any angle, but in general the investigations are much the leading particulars. See ABRIDGEMENT. simplified by assuming them at right angles. The origin A'BSTRACT MATHEMATICS, or PURE MATHEMAof the co-ordinates, or the point from which the absciss is TICS. That branch of science which treats of the rela. reckoned, may be taken any where in the plane of the tions or properties of magnitudes or quantities, considered curve. When a particular curve, however, is to be inves- generally, and without restriction to any individual magnitigated, it is often convenient to place the origin at some tude. Thus, the proposition that the three angles of a trianpoint which is related to the other parts of the curve. gle are, together, equal to two right angles, is an abstract Thus, if the curve is a circle, the co-ordinates are conve- truth, not confined to an individual triangle, or to a particuniently reckoned from the centre. lar species of triangles, but belonging to all triangles what. ABSENTE'E. In Politics, a word which has received, ever. Abstract mathematics is opposed to mixed mathe. from usage, a peculiar signification: a landed proprietor matics, wherein abstract properties or relations are applied who habitually resides at a distance from the district in to sensible objects. which his property is situate: especially applied to Irish ABSTRACT NUMBERS. Numbersconsideredinthemlandlords and clergy. In 1715 a tax was imposed on ab- selves, and without reference to any particular thing. The sentees from Ireland, in all cases where their residence operations of common arithmetic are performed on abwithin it was for less than six months in the year; power stract numbers. of dispensation being secured to the crown. But it ceased ABSTRA'CTION. (Lat. abstraho, I draw off.) In Met* to be levied in 1753, and has not since been renewed. physics and Logic, the faculty by which, in contemplating Whether or not the absence of a landed proprietor be inju- any object, we can attend exclusively to some circumrious to a country, in an economical sense, is a question stances or qualities belonging to it, and withhold our at. which has been much debated of late years. See the evi- tention from the rest. It is by the means of this faculty dence of Mr. J. R. M'Culloch before the Committees of the that we generalise, and arrive at the common terms or Lords and Commons, to inquire into the state of Ireland, predicables (see PREDICABLES) which belong to a number 1825; and the controversy occasioned by that evidence, in of objects. Thus, in considering a horse, by abstracting the Edinburgh Review, No. 85, and Quarterly Review, mentally the qualities which belong to that particular ani Vol. 33. See also Mr. M'C.'s evidence before the Commit- mal, we arrive at the notion of a quadruped, thence at that tee on the state of Ireland in 1830, and Mr. Senior's Outline of an animal, &c. &c.; which notions constitute, in logical of Political Economy, Encyclopaedia Metropolitana. language, the successive genera and species of the individA'BSIS, or APSIS. (Gr. dta, an arch.) In Architec- ual horse. tire, a word used by ecclesiastical authors to signify that ABSU'RDTM, or REDUCTIO AD ABSURDUM. A part of the church wherein the clergy were seated, or the term used in Geometry to denote a mode of demonstr-. altar was placed. This part of the church was so called tion in which the truth of a proposition is established, not from its usually being domed or vaulted, and not as Isido- by a direct proof, but by proving that the contrary is absurd, rue imagines, from its being the lightest part, from apta. or impossible. There are many examples of this mode of rhe apsis was either circular or polygonal on the plan, and demonstration in the Elements of Euclid. domed over at top as a covering. It consisted of two parts, ABU'NDANT NUMBER (Arithmetic) is a number such the altar and the presbytery, or sanctuary: at the middle that the sum of its divisors is greater than the number itof the semicircle was the throne of the bishop; and at the self. Thus, 12 is an abundant number, because its divisors centre of the diameter was placed the altar, towards the being 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6, their sum, which is 16, is greater than nave, from which it was separated by an open balustrade, 12. An abundant number is opposed to a deficient number, or railing. On the altar was placed the cibarium and cup. of which the sum of the divisors is less than the number itThe throne of the bishop having been anciently called by self; and to aperfect number, of which the sum of the dithis name (apsis), some have thought that thence this part visors is equal to itself. of the edifice derived its name, but the converse is the real ABU'TMENT. (According to some, frcm the French, truth. aboutir, to abut, among whom the learned Spelman; but A'BSOLUTE. ABSOLUTISM. In Politics, a government according to others, with more probability, from the Saxon is strictly said to be absolute when the supreme head is above abutan, aobout). In Architecture, the solid part of a pier the control of law, and has unrestricted power of legisla- from which the arch immediately springs. Abutments are tion. " El rey absoluto," is the common watch-word of the either artificial or natural. The former are usually formed anti-constitutional party in Spain. Yet in that country, as of masonry or brickwork, and the latter are the rock or in almost every other, the theory of absolute sovereignty other solid materials on the banks of a river, in the case of has some limit: since we find the same party denying a bridge, which receive the foot of the arch. It is obvious the king the right of altering by his single will the fun- that they must be of sufficient solidity and strength to resist damental laws of succession to the throne. (See DEss- the arch's thrust. POTISM.) ABU'TTALS. The buttings or boundings of land ABSOLUTION. (Lat. ab,from, solvo, Iloose.) A cere- showing by what other lands, highways, rivers, &c. they mony practised in various Christian churches. In the are bounded. Roman Catholic, the priest not only declares absolution to ACA'CIA. (Gr. acaKla.) A genus of spiny leguminous the repentant sinner, but is believed to have the power of trees, with pinnated leaves, and small flowers collected in actually releasing him from his sins: and this authority is balls or spikes, of a white, red, or yellow colour. They declared by the council of Trent to belong-to him in its full are all inhabitants of the warmer parts of the world; some extent. The Church of England, in the Order for the Visit- of them, as A. vera, arabica, &c., yield gum arabic; others ation of the Sick, has retained nearly the same words; but gum senegal: the bark of A. catechu furnishes the astrinher authorities seem not to be exactly agreed as to the gent substance called catechu, or terra japonica. The force and effect of the absolution so conferred. In the flowers of A. farnesiana are exceedingly fragrant, and form daily service, the words of the absolution are merely de- one of the principal ingredients in Italian perfumery. The claratory. bark of many species abounds in tanning principles. New ABSO'RBED. (Lat. absorbeo, Isuck up.) In Painting. Holland, and some other countries, produce great number Sucked up, imbibed. A term applied by the French con- of species in which true leaves are not formed, but in their noisseurs to a picture in which the oil has stink into the stead the branches are furnished with broad dilated pccanvass or ground whereon it is painted, leaving the colour tioles looking like leaves. flat, and the touches indistinct. Our picture dealers use ACADE'MICS. A name given to a series of philosothe term chilled to express the same thing. It may be re- phers who taught in the Athenian Academy, the scene medied by rubbing the picture over with oil, and varnishing of Plato's discourses. They are commonly divided into after it has been well cleaned, three sects, which go under the names of the Old, the ABSO'RBENT Ground. In Painting. A ground pre- Middle, and the New Academy. 1. The Old Academy, pared for a picture, either on board or canvass, chiefly of which Plato was the immediate founder, was reprewith distemper or water-colour mixture, by which expe. sented successively by Speusippuis, Xenocrates, and Podient the oil is immediately taken upor sucked in from the lemo. These philosophers, as far as the scanty notices colours, expedition gained, and a brilliancy imparted to the remaining of them allow us to form a judgment, seem to colours. have confined themselves to the task of elucidating and ABSORBENTS. In Medicine, substances which remove defending the doctrines of their great master. (See PLAacid at the stomach, such as magnesia and chalk. TONISM.) A list of their works is given us by.Diogenes ABSOtRPTION. Iit Physiology, is one of the vital or- Laertius, b. iv. To them succeeded Arcesilaus, the ganic functions, the object of which is primarily to convey founder of (2) the Middle Academy. Under his hands, to the circulating organs the due supply of the materials for the Platonic method assumes an almost exclusively po. the growth and support of the system; and, secondarily, to lemical character. Whatever may have been his belief 6 1 ACADEMY.,egardmg the positive part of Plato's doctrines, lie con- ard of the national language; it is now incorporated with fined himself in public to the.support. of the negative the A. Florentina. In France, the Acad6mie Frangaise portion; that, namely, which relates to the uncertainty was founded in 1635 by cardinal Richelieu. It was an asof the impressions on the senses, and, consequently, of the sociation formed for the purpose of refining the French judgments founded on them. His main object was to re- language and style; and, although in its first period it was fute the Stoics, who maintained a doctrine of perception chiefly remarkable for the adulation which it bestowed on identical with that promulgated by Dr. Reid in the last its vain though able founder, it became, in process of time, century. (See PsRCEPTION.) Socrates is said to have by far the most celebrated and influential of all European professed, that all he knew was, that he knew nothing. literary societies. It consisted of 40 members, and a place Arcesilaus denied that he knew even this. Wisdom he among them was eagerly sought after, for a long period, as made to consist in absolute suspension of assent; virtue, one of the highest honours which could be attained by an in the probable estimate of consequences; in the latter author. Like that of Crusca, it published a Dictionary of doctrine combating the ethical dogmatism of the stoics, the French Language, in 1694. The Royal Academy of as in the former the intellectual. Hie was succeeded by Sciences was founded by Louis XIV., in 1666. and pub. Lacydes, Teleoles and Evander, and Hegesinus. 3. The lished 130 volumes of memoirs, up to the year 1793, when New Academy claims Carneades as its founder. It is not it was abolished by the Convention. The Academies of easy to define the limits between this and the Middle Aca- Painting and Sculpture, and that of Inscriptions and Belles demy. Like Arcesilaus, Carneades appears to have taken Lettres, were the other two principal academies of Paris. up a negative and polemical position. His system is a spe- The latter was founded by Colbert in 1663, and remodelled cies of mitigated scepticism. He considers probability to in 1701. At the Revolution all four were abolished; and, be the sole legitimate object, alike in speculation and in in 1795. at the suggestion of Condorcet, the National Insti. practice. The doctrines of this school were adopted by tute of France was established in their stead. It consisted Cicero, more, probably, in consequence of the advantage of four classes, arising out of the four academies of which which, as an orator, he would derive from the practice of it was composed. According to its re-organisaticn by Na. discussing both sides of a question, than from any solid poleon, in 1806, these classes were remodelled, and each conviction. Carneades was succeeded by his disciple, of them consisted of a certain number of sections, each.Clitomachus. Charmides, the third and last of the New furnished with a specified number of acting and corresAcademicians, appears to have been little more than a ponding members. The first class, or that of sciences, teacher of rhetoric: an accusation, indeed, to which the had sixty-three members, and 100 correspondents; that of whole school is in no small degree liable. To these three languages, forty, and 60 correspondents; that of history academies a fourth and'fifth are added, by some writers: and antiquities, forty, and 60 correspondents; that of the of which Philon and Antiochus are produced as the repre- arts, twenty-eight, and 36 correspondents. The first, third, sentatives. The latter was the friend of Cicero and other and fourth, named each eight foreign associates. In 1816i distinguished Romans. Neither of them can in any jus. the Institute was again remodelled by Louis XVIII. The tice be named academies, their doctrines being, in fact, in four classes again took the name of academies, and bemost points, of a diametrically opposite nature. came more independent of each other, their joint property ACA'DEMY. (Gr. dKalo-Sa.) A society of learned being managed by a commission of eight members, two men, associated for the advancement of the arts or scien- from each, under the superintendence of the minister of tces. The name is derived from that of a place near the interior. The first academy (that of science) retained Athens, where there was a famous school for gymnastic the same number of members. The second and third exercises (see GYMNAsIUM), at which also philosophy was were reduced to thirty-eight and thirty-seven respectively; taught, and the sophists gave their lectures. But the first the fourth, increased to forty. The Academy of Inscrip.institution of which we read, at all resembling our modern tions and Belles Lettres, and that of.Sciences, had added academy, was the society of scholars established at Alex- to them a class of free academicians, of the number of ten, andria by Ptolemy Soter. The Jews in various cities, the with no privilege except that of attendance; the Academy Constantinopolitan emperors, and the Arab caliphs, found- of Arts had the right to choose its own number of free ed societies of the same description. Charlemagne, among members. his various efforts for the propagation of literature, collected Of similar institutions in Germany, the oldest was the an association of learned men, who read and compared the Academia Naturae Curiosorum, a scientific association works of antiquity, and gave themselves, in their academic founded in 1652, in Franconia; afterwards taken undei intercourse, the assumed names of different ancient au- imperial protection, when it received the name of the A. thors. But this institution was dissolved at the death of Caesareo Leopoldina. The Royal A. of Sciences, at BerAlcuin; nor do we find any memorial of a similar society, lin, was founded in 1700, by Frederick I. of Prussia: Leibexcept a few among artists, chiefly in France, until after nitz was its first director. The Imperial Academy of Scithe taking of Constantinople by the Turks, when the Greek ences at St. Petersburgh was founded by Catharine I., scholars driven into Italy held literary meetings, which and endowed by Catharine II. with great munificence, but gradually assumed a more regular form. About 1560 a established on the French model: she separated from it society, called the Academia Secretorum Naturae, was the Academy of Arts. founded at Naples, in the house of Baptista Porta, but was In England, the name academy has been chiefly confined abolished byapapal interdict. It was, however, succeeded to associations for promoting the arts. The Royal Acadeby the Academia Lyncei at Rome, of which Galileo was a my of Arts was founded in 1768, and consists of forty memmember, the objects of which, like those of the former, bers: it has separate professors of painting, architecture. were chiefly connected with the pursuit of natural history. anatomy, and perspective; and a council of nine is elected From the beginning of the 17th century academies multi- annually. The Academy of Ancient Music was founded plied in Italy. Among the most eminent of those which by private association, in 1710: the Royal Academy of bore a philosophical character, was the A. del Cimento, at Music, under the patronage of George III., but dissolved Rome, in that century; the Academy of Orossano, in the shortly after. The principal literary and philosophical sokingdom of Naples, &c.: and, in more recent times, the cieties, answering in character to the branches of the Academy of Sciences at Bologna deserves to be mentioned French Institute, are. 1. The Royal Society of London. with honour. But Italy has been most prolific in acade- which is confined to objects of a scientific character. It mies of literature and philology, which form by far the had its origin as early as 1645, but was established by royal greatest number in the catalogue of 500 such institutions charter in 1662. Its acts have been published, under the which have been enumerated as existing or having existed name of Philosophical Transactions, from 1665 to the prein that country. A general and somewhat ridiculous fash- sent day. 2. Those of the Antiquarian Society, which was ion prevailed in the 17th and 18th centuries among lite. established in 1751, are published under the title of Archeerary men of that country, of forming themselves into so- ologia. 3. The Royal Society of Arts originated in 1718. cieties for the promotion of literary objects, to which they 4. That of Literature, in 1823. Besides these, there are gave fanciful symbolic names, every member assuming in numerous societies which bear the name of the peculiar his own person some analogous appellation. Some of these branch of science to which their exertions are confined. societies have done real service to literature, but by far the The Royal Society of Edinburgh obtained a charter in greatest number have contented themselves with multi- 1783, and another, with more liberal provisions, in 1811. plying insipid addresses and sonnets. Among the most Among the most valuable published transactions of acadecelebrated was the A. degli Arcadj, at Rome, of which mies and similar societies, besides those already menthe meetings were held in a meadow, and the members tioned, are those of Colbert's A. des Inscriptions et Belles enacted shepherds and shepherdesses: it was founded Lettres (50 vols. 4to. from 1701 to 1793): those of the Instiabout 1690, and still subsists, having various affiliated soci- tute being continuations of the memoirs of the former aca eties in other places. The A. degli Umidi, one of the oldest demies of which it was composed: those of the A. Royale of these associations, became afterwards the Florentine Aca- des Sciences and Belles Lettres at Berlin: at first in Latin. demy. The A. degli Intronati (of the Deaf), degli ITmoristi then in French (from its remodelling in 1744 by Frederick (of the Humourists), and many others with similar quaint the Great), now in German. The "Acta" of the Imperial appellations, have acquired celebrity in Italy. Of her phi- Academy of St. Petersburgh. The "Commentarii" of the lological academies, the most illustrious is that della Crus- A. of Bologna. The Antichita d'Ercolano, published by ea (of the Sieve), at Florence, which, by the publication of the Herculanean Academy of Naples. Its dictionary, established the Tuscan dialect as the stand. ACADEMY. In the sense of a place of instruction, is now -a ACADEMY FIGITRE. ACCELERATION. In England a term chiefly appropriated to schools for stu- more resemblance to parsley than to acanthus leaves,:ents in the fine arts. The fourth division of the Insti- whilst those to the Temple of Vesta, at Rome, have a re-:ute at Pans consists of the Academie des Beaux Arts. In semblance to laurel leaves. In Egyptian architecture, the London, an Academy of Painting seems to have been es- palm leaf frequently occurs. tablished in 1712, under the presidency of Sir G. Kneller, ACA'RDIA. (Gr. d, without, and Lat. cardo, hinge.) A Jilut to have shortly after fallen into decay. The present term applied to a genus of fossil ostracean bivalves, in Royal Academy of Arts, founded in 1768, has been already which the hinge is wanting, and the flat valve is applied to mentioned. In France the old universities were suppressed the convex valve, like a lid to a vessel; the two having it the Revolution; but most of them, with some recent ones, been connected only by the adductor muscle. have since been restored under the title of Academies Uni- ATCARI. (Gr. aKapt, a mite.) In Entomology the term versitaires. Their collective body represented by the re- is restricted to the tracheary arachnidans, which have eiunion of their rectors, inspectors, deans, &c., constitutes ther a single-jointed chelicer, or pincer representing an anthe University of France, at the head of which is the Minis- tenna, or a suctorious mouth. All the species are extremeter of Public Instruction. Colleges in France are equivalent ly minute, or even microscopic, as the cheese-mite (Acarus lo high schools in England. domesticus). and many of them parasitic; of the latter, the ACADEMY FIGURE. In Painting. A drawing usually itch-insect (Sarcoptes scabiei) is a remarkable example. made with black and white chalk. on tinted paper, after The mites are active insects, and possess great powers of the living model. life, resisting for a time the application of boiling water, and ACALETPHANS, Acalephli. (Gr. aKcaOXint,anettle.) A living long in alcohol. class of radiate invertebrate animals, so called on account ACCE'DAS AD CU'RIAM. In Law, the title of a writ of the singular property possessed by most of the species which removes a plaint from an inferior court, generally therein comprehended, of irritating and inflaming the skin the county court, as the issuing of which is a preliminary when touched. The class includes the animals called to trying a question of right upon a distress of goods by the'meduse,''soa-nettles,''jelly-fish,''Portuguese men-of- proceeding called REPLEVIN (which see). war,' &c.; these are divided by Cuvier dichotomously into ACCELERA'TION. (Lat. acceleratio, hastening.) In those which have air-bladders for swimming, or the'hy- Mechanics, an increase in the velocity of bodies in motion. drostatic acalephans,' and those which have not, or the Acceleration is uniform or variable, according as the force' simple acalephans,' and which swim by means of exter. by which the motion is produced acts regularly or irregunal cilia, or by the contractions and dilatations of their larly. The most familiar instances of uniformly accelerated gelatinous body. All the species are aquatic and marine. motion, are those which are occasioned by the earth's at. ACA'MPTOSO'MES. (Gr. d, without, KayTrw, I bend, traction, and are exhibited in the falling of heavy bodies, or awoia, the body.) An order of cirripeds including all those their descent along inclined planes. In both these inin which the body is entirely enveloped in a calcareous stances, the observer cannot fail to perceive that the veloci - compound shell, and so attached that it cannot be unfold- ty becomes greater as the body falls from a greater height, ed and protruded. or continues a longer time in motion. In order to explain ACANTHA'CEJE. (See ACANTHUS.) A natural order the theory of acceleration from the action of gravity, it is neofmonopetalous exogenous plants, in which the genus acan- cessary to recollect that, in virtue of the inertia of matter, a thus is stationed. They have irregular didynamous flow- body always perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform moers, and are particularly known by their calyx being im- tion in a straight line, till, by some external influence, it is bricated in two broken whorls, and by their seed growing made to change its state. This is Newton's first lawof motion, from hooks on the placenta. Many of this species have which is admitted as a principle or axiom in mechanics, beautiful flowers, others are mere weeds. They are found and from which it follows, that as a body cannot accelerate wild only in hot or temperate climates, its own motion, any change in the rate of velocity of a ACA'NTHIA. (See ACANTHUS.) The name of a genus moving body must arise from the action of an extraneous of hemipterous insects of the tribe Geocorisce, character- force. Now, suppose a body to be carried to a consideraised by a long and straight rostrum, sheathed at its base, or ble height above the earth, and abandoned to the action of through its entire length; labrum very prominent; eyes of gravity; and let us examine the circumstances which take large size; and the head presenting, at its junction with the place. In this supposition, gravity may be regarded as a thorax, neither a neck nor a sudden constriction. In some force acting uniformly; for, though its intensity diminishes of the species (subgenus Syrtis) the anterior pair of legs as the distance from the centre of the earth increases, yet terminate in a monodactyle chela, or forceps claw, like that any height to which we can reach is so small, compared of the crustacea, adapted for seizing a living prey. with the radius of the earth, that the variation in the intenACA'NTHOCE'PHALANS, Acanthocephala. (Gr. dKay- sity of gravity depending on it may be disregarded. Let Qor, a thorn, and Kx(a>Xq, a head, spiny-headed.) An orderof the time which the body takes to fall to the earth be diviintestinal worms, or entozoons, which attach themselves to ded into equal and small intervals. During the first interval the mucous coat of the intestines by means of a proboscis an impulse is given to the body, and a certain motion is surrounded with minute recurved spines. communicated. If gravity now ceased to act, the body ACA'NTHOPHIS. (Gr. dKavyos, spine, and oeqr, serpent.) would continue, to descend uniformly with the velocity it A genus of venomous serpents, allied to the viper, pecu- had acquired; but the impulse is renewed with exactly liar to Australia, and characterised by a horny spine, sim- equal vigour during the second interval, and, consequently, ulating a sting, at the end of the tail. the velocity of the body is exactly doubled. The same ACA'NTHOPODS, Acanthopoda. (Gr. aeaveOo, and thing is repeated in the third interval, and, consequently, rovc, afoot, spine-footed.) This name is applied to a tribe of the velocity of the body is then tripled. In the fourth inclavicorn coleopterous insects, including those species terval it is quadrupled, and so on; the body continually which have spiny legs. receiving, during equal and successive intervals of time, ACA'NTHOPTERY'GIANS, Acanthopterygii. (Gr. arKa- equal increments of velocity from the action of the accel9os, and Irrepv~, a wing or fin, spiny-finned.) Cuvier's first erating force, and preserving its acquired velocity in conse. order of fishes, characterised by the bony spines which quence of its inertia. Hence we infer the first great law of form the first rays of their dorsal and anal fins, and gene- uniformly accelerated motion, namely, the velocity at any rally, also, the first ray of the two ventral fins. given moment is proportional to the number of impulses KCA'NTHU'RUS. (Gr. aKavOo;, a spine, and ovpa, that have been received, or to the number of intervals that a tail.) A genus of spiny-finned fishes, characterised by have elapsed since the commencement of the motion; in trenchant and serrate teeth, and byhaving a strong movable other words, the velocity is proportional to the time. spine, sharp as a lancet, on each side of the tail, by means Let us now consider the spaces passed over by the falling of which these fishes have the power of inflicting very se- body. Suppose the space through which the body falls vere wounds. during the first interval, or second of time, to be one pole. ACA'NTHUS. (Gr. airavOog, a spine.) A spiny herbaceous As the velocity is supposed, at the commencement of the plant with pinnatifid leaves, and large whitish flowers envel- motion, to be nothing, and to increase uniformly during the oped in spiny bracts, found in various parts of the Levant. interval, it is evident that the space passed over will be the Its leaf is said by Vitruvius to have been the model on same as if the body had continued during the interval which the architects of Greece formed the leaves of the to move uniformly with the mean velocity, or the velocity Corinthian capital, and that the idea of so applying it was it had at the middle of the interval. But the velocity has derived from the following circumstance: —The leaves of been shown to be proportional to the time. Hence, at the acanthus grow in a tuft close to the ground, and sprout end of the first second the velocity is the double of what it annually. It happened that a basket covered with a tile was at the middle of the second; and, therefore, if gravity was left upon the crown of the root of an acanthus plant, ceased to act, the body, during the second interval or sewhich, when it began to grow in the spring, finding itself cond, would descend through two poles. In consequence, unable to arrange its leaves in the usual manner, turned however, of the renewed action of gravity, the body rethem up round the sides of the basket, till encountering the ceives a fresh impulse during the second interval equal to edges of the tile, they gradually curved back in a kind of that which it received during the first, and is, consequently, volute. Other leaves, besides those of the acanthus, are carried through a space equal to one pole, in addition to employed in the decoration of capitals; those, for instance, that through which it is carried by its previously acquired in the composite order of the arches of Titus and Septimius velocity. Hence, during the second interval the body falls Severus, at Rome, have, from their strong indentations, through three poles. At the end of this time the velocity 7 ACCELERATION. ACCIDENTALS. as the double of what it was at the end of the first interval, AcaENT. In Music, a certain stress or forced expression and, consequently, during the next second would carry the laid on certain parts of a bar or measure. body through four poles. Add, again, the effect of the re- ACCE'NTOR. A genus of seed and insect-eating pas. newed impulse, and the space passed over by the body in serine birds, of which the hedge-chanter, or, as it is corn the third second is five poles. In the same manner, we monly called, the hedge-sparrow (Accentor modularis), is a find the space passed over in the fourth second to be seven well known example. poles; in the fifth, nine poles, and so on; the spaces de- ACCE'PTANCE. See BILL OF EXCHANGE. scribed in the successive seconds being proportional to the ACCE'PTOR. (Law.) See BILL OF EXCHANGE. series of odd numbers, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,11, &c. Adding, there- A'CCESSARY. (Lat. accedo, I approach.) In Law, an fore, these numbers successively, we shall have the spaces accessary to an offence is one who is not the chief actor, or passed over, since the commencement of the motion, re- present at its performance, but is concerned therein, either presented by the series of square numbers, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, before or after the fact. An accessary before the fact, is one 36, &c. Whence the second great law of uniform accel- "who, being absent at the time of the crime committed, eration, namely, the spaces described are proportional to the doth yet procure, counsel, or command another to commit squares of the times. a crime." An accessary after the fact, is one who, knowGalileo was the first who discovered the laws of acceler- ing that a felony has been committed by another, receives, ation of falling bodies. He supposed the acceleration to relieves, comforts, or assists the felon. (See LAW, CRIMItake place by equal degrees, or to be uniform and exper- NAL.) iment has confirmed his hypothesis. (See GRAVITY, GRA- ACCESSARY, or ACCESSORY. (Fr. accessoire.) In PaintVITATION.) ing, and the fine arts, is a term which extends to every thing What has now been said, with respect to motion uni- introduced into a work that is not absolutely necessary. In formly accelerated, applies equally (mutatis mutandis) to an historical picture, for instance, the figures which are in motion uniformly retarded. It will also be perceived that action are the principal objects; by them the story is told, the effect of the resistance of the air has been neglected. all the rest are accessories. Especial care is to be taken ACCELERA'TION OF THE FIXED STARS denotes that they be so selected and disposed as not to interfere the apparent greater diurnal motion of the fixed stars than with the principal group; hence the ancient painters and of the sun; in consequence of which they daily come to sculptors were very shy of using them, lest the eye should the meridian of any place at an earlier hour of the solar be drawn away from the principal group, and its interest be day than they did on the day preceding. Thus, a star thus lessened or destroyed. which to-day passes the meridian at six o'clock, mean ACCE'SSION. In international law, the act by which time, will pass the meridian to-morrow three minutes and one power enters into engagements originally contracted filty-six seconds before six o'clock. The reason of this is, between other powers. The accession of a sovereign is the that the sun, which appears to make a complete revolution period at which he assumes the sovereignty, and in herediof the heavens, from west to east, in the course of a year, tary monarchies takes place immediately on the decease advances daily nearly a degree eastward among the stars; of his predecessor. and the apparent diurnal motion being from east to west, ACCIA'CCATU'RA. (It. acciaccare, tosqueeze.) In Muthe sun's passage over the meridian is retarded daily about sic, a grace note, one semitone below that to which it is prethree minutes and fifty seconds of time in respect of the fixed, or, as it were, squeezed in. stars. But ourclocks are regulated by the sun; consequent- A'CCIDENS, per accidens. A term used by the older ly, in reference to them, the daily transit.of the stars over philosophers to denote an effect not following from the the meridian is accelerated. (See SIDEREAL TIME.) nature or essence of the thing, but from some accidental ACCELERA'TION OF THE MOON. An increase of quality. It is opposed to perse. Thus, fire burns perse: the mean angular velocity of the moon about the earth; in heated iron burns per accidens. consequence of which the time of her mean periodic re- A'CCIDENT. In Logic, one of the predicables: in its volution is somewhat shorter than it was many centuries strictest logical sense, it is that which may be absent from ago. This acceleration is exceedingly small, amounting or present in the subject, the essence of the species to which only to about ten or eleven seconds of a degree in a century. the subject belongs remaining the same. Thus, it may be It was discovered by Dr. Halley, from a comparison of very predicated of a man, that he is " walking," or that he is " a ancient with modern observations, and was confirmed by native of Paris;" the first of which examples expresses an examination of the observations of the Arabians in the what is termed a separable accident; the latter, an insepa9th and 10th centuries. Its physical cause long occasioned rable; i. e. the individual may cease to walk, but cannot great perplexity to mathematicians, and was at length de- cease to be a native of Paris; but neither of these alter the.ected by the genius of Laplace. It depends on a very slow species, man, to which the individual belongs. But it is to be secular diminution of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit. observed, with regard to the accident, as well as the other One of the greatest discoveries in physical astronomy is, predicables, that they exist only relatively to each other; chat all variations in the elements of the planetary system so that the same quality may be accidental when predicated are periodic. Some centuries after the present time, the of the species, which is a property when predicated of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit will arrive at its minimum individual. Thus " malleability " is an accident of the sub. value, and then begin to increase. When this period ar- ject" metal," because many metals are not malleable. But rives, the mean motion of the moon, which for many cen- it is one of the properties of gold, iron, &c., as distinguishing tunes has been accelerated, will begin to be retarded. (See these from the non-malleable metal. (SeePREDICABLE.) PLANETARY SYSTEM, and PERTURBATION.) ACCIDE'NTAL COLOURS. Colours depending on ACCELERA'TION OF THE PLANETS. The motion some affection of the eye, and not belonging to light itself, of a planet in its orbit is variable, being quicker or slower, or any quality of the luminous object. If we look for a according as the planet is at a less or a greater distance short time steadily with one eye upon any bright-coloured from the sun. Hence, in moving from the apogee to the spot, as a wafer on a sheet of paper, and immediately after perigee of the orbit, the motion of a planet is accelerated; turn the same eye to another part of the paper, a similar and, on the contrary, in moving from the perigee to the spot will be seen, but of a different colour. If the wafer be apogee, the motion is retarded. red, the imaginary spot will be green; if black, it will be A'CCENT. (Lat. ad, to, and cano, Ising.) In ordinary changed into white; the colour thus appearing being always language, the greater or less stress laid in pronouncing on what is termed the complementary colour of that on which each syllable of a word is termed the accent of that syl- the eye was fixed. lable. But the accent of a Greek syllable is a species of ACCIDE'NTAL POINT. Perspective. The point in tone, respecting which very contradictory notions prevail which a straight line drawn from the eye, parallel to anamong modern commentators, and of which it is indeed other straight line. cuts the perspective plane. It is the difficult to form any accurate conception. The history of point in which the representations of all straight lines pathe employment of accentual marks in writing the Greek rallel to the original straight line concur when produced It language, is extremely obscure. They are found in manu- is called the accidental point, to distinguish it from the prin. scripts of considerable antiquity. In our pronunciation of cipal point, or point of view. Greek, they are wholly neglected, quantity being our only ACCIDE'NTALS. (Lat. accidentalis, happening bp guide in the stress which we lay on the syllable of each chance.) In Painting, are those fortuitous or chance word. But the modern Greeks pronounce their language, effects, occurring from luminous rays falling on certain In general, laying the stress on the accented syllables, and objects, by which they are brought into stronger light neglecting the quantity. The mark of the acute accent is'; than they otherwise would be, and their shadows are of the grave'; of the circumflex, which is a compound of consequently of greater intensity. This sort of effect is the other two, ", or -. But every syllable which has no to be seen in almost every picture by Rembrandt, who accentual mark is said to have the grave accent; the grave used them to a very great extent. There are some fine being only marked on final syllables of words which have instances of accidentals in Raphael's Transfiguration, tlo acute accent on any syllable. These three accentual and particularly in the celebrated picture, the Notte of marks are also employed in the French language; but in Coreggio, in which the light emanates from the infant it they are only employed, for convenience, to mark a dif- Christ. With these effects may be classed such acciference in the pronunciation, not in the accent; the modi- dental lights as those from a forge or a candle, or some fications of the vowel sounds not being all of them express- such object, of which the use is extremely important to the ed by distinct letters. painter of still life. 8 ACCIPITRES. ACHROMATISM. ACCIDENTALS. In Music, are those flats and sharps ken whorled calyx, and unsymmetrical flowers without which are prefixed to the notes in a movement, and which scales at the base ofthe petals. The uses of the order'are would not be considered so by the flats and Isharps in the the same as those of acer. signature. A'CERANS, Acera. (Gr. d, without, and KCpay, ahorn.) ACCI'PITRES. (Lat. accipiter, a hawk.) The name of A name applied to a family of apterous insects, characterthe Linnaean order, including the birds of prey. ised by the absence of antennae: and to a family ofgastroACCLI'MATISE. (Lat. ad, to, and clima, a climate.) podous mollusks, including those species which have na The art of cultivating exotic plants so as to inure them to a tentacles. climate different to that which is natural to them. An ac- A'CERIC ACID. (Lat. acer, the maple.) An acid obcimatised plant or animal differs from a naturalised one, tained from the sap of that tree. in always requiring the assistance of art for its continuance ACERO'SE. This word literally means chaffy (Lat in the adopted climate; the naturalised plant or animal panis acerosus, chaffy or brown bread.) Botanists apply continuing its kind without any care from man. The ca- the term to leaves of a narrow, stiff, and pungent nature, pacities of different plants and animals for being acclima- like those of fir-trees. tised, or naturalised, vary, but not to the extent that at first ACTA'BULUM. (Lat. a little cup or dish.) A term sight may be imagined; what passes under these terms applied to the suckers on the arms of the cuttle-fish, and oeing frequently nothing more than the fortunate discovery other dibranchiate cephalopods, which have been hence that some plant or animal, which had hitherto been recently termed acetabulifera. These suckers were called found in a warm climate, would thrive equally well in by Aristotle kotuloi, which Taylor has erroneously rena cold one. dered'joints', in the English translation of the History of ACCOLA'DE. (Lat. ad, to, and collum, theneck.) The Animals. In anatomy, acetabulum signifies the cavity of slight blow given to the neck or shoulder, on dubbing a the hip-joint. In entomology it is the socket on the trunk knight. in which the leg is planted. ACCO'MPANIMENT. In Music. The instrumental ACETA'RIOUS PLANTS. (Lat. acetaria, a salad.) part of a composition which moves with the voice, to which Plants used in salading; such as lettuce, mustard and cress, it is to be kept subordinate. Also, the parts which in a con- endive, &c. certed piece move with a particular instrument, whose ACE'TATES. Salts containing acetic acid. (See VINEpowers it is the object of the composition to exhibit. GAR.) ACCOMPANIMENT. In Painting. Any object accessary ACE'TIC ACID. The pure acid contained in vinegar. to the principal subject, and serving to its ornament or It is a pungent colourless acrid liquid; its odour, when diillustration. luted, is agreeable and refreshing; when perfumed, it is ACCO'MPLICE. In Law, is defined to be one of many known under the name of aromatic vinegar. It is formed concerned in a felony. (See ACCESSARY, APPROVER.) during the germination of seeds, and it exists in the juices ACCO'RD. (See CONCORD.) of many plants, but it is most abundantly evolved during ACCOU'NTANT-GENERAL. The principal or respon- the fermentation, whether natural or artificial, of nearly all sible accountant in the offices of Excise and Customs, In- vegetable substances. When perfectly free from water, A dia House, Bank of England, &c. The accountant-general consists of of Chancery is an officer appointed by act of parliament to Carbon - - - 4 atoms = 24 47-06 receive all the money lodged in court. He keeps his ac- Hydrogen 3 3 - = 3 5'88 count with the Bank of England, which is responsible for Oxygen - 3 i" = 24 47-06 all the sums lodged there by him. ACCRE'SCIME'NTO. (It. accrescere, to increase.) In 1 51 100-00 Music, the increase, by one half of its original duration, ACHE'AN LEAGUE. A confederacy which existed which a note gains by having a dot appended to the right from very early times among the twelve states of the proof it. vince of Achaia, in the north of the Peloponnesus. It was ACCU'MBENT. (Lat. accumbere, to lie down.) Is a broken up after the death of Alexander the Great, but was term applied, in Botany, to cases where one part of an or- set on foot again by some of the original cities, B. c. 280. gan is applied to another by its edge: it is chiefly used in the epoch of its rise into great historical importance; for contradistinction to incumbent, where one part is applied from this time it gained strength, and finally spread over to another by its back or face. These terms are principal- the whole Peloponnesus, though not without much opposily employed among brassicaceous (cruciferous) plants. tion, principally on the part of Lacedaemon. It was finally ACCU'SATIVE CASE. That inflexion of the noun dissolved by the Romans, on the event of the capture of which expresses the passing over of an action from one Corinth by Mummius, B. c. 147. The two most celebrated substance to another: it consequently follows verbs active leaders of this league were, Aratus, the principal instru in all languages. In English it survives only in pronouns; ment of its early aggrandisement; and Philopsemen, the and is used after all prepositions without distinction. (See contemporary and rival, in military reputation, of Scipio GRAMMAR.) and Hannibal. (See Polybius, i. ii. Pausanias, 1. vii. ACEtPHALANS, Acephala. (Gr. drKicaXos, heedless.) Schlosser's Universal History. Clinton's Fasti Hellenici.) A term applied to a class of molluscous animals, compre- ACHAE'NIUM, or ACHENIUM. (Gr. d, without, and hending those which are without a head. The class is atyiw, Igape.) A small bony fruit, containing a single subdivided, according to the modifications of the respirato. seed, which does not adhere to the- shell or pericarp, nor ry organs, into the' Lamelli-branchiate,''Pallio-branchi- open when ripe. ate,' and'Hetero-branchiate,' or tunicate orders. (See ACHA'TMA. A genus of terrestrial gastropods, known those words.) The oyster, lamp-cockle, and squirter, or by the trivial name of agate-snails: characterised by an ascidia, are their several representatives. In the system oval oblong ventricose shell, striated longitudinally; with of Cuvier it includes only the lamelli-branchiate and hetero- the aperture ovate and never thickened or reflected, and a branchiate orders, or the acephala: testacea, and the ace- smooth, straight columella, truncated at the base. All the phala nuda. species are oviparous, and one, the Achatma zebra, pro. ACE'PHALOPHO'RES, Acephalophora. (Gr.xdKxeaXoo, duces eggs with a hard, white, calcareous shell, and as and ocpo, I bear.) The name given by Blainville to aclass large as those of the sparrow. of molluscous animals corresponding to the acephala and A'CHERON. (Gr. aXog, grief.) The river of sorrow brachiopoda of Cuivier. which flowed round the infernal realms of Hades, accord. ACE'PHALOUS. A botanical term, occasionally em- ing to the mythology of the ancients. There was a river ployed to designate ovaries, the style of which springs from of Thesprotia, in Epirus, of the same name, and also one their base, instead of their apex, as in lamiaceae. in Italy, near which Alexander, king of the Molossi, was ACEPHALOUS. In Anatomy, is applied to those malform- slain; both of which from the unwholesome and foul naed foetuses which are without a head. ture of their waters, were supposed to communicate with A'CER. (Celt. ac, a point; Lat. acer, sharp. Pikes the infernal stream. were made from the wood.) A genus of hardy trees, com- ACHIE'VEMENT. (Fr. achever, to accomplish.) In prehending the common maple, the sycamore, and various Heraldry, denotes generally a shield of armorial bearings; inds of American maples. Their wood is not of much but is more particularly applied to the funeral shield comvalue, being usually light and perishable; but the knotted monly called hatchment, affixed to the dwelling-house of a parts of Acer campestre furnish the pretty bird's-eye recently-deceased person. The achievement is various, maple of cabinet makers. The sap of Acer saccharinum according not only to the rank of the deceased party, but is so sweet that sugar, of good quality, is prepared from it to his situation as single, married, or widower. in North America. Acer platanoides, the Norway maple, ACHLAMY'DEOUS. (Gr. d, without, and chlamys, a is one of the best trees for planting in places exposed to the tunic.) Plants which have neither calyx nor corolla, and sea air. whose flowers are consequently destitute of a covering, or ACERA'CEE (See ACER), or ACERINEME. A small naked. natural order of polypetalous exogenous plants, compre- ACHROMA'TIC. (Gr. d, without, and ypoca, colour.) hending the genus acer, and three others. It consists of Free from colour. trees, or at least of woody plants, inhabiting the temperate ACHRO'MATISM. The destruction of the primary parts of the world; their most essential character consists colours, which accompany the image of an object seen in their samaroid dicarpellary fruit, connected with a bro- through a prism or lens. Light is not homogeneous, bul 9 B ACHROMATISM. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT-MONEY. Compounded of rays unequally refrangible. and differing tw9 lenses of crown glass: but almost all the large object from one another in other physical properties. In passing glasses lately constructed consist of only two lenses; tih into a refracting medium, some of the rays are more re- achromatism produced by this combination, though not fracted, or bent out of their course, than others; whence rigorously exact, being sufficient for optical purposes. the image of an object, seen through a lens. is rendered The possibility of refracting light without producing coconfused and indistinct, and appears encircled by a coloured iour was discovered and experimentally proved by Mi ring. This circumstance presented a formidable obstacle Hall, a country gentleman of Worcestershire, under whose to the use of the telescope; and accordingly, soon after the directions an achromatic telescope was made by a London invention of that admirable instrument, the utmost efforts artist in 1733. But, from whatever cause, no notice was of mathematicians and artists were exerted to remove the taken of Hall's discovery; indeed, it appears to have been imperfection. The compound nature of light, and conse- entirely forgotten, and contributed nothing whatever to adquently, the theory of unequal refrangibility, were, how.- vance subsequent researches. The merit of the discovery ever, not known till the time of Newton; and after the of achromatic compensation belongs to John Dollond, who true source of the difficulty had been made known, it con. arrived at it through a long course of skilful and systematic tinned for a long time to be believed that achromatism was experiments undertaken for the express purpose. Its posimpossible, or that light could not be deflected without be- sibility had, indeed. been previously asserted by the celeing decomposed. Newton himself was conducted to this brated Euler, who, reasoning from the construction of the conclusion by imperfect experiments. Subsequent disco- eye, which, indeed, is a perfect achromatic instrument, veries have proved that the conclusion was errroneous, and proposed various hypotheses for destroying tile coloured that the rays of light may be bent without being separated; images. After Dollond's discovery, the subject was ex. but after all the progress that has bee-. Asade in the arts, amined theoretically by Euler, Clairaut, and D'Alembert, as well as in the theory of colours atnd light, the subject of but their profound mathematical investigations led to no achromatism continues to be one of the most delicate and practical improvement. The object-glasses made by Peter embarrassing, both in regard to theory and practice. Dollond (a son of the inventor) were long celebrated The principles on which achromatisli is effected may throughout Europe as the best that were manufactured. be briefly explained, as follows. On observing the spectra Of late years, however, the science of light has been vast. formed by prisms of different substances, it is soon per- ly extended; and the discoveries of Fraunhofer, in particuceived that the different colours, though always ranged in lar, have opened up an entirely new view of the comthe same order, do not occupy the same relative lengths. position of the spectrum. The largest and best achroA prism of flint glass, for example, exhibits proportionally matic glasses have recently been made in Bavaria and less red, and more violet, than aprism of crown glass; and, Switzerland. (See CHROMATICS, REFRACTION.) in some other substances, the difference is still more re- ACICULAR. (Lat. acicula, aneedle.) Any thing that markable. Hence it follows, that the primary coloured is slender, sharp-pointed, and rather stiff; as many kinds rays, in passing through different substances, do not under- of prickles on the leaves of plants, &c. go the same relative refractions; that is to say, the angle A'CID. In common language, any sour substance; in formed by two rays, the red and the violet, for example, chemistry the term is less restricted, and often applied to is greater when the light is refracted by some substances all substances which saturate and neutralise the alkalis than when it is refracted by others, though in all substances and other salifiable bases, without other obvious acid prothe violet is more refracted than the blue, the blue more perties. than the green, and so on. The angle formed between the ACIDIFI'ABLE. Convertible into an acid. extreme rays of the spectrum measures the dispersion of ACI'DULOUS. Dim. of acid. Subacid; a term fre the rays; and it is found by experiment that the dispersive quently applied to mineral waters containing carbonic acid. power of common flint glass is to that of crown glass in ACI'NACIFORM. (Lat. acinaces, a scimitar, and forma, the ratio of about 3 to 2; so that if a prism of flint glass give shape.) A name applied to certain succulent leaves and a spectrum three inches long, a similar prism of crown fruits, which resemble the blade of a curved sword ot glass will give a spectrum of only two inches. Turkish scimitar. Now, suppose a prism of crown glass, C, the faces of ATCINUS. (Gr. aKIvoS, the stone ofa grape.) The sewhich make an angle of 250, and a prism of flint glass, F, parate carpels of a succulent fruit consisting of many car of 20 21' 43", to be placed be- K_. pels; as the raspberry. This term is also applied in anatohind it, and that a ray of direct x g my to a cluster of the ultimate secerning follicles of ceror white light, L I, falling on the ~ tain conglomerate glands; as the liver. first prism at I, emerges from ~ ~ ACIPE'NSER. (Lat. acipenser, a sturgeon.) The the second between the points C 1 name of a Linntean genus of the amphibia nantes, charac. E and E'. It is known by ex. terised by solitary, lateral, linear'.l-openings; the mouth, penence, that when the angles of the two prisms are as situated beneath the head, retrac.-le and edentulous; feelabove stated, the violet ray E V, on emerging from the ers under the snout, in front of.he mouth. The sturgeon second prism, is parallel to the incident ray L I; and that (acipenser sturio,) and most of the other amphibia nantes the red ray E' R must fall below E V, because the red ray of Linnaeus, from the order chrondropterygii, or cartilaginonly emerges parallel to the incident ray when the angle of ous fishes of Cuvier. The genu acipenser is separated by the prism of flint glass is 200 56' 28". But if the prism of Agassiz from the other cartilaginous fishes. It forms a flint glass were removed, or, which would be the same link between the osseous and cartilaginous fishes, having thing, if its sides became parallel, and consequently its an- its gills protected by an operculum, and only a single issue, gle = 0, the red ray E' R would fall above the violet ray or gill-opening, on each side of the respiratory currents: E V, the violet being more refrangible than the red. While but at the same time having no rays to the branchiostigal the angle F, therefore, increases from 0~ to 200 56' 28", membrane, and having the whole of its true internal skelethe emerging rays E' R and E V change their relative po- ton in a cartilaginous state. By Cuvier, therefore, the gesitions; whence it follows, that at some intermediate angle nus acipenser is placed in the cartilaginous division of of the prism F they will be parallel, and this is the angle of fishes, but separated from the rays, sharks, and lampreys. achromatism. It is found by experience to be 110 58' 3"'; which' have five or more gill-openings on each side, to varying, however, between the narrow limits according to form, along with the genera spatularia and chimaera, the the peculiar constitution of the two.refracting substances; order eleuthero-branchiata, or those which have the and, therefore, in determining the ratio of the angles of the branchiae free at their outer circumference. In the system two prisms, recourse must generally be had to particular of Agassiz the sturgeons are joined with the sauroid fishes. experiments on the individual substances of which the siluri, polypterus, and some other genera, to form the orprisms are composed. der Ganoides. (See that word.) And it is worthy of ohb The achromatism of lenses depends on the same princi- servation, that the polypterus (a ganoid fish oi the Nile) has ples, and is determined in the same manner, as that of a spiral valve in the intestine like that of the sturgeon. prisms; but in the case of lenses, the compensation is at- There are several distinct species of acipenser in the tended with great practical difficulties, on account of its be- Danube, and other great rivers of Europe; the largest speing necessary to have regard to the spherical aberration. cimen ever caught in Great Britain is, probably, that which If the ratios of the dispersion of the different spectral co. is recorded by Pennant as having been taken in the Esk, lours were all equal, the achromatism would be perfect and which weighed four hundred and sixty pounds. when the extreme rays, or, indeed, any two rays, emerge In England, the sturgeon is considered a royal fish, and parallel. This, however, is not generally the case; these its use is exclusively as an article of luxury for the table ratios are in general variable, and, therefore, the angle its flesh, like that of most cartilaginous fishes, is firmer which renders the red and violet rays parallel is not that than is usual among osseous fishes, and having little pecti. which is required for the intermediate colours. It is possi- liar flavour of its own, affords ample scope for the skill of ble, however, to remedy this defect, by combining a the cook in imparting to it an extrinsic zest. greater number of prisms or lenses. Theoretically speak- In the northern parts of Europe this fish is much more ing, indeed, the number of rays united or rendered paral- numerous than in the British rivers, and extensive fishe lel is the same as the number of prisms. The achromatic ries are established for its capture. The best isinglass is object-glasses of telescopes formerly made in England, manufactured from the sound, or air bladder; and caviare were generally triple; that is to say, consisted of three is prepared from the roe of the female. lenses, namely, a concave lens of flint glass placed between ACKNOW'LEDGEMENT-MONEY, in Law, pail ac 10 ACME. ACROSTIC. cording to the custom of some manors by copyhold ten- swer to a second charge on the same offence: the plea is ants, on the death of a lord. termed " autrefois acquit." A'CME. (Gr. dKysT, a point.) In Rhetoric, the extreme ACQUYTTANCE. In Law, the discharge in writing of height, or farthest point of pathos, or sentiment, to which a sum of money due. An acquittance not under seal is the mind is judiciously conducted by a series of impres- admissible only in evidence, and is not pleadable. An acsions gradually rising in intensity. (See CLIMAX.) quittance in full of all demands, is an answer to all debts. ACO'LOGY, or AKOLOGY. (Gr. CdKOS, a remedy, and except such as are on specialty, which can only be disXoyos, a discourse.) The doctrine of remedies, or of the charged by an instrument of equal force. materia medica. A'CRE. A measure of land, that formerly varied in dif. A'COLYTE. (Gr. aKoXovosg, disciple.) The second of ferent parts of the United Kingdom. The magnitude of the inferior orders of clergy in the primitive church, ac- the imperial or statute acre may be referred to that of the cording to the Roman Catholic authorities. The Council square yard, by recollecting that a square, whose side is of Trent declares the inferior orders to be five-subdea- 22 yards long, is the tenth part of an acre; whence the latcons, acolytes, exorcists, readers, and doorkeepers; consi- ter contains 22 X 22 X 10, or 4,840 square yards. The dering them all to be of apostolical institution. By the chain with which land is measured is 22 yards long. so that Protestants they are supposed to be merely occasional or ten square chains are one acre. The acre is divided into local officers. The office of the acolytes, according to the 4 roods, and each rood into 40 perches; so that each perch Roman Catholic Catechismus ad Parochos, is to follow and contains 304 square yards. serve the superior orders, the subdeacons and deacons, in Square Side of equivalent the ministry of the altar. Besides this, they carry lights Acre. Rood. Perch. yards. squares in yards. when the sacrifice of the mass is celebrated, whence they I = 4 = 160 = 4840 = 695701 are called also ceroferarii (wax-bearers). I = 40 = 1210 = 34-7851 ACONI'TA, ACONITINA. A poisonous vegetable prin- 1 = 30 = 5-5 ciple or alkaloid extracted from the aconite. 121 Irish acres are equivalent to 196 English acres. A'CONITE. (Acone, a place in the Crimea famous for 48 Scotch acres are equal to 61 English acres. Its poisonous herbs.) A genus of exogenous plants belong- The French acre is a square, whose side is 10 metres. ing to the natural order ranunculaceae, with showy purple and 1000 English acres are equivalent to 40-466 acres. (See or yellow helmet-shaped flowers, growing in panicles, deep- Companion to British Almanac, 1830.) ly cut leaves, and perennial roots of a highly poisonous na- ACRI'DIANS, ACRIDIA. (Gr. dxpie, alocust.) A famiture. Those ofAconitum lycoctonum are used for the de- ly of orthopterous insects, having the genus acridium for struction of wolves, and of A. napellus for certain medici- the type. nal purposes; they are exceedingly acrid, and act as vio- A'CRITES, ACRITA. (Gr. CiKpiLos, indiscernible.) The lent drastic purgatives. The bish root, with which the na- lowest division of the animal kingdom, in which there is tives of Nepal poisoned their wells, during the advance of no distinct discernible nervous system; and in which the the British army into their territory, during the last war, alimentary canal is not separated from the parietes of the was furnished by Aconitum ferox. The name aconite has body, or contained in a distinct abdominal cavity. It is also been given to another plant related to the original ge- composed of the classes spongiae, polypi, polygastrica, stenus, namely, eranthis hyemalis, or winter aconite. relmintha, acalepha. (See those words.) ACO'NTIA. (Gr. dKcoK, a dart.) A genus ofnon-veno- ACRODATCTYLUM. (Gr. dKpos, highest or extreme, mous ophidian reptiles, allied to the snakes proper (an- and JaKrvXos, a digit.) In Zoology, the upper surface of guis), but destitute of the bony rudiments of the scapular each digit. and pelvic arches. They are known by the trivial name of A'CRODUS. (Gr. dKpos, extreme, oaovs, tooth.) The " Dart-snakes;" are numerous in species, and distributed name of a genus of sharks, characterised by the presence over the warmer and more arid parts of the old world. of large polygonal obtuse enamelled teeth; aggregated at They were the subjects of fabulous accounts by the ancient the extremity of the jaws. The fishes of this genus are naturalists and poets, who attributed to them the power of found exclusively in the fossil state. projecting themselves with so much force and velocity as A'CROGENS. (Gr. dKpo, and ytyvo, Igrow.) Plants, to transfix the object aimed at, like a hurled javelin, or ar- otherwise called cryptogamous and acotyledonous. They row shot from a bow. This is as untrue as the assertion correspond to ferns, mosses, lichens, &c.; have no sexes; that they are venomous. The Dart-snakes are amongst the are multiplied by spores instead of seeds; and are remarkmost harmless of their order; their food consists of small able for increasing chiefly in length, by additions to their worms, insects, and larvae. end, and not in diameter, by the addition of fresh matter to ACORA'CE.E, or ACOROIDE/fE. The natural order their outside, as in exogens, or to their inside, as in enof plants which includes the genus acorus. It is distin- dogens. guished from araceae only by having its carpels sepa- ACRO'LITHOS. (Gr. dKpoo, and Xi0o;, stone.) In rate, and its leaves in the bud-state arranged in an equitant Sculpture, a statue whose extremities are of stone, the body manner. being made of wood. According to Vitruvius, there was a A'CORN. (Accorn,Sax. ofaac, anoak, and cern, grain.) temple at Halicarnassus dedicated to Mars, and built by The well-known fruit of the oak, and therefore not a term Mausolus, king of Caria, wherein was an acrolithan statue -fart, though belonging to architecture from its use as an of the god. And from Trebellius Pollio we learn that Calornament. In the early ages acorns constituted a principal purnia set up an acrolithan statue of Venus, which was gilt. part of the food of man. (Ovid. Metamorph. i. 106; Virgil, ACRO'NYCAL, or ACHRONYCHAL. (Gr. dapos, and Georg. i. 8. &c.) At present they are occasionally used in yvv, night.) A star or planet is said to be acronycal when different parts of the Continent during scarcities: but in it is opposite to the sun, or passes the meridian at midEngland they are never used, except for the feeding of night. It rises acronycally, when it rises as the sun sets; pigs, poultry, &c. and sets acronycally, when it sets as the sun rises. The A'CORUS. (Gr. daopos.) A plant with sword-shaped Greek poets designated these different positions of a star,.eaves and aromatic stems, found abundantly in the mea- at its rising or setting, with respect to the sun, by the terms dows of some parts of England. It bears, but very rarely, acronycal, cosmical, and heliacal; and thereby indicated, in its flowers in a little greenish yellow spadix, which appears a rude way, the position of the sun in the ecliptic, or the at a short distance below the end of a leaflike shape. The season of the year. leaves, when crushed, exhale a pleasant odour, and are ACROPO'DIUM. (Gr. dKpos, and rovs, foot.) In Zoostill used for strewing the floors of churches upon the oc- logy, the upper surface of the whole foot. casion of certain ancient ceremonies. Its stem, or rhizo- ACRO'POLIS. (Gr. d:pos, and roXie, city.) The upper ma, is like that of an iris, and is the calamus aromaticus of town or citadel of a Grecian city. It was usually the site the druggists. of the original settlement, and was chosen by the colonists A'COTYLE"DONS. (Gr. d. without, and Korva u1tev, li- for its natural strength. The most celebrated were those terally, a hollow or concave part, but applied by botanists of Athens, Corinth, and Ithome; the two latter of which to the seed-lobe.) Plants whose seeds have no distinct co- were termed the horns of the Peloponnesus, as if their tyledons. The term is usually applied to what are more possession was enough to insure the submission of the commonly named cryptogamic plants, such as ferns, moss- whole peninsula. es, lichens, &c., in which there are no seeds, properly so A'CROSPIRE. (Gr. tdpos, and aercipa, a curved line.) called. hit which are propagated by undivided spherical When seeds begin to grow, the part of the germ which afbodies called spores. The word acotyledon is occasionally terwards produces the stem shoots forth in the form of a used for such plants as cuscuta, cactus, &c., whose seeds, delicate curved fibre, and, gradually bursting the outer although really of the same nature as those in which coty- covering, makes its appearance at the end of the seed. ledons are usually present, have no obvious division; this Malsters, especially, call this the acrospire of barley. mode of applying the term is, however, seldom employed. ACRO'STIC, or ACROSTICH. (Gr. dKpos. and -riXo;, ACOU'STICS. (Gr. iKovw, I hear.) The science of line, or rank.) A composition in verse or prose, in which hearing, or of sound. (See SOUND.) the first or last letter of every line, or of every word, read ACQUI'TTAL. In Law. (Lat. acquietare, to render collectively, form a name or a sentence. Great labour and tranquil.) Freedom from services to a superior lord. ingenuity have been exercised in inventing varieties of this Also, deliverance from a criminal charge by the verdict of and similar curious trifles. Such, for example, is the pen not guilty. This verdict may always be pleaded in an- tacrostic, in which the initial letter of each verse is re 11 ACROTARSIUM. ACTOR. peated five times in every verse, so as to form five repeti- suring the intensity of the sun's rays. (See PHOTO, tlions of the same acrostic, as it were, in different columns. METER.) ACROTA'RSIUM. (Gr. darpo, and raposo, tarsus.) In A'CTION. (Lat. ago, Iact.) In Painting and Sculpture, Zoology, the upper surface of the tarsus. (See that word.) the state of the subject as imagined in the artist's mind at ACROTE'RIA. (Gr. dKpworptov, the extremity of any the moment chosen for representation. It must not be thing.) In Architecture, the pedestals, often without base confounded with motion, which relates to the mobility of or cornice, which are placed on the centre and sides of a single figure. Action must be true, simple, natural, and pediments, and which are so placed for the reception of connected; and its unity must be preserved, or the action figures. Vitruvius gives the rules for their dimensions. is weakened. Ihe same word is applicable to the ridge of a building. ACTION. In the Military Art, an engagement or battle Some have used the word acroterion to signify the statues between opposing forces; hence partial actions, general on the pedestals, but it is strictly the pedestals themselves actions, &c. only to which it is applicable. The word acroteria is also ACTION. In Oratory, the accommodating or suiting of used to denote the small pieces of wall in balustrades be- the countenance, voice, and gesture of the speaker to the tween the pedestal and the balusters. matter to be spoken or delivered. This sermo corporis, as ACRY'DIUM. (Gr. dKpLt, a locust.) The name applied Cicero calls it, has always been regarded as a most importby Fabricius to a genus of locusts, characterised by a cari- ant part of oratory. The ancient masters laid the greatest nate thorax; filiform antennae, shorter than the thorax: stress upon it. Demosthenes said that acticon was "the and equal palps or feelers. beginning, the middle, and the end of the orator's office;" ACT. In Dramatic literature, a division of a drama, sub- and Cicero admits, that L"what an orator says is not of so divided into scenes. The Greek dramas of the old model much importance as how he says it." Hamlet's advice to were naturally divided into separate portions by the stasi- the players should be kept in mind by those who desire to ma, or choric odes, which occur at intervals, during which excel in this art. the stage was left to the sole occupation of the chorus. ACTION. In Poetry, an event either real or imaginary, Nevertheless, the Grecian writers do not notice this divi- forming the subject of an epic poem or play, &c. Thus sion in express terms; nor do we know the origin of the the wrath of Achilles forms the action or subject of the famous rule of Horace, that every dramatic piece should Iliad, the wanderings of Eneas the action or subject of the be restrained within the limits of five acts, neither more JEneid, &c. nor less. The division into acts must be in great measure ACTION. In the Stock Market in Paris, and other places arbitrary, although rules have been laid down, by various in France, action is the name given to a share of the capiwriters, to define the portion of the story or plot which tal stock of a joint stock company. should be contained in each of them. Thus, Vossius lays ACTION. In Mechanics, denotes sometimes the effort it down as a rule, that the first act presents the intrigue, which a body or power exerts against another body, somethe second developes it, the third is filled with incidents times the effect or motion resulting from such effort. Me. forming its knot or complication, the fourth prepares the chanical action is exerted either by percussion or by pres. means of unravelling it, which is finally accomplished in sure; in the former case, the effect is instantaneous, in the the fifth. (See DRAMA.) latter it is continued. In all cases of mechanical action, ACT. In the Universities, an exercise performed by stu- the effect of the acting body is resisted in an equal degree dents before they are admitted to degrees. The student by the inertia of the body acted upon, which resistance is proposes certain questions to the presiding officer of the termed reaction; and it is an axiom in mechanics, that acschools, who then nominates other students to oppose him. tion and reaction are always equal, and exerted in opposite rhe discussion is syllogistical and in Latin, and terminates directions. Thus, in driving a nail with a hammer, the by the presiding officer questioning the respondent, or per- stroke acts against the face of the hammer exactly with the son who is said to keep theeact, and his opponents, and dis- same energy as against the head of the nail; and in press. missing them with some remarks upon their respective ing the hand against a stone, the pressure on the hand and merits. on the stone is precisely the same. ACT OF PARLIAMENT. (See STATUTE.) A'CTIONS, in Law, are real, personal, or mixed. Ac. A'CTA DIURNA, dailyproceedings. Among the various tions, real or mixed, for the recovery of real property, are important improvements effected by Julius Caesar may be very numerous, but so prolix and difficult that they are alranked that of his furnishing the Romans with a species of most wholly abandoned as a means of obtaining justice, newspaper. He was the first to order that the acta diurna and questions relating to title to land are now tried by the of the senate and the people should be drawn up in a regu. simple form of ejectment. The only case in which they tar form and published. This publication must conse. have been resorted to, of late years, has been when, from quently have, in many important respects, closely resem. the shorter period to which the action of ejectment was bled a modern newspaper. —(Sueton. in Caes. cap. 20.) limited (see LIMITATIONS), a right survived for the purpose A'CTA ERUDITORUM The title of a celebrated lite. of the former, which was barred as to the latter. But the rary and scientific journal, which was commenced at Leip- recent acts on this subject have much reduced the distinc. zig, in 16812, by Professor Mencke, of that university. The tion. Actions in common use, i. e. personal actions, are last volume was that for 1776. also divided into actions of contract and actions of tort, and A'CTIAN GAMES. (Lat. Ludi Actiaci.) Games cele- into local and transitory, in the former of which the place brated in antiquity at Actium in honour of Apollo, hence or county where the cause of the action arose must be acsurnamed Actiue. The temple of the god was repaired, curately alleged, for the purpose of the trial taking place and the games restored and celebrated with increased there. This allegation is termed the Venue of the action, splendour by Augustus, in memory of his victory over from the Norman-French visne, vicinetum, neighbourhood, Mark Antony off Actium. because the jury impannelled to try an action came origi. ACTI'NIA. (Gr. dKTLY, a ray.) A genus of polypi with nally from the neighbourhood. In the latter it is immate. very numerous tentacles, which extend, like rays, from the rial. Actions of tort to the person, and all actions of con. circumference of the mouth. They are amongst the most tract, are generally transitory, but under certain circumhighly organized of the class, having the alimentary sac dis- stances the latter may be local. tinct from the parietes of the body; feeding on shellfish ACTI/VITY. The virtue or faculty of acting. The term and other marine animals, which they draw into their is used in physics to denote the promptitude of the action mouth with their tentaculae, and in a short time rejecting, of one body on another. Thus we speak of the activity of through the same aperture, the shells and indigestible parts. an acid, of poisons, of the electric fluid, &c. They are of a soft gelatinous texture, and they assume Sphere of activity, the space within which the action of various forms when the tentacles are all expanded, hav- a body (of a magnet, for example) produces any sensible ing the appearance of full-blown many-petalled flowers; effect. whence they are called "sea anemones," "sea sunflow- A'CTOR, ACTRESS. In the flourishing period of the ers," &c. (Phil. Trans. lxiii. p. 361.) early Greek drama, so long as a certain remnant of reliACTI'NOCA'MAX. (Gr. diKrv, a ray, Kaipa~, a pale.) gious solemnity was attached to it, there was no degradaA name applied by Miller to the fossil shells of an extinct tion in the character of an actor, in fact, the parts of the genus of Cephalopodous Molluscs, apparently connecting chorus were often filled by volunteer performers of birth the Belemnites with the existing Sepia. The remains of and station. But when the dramatic performers began to the Actinocamax appear, as yet, to be peculiar to the chalk form a profession apart, they appear soon to have been reformations of England and Normandy. garded with disrespect. In Rome, the first actors were ACTI'NOCRI'NITES. (Gr. dKriv,a ray, Kplvov, a lily.) buffoons (known by the Tuscan name of histriones), who, The name of a subgenus of extinct Crinoidean radiated ani- enacted the grotesque farces imported from Etruria, and mals, or Encrinites, characterised by the numerous rows the qualification of actor was among the most dishonourof angular plates, which, being articulaled by their margins, able in the period of the republic; and no circumstance constitute the body. was considered to indicate more decisively the intention of ACTI'NOLITE. (Gr. dKrtv, a ray, and Xitos, stone.) Nero to degrade and subject all classes in the state, than A variety of hornblende, which usually occurs in fascicular his having persuaded a Roman knight, Laberius, to appear crystals. on the stage in the performance of one of his own mimi ACTINO'METER. (Gr. dKrtt, and p#rpoy, measure.) Under the dissolute reigns of the first emperors, especially An instrument invented by Sir John Herschel for mea- Nero, much favour and countenance was shown to actors. 12 ACTIVE MOLECULES. ADHESION. Nero was, however, obliged at last to banish the pantomimi, Adanson, a celebrated French botanist and traveller. It tl the most popular species of actors, entirely from Italy, to- called by the negroes Baobab. gether with their performances, in consequence of the A'DAPIS. A name originally applied by Gesner to the strong party spirit which was excited about them. (Sue- Hyrax or coney of Scripture, and adopted by Cuvier to deton. Nero. c. 16.) It seems from Tacitus, that they were signate another small pachydermatous quadruped, now soon afterwards restored: again banished by Domitian; extinct, but the existence and nature of which that great restored by Nerva, and finally expelled by Trajan; but, by naturalist detected and deduced from three fragments of the time of the reign of the last-mentioned emperor, the the head, which were discovered in that immense deposidramatic stage was nearly abandoned, and its place wholly tory of fossil bones, the gypsum quarries of Montmartre. occupied by gladiatorial shows and other pageants. In The dentition of the Adapis is as follows:-each jaw has England, the first actors were the servants of great nobles four trenchant incisors; two conical canine teeth, The upwho performed for their diversion; and when regular per ones straight, the lower inclined obliquely forwards; theatrical companies were formed, they were long in and apparently fourteen molar teeth, of which the first is the habit of putting themselves under the protection of trenchant, and the three or four posterior ones, on each distinguished personages; the companies of the greater side, like the posterior molars of the Anoplotheriam. Cutheatres, as is well known, retain the custom of calling vier supposes the animal to have been about the size of a themselves servants of His Majesty. Actresses were not rabbit, and to have closely approximated the Anoplotheria. known on the English stage until some time after the Res- A'DDER. (See ViPER.) toration: although ladies of quality had frequently, under ADDI'TION. In Arithmetic. The operation by which James and Charles I., performed parts in masques, &c. a number is found equal to several others taken together. Kynaston was the last celebrated mal.e performer of female It is the first of the four fundamental rules. Addition, in parts. A singular notice of him will be found in Pepys's algebra, is the uniting or incorporating of several algebraic Memoirs. In Roman Catholic countries, actors, even to quantities into a simple or contracted expression. this time, are under the ecclesiastical restriction of excom- A'DDITIVE. Something to be added, in contradistinction munication. (See DRAMA.) to subtractive, which denotes something to be taken away. ACTIVE MOLECULES. (See MOLECULES.) The terms additive and subtractive are sometimes applied ACTS OF SEDERUNT. (Scotch law.) Statutes made to algebraic quantities, to denote those relations to other by the Lords of Session sitting in judgment, by virtue of a quantities which are more commonly, though less correctScottish act of parliament, passed in 1540, empowering ly, expressed by positive and negative. them to make such constitutions as they may think expe- ADDU'CTOR. (Lat. adduco, I draw towards.) The dient for ordering the procedure and forms of administer- adductor muscles are opposed to the abductors: they draw ing justice. the parts to which they are attached, together. A'CTUARY. Originally a public officer in the Roman ADE'LPHIA. (Gr. dsX pos, a brother.) A collection courts of justice, who drew up writings, contracts, &c., in of stamens into a bundle. Linnaeus employed this term the presence of the magistrate; whence his name, from for those plants in which the stamens, instead of growing actus, an instrument. The clerk who registered the acts singly, combine into one or more parcels, or brotherhoods; and constitutions of the convocation, in the assemblies of thus, monadelphia signified stamens all connected into one that body, was termed an actuary. The managing officer parcel, diadelphia into two parcels, and so on. of an insurance company is usually termed in England ADE'NOSTY'LE_. (Gr. drv, aglanid, and oTrv;o, a an actuary. (See INSURANCE.) column, or style.) A subdivision of composite plants, ACU'LEATE. (Lat. aculeus, aprickle.) In Botany, any comprehending tussilago, liatris, eupatorium, and some thing covered with prickles; that is, with sharp promi- other genera, in which the branches of the style are conences which originate in the cellular system and have no veredl with long glandular hairs. connection with wood. ADE'PHAGANS. ADEPHAGA. (Gr. d3nia.os, voraACU'LEATES. In Zoology, a tribe of hymenopterous cious.) A family of carnivorous and very voracious coleinsects, in which the females and neuters are provided opterous insects. with a sting, generally concealed within the last segment A'DEPT. (Lat. adipiscor, lobtain.) A distinctive term of the abdomen. applied to those alchemists who were supposed to have atACU'MINATE. (Lat. acumen, the point of any thing.) tained the great object of their researches, or to have disa When a leaf or any other body is very much tapered to a covered the philosopher's stone. point; it is thus distinguished from acute, which means ADFE'CTED, or AFFECTED. (See the latter term.) sharp.pointed without any tapering. ADHE'SION, (Lat. adhaereo, I adhere,) is a property of ACUPU'NCTURA'TION. (Lat. acus, a needle, and vegetable matter by which contiguous parts grow together; punctura, a puncture.) Pricking with a needle. In the and is one of the causes of the great diversity of appearEast this is a common remedy for painful affections of ance in the organs of plants. Two opposite leaves grow different parts of the body. It has lately been extensively together and form apparently one, through whicn the stem practised for the cure of chronic rheumatism, a long passes; several in a whorl adhere, and form an involucre; and sharp needle being thrust into the affected muscles. a number of petals adhere, and thus constitute a monopeACU'TE. The opposite of obtuse. An acute angle is talous corolla; several stamens adhere, and an adelphia that which is less than a right angle; an acute-angled trian- is the result; some carpels contract an adhesion with one gle is one of which each of the angles is acute; an acute- another, and form a compound fruit; finally, the calyx adangled cone is one whose opposite sides form an acute an- heres to the sides of the ovary, and then seems as if it gle at the vertex. grew from the apex of it. Irregularity in flowers and fruit ACUTE. (Lat. acutus, sharp.) In Music, the height or is also in many cases produced by the unequal manner in pitch of a sound or tone, in respect of another. It is op- which adhesion takes place between similar parts; of the posed to grave. calyx, two of the sepals adhere into one parcel, and three AD LI'BITUM. In Music (at pleasure), a term applied into another; the result of which is a two-lipped calyx; to an accompaniment which is not essential, and may or the same thing occurs in the corolla, and elsewhere. may not be performed without interfering with the cornm-. ADHESION. (Physics.) A term used to denote the force position. with which different bodies remain attached to each other, AD QUOD DAMNUM. (Lat. to what damage.) A writ when they are brought into contact. Adhesion has often sued before the grant of certain liberties and franchises, been confounded with cohesion; but the two terms are as a fair, market, &c., which may be prejudicial to the essentially distinct. Adhesion is the force with which two king who grants, or the public; by it the sheriff is direct- bodies of different kinds cling to each other when united; ed to inquire what damage may accrue from the grant in cohesion is that which unites the particles of a homogenequestion. ous body with each other. Thus, the particles which ADA'CTYLE. (Gr. d, priv. and JaKrvXoS, a digit.) In form a drop of water or quicksilver are united by cohesion; Zoology, signifies a locomotive extremity without digits,. the particles of water which wet the surface of any body A'DAGE. (Lat. adagium, a proverb.) (See PROVERB.) are united to it by adhesion. The proverbs of antiquity are collected by Erasmus in a Adhesion may exist between two solid bodies, between work entitled Erasmi Adagia. a solid and a fluid, or between two fluid bodies. The aiADA'GIO. (Ital. adagio, leisurely.) In Music, the slow- hesion of solid bodies is exemplified in the force required est of musical time, grave only excepted. (See ALLEGRO.) to separate two pieces of marble, whose polished surfaces ADAMAN'TINE SPAR. (Gr. d, without, and Japuao, 1 have been brought into contact. The suspension of water break, or conquer.) A variety of crystallised alumina, above its level in capillary tubes, or between two plates of nearly resembling the sapphire in composition, and of ex- glass very nearly in contact, shows the adhesion of a fluid treme hardness. The finest specimens come from India to a solid tody; and an instance of the adhesion of two liand China. At Bombay it is called corundum. quids is obtained by covering a plate of glass with oil, and A'DAMITES. (Theology.) A sect in the early ages of bringing it into contact with the surface of water; a very the Christian church, who are said to have professed an sensible force is required to raise it perpendicularly from exact imitation of the primitive state of innocence. They the water. re-appeared in the 15th century in Bohemia. (Masheim, IL Dr. Brook Taylor appears to have been the first who unp. 233, &c.) dertook to estimate experimentally the force of adhesion; ADANSO'NIA. A remarkable African tree, named after and the method which he employed was to determine the 13 ADIANTUM. ADMIRAL. weignt necessary to separate fir-boards from the surface of A'DIT. (Lat. adeo, I approach.) A honzontal shaft ot water. This method, however, unless proper precautions passage in a mine, either for access, or carrying off water. are taken, is apt to give inaccurate results. On separating ADJA'CENT ANGLE. In Geometry, an angle immea fir-board from water, the whole surface of the board may diately contiguous to another, so that one side is common be observed to be wetted; that is to say, a thin film of wa- to both angles. It is more particularly used when the two ter remains attached to the wood, so that the force by angles, besides having a common side, have their other which the separation was effected is not the force neces- sides in the same straight line. In this case, the adjacent sary to overcome the adhesion of the water to the board, angle is the same as the supplemental angle. but the cohesion of the particles of water to each other. A'DJECTIVE. (Lat. ad, to, and jaceo, Ilie.) In GramThis is fully established by the experimental fact, that, mar, that part of speech which is annexed to substan when discs of different substances are applied to a liquid, tives, to define more accurately the conceptions intended by which they are perfectly wetted, their adhesion to it is to be denoted by them. (See GRAMMAR.) the same, whatever may be their nature, and exactly equal ADJECTIVE COLOURS. Colours which require to be to the cohesive force of the fluid. Discsof glass and discs fixed by some base or mordant, in order to be applied as of copper of the same diameter adhere to water with pre- permanent dye-stuffs. cisely the same force. ADJOURNMENT, in Parliamentary language, means a The adhesion of discs to the surfaces of liquids is de- postponement of the sittings or proceedings of eithei monstrated by Laplace to be a capillary phenomenon, ari- House of Parliament from one time to another specified sing from the action of attractive forces which are sensible for its re-assembling. Adjournment differs from prorogaonly at very small distances. Supposing the diameter of tion in this, that the latter is an act of royal authority, the disc to be known, and the height to which the same whereas the power of adjournment is vested in each liquid rises in a capillary tube of the same matter, and of house respectively, no definite limits being prescribed to a given diameter, Laplace determined from theory the it by the constitution. (See PROROGATION.) force necessary to detach the disc. The results of his de- ADJU'DICATION. In Scottish Law, the diligence (i. e. termination, applied to different liquids, as water, oil of process) by which land is attached as security for payturpentine, and alcohol, at different densities, agreed ex- ment of debt. Adjudication for debt is a species of mortactly with the numbers found by M. Gay-Lussac, in a se- gage, redeemable, except in the cases of what are termed ries of very accurate experiments on this subject. The general adjudications, or adjudications contra h'ereditatem perfect identity of the forces producing adhesion and ca- jacentem. pillary attraction, is also proved by the following experi- ADJU'STMENT. In Marine Insurance, the settlement ment:-It is well known that the height to which fluids of a loss incurred by the insured. rise in capillary tubes depends on the angle which the A'DJUTANT. A military officer, attached to every refluid makes with the sides of the tube. But the surface of giment, who relieves the major of part of his duty, and mercury covered with water in a capillary tube is exactly performs it in his absence. spherical; consequently, the angle which the mercury A'DJUTANT-GENERAL. A staff officer, who is to the makes withJ.he sides of the tube vanishes, and the force is army what the adjutant is to a regiment. He assists the reduced to zero. If, therefore, adhesion depends on a general, and distributes his orders. force of the same nature, it follows that, on applying a disc A'DJUTANT-GENERAL OF THE JESUITS. A title af glass to the surface of mercury, and covering them both given to certain fathers who resided with the general of with water, no force should be required to separate the the order. disc. excepting what is necessary to overcome its weight. A'DJUVANT. (Lat. adjuvare, to help.) In Medicine, Now, this was found by Gay-Lussac to be exactly what a substance which assists and promotes the operation of takes place. When the mercury and disc were covered others. with water, no resistance was offered to their separation; ADMINISTRA'TION. (In Law.) If a person die intes. without the interposition of the water, a weight of 296 or tate as to his personalty, letters of administration are grant. even 400 grammes was required to overcome the adhesion. ed by the ordinary (see Law, tit. EccLESIASTICAL COURTS) (Laplace, Mecanique Cgleste, tome iv. Blot. Traitg de to such person as is pointed out by the statutes 31 E. 3., PIJStsique, tome iv. p. 464.) and 21 H. 8. These empower the ordinary to grant these The adhesion of the polished surfaces of solid bodies is letters to the widow, if there be one, or next of kin, at his pioportional to the extent of the surface, or to the number discretion. Of persons equally near in degree, the ordinaof points brought into contact. It was formerly believed ry may grant to which he please. If none of the kindred that the resistance to separation in this case arises solely take out administration, a creditor may do it. When the from the pressure of the atmosphere; but the difference will is made without the nomination of any executor, the fits amount in different substances proves this opinion to ordinary grants administration cum testamento annexo. ie erroneous; besides, it is found to be the same in a va- Where a person dies intestate, his personal property decuum. (See CAPILLARY ATTRACTION.) scends (subject to his debts) as directed by the statute of ADIA'NTUM. (Gr. alavros, dry.) A genus of thin- Distributions, 22 & 23 C. 2. c. 10., explained by 29 C. 2. c leaved ferns, having their fructification in short marginal 30. One-third goes to the widow; the residue in equal lines. The leaflets are usually wedge-shaped, and placed proportions to the children, or, if they are dead, to their upon slender shining petioles. One of the species (A. ca. representatives, i. e. their lineal descendants. If there are pillus veneris) was formerly employed in the manufac- none of these, then the widow takes a moiety, and the ture of syrup of capillaire. next of kin in equal degree, and their representatives ADIA'PHORITES. (Gr. dStasopos, indifferent.) A take the other; if there be no widow, they take the whole. name given to Melancthon. and the party that agreed But of representatives none are admitted among collaterals with him, in submitting, in things indifferent, to an impe- farther than the children of the intestate's brothers and rial edict. The controversy which gave rise to this name sisters. The order of nearness of kin, with reference to had its origin in the imposition by Charles V., in 1548, of the distribution of intestates' estates, is thus arranged acan edict, styled the Interim, because it proposed to ac- cording to the rules of the civil law-children, parents, commodate for a time the differences of the papists and brothers, grandfathers, uncles or nephews (and the females protestants, until the whole matter could be set at rest of each class respectively), and, lastly, cousins. by the authority of a council. The opposite side was ADMINISTRATION. (Lat. administratio, care of an affair.) maintained by Flavius and the primitive Lutherans; and In its general sense means the conduct or management of in the debate which followed there were two principal any affair; but in this country the term is usually applied questions: first, whether it is lawful to yield to the ene- to the management of the public or national affairs by the mies of truth, even in matters which are not of themselves government, which is thence called the Administration. essential; and, secondly, whether, granting the affirma- A'DMIRAL. A great naval officer, who has the same live, the points in which the Interim required compli- power and authority over the maritime forces of a state ance, and in which Melancthon yielded it, are properly that a general has over its land forces; and who also tries indifferent. Those points related chiefly to the doctrine himself, or appoints officers to try, maritime cases. There of justification by faith, in which Luther and his genuine are three ranks of Admirals, the Admiral (or fill Adfollowers went to a great extreme; while Melancthon, al- miral), Vice Admiral, and Rear Admiral. Each of these though ostensibly the head of the Lutheran church, after again has three gradations, of red, white, and blue, the cothe death of the great Reformer, adopted much more lours of the flags they bear. The Admiral carries his flag moderate views. Out of this controversy a great variety at the main, the Vice at the fore, and the Rear at the mizen of other debates were engendered, and from these quar- mast. rels many schisms and divisions among protestants de- ADMIRAL, Lord High. The ninth great. officer of state rived their origin. in England. The office has been usually given, at least A'DIPOCE'RE. (Lat. adeps and cera, fat and wax.) since the reign of Henry IV., to some of the king's youngA fatty substance produced by the decomposition of the est sons, near kinsmen, or of the higher nobility. Since flesh of animals in moist situations, or under water, resem- the reign of Charles II. it has been, with occasional excepbling. in some of its properties, a mixture of fat and wax. tions, always in commission, and the commissioners are A'DIPOSE. (Lat. adeps, fat.) Unctuous, or contain- styled'Lords of the Admiralty.' It was held by the late ing fat. Adipose membrane is the cellular membrane in sovereign William IV., when Duke of Clarence, from 182? which fat is deposited. to the following year. 14 ADMIRALTY. ADULTERY. A'DMIRALTY, the Board of Commissioners for execu- day next before or after it, according to the day of the ting the office of Lord High Admiral, and having authority week on which the 25th of December falls. over naval affairs generally. ADVENTITIOUS. (Lat. adventitius, extraordinary.) ADMIRALTY, Court of. In Law, is a court of record, of In Botany, when any thing appears out of the ordinary which the proceedings are carried on, at least to a certain course of nature: if a bud appears where buds do not extent. according to the course of the civil law; although, usually appear, it is adventitious. This term must not be as the judge may have in some cases the assistance of a confounded with abnormal, which is used when any thing ury, it has also a resemblance to the courts of common is constructed out of the ordinary course. aw. It has jurisdiction principally for the determination A'DVERB. A word annexed to an adjective or verb, to of private injuries to private rights arising at sea, or inti- define more closely the modifications of the quality or ac. mnately connected with maritime subjects; and inmost ca- tion denoted. See GRAMMAR. ses, to which its authority extends, it has concurrent juris- ADVE'RSA. A medallic term, applied to two heads diction, either with the common law courts, or those of facing each other. equity. Suits may be instituted in this court for assault A'DVERSE. (Lat. ad, to, and verto, Iturn.) In Botaand battery at sea; for collision of ships; for the restitu- ny, leaves are so called when they present their under tion of goods piratically taken not tinder colour of war. It surface to the sun. has also an equitable jurisdiction between part owners of ADVE'RT1SEMENT. (Lat. adverto, I intend to.) In a ship. It adjudicates in suits for mariners' wages, and for its general sense, means any information as to any fact or pilotage. It has apeculiar jurisdiction in casesof bottomry circumstance. But it is more particularly used to desigbonds, and other deeds in the nature of a mortgage of the nate notices made by competent authority in the daily paship; having an exclusive power to grant warrants to ar- pers, and otherwise, of events of local or general interest, rest the ship itself. It has also jurisdiction in cases of sal- as the publication of new books, sales of estates and provage, and incidentally of wreck. duce, meetings of creditors, formation and dissolution of The prize court, which decides prize causes in time of partnerships, &c. Such notices, when inserted in the gawar, is a separate tribunal, although usually presided over zette, or in newspapers and literary works published in by the same judge as that of admiralty. To that able and numbers, in England, pay a duty of Is. 6d. each for each philosophical jurist, Sir W. Scott (Lord Stowell), who sat time of insertion. in these courts (as well as the ecclesiastical) for many ADULA'RIA. A resplendent crystallised felspar, of a years during the late war, and after its close, the country pearly lustre. The finest specimens came from Adula, at is indebted, not only for the high character and value of the summit of St. Gothard. these tribunals, but also for the light thrown on the difficult ADU'LT. (Lat. adultus, grown up.) In its general and important questions of national law, by the most pro- sense it means any thing grown up, or arrived at maturity. found and lucid decisions ever applied to that subject. It is that period of human life that extends from youth to A'DNATE. (Lat. adnascor, I grow to anything.) Is old age. said when one organ grows to the face of another, and not ADU'LTERY. (Lat. adulterium, a word of very unto its apex, in which case it would be innate. This term certain dlerivation.) The sin of incontinence committed is chiefly employed in speaking of anthers. by a married person: adultery between two married perADO'NIS. In Mythology. A beautiful youth, son of sons is termed double by some jurists. By the law of MoCinyras, king of Cyprus, beloved by Venus, and killed by ses, adultery was punished by death, Lev. xx. 10., Deut. a wild boar, to the great regret of the goddess. It is, also, xxii. 22.; and passages in Proverbs (c. vi.) and Ezekiel the name of a river of Phoenicia, on the banks of which (xvi. 38, 40.) prove that the law was observed in this resAdonis, or Thammuz, as he is called in the East, was sup- pect down to the overthrow of the Jewish monarchy, as posed to have been killed. At certain seasons of the year we know it to have been in the time of our Saviour. The this river acquires a high red colour, by the rains washing mode of punishment was by stoning; but it is observable up particles of red earth. The ancient poets ascribed this that this mode is not ordained in Deuteronomy, as it is for'o a sympathy in the river for the death of Adonis. This various other offences. The test or ordeal of adultery is season was observed as a festival in the adjacent country. detailed in Numbers v. 11-31. Under the Grecian and (Facciolati, Lexicon; Calmet, Dictionnairede la Bible, art. Roman republics adultery was variously treated; but the 7'hammuz.) Milton has beautifully alluded to these cir- celebrated Lex Julia de Adulterio, under Augustus, puncumstances:- ished it with banishment (deportatio vel relegatio), Tacit. ___Thammu came next behind, lib. ii. Annal. It was not until the reign of Constantine Whose annual wound in Lebanon allured when some tincture of Judaism had been introduced inte The Syrian damsels to lament his fate the state along with the establishment of Christianity, that In amroiis ditties all a summer's day: the punishment of death was formally enacted for it. This While smooth Adonis from his native rock penalty was again mitigated under Leo and Marcian; and Ran purple to the sea; supposed with blood Of Thammuz yearly wounded." by the laws of Justinian the adulterer was punishable with parad. Lost, I. v. 445. death, the adultress with flagellation, imprisonment, &c. But about the same period, the gradual increase of episcoADO'NIC. (Gr.'A5osvi;, Adonis.) A species of verse pal authority in civil cases seems to have drawn crimes of consisting of a dactyle and a spondee; as in Horace, lib. I. incontinence almost wholly within the cognizance of the Od. ii. v. 5. Terruit urbem, visere montes, &c. It was in- ecclesiastical courts; and the canons contain a variety of vented by Sappho, and derived its name from being prin- directions on the subject of adultery. On the other hand, cipally sung at the festivals in memory of Adonis. (Fac- the jurisprudence of the Northern nations, which visited ciolati, Lexicon.) this as well as other crimes of freemen with very little seADO'PTER. A vessel with two necks placed between verity, as mere offences against individuals, reduced the a retort and a receiver, serving to increase the length of the penalty in most of the Western kingdoms to a mere pecuneck of the former. niary one, sometimes attended with public disgrace or ADO'PTION. (Lat. adopto, I adopt.) In the Civil Law, corporal punishment. The customs of the several French signifies the admission of a stranger to the rights and privi.- provinces contain a great variety of penalties and fines; at leges of a son. Adoption was a common custom among Castelnaudari, in the fourteenth century, the fine for adulthe Romans, by whose law a relation, nearly resembling tery was fixed at "five sons only!" Such penalties, of that of master and slave, was constituted between father course, fell rapidly into disuse; and in the sixteenth cenand son; so that a child, adopted from one family into tury we find it observed by a French civilian (quoted by another, passed, in effect, from the power of his parent to Thuanus), that " it was never heard that any body had that of his adopter. Adoption is said, in Justinian's insti- been punished for adultery in France." This observation lutes, to be of two sorts: the one, also called arrogation, is quoted by the historian when relating an event which where a person, independent of parental control, is adopt- created great sensation at the time, namely, the capital ed into a family by virtue of an imperial rescript; the punishment at Orleans of two offenders by St. Cyr, the goother, where, by the authority of a magistrate, a child vernor, a rigid Calvinist. The protestants of that sect, in passes from one family to another. But unless the adopt- France as well as in Scotland and England, made it their er possessed a certain right by blood over the person endeavour to introduce primitive severity of manners by adopted (as a grandfather), the parental power of the father severity of punishment. De Thou, the father, appears alwas not extinguished. Adoption exists in the jurispru. so to have made some efforts toward putting in force the denca of various countries, where derived from the civil laws against adultery: but from the time of the religious law; as in the German states and in France: in the latter wars, penal cognizance of adultery may be said to have country, the person adopting must be one having neither nearly ceased in France, although by various arrbts (1637, children nor other legitimate descendants. 1701, &c.), besides the civil consequences of an action of A'DRAGANT. Gum Tragacanth. adultery by husband against wife, the latter might be con4DRI'FT. Not fastened; as a ship that has parted from demned to seclusion in a house of correction for two her anchor, a boat that has broke from her ship, agun from years, or more. In Geneva, Strasbourg, and other places the ship's side, &c. where the reformed religion prevailed, a temporary A'DVENT. (Lat. advenio, lapproach.) The holy sea- strictness of law was introduced about the same period, son, comprising four Sundays before Christmas. It begins but with little permanent effect. In England, by the old on St. Andrew's day, the 30th of November, or on the Sun- common law, mutilation was the punishment of this as 15 ADVOCATE.,ERA. well as other offences; but under the Plantagenets it be- tricians promiscuously. The magistracy was one ot tie came matter of ecclesiastical cognizance (except so far as most dignified in the state, and was allowed the use of the civil consequences were concerned), and visited only by the robe of honour (toga preetexta), and a certain precedence spiritual censure of the church. " The rules of the canon in the senate. The peculiar office of the Eediles was the law," says a recent writer, "have manifested an indul- superintendence of public works, markets, &c., in the city. gence towards this offence which is chiefly to be accounted They had also, particularly the curule twdiles. to exhibit for by reference to the constrained celibacy of its early public games, which they often did at a vast expense, in compilers." But in 1650 the puritans, under Cromwell, order to court popularity. Julius Ctesar added two other succeeded in obtaining an ordinance by which adultery, as plebeian tediles, called cereal, to inspect the public stores well as simple fornication, was made felony, without bene- of provisions. fit of clergy; an absurd decree, which was soon repealed. 2EGICE'RE]E. (Gr. dti, goat, Kcpag,horn.) A division In 1694, and again in 1801, the subject of adultery and di- of myrsinaceous plants, the type of which is the genus vorce was discussed at length in parliament, but without aegiceras. Itis distinguished by the absence of albumen; producing any enactment. (See Tebbs's Essay on the the species grow in maritime swamps in tropical countries, Scriptural Doctrines of Adultery and Divorce, and on the and have the embryo germinating within the pericarp, after Criminal Character and Punishment of Adultery, 8vo., the manner of mangroves. Leond. 1822.) For the civil consequences of Adultery, see'G1IS. (Gr. dai, a goat.) The mythological shield of MARRIAGE, LAW OF. Jupiter, which was covered with the skin of the goat AmalA'DVOCATE. (Lat. advocatus, he who is called in to thaea, and given by him to Minerva, who, by fixing on it the plead in a court of law the cause of another.) The original head of Medusa, gave it the power of petrifying all persons pleaders of causes at Rome were the patricians, who de- who looked at it. The word is also used sometimes for fended gratuitously their clients; but even before the the breastpiece of a god. downfall of the republic, the class had degenerated into a XE'GYLOPS. (Gr. dta, a goat, and wco, an eye.) A sore profession, its members receiving rewards for their ser- in the inner angle of the eye, frequently terminating in fisvices, although still among the most honorable of employ- tula lachrymalis. Goats were supposed to be very subject ments. But from the original gratuitous character of ad- to an analogous affection.-Also the name of a kind of vocates, arose the peculiar custom by which, among our- grass. selves, the fees of barristers are still regarded as honorary, EX'NEID. The epic poem of Virgil, relating the wanand cannot be recovered at law. In the later ages of the derings of ]Eneas after the capture of Troy, and his settle. empire the advocati appear to have formed a distinct class ment in Italy. from the jurisconsulti, or chamber-counsel, and to have.E'OLIPILE. (Lat..Eolus, the god of the winds, and pi. much declined in reputation. In France the avocats, or la, a bull.) An hydraulic instrument, contrived for the counsel, form a separate order, of which each member is purpose of exhibiting the convertibility of water into steam. attached to a particular local court. The lord advocate, in It consists of a hollow ball of metal, having a slender neck Scotland, is a public officer, who prosecutes crimes before or pipe, with a very small orifice inserted into it. The the court of justiciary. ball, having been filled with water, is placed over the fire; ADVOW'SON. (Lat. advocatio, a calling.) Properly, and the heat gradually converts the water into vapour, the relation in which a patron (advocatus) stands towards which rushes out of the pipe with great violence till the the living to which he presents, i. e. the patronage of a whole is discharged. The experiment is not unattended church. The earliest provision for divine worship, in Eng- by danger; for should the small orifice by any accident be land and in other countries, was derived from the offerings stopped, the steam would burst the ball. The aeolipile ot the laity, which were distributed by the bishop of each was known to the ancients, being mentioned by Vitruvius. diocese among his clergy, whom he sent from place to Descartes and others have used it to account for the natu. place to preach and administer the sacraments. By de- ral cause and production of the wind; hence its name grees he was enabled, by the bequests of the faithful, and iEolipile, that is, pila.Eon, the ball of JEolus, the god of the customary offering of tithes, to subdivide his diocese, the winds. The aeolipile is sometimes filled with alcohol. or parochia, as it was originally called, into various dis- and the jet of its vapour being inflamed, it serves the purtricts, and to build churches and establish permanent mi- pose of a blowpipe. nisters in each. At the same time it became a common EI'OLUS. Tie god of the winds, who was fabled by the practice among the nobles to build and endow churches early poets to have his seat in the floating island of AEolia; for the benefit of themselves and their own dependants; in but the Latin and later Greek poets placed him in the Liwhich case they were allowed to present to the benefice, pari isles. Here the winds were pent up in vast caves, it subject to the licensing power of the bishop and the canons being the duty of XEolus to let them loose, and to restrain of the church. Advowsons, in legal phraseology, are ei- their violence at the pleasure of Jupiter. Virgil has dether ar-pendant, where immemorially annexed to a manor; scribed the power and functions of Eolus, in one of the or in gross, where they form separate subjects of property. finest passages of the tEneid:If the patron of a rectory fails to present within six months ____ after the vacancy happens, the right falls to the bishop; ctates ao tempestlasqe sonras and by similar neglect on his part, to the archbishop, and Imperio premit, ac vinclis et carcere frenat. thence to the king. The presentation is by letter to the Ili indignantes magno cum murmure montis bishop; institution, by an instrument registered in the Circum claustra fremunt. Celsa sedet aEolus arce bishop's court; and induction, which completes the in- Sceptra tenens, mollitque animos, et temperat iras: cumbent's title, is performed by the archdeacon. Ni fsciat, maria ap terrasectrlmque prefrsalm Quippe ferant rapidi secem, vcrrantque per auras." A'DYTUM. (Gr. asvrov, a recess.) In Architecture, Eneid, 5. 1. 52. the secret dark chamber in a temple, to which none but the priests had access. It was from this part that the ora- ROLUS' HARP, or ZEOLIAN HARP. A well-known cles were delivered. Seneca, in his tragedy of Thyestes, instrument, which produces a pleasing combination of says, sounds, by the action of the wind. Its construction is very "BHine orantibus simple, consisting of merely a number of catgut or wire Responsa danturcerta. dum ingenti sono strings, stretched in parallel lines over a box of thin deal, Laxantur Adyto fata." with sounding holes cut in the top. The strings being Among the Egyptians, the Secos was the same thing of tuned in unison, the effect is produced by placing the inwhich Strabo has given a description. The only well pre- strument in a current of air. The invention of the./Eolian served adytum of the ancients is in the little temple at harp is generally given to Kircher, by whom it was first Pompeii. It is raised some steps above the level of the described. temple itself, and is without light. JE'ON. See GNOSTIC'S..E'DES (Lat.) In Architecture. A small temple con- E/'RA, or ERA. (A word of doubtful derivation.) In secrated to a'od which was not afterwards dedicated by Chronology, the term.era, as now understood, is lhe pethe augurs, Irom which circumstance, according to Varro, riod that has elapsed from some fixed point of time, or itwas differentfromthe templum. This distinction among epoch, called the commencement of the sera.-Thus the the Romans in the early ages was afterwards lost, and the Christian tera began at. the birth of Christ, the Mohameme words were used indiscriminately. dan sera at the flighlt of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina. IEDI'CULA. (Lat.) A diminutive of the preceding. the ersa of Diocletian at the coronation of that emperor,.E'DILE. The title of certain Roman magistrates, so &c.; and the period of the occurrence of any event is as-alled from their care of buildings (tedes). They were certained by reckoning from one or other of these epochs. divided into two classes, distinguished by the epithets When, for example, it is said that Queen Victoria ascendflebeian and curule. The two plebeian tediles were, as ed the throne of Great Britain in 1837, it means that this heir name imports, elected from the commonalty event took place in the 1837th year of the Cliristian aira, or plebs), and were subordinate to the tribunes of the of that tera which began with the birth of Christ. It is commons, having jurisdiction over lesser causes, sub- plain from the above statement that the period of time seenitted to them by those magistrates. The two curule lected for an aera, or point whence to begin the comrpulaeediles, so called from their privilege of giving judgment tion of time, is necessarily arbitrary; and different nations on ivory seats (sellae curules), were originally elected from have adopted different periods coincident with some imthe ps''e"iana but afterwards frrftp.*h plebeians and pa- portant event in their civil or religious history. Some havw 1 .ERARIAN. AEROLITE. adopted;he year of the creation of the world, and this, which it occupied is not filled with air instantaneously, ot) were its (late well ascertained, would be one of the best only after a sensible, though very short time. Theory, that could be selected. But the sacred writings are not confirmed to a certain degree by experience, shows that explicit on this point, and there are great discrepancies in air, under the ordinary atmospheric pressure, rushes into the estimates, as to the period of its occurrence. The a vacuum with a velocity of between 1300 and 1400 feet Greeks used to reckon by the aera of the Olympiad (see in a second of time. But this velocity is very speedily the word), which began at the summer solstice, anno 776 checked; for the instant that any portion of air is admniitI. C. The Romans reckoned from the btilding of the city, ted, or the vacuum ceases to be perfect, that portion resists generally held to be the 24th of April, B. C. 753. Thq Ju- the entrance of more with a force proportional to its denlian tera dates from the reformation of the calendar by Ju- sity. Suppose, for example, tile air in a receiver to bte reli:.a Casar, B. C. 45. All Christian nations now adopt for duced to one fourth of its natural density; the effort ofith their era the birth of Christ, which took place on the 1st exterior air to enter the receiver will be reduced to three. of January, in the middle of the 4th year of the 194th fourths of its amount when the receiver was perfectly exOlympiad, and the 753d year of the building of Rome. hausted; and consequently the velocity, which is proporThe aera of most Mohammedan nations is that of the He- tional to the square root of the effort or the resistance, will gira. or flight of Mohammed to Medina, corresponding with be reduced in the proportion of 1 to VA; or of 100 to 87, the 16th July, A. D. 622. The aera of Sulwanah, in corn- very nearly. In this manner, as the air continues to enter, mon use in a great part of India, corresponds to A. D. 78. the velocity will rapidly diminish. The aera of Yezdegird, used in Persia, began 16th June, Now, conceive a body, for example a cannon ball, to be A. D. 62. moving rapidly through the air, but with a less velocity Subjoined are the names of some of the principal eiras, than 1300 feet per second. The air in front of the ball will with the year of the Christian aera in which they began, remain in its natural state, because the condensation proantd the abbreviations by which they are commonly dis- duced every instant by the contact of the ball, is propagatinguished. ted more quickly than the ball moves (the velocity of the propagation being equal to that with which air enters a - Eras. Commenced Abbreviations vacuum). But there is a certain space behind the ball in Ye -~~I~ ~ ~ oth~~___ -.- which the air has not entirely recovered its equilibrium, Year of the World (Constatn. but remains more or less rarefied, the ball having passed tinopolitan account). B. C. 5,509 A. M. Const. through it in less time than is required for the surrounding (Alexandrian ace't) - 5,492 A. M. Alex. air entirely to fill it. In addition, therefore, to the resist- (Jewish account) -. 3,760 A. M. ance which arises from the communication of motion to,Era of Nabonassar -. 747 Er. Nab. the particles of air, there is a pressure on the front part of Olympiads - -. -. 776 Olymp. the ball, not counterbalanced from behind; in consequence Year of Rome ~. - 753 A. U. C. of which, we may infer that the resistance will increase in Jhlian _Era -. ~ 45 Jul. zEr. a quicker ratio than the square of the velocity. This deChristian XEra - A. D. duction is also confirmed by experience; for it is found Era of Sulwanah - - A. D. 78 Saca. that the resistance continues to increase with the square Era of Diocletian - - 284 Er. Dioc. of the velocity only while the velocity is less than 900 or The lletira -. 622 A. H. 1000 feet per second. Above this velocity the ratio begins Era of Yezdegird - - 632 A. Pers. to fail; and when the velocity exceeds that with which air enters a vacuum, the ratio is entirely altered. At a velociIt is easy to deduce from this the year of the Christian ty of 1600 feet per second, the resistance is found to be ra co~reponding with that of any treater aera. (Seefur- more than twice that given by theory. The reason is obther Chrontology of History by Sir H. Nicholas, p. 2'2, &c.) vious: the density of the air before the body is increased IERA RIA N. The term applied to a Roman citizen who by the rapid motion, and, consequently, presses more or had been degraded to the lowest rank compatible with per- the fore part of the body than air in its natural sttite soeal freedom. He, however, still paid taxes, but enjoyed The resistance of the air on the motion of projectiles no privileges, and could not serve in the army, or, conse- was first examined experimentally bh M. Rabins (see hit: quently, participate in the distribution of land granted to Principles of Gunnery), and afterwards by Dr. D tiitt,.. osuach classes as did. Woolwich (see his Tracts, vol. 3, and Math. i,!iou,.'.y) A.RllA'RIUM. (Lat.) The public treasury of the Ro- whose experiments were carried on to a fre-er,rxut, maii people, the care of which was vested in the quaestors. and varied in a greater number of ways. tTh-')llwvni Afrter the fall of the republic the wrarium was kept distinct are the principal results deduced by Dr. Ilottiot, fronm from the treasury ofthe emperor, which was called fiscus. his experiments on bodies moving very slowly, not mnore The merarium sanctius, or more sacred treasury, was ap than 20 feet per second:pointed to provide for cases of extreme emergency, and 1st. "That the resistance is nearly in the same proprwmight not be opened on other occasions, tion as the surfaces; a small increase only taking place ie AE'RIAL. (Gr. dtip, air.) In Painting, a term applied the greater surfaces and for the greater velocities. to the diminishing intensity of colour on objects receding 2d. "The resistance of the air to the same surface with from the eye. Aerial perspective is the relative apparent different velocities, is, in these slow motions, neartly as the recession of objects from the foreground, owing to the square ol the velocity, but gradually increases more autr quantity of air interposed between them and the spectator, more above that proportion as the velocity increases. and must accompany the recession of the perspective lines. 3d. "The round ends and sharp ends of solids stffer less AERIAL ACID, Carbonic acid. resistance than the flat or plane ends of the same diame. A'ERO-DYNA/MICS. (Gr. dr/p, and vyvapg.^ power.) ter; but the sharper end has not always the less resistThe science which treats of the motion of the air, and of ance. the mechanical effects of air in motion. This is an expe- 4th. "When the hinder parts of bodies are of different rimental science, and there are two ways in which it may forms, the resistances are different, thotugh the fore parts be investigated. The first is, by ascertaining the effects be exactly alike and equal: owing, probably, to the differ. which air, moving with a certain velocity, that is, wind, ent pressures of the air on the hinder parts." produces on a body against which it strikes; and the Dr. Hutton likewise found, that although in slow motions second, by ascertaining the resistance which air at rest the experimental resistance is nearly equal to that compuoffers to a solid body rapidly passing through it. The pro- ted by theory, yet, "as the velocity increases, the experiblem is exactly the same, whether the body is considered mental resistance gradually exceeds the other more and as moving against the air at rest, or the air is supposed to more, till, at the velocity of 1300 feet, the former becomes move against the body with the same velocity. double the latter; after which, the difference increases a Conceive a body to be moved forward in a straight line, little further, till, at the velocity of 1600 or 1700 feet, when displacing successively the particles of air opposed to it: that excess is the greatest, and is rather less than 2 anid the effect which it produces is proportional to the number 1-10th: arid, after this the difference decreases gradually. of particles against which it strikes, and to the quantity of as the velocity increases: and at the velocity of 2000 the motion communicated to each. Suppose now the velocity former resistance again becomes just double the latter." of the body to be doubled, the motion communicated to For further information on this subject, see PROJECTILES. each particle of air displaced will be twice as great as be- WIND. fore, and twice as many particles will receive the impul- AERO'GRAPHY. (Gr. dgp, the air, and ypatpw, Itmri!e. sion in the same time. Hence we infer that the effect will The description of the atmosphere, its nature, properties. Le four times as great, or that the effect is proportional to limits, &c. (See ATMOSPHERE.) [the square of the velocity. This result of theory agrees A'EROLI'TE. (Gr. dr/p, the air, and A16o5, a stone,.ftoiet tolerably well with experiments made to determine the of the air.) The origin of these singular substances is in resistance of the air when the velocity is not very great, volved in the greatest mystery. Some philosophers, among or not exceeding eight or nine hundred feet in a second. whom is Laplace, the illustrious author of the "M6canique When the velocity is much greater than this, the effect is Celeste," suppose them to be ejected from volcanoes in the modifiedl by circumstances which require further expla- moon; others suppose them to exist ready formed in the nation. celestial space, circulating about thle sun with great velocity, Wheti a solid body is moved out of its position, the space like planets, and falling to the earth when its attraction upon 17 P AEROLOGY. AESTHETICS. nem preponderates: others regard them as fragments of belonging to ships.) The art of sailing in and navigating rocks which have been propelled by terrestrial volcanos to the air. From the earliest ages men have been actuated an immense height above the limits of the atmosphere, by a wish to be able to participate in the advantages conand again descend after having described several revolu- ferred on the lower animals, and having succeeded in na tions about the earth. vigating the sea, to be able also to mount, like the eagle, On examining and comparing the aerolites, the first cir. into the air. The story of Daedalus, who is said to have cumstance that strikes us as remarkable is their perfect escaped from Crete to Sardinia, by means of wings con. resemblance to one another in their composition, what- trived to assist him, is known to every classical reader, ever be their form or magnitude. Their exterior surface and proves, at least, the antiquity of attempts of this sort. is black as if they had been exposed to the heat of a fur- But the fate of his companion Icarus, seems to have hal nace. Internally they are of a greyish white. Their spe- a greater influence in deterring from similar attempts, than c.ific gravity, which is very nearly the same in all of them, the reported success of the artificial dove, constructed by varies between 3-352 and 4-281, that of water being taken the geometer Archytas, which is said to have wafted it. as unit. Their chemical analysis gives, in almost every self through the air by means of internal springs. During instance, the same substances, combined in very nearly the middle ages. when the nature of the atmosphere and the same proportions. They are composed of silex, mag- the sound principles of mechanical philosophy were alike nesia, sulphur, iron in the metallic state, nickel, and some unknown, many rude and necessarily unsuccessful attraces of chrome. Sometimes they are formed of a spongy tempts were made to realize this difficult problem. But it or cellular texture, the cavities being filled with a stony was not till the composition of the atmosphere had begun substance. They have occasionally been found without to be ascertained, and that means had been devised of fillnickel. These common and constant characters indicate ing vessels with heated air, or other air lighter than atwith the greatest evidence a common origin, and their mospheric air, and consequently capable offloating on it, composition renders it probable that it is to be sought that there came to be a rational prospect of succeeding in elsewhere than in the earth. Iron is scarcely ever found the "audacious attempt" of riding in the air. At length, in (if, indeed, it is found at all) in the metallic state in terres- 1782, the brothers Montgolfier succeeded itn constructing trial substances; volcanic matter contains it only in the a balloon; and on the 21st of October, 1783, Pilatre de Rn. state of an oxide. Nickel is also very rare, and never zier, a young naturalist, and the Marquis d'Arlandes, as. found on the surface of the earth: and chrome is still cended from Paris to an elevation of more than 3000 feet more rare. and alighted safely from their " aerial tour," after describThe fall of the aerolites is accompanied by meteors, ing a circuit of about six miles. Since that time ascents in named bolides, or fire balls. They are, in fact, inflamed balloons have become comparatively common. (S'ee BALglobes, which appear instantaneously in the atmosphere, LOON, and the article Aronautics in the Encyclopaedia Briand move through it with extreme velocity, sometimes tannica, 7th edit.) even equal to that of the earth in its orbit. The direction A'EROPHY'TES. (Gr. sdrp, air, and osvrov, a plant.) of their motion is inclined to the horizon. After shining Plants which live exclusively in air; in distinction to bywith great splendour for a few instants, they explode with drophytes, which live as constantly under water. a loud noise, and often at a great height, 30 or 40 miles A'EROSTA'TICS. A term sometimes used to denote above the surface of the earth. They do not affect any the science which treats of the equilibrium of elastic fluids. peculiar direction with respect to the motion of the earth, (See PNEUMAT]CS.) but seem to come from all points of the heavens indiffer- A'EROSTAfTION. (Gr. dnrp, air, and a-raw, I stand) ently. Means simply the weighing of the air; but it has been emWith regard to the hypothesis which explains the origin ployed, though incorrectly, in the science of ieronautics, of the aerolites, by supposing them to be propelled from or as the art of raising substances into the atmosphere by lunar volcanos, it may be remarked, that no improbable the buoyancy of heated air, or of very light gases enclosed amount of mechanical force would be required. As there in a bag of a spheroidical form; hence called a balloon, is no atmosphere about the moon sufficient to offer a sen- which see. sible resistance to the motion of a solid body, the force re- AESCULA'CEiE. A natural order of exogenous plants quired is only that which would be sufficient to overcome consisting of the horse-chestnut,.Esculus hippocastanum, the moon's attraction, which is found by calculation to be and other nearly allied species. They are all either shrubs atout four times the force with which a ball is expelled or trees inhabiting temperate regions, and nearly corresFrom a cannon with the ordinary charge of gunpowder. A pond with Esculus hippocastanum in the structure of the body projected with a velocity of about 7770 feet per se- flowers. Their seeds contain starch, and their bark is in cond from the lunar surface, would be detached from the some cases bitter and astringent. moon, and be brought to the earth by terrestrial gravita- XESCULA'PIUS, or ASCLE'PIUS, as he was called by lion. But philosophers seem now disposed to assign the the Greeks, was a mythological deity of the Greeks and aerolites a different origin. From the phenomena of Romans, according to whom he was the son of Apollo and comets there is reason to believe that portions of chaotic the nymph Coronis. Ile was worshipped as the god matter are dispersed in the planetary regions in detached of surgery and medicine; but the older poets, as Homer parcels, or perhaps in considerable masses. The earth in and Pindar, mention him only as a hero well skilled in describing its orbit may meet with such masses directly, these arts. The chief seat of his worship was Epidaurus, or pass so near to them as to carry them along with it by where he was represented as an old man, with a mantlo virtue of its attraction. On plunging into the atmosphere and staff., round which a serpent is twined. with the velocity due to the height from which they have AESTHE'TICS. (Gr. ditoermtKos, having the power of fallen, which is that of their distance from the earth, when perception by means of the senses.) In the fine arts, that they begin to obey its attractive force, an enormous heat is science which derives the first principles in all the arts evolved by the rapid and powerful condensation of the air; from the effect which certain combinations have on the the matter becomes inflamed, and the aerolite is the pro. mind, as cohnected with nature and right reason. It is induct of the combustion. In the same manner, shooting timately related to sentiment, which links together with stars, and other igneous meteors of frequent occurrence, feeling the different parts of a composition. All art, conare explained. The chaotic matter may be entirely con- sidered as imnitation of nature, is affected by the same resumed ling before it reaches the earth, in which case the lations, and subject to the same laws, which govern nature appearance of the bolide will not be accompanied with the herself; and if it could be satisfactorily proved that those fall of an aerolite. (See METEOR.) rules of art which are the result of reason were necessariPhilosophers were long inclined to disbelieve in the fall ly connected with sensation, it might be possible to lay of stones through the atmosphere. The fact, however, is down laws from which the principles of art might be satisnow placed beyond all doubt by numerous and well au- factorily deduced. As an illustration of this, in architecthenticated instances which have occurred in almost all ture we might take the rule which forbids the position of quarters of the world. even within the present century. a heavy mass over a void, when it may appear to have no A very complete list of the falls of stony or earthy matters, ostensible and immediate support; in which case it might with the times and places of their occurrence, and the ap- almost seem possible to connect the unpleasant sensation pearances they exhibited, is published in the Edinburgh produced on the mind with the rules of reason: but in arPhilosophical Journal, from a work by Chladni, in Ger- chitecture it is difficult to conceive how this could be efman, in which the whole subject of meteoric stones is ably fected without recurring to primitive types, and on them and fully treated. pursuing the reasoning into all its details. In the other arts AERO'LOGY. (Gr. drip. air, anid X)yos. a discourse.) it might not, perhaps, be so difficult to establish a set of The doctrine of air, generally applied to medical dikcus- rules, inasmuch as the immediate type is nature herself. sions respecting its salubrity. The Germans have written much on I he doctrine of aestheAERO';ETER. (Gr. daip, air, and pcrpov, a measure.) tics; it would, however, seem, that the fundamental prin An instrument for making the necessary corrections in ciples of taste in all the arts depend on the laws of gravita. pneumatic experiments, to ascertain the mean bulk of tion, and their balances, equipoise and counterpoise; tlhe gases. necessary resultants whereof are symmetry and propor. A'ERONAUT. (Gr. drip, air, and vavrs, a sailor.) tion. We shall here lay before the reader a synoptical One who travels in a balloon. view of this science: to do more would occupy a space &'ERONAUTICS. (Gr. damp, air, and vavruKOf, of or much more than would fill this volume; for. under othet 18 AESTHNA. AFFINITY, CHEMICAL. names, it is a subject which has much engaged the j ed to measure the effects of the radiation of heat, which attention of writers on the philosophy of the arts. The will be manifested by the descent of the liquor in the stem. essence of the polite arts lies in expression, or the When applied to this purpose, however, the metallic cup power of representation, whether by lines, words, or becomes unnecessary; the hot pulses being mostly thrown other media, and that expression arises from an exer- back from the bright surface of the gilt ball, while they cise of the inventive faculty; their end being the pro- produce their full effect on the naked or sentient one. duction of pleasurable sensations; thus being distinguished The ethrioscope is thus converted into a pyroscope. (See from the end sought in the sciences, whose object is to pro. Encyc. Brit., art. " Climate.") duce instruction and utility. And here we are to observe, ]ESTIVA'TION. (Lat. aestivus, of or belonging to sumthat though in some of the polite arts, such as eloquence, mer.) A figurative expression, employed to indicate the poetry, and architecture, the end may be to instruct, or to be manner in which the parts of a flower are arranged before applicable to useful objects, yet that the expression on which they unfold. Botanists speak of the sestivation of the calyx, they depend brings them within the laws which govern the of the corolla, of the stamens. fine arts. The object of the fine arts is beauty, which is E'STUARY. (Lat. XEstuarium.) In Geography, was the result of all the various perfections whereof an object anciently understood to be any creek, frith, or arm of the is susceptible: such perfections arising, first, from the sea, in which the tide ebbs and flows (Plin. Epist. lib. 9, ep. agreeable proportions between the several parts of the 33.); but it is now applied to designate those parts of the same object: and, second, from the proportions between channels of certain rivers contiguous to the sea in which each part and the object taken as a whole. Genius, or the the water is either salt or brackish. and in which the ebb power to invent, is the faculty of the mind by which it is and flow of the sea is distinctly perceptible, and there is enabled to conceive and express its conceptions, and is, little or no current. consequently, necessary to the production of beauty; while.E'THER. See ETHER. taste, or the natural sensation of a mind refined by art, is A'ETIA'IOI. (Gr. deroS, an eagle.) In Architecture, the guide to genius in discerning, embracing, and produ- the name given by the Greek architects to the slabs form. cing beauty. Hence a general theory of the polite arts ing the face of the tympanum of a pediment. This word must be founded on a knowledge of all that they contain occurs in the Athenian inscription now in the British Mutruly agreeable and beautiful. They are usually said to seum, taken to England by Dr. Chandler, and relating to include eloquence, poetry, music, painting, sculpture, and the survey of some temple at Athens. architecture. By some, dancing has been added to the.ETIO'LOGY. (Gr. dirti, a cause, and Xoyoe, discourse.) number; but, for reasons too long to be advanced here, The doctrine of the causes of disease. we cannot include it. The rules have been reduced to six, AETO'MA, or A'ETOS. (Gr. daeTo, an eagle.) In Arfor the guidance of the artist, who is to recollect that, in chitecture, the name given by the Greek architects to the every art, what is low, indecent, or disagreeable, must be tympanum of a pediment. It seems to have derived its, banished from his work. First, he must consult his genius, name from the custom of decorating the apex or ridge of the roof with figures of eagles, and that the name thence Quid valeant humerli; first given to the ridge was afterwards transferred to the pediment itself. second, he must constantly labour to improve his taste; AFFECTA'TION. (Lat. affectare, toseekfor overmtuch.) third, nature must be the constant object of his imitation; In the Fine Arts, all artificial show arising from the want of fourth, he must attain perspicuity, so that his end may simplicity either in colouring, drawing, or action. Also, be free from ambiguity and obscurity; fifth, he must the overcharging any part of a composition with an artificial elevate his sentiments above all common or common-place or deceitful appearance. objects, by which an expansion of the imagination super- AFFE'CTED, or ADFECTED. A term of Algebra. venes and stamps his works with an air of sublimity, which When applied to an equatotn, it signifies that two or more sixthly, results from a concurrent observance of the fourth several powers of the unknown quantity enter into the and fifth rules. We close this with the following observa- equation: thus, x3 - ax + -bx - c = o, in which there are tion of Menzel: "Art is not the result of understanding three different powers of x, namely, x3, ix2, and x. When alone; the inspiration of the artist has been, and ever must the term is applied to a quantity, it implies that the quantibe, the source of that which gives aesthetic value to his ty has a coefficient, or a proper sign: thus. in the quantity productions. (See Hegel's Vorlesungen fiber die.sthe- +2x, x is said to be affected with the coefficient 2, and'ik. Herausgegeben von Dr. H. G. Hotho. 3 Bande, Ber- with the sign +. Dr. Hutton thinks the term affected was tin, 1835. Solger's Voriesungen, &c., Leipzig, 1829. Brit. introduced into algebra by Vieta. and For. Review, Vol. 13, art. " Philosophy of Art.") AFFE'TTO, or AFFETTUOSO. (It. affetto, affection.) zE'STHNA. A name applied by Fabricius to agenus of In Music, a term prefixed to a movement, showing that it Iragon-flies, characterised by having the wings expanded is to be performed in a smooth, tender, and affecting manwhen at rest, and the divisions of the lip equal. ter, and, therefore, rather inclining to slowness than the AE'THEO'GAMOUS. (Gr. darOrn, unusual, and yapos, reverse. marriage.) A name contrived to express more clearly the AFFIDA'VIT. (Lat. affidio, I confirm by oath.) In Law, nature of what are called cryptogamic plants; it being the is an oath in writing, sworn before some person who has.)pinion of the author of the name that the mode of propa- authority to administer it. gation among such plants was not hidden, but only of an AFFILIA'TION. (Lat. ad, to, filius, a son.) In Law, the unusual nature. It has been confined by De Candolle to assignment of a child to a parent by legal authority; as such as have vessels, as well as cellular tissue, in their or- where the father of a bastard child is designated on the tesaganisation. In this sense, they are the same as ferns, ly- timony of the woman, and the expenses of maintaining it copodiiims, mosses, and their allies. cast upon him. By the poor Law Amendment Act, s. 72., J _'TIIRIOSCO'PE. (Gr. diOpi10, clear, and CKOVico, this can now only be done, after sufficient notice to the I view.) An instrument invented by Sir John Leslie for party intended to be chared, by an order of the court of measuring the relative degrees of cold quarter sessions, on the testimony of the woman, corrobo. produced by the pulsations from a clear rated as to some material fact by other evidence. (See sky. It consists merely of a differential BASTARD.) Affiliated societies, in Politics, are local societhermometer, adapted to the cavity of a ties. depending on a central society with which they cor. spheroidal cup of metal, the interior of respond, and from which they receive directions. Such which is highly polished, in such a man- were the provincial jacobin clubs, founded on the model of tier that one of the balls occupies a focus l the jacobin club of Paris. Such, also, were the correspondof the spheroid; while the orifice of the I3 ing societies in England, for the suppression of which the cup is formed by a plane passing through o10 statute 39 G. 3. c. 79. was chiefly passed. the other focus, perpendicular to the 0 AFFI'NITY. (Lat. affinis. related.) A relation of aniaxis. A lid of the same metal is fitted to 1l mals to one another, in the similarity of a greater proporthe mouth of the cup, and only removed tion of their organisation: thus, a porpoise is said to have when an observation is to be made. an affinity to man, because of its resemblance to him in the Suppose the cup exposed to a clear sky: respiratory, circulating, and generative systems, in the the cold pulses darted from the upper - brain, eye, and ear, &c.; while it is said to have analogy regions of the atmosphere, which enter to a fish, because the resemblance is confined to external the orifice ofthe cup, are reflected from polished surfaces form. In short, affinity is that degree of relationship by upon the ball A in the focus, while the ball B, lodged at the which, in forming a concatenate(d series of animals, we side of the cup in its widest part, is nearly screened from pass from one to another by the closcst gradations. them, or receives only the small number which fall AFFINITY, CHEMICAL. The attractiove force by obliquely upon it. The two balls are thus exposed to dif. which dissimilar substances combine with each other to ferent degrees of cold, the effect of which is immediately produce chemical compounds. All natural and artificial apparent, by the rise of the liquor in the stem of the ther- substances are either simple or compound. The metals: mometer, in consequence of the contraction of the air in for instance, are simple substancesn —no onee of them havthe ball A. The effect may be augmented by covering the ing been as yet decomposed: water is a compound; it may Rall B, which is out of the focus, with a coat of gold or sil- be resolved into oxygen and hydrogen gases, which are ~or leaf It is evident that the instrument is equally adapt- therefore called its component part. To enable suibstances 19 AFFINITY, CHEMICAL. AFTERMATH. to exert tlieir mutual affinities, or to act chemically upon are designated by the first syllable of the Greek ordinal each other, the opposing powers of matter must be over- numerals: thus we have protoxides, deutoxides, tritoxides. come. and they must be placed under circumstances fa- &c.; and when the base is saturated with oxygen, the vour.lole to the exertion o' their mutual chemical attrac- compound is termed a peroxide. Wihen the same subtiotis. Two solid bodies seldom combine, in consequence stance forms three or four acids, tile term hypo is conof tlie:r imperfect contact, and the immobility of their par- veniently introduced with the termination ous or ic, as ticles; hence the oldest axiom, corpora non agunt, nisi shown in the following table of the acids of sulphur:iui:a. liBut to Ihis there are exceptions: ice an(d salt, for Atom., qot Equivalents of E,?uivalents of the instance, run down inro liquid brine; oxalic acid and dry sul/hur. oxygen. sulphur. oxySen. acids. lime unite; ant wihea suilpuir and clilorate of potash are I + 1 16 - + 24 hyposulphurous. rubbed together, they act violently on each other. Even 1 +- 2 16 +- 16 = 32 sulphurous. when one or both substances are fluid, heat is often requi- I + 3 16 + 24 = 40 sulphuric. site to diminish cohesion, arid promote affinity: thus, mercury and iron combine with melted sulphur; and oxygen There is also an acid of sulphur intermediate between anti hydrogen, ant oxygen and carbon, require heat to ef- sulphurous and sulphuric, composed of I atom of hyposulfect their union. In some cases the action of the solar pliurous acid, and 1 of sullphurous acid; (24 + 32 = 56) rays excites anti increases affinity, as in the combination or of 2 atoms of sulphur and 3 of oxygen: this is appropri. of hydrogen and chlorine. ately called the hyposulphuric acid. The terms sesqui and The investigation of the relative proportions in wliich bi are sometimes used to designate intermediate and doubodies combine, forms the basis of the atomic theory, or ble compounds of acids, or other bodies with bases: thus, doctrine of chemical equivalents. we have three compounds of carbonic acid with ammonia, Many substances seem to unite in all proportions; but in which 1 proportional or atom of ammonia is respectively these are not strict cases of chemical combination: thus, combined with 1, 1), and 2 of carbonic acid, and these we water and sulphuric acid. and alcohol and ether, mix to. call the carbonate, sesquicarbonate, and bicarbonate of am. gether in any quantities. Others unite indefinitely, up to a onia. For a table of the equivalent numbers of the simcertain point: water, for instance, dissolves salt, in varia- ple substances, see EQUIVALENTS. ble quantity, till the solution is saturated: we thus find Change of form and change of properties are the comthat a given quantity of water is only able to retain a cer- mon consequences of chemical affinity. We observe, 1. tain weight of salt in permanent solution. In these cases Solids forming liquids (ice and salt). 2. Solids forming of indefinite combination, the affinities of the combining gases (explosion of gunpowder). 3. A solid and a liquid substances are usually feeble; but where their affinities or producing a solid (lime and water). 4. A solid and a liquid attractive powers are energetic, there is a remarkable ten- producing a liquid (all common cases of solution; as of dency to combine in certain proportions only. Tlius, sul- salt and sugar in water). 5. Liquids producing solids (so. phuric acid and lime unite in the proportions of 40 of tile lution of carbonate of potassa mixed with muriate of lime). acid to 28 of the lime, and in no other or intermediate 6. Liquids producing gases (alcohol and nitric acid). quantity: in such cases the acid and the base are said to 7. Gases producing solids (ammonia and muriatic acid). neutralise each other; and such compounds are often 6. Gases producing liquids (chlorine and olefiant gas). called neutral salts, that is, salts in which the leading cha- The density of bodies is also materially affected by cheracters of the component parts are no longer perceptible, mical combination; the density of a compound is very which are neither acid nor alkaline. When such bodies rarely the mean of its components, but generally increased: combine in more than one proportion, which is often the thus, almost all gaseous compounds occupy less bulk tilan case. the second, third, &c. proportions are simple multi- their elementary gases in a separate state; there are, howpies of the first: thus, 16 parts of sulphur combine respec- ever, cases in which 1 volume of one gas, combined with I tively with 8, 16, and 24 of oxygen; in these compounds volume of another. produce exactly 2 volumes of a comthe relative proportions being as 1, 2, and 3. Again, 14 pound gas, the density of which is, of course, the mean of parts of nitrogen combine with 8, 16, 24, 32. and 40 of oxy- that of its components; and again, in the combinations of gen, forming five distinct compounds, in which the relative some of the metals with each other, and witl sulphur, the proportions of the oxygen are as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. density of the compound is below the mean of its eleWhere the combining substances are either naturally ments. When certain liquids are mixed, great and immegaseous, or where they may be hypothetically so consi- diate increase of density ensues, and much heat is evolved dered, it is obvious that, as their weights bear these simple (sulphuric acid and water). Change of form and of density relations to each other, thleir bulks or volumes will do so are often attended by remarkable changes in other qualilikewise: thus, in the case of the compounds just noticed, ties: tius, tasteless bodies produce active compounds (oil I volume of nitrogen will combine respectively withi m, I, of vitriol is composed of oxygen, sulphur, and water), and 1, 2, and 22 volumes of oxygen; or, what amounts lo the active substances produce inert compounds (sulphuric acid same thing, 2 volumes of nitrogen will combine with 1, 2, and caustic potash produce the inert salt, sulphate of pot3, 4, and 5 volumes of oxygen. ash); so that it is utterly impossible, by any a priori reaAs bodies thus combine with each other in definite pro- s m"in, to determine what will be the consequence of cheportions, it is obvious, that if we select any one substance mical combinatiron: useless elements proulduce useful corn. as unity, or = 1, all othlier substances may be represented pounds, and useless complounds yield usefulti elements. by numbers equal to the weightis in whichi they respective- Another important and curious consequence of chemical ly combine with each othler, and with the unit. Upon this action is change of colour: thle vegetable blues are geneprinciple of numeric representation, hydrogen, which is rally reddened by acids, and rendered green by alcalis; the lightest known substance, is assumed as unity; the the alcalis render many of the reds purple; anl of the yelcompound of hydrogen with oxygen is water, in which 1 lows, brown: cilorine destroys most colours; so does the part by weight of hlydrognn is combined with 8 of oxygen, joint action of lieht, air, and imoisture (bleaching, &c.) to form 9 of water: hence, in a table of atomic numbers, AFFI'RMATIVE. In Logic, denotes the quality of a prodefinite proportionals. or clhemical equivalents, (for all I hes position which asserts the agreement of the predicate with terms have been applied to such numbers,) we have — the sibject. Hydrogen represented by I AFFIRMATIVE QUANTITY. In Algebra, denotes a Oxygen - - quantity to be added, in contradistinction to one to be taken Water - 9 awa. And in the above series of nitric compounds we have, in AFFIRMATIVE SIGN, or POSITIVE SIGN. Tile sign the first of them, 14 of nitrogen combined with 8 of oxy- of addition, marked +, meaning plus, or more. Dr. Iiutgen; and, accordingly, calling 14 the equivalent of nitrogen, ton observes, that the early writers on algebra used the and S the equivalent of oxygen, we have thie following equi- wordi plus in Latin, or pin in Italian, for addition, and aftervalents of their compounds; and it may be presumed that wards the initial p only as a contraction; like as they used these numbers represent the weights of the combinintg minus or meno, or thie initial mn only, for subtraction; and atoms of those bodies:- thus their operations were denoted in Italy by Lucas de E~ivalolote or I3riBurgo, Tartalea, and Cardan, while the signs + and - Atoms conminirngie ghts, Euovalenmt of t'e were employed much about the same time in Germany by ofnitro-. ofoy. o fo itro- of oxy- compoutndl. Stifelius, Scheubelius, and others, to denote the same opege,. gen. "n. gern. rations. I + 1 14 + 8 22 nitrous oxide. A'FFIX. In Grammar, a syllable attached to tile end of 1 +- 2 14 + 16 - 30 nitric oxide. a class of words, determining their meaning. Thus. a 1+ 3 14 + 24 = 33 hyponilrois acid. class ofadverbs in English are determined by the affix ly, 1 +- 4 14 + 32 = 46 nitrous arid. stronaly, weakly, &c. Prefix is a syllable so attached at 1 + 5 14 + 40 54 nitric acid. the beginning This table also shows the nomenclature commonly applied AFRA'NCESADOS. In Modern History, a denominato the compounds; the termination ous indicating the mi- tion given in Spain to the party whicn attached itself to the nimum of oxygen, tlme termination ic the maximum; the cause of the French, or of the intrusive King Joseph, duterm oxide implying generally all those combinations of ring the war of independence, 1803-1814. oxygen which are not sour, such being callei, acids. More AFT. See ABAFT. frequently the relative proportions of oxygen in tile oxides A'FTERMATH. In Agriculture. Grass mown, after the 201 AGA. AGE. first crop of hay has been taken away, instead of being striength is manufactured from its leaves. The genus agave eaten off by stock. is the type of one of the subdivisions of amaryllidaceous A'GA. A title of dignityamong the Turks and Persians,. plants. given to various officers: as, the aga of the janissaries, AGE. (Fr. age ) Means, generally, a definite period or while that corps subsisted; the capi-aga, or chief eunuch length of time. of the seraglio, &c. It is also a common epithet of lespect AGE. As applied to man, age may either mean the; in addressing a distinguished person. whole of his life, or a portion of it. It is usual to divide the AGA'LMATOL'TE. (Gr. ayaXpa, image, and,XtOo, a whole period of human life into four parts or ages. The soane.) The mineral which the Chinese carve into im- first, or infancy, extending to the fourteenth year; the ages. next, or youth, from the fourteenth to about the twenty-AGA'MA. (Gr. ayaal,t I wonder at.) The name of a fifth; manhood, from the twenty-fifth to the fiftieth or sixlizard employed by Cuvier to designate the first section of tieth; and the last, or old age, filling up the remainder, the Iguanian sauria, or Agamidice; which section is charac- Ovid ingeniously compares these four ages to the four dit. terised by the absence of palatal teeth. The Agamoid li- ferent seasons of the year.-(Metamorph. xv. ver. 200.; zards include several genera, which are numerous in spe- These divisions are, however, in a great degree arbitrary cies, and they are distributed over the warmer parts of and very frequently they have been extended to six, the America, Africa, Asia, and Australia. They have all the first being divided into infancy and childhood, and the last power of inflating the body, and of producing, but in a less into old age a.nd extreme old age. Sometimes, also, the degree than in the chamteleon, changes of colour, whence, life of man is suppuoed to be divided into seven ages, the probably, the origin of the name. leading characteristics of which have been most admirably A/GAMOUS. (Gr. d, without, and yapjog, nuptials.) A depicted by Shakspeare'n term substituted by some writers for cryptogamic, because,, His ats baing seven ages. At first, the infant, such plants have in reality no organs analogous to sexes: Mewling and puking in the nurse's anns; it is, however, usually limited to such groups as confervae, And then, the whining schoolboy, with his satchel, lichens, and fungi, because they have in reality nothing And shining morning face, creeping like snail either analogous or similar to the sexes of more perfect wiliny t ol: And hethe loner Sighing like furnace, with a wneful ballad plants; while, on the contrary, ferns and mosses, although Made to his mistress' eyebrow: then a soldier, they have not any real sexes, nevertheless are considered Full of strange oaths, and bearded like the pard, by some writers to possess parts of an analogous nature. Jealous in honour, sudden and quick in quarrel, A'GAPIE. (Gr. dyaal, love.) Love feasts, in use among Seeking the bubble reputation Even in the cannaon's mouth: and then, the justice, the primitive Christians. After the celebrationofthe com- In air round belly, with capon li'd, niunion, tile oblations which had been made in the temple, With eyes severe, and heard of formal cut, consisting of meat and bread which the rich had brought Full of wise saws and modern instances, from their houses, were consumed at a common feast. And so he plays his part: The sixth age shifts There is some dispute whether in the apostolic times this Ito te eant and slipperd pan aloon; feast did not take place before the communion, in more His oupectachful hose well sa'd, aworld too wide exact accordance with the circumstances attending the in- For'his shrunk hank; and his big manly voice, sritution of the sacrament. The agapme or feasts in churches, Turning again toward childish treble, pipes were prohibited by the Council of Laodicea, A. D. 361, and And whistles in his sound: Last seene of all, ine or < coming between ALEATO'RIUM. (Lat.) In ancient Roman architec- two quantities denotes inequality; thus, a > b signifies ture, an apartment appropriated to the use of players with that a is greater than b, and a< b denotes that a is less dice or aleae. than b. The two primary operations of which quantities ALECTO'RIDES. (Gr. dXescrop, a cock.) A tribe of are susceptible, are addition and subtraction, and these rasorial or gallinaceous birds, including the curassow, and are respectively indicated by the symbols -+ plus, and - the species which, like it, resemble the common fowl in minus. For example, a+ b denotes the sum of the two the form of the beak. quantities a and b, or that a is to be increased by b; and ALE'MBIC. (From the Arabic particle al, the, and a-b denotes the difference between a and b, or that a is ambeeq, corrupted from the Greek word dA6it, a cup or to be diminished by b. Multiplication is indicated by the vessel.) An obsolete form of still. Constructed upon a symbol X, or by simply placing the letters beside each small scale in glass, it is sometimes used in the laboratory. other without an intervening symbol. Thus, in numbers, ALE'MBROTH, or Salt of Wisdom. A term applied by aX b or a b denote the same thing, namely, the product the old chemists to a salt composed of ammonia, muriatic arising from the multiplication of the number a into b. In acid, and oxide of mercury. It is poisonous. geometry, two letters joined together, as a b, denote a rectALEXA'NDRIAN SCHOOL. An academy for litera- angular parallelogram, one of the sides of which is reture and learning of all kinds, instituted at Alexandria by presented by a, and the other by b. Division is indicated Ptolemy, son of Lagus, and supported by his successors. by +; or more frequently by placing one of the numbers The grammarians and mathematicians of this school were above the other in the form of a fraction; thus: particularly celebrated. In the former class occur the 30'. 10 30 noted names of Aristarchus, Harpocration, and Aristo- 3 10, or o phanes; and among the latter were numbered the astro- In addition and subtraction, the quantities connected by nomer Ptolemy, and geometer Euclid. The grammarians the appropriate symbols must be homogeneous, or of the of Alexandria exercised a universal literary jurisdiction, samekind; for it is only such quantities that admit of ad. publishing canons of those who were to be considered dition or subtraction. Of two quantities connected by the standard authors, and revised editions of ancient writers. symbol of multiplication, one must necessarily be an abFor some account of the famous collection of books at stract number, for a quantity can only be multiplied by a Alexanstria. see LtBRARY. number, or, which is the same thing, added to itself once ALEXA'NDRINE. The French heroic verse of twelve 7 ALEXANDRINE. The French heroic verse of twvelveor twice, or some other numberof times. When division syllables or six Iambic feet. In English poetry it is occa- istobeperforme othe divisormayeitherber of times. quantiof sionally used: by Dryden, sometimes as a second line in th same kind as the dividend, or it may be an abstract a heroic couplet, more frequently as a third line in a trip- number; in the former case, the quotient is an abstract let; and the Spenserian stanza necessarily concludes with number; in the latter, it is a quantity of the same kind as an Alexandrine. The lines of Pope, defining the Alexan- the dividend. drine by an example, are well known: In the multiplication of quantities, the frequent repeti. "A.4 needless Alexandrine ends the song, tion of the same symbol would become inconvenient; it is Which, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.' usual, therefore, to write the root only once, and to place ALEXIPHA'RMIC. (Gr. aXEfoo, I avert, and oap!aKiOV, over it, on the right, the exponent or number indicating a poison.) Antidotes to poisons. the power: thus, a2 denotes the same thing as aa, or the ALEXITE'RICS. (Gr. aX\e^, I avert.) Preservatives square of a; a3 is tle same as aa a, or the cube of a, and against contagious and infectious diseases and the effects an denotes the nth power of a, or a multiplied by n times of poison in general.. d/LGi. into itself. By analogy, a2 denotes the square root of A'LG]E. (Lat. alga, sea-weed.) Plants which are desti. ao denotes the square root of tute of all signs of sexual organs, and which vegetate exclu- a; ao the cube root of a, and so on. (See NOTATION, sively under water. When they grow in salt water they SYMBOL.) are called sea-weeds, when in fresh water they are named Algebra is in its nature essentially distinct from arith. confervae. They comprehend in the division Zoospermeae metic. In arithmetic absolute numbers are given, from some of the lowest known forms of vegetable life, plants which other absolute numbers are required to be deterconsisting of simple cells adhering in different degrees, mined. But in algebra the symbols that are employed are and emitting at maturity spores or seeds having a distinct perfectly general, and may represent any numbers whatanimal motion. In the case of Oscillatorias, the whole ever; and the expressions which result from combining mass of the plant writhes and twists spontaneously; and them according to the conditions of the problem, indicate Zysmenas actually copulate. It is in this part of the the solution not of a particular question, but of all questions vegetable kingdom that plants approximate to animals in whatever, in which numbers are subjected to the same the most striking degree. An excellent account of the series of operations. In this manner the general proper. salt-water species is given in Greville's Algae Britannicee; ties of numbers are discovered. For example, the expresthe fresh-water kinds may be studied in the third volume sion (a+-b) (a-b), which signifies that the sum of the of the English Flora. See HARVEY'S MANUAL OF THE two numbers a and b is to be multiplied by their difference, BRITISH ALGJE, 8vo. 1841. becomes, on performing fhe multiplication, a2 -- b2; ALGARO'BA. (Arab. al, the, and. garoba, a bean-tree.) whence we infer this general or universal truth, namely. A tree found in the southern parts of Europe, and in Pales-. that the product of the sum and the difference of any two 30 ALGEBRA. ALIMENTARY CANAL. numbers, is equal to the difference of the squares of those ferring every point of a curve to co-ordinate or perpendicn numbers. Arithmetic could only prove the property to be lar axes, he expressed the relation between its different true in respect of particular.numbers. The systematic points by means of an equation, which served as a characnotation, to which algebra owes nearly the whole of its teristic to distinguish the curve, and from which its differpower as an instrument of research, is only of recent in- ent properties could be investigated by the ordinary opera. troduction. Indeed, the science itself, if known at all to tions of algebra. Descartes also pointed out the method of the ancient Greek mathematicians, was known only as a constructing or representing geometrically, equations of the higher species of arithmetic. The first writer on the sub- higher orders; gave a rule for solving a biquadratic equaject, with whose works we are acquainted, is Diophantus, tion by means of a cubic and two quadratics; and improved who lived about the middle of the fourth century of our the methods of reducing and treating equations which had era, and his work relates only to a peculiar class of arith- been adopted by Cardan, Girard, Ilarriot, and others who metical questions, in the solution of which he displayed had preceded him. considerable address, but the symbols which he used were Algebra, as a science, has undergone no revolution since only abbreviations (such as the initial or terminating letters) the time of Harriot and Descartes; but it has been imof the ordinary words. The treatise of Diophantus passed proved in all its details, and greatly varied and extended in into the hands of the Arabians; but algebra received from its applications. During the last century, and the latter them no improvement or extension. From the Arabians, part of the preceding, the method of infinite series, so use. it was transplanted into Italy, in the beginning of the 13th ful in many applications of mathematics, particularly in the century, by Leonardo Bonacci, a merchant of Pisa, who calculation of probabilities, was successfully cultivated by had travelled frequ.ently in the East. and become acquaint- Wallis, Newton, the Bernoullis, Euler, De Moivre, Stirling, ed with the science of those countries A treatise on arith- Simpson, and others. The nature and composition of almetic, comprehending algebra as it was then known, was gebraic equations has been fully investigated, and the written by him in the year 1202, and from that time the methods of approximating to their roots reduced to order science appears to have been cultivated with some assidui- and system. The investigation of the relations of angular ty in Italy. The earliest printed book on the subject was sections, begun by Vieta, conducted Euler to the arithmetic composed by Lucas Paciolus, or Lucas de Burgo, a mino- of sines and a complete theory of plane and spherical trigorite friar, and appeared in 1494. It contains a pretty com- nometry. Applied to problems concerning the motion of plete treatise on algebra for the time; but exhibits the sci- bodies or points, algebra has given rise to the doctrine of ence in nearly the same state in which it was left by Dio- fluxions, and the refined methods of the differential and in.phantus. Its application was confined to questions relating tegral calculus. It has completely superseded the use of to numbers of no great interest, and its power extended on. the elegant, but comparatively feeble, ancient analysis, and ly to the solution of eqaations of the first and second de- may be now regarded as forming the basis of the whole grees. But after this epoch it began to be cultivated exten- edifice of mathematical science. (See BINOMIAL THEO lively, and to undergo rapid improvement. Scipio Fer- REM, EQUATION, NOTATION.) reus, a professor of mathematics at Bononia, about the year ALGEBRAIC CURVE. A curve of which the relation 1505, first broke through the boundary within which it had between the abscissa and the ordinates is expressed by an so long been confined, and accomplished the solution of a equation which contains only algebraic quantities. The problem of the third degree. A general method of solving term algebraic is here used in contradistinction to transcencubic equations was soon after discovered by Tartalea, who dental, under which is comprehended infinite series and communicated it, under an oath of strict secrecy, to the quantities of the following kind: log. x, ax, sin. x, cos. x, celebrated Cardan. Presuming on some improvements he tan. x, &c. had made in the rules given to him by Tartalea, and on the ALGEBRAIC EQUATION. An equation of which the demonstrations which he certainly had the merit of invent- terms contain only algebraic quantities. (See EQUATION.) ing, Cardan, with a remarkable (though, unfortunately, in A'LGORITHM, signifies the art of computing in refer. the history of science not singular) instance of bad faith, ence to some particular subject, or in some particular way; published the whole as a supplement to a treatise which he as the algorithm of numbers; the algorithm of the differen. had composed several years before. Cardan, however, tial calculus. considerably extended the methods given to him by Tar. A'LGUAZIL. A Spanish officer corresponding with the talea, and besides, contributed to improve the notation, by English bailiff, having power to place persons in custody, frequently employing the letters of the alphabet. Lewis and apprehend criminals. Ferrari, a disciple of Cardan, had the honour of making the A'LIAS. (Lat. otherwise.) In Law, when a defendant next important improvement in the science, by the discov. sued on a specialty, or a prisoner, had more than one comrn. ery of a method of solving biquadratic equations, or equa- mon appellation, he was designated in the Latin forms of tions of the fourth degree; and it is remarkable that all instruments, as "A. alias dictus B." When it is necessary the efforts of modern mathematicians have not yet been for a second writ of the same description with a former able to pass this barrier, or effect the general solution of one to issue, it is headed " alias," as, an alias capias, &c. equations of a higher order than the fourth. A'LIBI. (Lat. elsewhere.) A cant law phrase, used to The first great step to the improvement of algebra, by the express the species of defence set up by one charged with introduction of aconcise and systematic notation, was made a criminal offence, who offers evidence to prove that he in Germany, by Stifel, or Stifelius, a protestant minister, was elsewhere at the time of the act committed. whose work, "Arithmetica Integra," was published in 1544. A'LIDADE. An Arabic name given to the index or ruler Stifel adopted the symbols + and - for plus and minus, to which moves about the centre of an astrolabe or quadrant, represent addition and subtraction, and also / (the con- carrying the sights or telescope, and showing on the limb of traction of r) for radix, or root: he likewise introduced the the instrument the number of degrees and minutes the obnumeral exponents of the powers, - 3, - 2, - 1, 0, +- 1, ject observed is elevated above the horizon. + 2, + 3, &c. The symbol =, denoting equality, was first A'LIEN, generally speaking, is one born in a country out used by Robert Recorde. of the allegiance of the sovereign, unless his father were a In following the chain of the principal discoveries, our natural born subject, in which case he will himself be attention is next arrested by Vieta, a native of France, who deemed a natural born subject, to all intents and purposes. first applied algebra to the improvement of geometry, and An alien in England cannot hold landed property, but lie thereby laid the foundation of the modern analysis. He may hold and dispose of, by will or otherwise, goods, mo. was also the first who employed general symbols to repre- ney, or other personal estate, and may take a tl.se of a sent known, as well as unknown, quantities, and thus intro. house for habitation or trade. An alien may. by letters paduced what has been called the specious algebra, in contra- tent, become a denizen, and take lands by purchase; or he distinction to the literal, where known quantities are repre- may be naturalised by act of parliament, and so tace by insented by numbers. This improvement, simple as it may heritance. In either case he becomes an En'lisri subject, appear, was attended by important consequences, as it ren- but, nevertheless, cannot be a member of the privy council dered the methods quite general, and enabled the algebraist or parliament. (See DENIZEN.) to comprehend whole classes of problems in a single for- ALIEN WATERS. Any stream of water carried across mula. Vieta likewise gave a method of solving algebraic an irrigated field or meadow, but which is not employed in equations by approximation: and from his doctrine of an- the process of irrigation. gular sections have been derived the arithmetic ofsines, and ALIENA'TION. In Law, the act of parting with proper. some of the most valuable processes of trigonometry. ty: more especially real property. The alienation of real Vieta was followed by Albert Girard, who first showed property takes place by deed, or in pais. (See REAL PROthe use of the negative sign in the solution of equations; PERTY.) and by Harriot, to whom the science is indebted for the ALIME'NTARY CANAL. A cavity in the interior of an very important discovery, that every algebraic equation animal body in which the nutriment is taken to be digested, may be regarded as the product of as many simple equa- before it is conveyed by the nutritive vessels to the system; tions as there are units in the number expressing its order. it affords the best organical characteristic of an animal, but An equation, for instance, of the fifth degree may be re- presents various modifications of structure. Sometimes it garded as the product of five simple equations. Descartes is a simple cavity with one opening; sometimes a true cafollowed soon after, and opened up vast fields of discovery, nal, with an outlet or anus, distinct from the inlet or mouth; by the applicat~on of the algebraic analysis to define the na- this canal may be divided into stomach and intestine, as in Tlre and in.'t.tigate the properties of curve lines. By re- the oyster; or a mouth, pharynx, and (esophagus may pro all ALIMONY. ALLEGORY cede the stomach; the oesophagus, again, may have one or Morphia - Opium. Iwo sacculi appended to it, called crops. The stomach may Narcotina - Opium. be subdivided into four bags, as in the ruminants, or into Nicotina - Nicotian'i tahacum, seven, as in the bottle-nose whale; and the intestines into Picrotoxia - Menispermum coccui;u small, blind, and large, forming, with their subdivisions, Quinia... Cinchona r-rd:fc!ia. what are termed duodenum, jejunum, ileum, caecum, co- Sanguinaria. Sanguinaria canadensis. Ion, and rectum. The cticum, again, may be single, or Solania -. Solanum nigrum. double, as in most birds; or a single cwecum may exist in Thebaia and Narceia - Opium. addition to a double one, as in the hyrax, a small pachyder- Veretria.- Veratrum sabadilla matous quadruped. Lastly, the various glandular organs A'LKANET. (A corruption of the French orcanetts which communicate with the alimentary canal are to be re- orca, a rouge pot.) A kind of reddish purple dye, ol garded as c ecal processes of that tube, since these are de. tained from the roots of Anchusa tinctoria: it was formei veloped from it, and in this condition they are permanent- ly used for staining the face. ly retained by one or other of the lower animals; thus, in ALKANET. The Anchusa tinctoria. The root of thit the sea-mouse, the liver is represented by long, branchied, plant, which is a native of the warmer parts of Europe, lateral processes of the intestine; in the codfish, &c. the contains a red resinous colouring matter which it imparti pancreas is similarly represented by numerous caecal pro- to alcohol and oils: it is used to tinge some ointments, es cesses of the duodenum. pecially lip-salves, of a red colour. A'LIMONY. In Law. The allowance for which a mar- ALKOO'L. A preparation of antimony used by the wo ried woman is entitled to sue on separation from her hus. men of eastern nations, to tinge the eyelids and lashes of a band. (Spe MARRIAGE.) black colour. Dr. Shaw, speaking of the women in Barba A'LIQtUOT PART of a number. A number which di- ry, says, " None of these consider themselves dressed, till vides the given number without leaving a remainder. they have tinged the edges of their eyelids with alkoohl.' Thus 2, 3, 4, and 6, are aliquot parts of 12. To find the ali- A'LLA BREVE. (Ital. according to the breve.) hi quot parts of any number, divide the given number by its Music, the name of a movement whose bars or measures least divisor; divide the quotient also by its least divisor, consist of the note called a breve, equal therefore to twt and so on, always dividing the last quotient by its least di- semibreves or four minims. It is denoted at the begin visor till the quotient is 1. The divisors thus used are the ning of a staff by a C with a bar drawn through it verti. prime aliquot parts of the given number; and the products cally. of every two, every three, every four, &c. of the prime ali- A'LLA CAPELLA. (Ital. according to the chapel.) Ir quot parts, give the compound aliquot parts of the given Music, the same as alla breve. The name originates in thl number. Suppose the given number 30; divide 30 by its circumstance of this time being principally employed fol least divisor, which is 2, and the quotient is 15; divide 15 movements used in the church or chapel. by its least divisor 3, and the quotient is 5; divide 5 by it- A'LLAH. Tre Arabic name of the Supreme Being self (it has no smaller divisor) and the quotient is 1. It signifies the True God, as opposed to the deities oi Therefore, 2, 3, and 5, are the prime aliquot parts of 30. idolaters. The compound aliquot parts are, 2 X 3 - 6, 2 X 5 = 10, A'LLANITE. A silico-ferriferous oxide of cerium fron. 3 X 5 = 15. Greenland; named after the late Mr. Allan of Edinburgh. ALISMATCEJE. (Alisma, from alis, water, in Celtic.) ALLA'NTOIC ACID. A white crystallisable acid, ob A small natural order of endogenous plants, marked by the tainmed by evaporating the allantoic liquid of the foetal calf. presence of numerous distinct carpels in a tripetaloideous ALLA'NTOIS. (Gr. aXXac, a sausage, and tmIos, form.! lower. They form a near approach to ranunculacete among A thin membranous sac developed from the termination exogens. Alisma and sagittaria are common genera. of the alimentary canal of the embryo, situated between AI'TRUNCK, ALITRUNCUS. In Entomology, the the amnion and chorion, and organised by the hypogastric posterior segment of the thorax of an insect to which the arteries and umbilical vein. Its functions, as a respiratory abdomen is affixed, and which bears the legs, properly so organ, is of most importance in those oviparous vertecailed, or the two posterior pairs, and the wings. brates where the embryo has no branchise: in the mamALIZARINE. From Ali-zari, the commercial name of malia, its use is more or less superseded by the chorion malder in the Levant; a peculiar colouring principle ob- and placenta. In some quadrupeds the allantois has the tained from madder. form of a sausae; whence its name. A'LKAHEST. A term of obscure Arabic origin, applied ALLE'GIANCE. (Fr. ligence, from the Latin ligare and:v the alchemists to a supposed universal solvent. allegare, to bind. The obedience which a citizen owes to A'LKALI, or ALCALI, derived from the Arabic article his prince or country.) The allegiance of a born subject o1 a.l, and kali, the name of a plant in the same language. A the English Crown is inseparable, and follows him every term originally applied to the ashes of plants; now gene- where; nor can he by any act of his own free himself from rally used to designate potash, soda, and ammonia, which it. There is also a temporary allegiance which foreigners are also termed vegetable, mineral, and volatile alcali. incur so long as they reside within the king's dominions These substances have certain properties in common, such By common law, all persons above the age of twelve years as neutralising and forming salts with the acids, reddening were required to take the oath of allegiance at the court several vegetable yellows, and changing some blues to leet; and the oaths of allegiance and supremacy have since green, and ready solubility in water. Lime, baryta, stron- been imposed by many statutes. The present form of the tia, and magnesia, have been called alcaline earths, from oath of allegiance was introduced by the Convention Partheir analogous action on vegetable colours. Lithia is also liament of 1688. In the United States, it appears to be reone of the alcalis. A singular class of bodies have been garded as a doubtful point, whether the allegiance of the discovered in vegetables which have been termed alcalis, citizen is necessarily perpetual, as in Great Britain. The or alkaloids, chiefly in consequence cf their power of satu- American laws also require a foreigner to have renounced rating and forming definite salts with the acids. Morphia, (as far as possible by his own act) allegiance to his former quinia. &c. are substances of this description. government, two years before he takes the oath of allegiALKALI, FOSSIL or MINERAL. Soda. ance to that of his acquired country. ALKALI, PHLOGISTICATED. Ferrocyanuret of po- A'LLEGORY. In Rhetoric and Literature (from the tassium. Greek words dXXo, another thing, and 4yopeu, I declare,) ALKALI, VEGETABLE. Potash. has been defined.'-a figurative representation, in which ALKALI, VOLATILE. Ammonia. the signs (words or forms) signify something beyond their A'LKALOI'DS. Substances analogous to alcaline bases literal or direct meanin,. In this sense allegory may be of vegetable origin, and generally possessed of great medi- addressed to the eye, in painting and sculpture, by means cinal activity. Their ultimate elements are carbon, hydro- of forms, intended to convey, besides the notion of those gen, oxygen, and nitrogen. The principal substances of sensible objects which they represent, certain abstract this class, together with the plants from which they are ideas to which these objects are supposed to bear analogy obtained, are the following: Allegory differs, 1. from symbolical writing or representaAconita - - Aconitum napellus. tion; because in the first, the type and antitype, or thimt) Aricina. - A bark from Arica. exhibited and thing intended, have some real or natural re. Atropia - - Atropa belladonna. semblance, relation, or analogy: in the latter, the resemBrucia ~ Strychnos nux vomica. blance is merely conventional. Thus, to take an instance Cinchonia - - Cinchona lancifolia. from modern literature, if it be true, as is now alleged, that Codeia - - Opium the earlier Italian poets of the middle ages, and Dante in Conia ~ - Conium maculatum. particular, attached a conventional meaning to certain ideas Corydalia.. Corydalis tuberosa. frequently recurring in their poems' as, for example, that Cynapia - JEthusa cynapium. Satan signified the papal power,-the three beasts mentioned Daturia... Datura stramonium. in the commencement of Dante's poem three Slates,~love, Delphia -. Delphinium staphisagria. loyalty to the emperor, &c. &c.; then their poems, consiDititalia -.. Digitalis purpurea. dered in reference to this occult sense, must be regsarded Emetina -. Cephaelis ipecacuanha. as specimens not of allegory but of symbolical writing.!fyoscyamia - Hyoscyamus niger. But if, as in the more ordinary interpretation of Dante's Meconia a - - Opium. poem, Satan represents the abstract idea of eternal misery, 32 ALLEGRETTO. ALLOY. ttie beasts particular vices, &c., which in common accepta quently exposed. In the alligators the head is less oblong, tion are supposed to have some natural analogy with their its length being generally as to its breadth as 3 to 2: the representatives, the poem is in this respect to be regarded as teeth are more numerous than in the crocodiles, somean allegory. Thus, also, critics have endeavoured to give times amounting to twenty-two in the lower jaw, and to a symbolical sense to the sixth book of Virgil's XEneid; twenty in the upper. The hind legs and feet are rounded, while, independently of that sense, if it really exist, there and have neither crests nor dentations; the interspaces ol is an obvious allegorical meaning running through the the toes are only occupied for half their extent by a short whole. (In ancient criticism, however, the words allegory membrane. The alligators, so far as is yet known, are and symbol were not so accurately distinguished; and in peculiar to the New World. our translation of the Bible, St. Paul is made to use the ALLITERA'TION. In Composition. The frequent ra word allegory in the clear sense of type. Gal. iv. 24.) Alle- currence of the same letter, chiefly at the commencement gory differs, 2. from parable, only inasmuch as the latter is of different words. This is sometimes resorted to, espea species of the former: a parable being a short, senten- cially in poetry, for the production of effect. In the Celtic tious, allegorical narration. And, 3. it is different from languages, alliteration was a recognised ornament in versimetaphor, being in effect a chain of metaphors, or a single fication: it was so likewise in the early Gothic tongues, metaphor continued and wrought out into a lengthened dis- and in old English there are entire poems composed in alcourse. 4. Fables may also be mentioned as a species of literstive metre, of which the celebrated Vision of Piers allegory. (See FABLE.) An allegory, or allegorical tale, in Ploughman is the most remarkable. the somewhat narrower sense in which the term is used in ALLOCA'TION. In Law. The allowance of an ac. literature, is generally a tale in which abstract ideas are count in the Exchequer. The writ de allocationefacienda personified: such (to cite one of the earliest instances of is for allowing an accountant sums expended by him in his this species of composition) as the Choice of Hercules, or office. The certificate of allowance of costs of taxation human youth, between virtue and vice, in the shape of two granted by the master, prothonotary, or other officer of females: an allegory which descends to us from Greek court, is termed in practice an allocatur. antiquity. Entire poems are sometimes strictly allegori- ALLO'CHROITE. A massive mineral allied to the garcal, as that of Spenser; or entire narratives, as Bunyan's net. Melted with phosphate of soda before the blowpipe, Pilgrim's Progress; in which case it requires consummate it exhibits several changes of colour, hence its name, from art to keep up the propriety of the allegory, which is in fact dXXog, another, and Xpota, colour. a compound of two opposite, and sometimes scarcely comrn- ALO'DIUM. In feudal Law. A wordofuncertainde p'~tiblequalities-consistency running through its severalinpiq t-n ey n o rivation (deduced by some writers from the old Teutonic cidents, when considered merely as a narrative and without " aloud," denoting the antiquity of the tenure). Land held reference to the ulterior meaning, and consistency of ana- by an individual In his own absolute right, discharged of loy between the thing represente and the thing answered. all feudal obligation: opposed, therefore, to fee, fief, or ALLEGRE'TTO, and ALLEGRO. (Ita. alittlemerry, feud. No allodial properly can exist in England, where and merry.) In Music. The first term is a diminutive of the king, n the eye of the law, is lord paramount of all the second, which, prefixed to a movement, signifies that lands and hereditament. In ancient France the rule was, it is to be performed in a brisk and lively manner; not, "nulle terre sans seigneur," and the presumption was in however, with hurry or precipitation, but quicker than anys of that country always in favour o a fief unother time in music, except that marked presto. The dif- less the land were shown to be allodial. In Germany, on ferent times used in music are arranged as follows: pro- the contrary, the legal presumption was in favour of the ceeding from slow to quick, namely grave, adagio, allegret- allodium to, allegro, and presto. The word piu, more, added to any ALLO'TMENT OF LANDS. Any piece of land, set cf these, and the word poco, little, strengthen the significa- part or allotted for any particular purpose. When more tions in their various kinds, land is laid to a cottage than suffices for a garden, it is comA'LLEMAND. (Fr.) In Music. A species of slow monly callet acottage allotment. grave music or movement in common time, and per- ALLOY', or ALLAY. (From the French verb alloyer, forined slow. From its name it would seem to belong to to mix one metal with another, in order to coinage; derived Germany, bit it is now altogether disused, perhaps from i la loi, the proportions of the metals being ALL-IIA'LLOWS. TheoldEnglish name forAll Saints' regulated by law; perhaps from allier, to unite; or allo. tlay (thP 1st of November). care. to put together.) A term applied to compounds of ALLIA'CEOUS. (Lat. allitim, garlic.) Any thing having IAEOS. (Lat. alll ofonions or lic., r. Any thing having the precious metals with others of less value. or to the least Alhe smell of onions or p e moarlic.r valuable of the metals in such compounds: thus, gold is ALoLIACEOUS PLANTS. rPltanaktseoio ns c smore said to be alloyed with silver, and silver with copper. or less of the qualities of garlic and onions; such as onions, Chemists generally apply the term to all combinations'4. shallots, rocambole, chives, leeks, garlic, &c. tained by fusing metals with each other: thus, brass is sao ALL1'ANCE. In Politics and International Law, a alloy of copper and zinc; and bronze, of copper and- tin;. league between two or more friendly powers; which may except when mercury s one of the combining metals, be either offensive and defensive, or defensive only. Of which case they call the compound an amalgam. Many the former species is the alliance of 1813 against Napoleon, of the alloys are importantly usefl in the art: thus, go subsequently called the Holy Alliance. Of the latter, the a silverwhich in their pure state are too sof and fexi Quadruple Alliance, concluded in 1833 between England,e, coin, trinke c., are ble for the manufacture of plate, coin, trinkets, &c., are France, Spain, and Portugal. Alliances are divided by hardened by the addition of a certain portion of copper; publicists into three classes. 1. Those in which the allied while their colour and other valuable qualities are not maparties agree to prosecute a war with their whole force. impaired. The standard gold in circulation in this 2. Alliances in which auxiliary states pledge themselves to country, is an alloy of 11 parts of pure gold, and one of grant to a principal state a fixed contingent of men, money, copper Sometimes the lloy consists parly of silver &c. 3. Treaties to firnish troops for stated subsidies, to pe in the older coinsand it is o t preponde especially in the older coins; and it is to the prepondemake advances of money, &c. rance of one or other of these alloys that the different coALLIGA'TION. (Lat. alligo; I bind, or tie together.) h lour ofgold coin is owing; the paler containing silver, the rule of Arithmetic, for the solution of questions concerning deeper coloured, copper. A lie palladium is sometimes or mixing together of different ingredi- deeper coloured, copper. A little palladium is sometimesthe compounding or mixing together of different ingredi- present, which gives the gold a disagreeable brownish hue,. ents, or ingredients of different qualities. There are two a see occasionally in some sovereigns. The English cases, one of which is alligation medial, and the other alli. standard silver, used for coin, consists in 12 parts of gation alternate. To the first case belongs a question of, consists in 12 parts, of this sort: Suppose 4 gallons of wine at 12 shillings per gal- 21~. silver, and 0 2 copper: in these alloys it is neces. Ion, to be mixed with 6 gallons at 17 shillings per gallon, sary to employ copper of the utmost purity; for a very what is the worth of a gallon of the mixture 7 But if it minute portion of some of the other metals, especially of were asked, how many gallons of wine at 17 shillings per lead, renders the precious metal brittle. The silver alloy gallon, must be mixed with 4 gallons at 12 shillings pergal- used for plate is the same as that for coin, and the purity ion, in order that the worth of a gallon of the mixture may is guaranteed by the stamp of the Goldsmiths' Company. be 15 shillings, the question would belong to alligation al- The subject of alloy for coin underwent an elaborate internate. Questions of this kind are, however, most easily vestigation at the beginning of the present century by orresolved by elementary algebra; of which they form an der of government; the inquiry was intrusted to Mr. Cav. easy class of indeterminate problems, admitting in general endish and Mr. Hatchett, and the latter gentleman has of an indefinite number of solutions. published a valuable account of his experiments in the A'LLIGATOR. (A corruption of the Portuguese word " Philosophical Transactions" for 1803, to which the reader'lagarto,' which is derived from lacerta, a lizard.) In mo- is referred. dern Zoology, the term is limited to those species of croco- Some curious circumstances ensue in the combination dile which have a wide obtuse muzzle, unequal teeth, the of metals, as affecting their densities; the specific gravity fourth pair of which, counting backwards in the lower jaw, of an alloy being sometimes greater and sometimes less pass into corresponding cavities in the upper jaw, where than the mean of its components.-showing that in some their points are concealed when the mouth is closed. In cases expansion has taken place, and in others contraction. the true crocodiles, the corresponding teeth pass into open Alloys generally melt at a lower temperature than that grooves in the margin of the upper jaw, and are conse- required for the fusion of their component metals sepa. 33 ALLSPICE. ALPHABET. rately; and in some cases the most refractory metals then administered, when the animal fell upon its side, be. form very fusible alloys. There are some alloys which came convulsed, and died in three minutes. The distilled are crystallisable, and probably of definite composition; oil of peach leaves and of the cherry laurel also contain but the atomic doctrine applies only in a few cases to the prussic acid, and the water distilled from them is poisonalloys, and it is often difficult to get a mass of alloy of ous. By digesting these oils with finely powdered persimilar composition throughout; thus, gold made standard oxide of mercury, crystals of cyanuret of mercury arc with copper, and then cast into bars in upright moulds, formed. does not yield an uniform compound except under due A'LMONER. An officer in a religious house, to vlicni precautions; for the upper end of the bar, containing the distribution of alms was committed. The term i at iiil The metal from the bot:om of the crucible, will be the retained by officers in some of our hospitals. purest. ALMS. Charitable offerings; from the Greek Xc9i A'LLSPICE. The dried immature berry of the Myrtus oouvwn, pity; which came in the early ages of the chiric.. Pimenta; called also Jamaica Pepper. It is supposed to to be used in the plural number in the peculiar sense \ li(l possess the mixed flavour of several spices, amongst is represented in our language by the word Alnis. which that of the clove predominates. A'LOE. (Arabic, alloch.) A small tree wilh end(oge AI.LU'SION, in Rhetoric. (Lat. ad, to, and ludo, Iplay.) nous stems, and stiff, fleshy, hard pointed leaves, abound Strictly, a covert indication, as by means of a metaphor, a ing in a purgative principle which is obtained by simlple play of words, &c. of something not openly mentionedand pressure of the bruised leaves, or by boiling. Tlie juice extrinsic to the principal meaning of the sentence. In when inspissated becomes the medicinal drug of the shops. common language, to allude to any thing merely means to It varies much in quality. (See the following article.) mention it indirectly or incidentally. A'LOES. The inspissated juice or extract of several ALLU'VIUM. (Lat. alluo, Iwcash upon.) Gravel, sand, species of aloe. This article is largely imported for n)eand other transported matter washed down by rivers and dical use from Bombay. It is of a brown colour, a l.ecufloods, upon land not permanently submerged beneath liar and somewhat aromatic odour, and a nauseous and water. intensely bitter flavour: it consists of extractive and resin, ALMACA'NTAR. (From the Arabic.) A term used by and is nearly soluble in boiling water, but tie solution as it the old astronomers to denote a small circle of the sphere cools deposits flakes of resin. The best aloes was formerparallel to the horizon. ly brought from the island of Socotorah, in the Indian Sea, ALMAGE'ST. A name given by the Arabs to the cele. and hence all the finer aloes of commerce is frequently brated work of Ptolemy, the astronomer of Alexandria: it termed Socotorine aloes. Antother variety of this drug signifies the greatest work. The best edition of this work comes from Barbadoes, in large gourd-shells containing is that of Paris, 1813-15, 2 vols. 4to., Greek and French, upwards of half a hundred weight eachl; it is deep co. by M. Halma. loured, opaque, and hias a nauseous and peculiar odour, A'LMANACK. (Probably from the Arabic particle al especially when breathed upon. Aloes is a warm stimulaand manach, to commit; whence Al Manach, The Diary.) ting purgative, operating as such in the dose of four to An annual publication containing a calendar of the days eight grains. It stimulates the large intestines, and should and months of the year, the ecclesiastical feasts, the time be administered with caution in habits where thiere is ten-,)f the sun's rising and setting, the age of the moon, the so- dency to piles, and in cases in females in which uterine lar and lunar eclipses. To these (the most essential mat- stimulants are improper. ters) are frequently added information on various subjects ALO'NSlNE, or ALPHONSINE TABLES. An astro. of astronomy, chronology, meteorology, the tides, statis- nomical work, which appeared in the year 1252, under the tics, lists of posts, offices, public institutions, &c., according patronage of Alonso X.. in the first year of his reign. to the views or fancy of their respective authors. Alma. ALO'PECI'RUS. (Gr. dXaoTrrls, afox, and oipa, a tail.) nacks correspond in some respects to the Fasti of the Ro- A genus of grasses, called by thie farmerfoauxtil; the flowmans, and are of very ancient date. The first printed al- ers are arranged in compact taillike stalks. It is very like manack appeared in 1474, and was drawn up by Regiomon- Phleum or catstail, from which it differs in its glumes betanus, nearly, at least so far as regards the calendar, in the ing acute, not truncate, and its lower pales awned. Alopeform now used. Till within a few years, the numerous al- curis pratenis forms a part of all the richest pastures in;nanacks published in England were little creditable to the England. aste or morals of the country. They had for a long time ALO'SA. The name ot a genus of Clupeoid fishes, inteen monopolised by the Stationers' Company. This mo- eluding the alose, or shad; separated from the herring and nopoly was at length broken through by the publication of pilchard, with which it was classed by Linnaeus. The a new almanack under the superintendence of the Society shad ascends large rivers tI the fresh water, where it for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; and since that time spawns. The white-bait used to be regarded as the young the more exceptionable ones have entirely disappeared, of tlie shad, but is now ascertained to be a distinct species and their place been supplied by others, which abound in of the present genus. useful and valuable information. The removal of the A'LPHABET. (From the Gr. dX)a,/?ra, the two first heavy stamp duty of fifteen pence per copy, to which they Greek letters.) Thlie letters of a written language, disposed were subjected till 18.34, has been attended with all thie ad. in their regular order. An alphabetical language is one vantages which usually result from the exercise of free possessing an alphabet. competition. 1. The first and most obvious mode by which thought The Nautical Almanack is published by order of the can be expressed and conveyed to the eye, is by the reboard of the admiralty for the use of seamen, and contains presentation of actual objects. IIence the species of a copious list of astronomical phlenoinena at sea, and of the writing which the learned have termed ideogp'aphic, i. e. in elements which are used in finding the longitude. This which knowledge is conveyed, first, by representations of work is also a very complete astronomical ephemeris, the objects of thought; secondly, by symbols. The origin showing the instants of time at which the planets and prin- of designing is coeval with that of mankind; and men early cipal stars daily pass the meridian of Greenwich; the sun's availed themselves of this art to make their thoughts visiright ascension, and the logarithms of his distances; the ble. To make it be understood, for example, that one moon's place at intervals of three hours, &c. &c. For a man had killed another, they drew the figure of a dead man more particular account of works of this kind, see CALEN- stretched on the ground, and of another standing by him DAR, EPHEMERIS. upright, with some deadly weapon in his hand. To let it A'LMOND. (Gr. djavySaXov. Fr. amande.) The seed be known that some one had arrived by sea, they drew the or kernel of the Aniygdalus communis. Sweet almonds figure of a man disembarking from a ship; and so on. afford, in the 100 parts. 54 of fixed oil, 24 of albuminous This kind of writing, if we may so employ the word, was matter, 9 gum and sugar, 4 woody fibre, 5 husk, and 4 very early used in Egypt, and most probably, also, in most water and loss. Bitter almonds contain less fixed oil, and of the ancient nations. In Greek, the word ypaetiv signia peculiar principle termed Amygdalin. When bitter fies indifferently either to write or to paint. In Mexico, almonds are cold pressed, the oil which exudes contains no when the Spaniards landed, the inhabitants of the sea trace of prussic acid; wwhen hot pressed, its flavour may coast conveyed intelligence of the event to Montezuma by be perceived: the cake remaining after pressure yields a sending him a large cloth, on which they carefully painted volatile oil by distillation, the quantity and strength of what they had seen. It is unnecessary to insist on the difwhich in prussic acid is variable. The oil of bitter almonds ficulty and inconvenience of this method of writing; and is about the specific gravity of water; that which passes to lessen these, recourse was had to the symbolic or emble. first over is most poisonous. It changes when exposed matic variety of ideographic writing. In this method abto air, and forms benzoic acid: in close vessels it may be breviations or characteristic parts were introduced instead long kept without deterioration. VWh-n used in medicine, of the entire object. Thus, the ancient Egyptians are said great care is requisite on accounit of its varying strength. to have represented a siege by a scaling-ladder; a battle, Half an ounce of oil of bitter almonds was put into the by two hands holding a buckler and a bow, &c. Abstract mouth of a Newfoundland ( dog (in a diseased state and ideas were, also, represented by symbols, cr sensible obmoaning with pain), with the intention of immediately kill. jects, supposed to have a certain analogy to them: as, in-:ng it; but after some slight convulsions the animal be- gratitude by a viper, providence by an eye, the head of a came tranquil, appeared easier, and recovered the effect: hawk, &c. 2. From ideographic was derived syllabic ibout a drachm of recently and carefully prepared oil was writing. It must have been early remarked that the 34 ALPHABET. pinds formed by the voice in speaking are articulate and to may not have been of the symbolical description in use ^ell-defined; and the idea occurred of endeavouring to re- among the Egyptians, there seems, on the other hand. lit. present such sounds by appropriate signs. Thus the word tie reason for supposing that the Hebrew alphabet was not republic, in the writing of which we use eight letters, would in use even at that remote period. And the question ofsu be written with three syllabic characters. The President perior antiquity seems to lie entirely between that alphabet de Goguet suspects that originally all the Asiatic nations, and the Phoenician. The claims of the latter are supportknown to the ancients under the names of Syrians and As- ed by Mr. Astle (Essay on the Origin of WVriting, 4to. Lon syrians, used the syllabic mode of writing. We may. he don, 1803), whose views are now generally concurred in. thinks, discern the vestiges of this in an ancient tradition The belief was all but universal among the'Greeks and Rowhich ascribes the invention of writing to the Syrians; but mans, that the Phoenicians were the inventors of letters. acknowledges that the Phoenicians improved, made it more According to Lucan, simple, and brought the characters to perfection. But this " Phmnices primi; famn si credimus' ausi mode of writing, though a vast improvement on what is Miansuram rudibus vocem sigare figuris.' purely ideographic, is still very imperfectand cumbersome. And Pliny says (lib. v. cap. 12), " Ipsa gens Phcenicum in The vast number of characters required in it overburdens gloria magna est literarum inventionis." But whether the the memory, and occasions the greatest confusion. The Phoenicians were or were not the inventors of alphabetic existing language of the Chinese, which is partly ideo- writing, there can be little or no doubt that the knowledge graphic and partly syllabic, is an example of this. In it of it was brought by Cadmus, from Phoenicia, into Greece. there are a certain number of elementary signs or keys (two about 1500 years B. C. From the Phoenician. there bore. or hundred and fourteen), which are strictly hieroglyphic or the HIebrew, are incontestibly derived, 1. The Oriental symbolical; that is, they are abridged representations of alphabets used in Asia. West of the Indus; written, like visible objects. From these 214 elements, all the charac- Hebrew, from right to left; the principal being the Svriac, ters of the language (80,000, itis said) are formed by vary- Arabic, and Persian. 2. The Pelasgic, or original Greek ing and combining their figures; every compound charac- alphabet. Were thlere nothing else by whtich to establish ter representing one or more syllables having a distinct the fact, the eastern origin of the Pelasgic language wouild meaning. 3. The defects incident to ideographic and syl- be obvious from its being originally written, like tihe Phlilabic writing being thus obvious, ingenious individuals nician and other eastern languages. from right to left. It would early endeavour to find out some more simple and was afterwards written consecutively from right to left. and precise method of communicating their ideas. And at left to right, in the manner that land is ploughed. This length the method of Alphabetic writing, the greatest of all procured for it the name of flovo-roottrlov, or furrowed the inventions made by man, and which has been the great writing. This species of writing maintained its ground for instrument of his civilisation, was introduced and perfect- a lengthened period. The laws of Solon, promulgated od. In this method syllables are decomposed into their about 594 years B. C. were written in it; and it was used elements; and the few simple sounds emitted by the voice till the 5th century B. C. But writing from left to right being represented each by its appropriate mark or letter, was introduced for a considerable period before the altersyllables and words are formed by their combination; the nate or furrowed method was abandoned. Inscriptions latter serving not only to describe external objects, but to dated 742 years B. C. have been found written from left tc depict the workings of the mind, and every shade and va- right, or in the way now practised. (Goguet, Origin of riety of thought. Before entering into the much disputed Lairs, En?. trans. ii. p. 32. &c.) From the Pelasgic alpha. question respecting the origin of this mode of writing, it is bet were derived the Etruscan and Oscan. From the Ionic. necessary to indicate the new light thrown upon the sub- a later variety of the Greek, came the Arcadian, the Coptic.;ect by the recent discoveries of Dr. Young, and more es- and Ethiopic, the Mmllso-Gothic and Runic; and in corn. pecially of M. Champollion, as to the phonetic writing of paratively modern times, the Armenian, Illyrian, Sclavonic. the Egyptians. We have already seen that the hierogly- Bulgarian, and Russian. With regard to Greek writing, it phical characters of that people denoted, in the first place, is to be observed that the most ancient mode was in capi oljects either of sense or thought; i. e. they were ideo- tals. The small letters now in use seem to have been ingraphic. But, according to the new theory, they came in troduced gradually; for, in our oldest Greek MSS., even as the course of time to denote sounds; and those not sylla- early as the fifth century, they appear intermixed with bic merely, but alphabetical. For example, the Egyptian capitals. But the latter were principally employed, until word Ahom signified an eagle; the figure of an eagle, there- the seventh or eighth century. 3. The Latin alphabet is fore stood for the letter A, with which that word begins. also derived from the Ionic Greek; it is said to hlave been ii was represented by a censer (Berbe). R sometimes by introduced about the time of Tarquininus Prisacs. In the a mouith (Ro), sometimes by a tear (Rimfl). According to earliest inscriptions which we possess, the forms of the letthe views of these recent discoveries, a great proportion of ters scarcely differ from those in use at the present day; dtie inscriptions on Egyptian monuments and papyri are but great varieties have been in subsequent times intropartly ideographic, partly alphabetical; i. e. some charac- duced: first, in the ordinary method of writing it: as, the ters represent objects or ideas; and these are intermingled Uncial, Semi-lUncial, Lonmbard, Italic, &c. (2Se CHARACwith others which merely stand for letters. Dr. Young, TER.) Secondly, in the number and form of the letters who first conceived the notion of the phonetic alphabet, contained in the numerousalphabets derived from it. 4. A imagined that it was only employed when foreign words or fourth class of alphabetical languages consists of the Saiisnames (as those of Greek kings) were introduced. M. crit and its derivatives. These are very numerous, and are Champollion carried the discovery further, and applied it spoken in the continent and islands of India. The great to the deciphering of words and names in the language of regularity of the Devanagaree, or most elegant, form of the the country. The name of the ancient king Sabaco, among Sanscrit alphabet, and its copiousness (it contanis 100 letothers, being found by this mode of interpretation, would ters), seem to afford strong presumption that it was comappear to show that the phonetic writing was used as early piled by some learned individual, or body, (like the Rus. as 700 years B. C. (See Dr. Young's writings, especially sian and other modern Western alphabets,) from other the article EGYPT in the Encyclopacdia Britannica; those of forms of writing then in use, and importedr into India from Champollion; M. Klaproth's Examen Critique des Tra- the West. The Sanscrit and its derivative lapngtiuaes are rau.x de Champollion; Quarterly Review, vol. liii. p. 110.; written like European, from left to right. These four Salt's Essay on the Phonetic System of lieroglyphics, 8vo. classes comprethend all the alphabetical languages in exisLondcon, 1825, &c.) It is not within our present province to teuce. The following table exhibits the number of letters discuss the question, upon what ground of probability this in some of the principal. theory rests. But ifs complete phonetic alphabet should Class 1. Phoenician (known), 17. Samaritan. ITebrew (or be discovered, in thb language of that country in which the Chaldean), and Syriac,22 each. Arabic, 28. Perearliest germs cf knowledge and civilisation seem to have sian, 32. been developed, it is probable that we shall have made a Class 2. Greek, 24. Armenian, 38. Ethiopic, or Abyssi. considerable step towards tracing the origin of pure alpha- nian, 202. Modern Russian,. 41. beticalwriininginotherlanguages. Asitis, although various Class 3. (which is only a subdivision ofC]-ass 2). Latin, attempts have been made to show the symbolical origin of 22. English, 26. French, 28. Italian, 20. Gerthe lelters of the most ancient alphabets, it cannot be said man, 26. that any very satisfactory result has been obtained. And, Class 4. Sanscrit (Devanagaree), 100. from the total want of all recorded knowledge concerning Various learned persons have proposed tihe adoption of the invention of alphabetical writing, and the difficulty of a universal alphabet; and have shlown that tlhe elementary ccounting for it on any known principle of mental associ- sounds are reducible to a still smaller number than those itio, the hypothesis of divine revelation has obtained con- employed in our western alphabets. I Irris (THernmes, book.siderable currency; but it need hardly be observed, how iii. c. 2.) estimates them at twenty. Wich-lter (Natrer,I t11 such a doctrine agrees with all that we know by analogy Scripturac Concordia) conceives that tlle nimber may ho of the dealings of Providence with man. diminished to ten. But Bishop Wvilkins. in his Essay thr It is clear that writing was known to the Hebrews at the wards a real Character and Phi!osiphica' Language, fol.. period when the Mosaic books were composed, from many London, 1668, estimates the necessary number at thirtyallusions contained in them. Exodus. xxxii. 15,16. Num- four. bers, xvii. 18., xxxi. 9. 19., xxxiii. 1., &c. And although it We here present the reader with a table of the principal cannot be positively asserted, that the writing there alluded alphabe-s of the family to which our own belongs. 35 ALPHABET. (Arabic. Syriac. Hebrew. Samaritan. Etruscan. Anc. Greek. Mod Greek. Roman. Eng. Script. A A A o i T o r G CG Q5 S (.fD> bl | i r 3 E E E e.6,4T ^ A A L 0 -' (e)| Ao~o) t | a 41 | M M M o I ^ F F / () T1 T I Z Z ^ ^ n B H H H v o 9 ~ I 9 I I i ^ 3 ^ K K K J ) b ^A A L / <(0) >O(&) ^ ^ 1 M M M r ^(-A~) xQ') ^ N N N " ^ I^9 p 9 R t n O ~T T T t.Y YX T UVY M X X xx x ALPHONSIN. ALTERNATE. Of the Phoenician, properly so-called, the authentic re- triangular to circular. Those of metal were usually tnpomains are but few in number and of rude execution; we dial. When of brick or stone, they were generally square have, therefore, employed in lieu of it its immediate de- on the plane. According to Pausanias, wood was occasionscendant, the Etruscan, which we have placed in the centre ally a material of which they were composed. They do of our table. This alphabet, it will be perceived, was made to not seem to have been of any standard height, inasmuch be written like the Phoenician, from right to left, which sys- as we sometimes see them on bassi relievi reaching little tern has been retained in the Asiatic alphabets derived from above a man's knee, whilst in others they appear to reach it down to the present day, as will be seen on inspecting the his middle, though it would seem that the circular altar was alphabets placed on the left of the Etruscan in the orderof generally tile highest in proportion to its diameter. Vitrotheir derivation. To the right of the Etruscan stands the al- vius says they should be kept down in height, so that they phabet of a Greek inscription, which dates about 400 B. C., may not intercept the statues of the gods; and he gives the when the practice of writing from left to right had become relative height of those used for the different divinities. fixed and general; next in order are the Modern Greek al. Those of Jupiter and the celestial gods the highest; next, phabet, the Roman, and lastly the small letters of our pre- those of Vesta and the terrestrial gods; then the sea-gods sent character. We have thus given the principal alpha. were to have theirs a little lower, and so on. On festivals bets, both Asiatic and European, derived from the Phoeni.- they were decorated for the occasion with such flowers clan, in Wvhat may be termed the lineal order of their de- and leaves as were sacred to the particular divinity. But scent; and although the difference between the two ex- besides this casual decoration, the ancient altars furnish us tremes of each series is certainly very great, the examples with some of the most elegant bassi relievi and foliage orgiven will be sufficient to enable the reader to trace their naments that are extant, still serving as models of taste. mutual connection, and to account for the changes that which have escaped the hands of the barbarian destroyer. have gradually been produced by a desire to give a rounder According to Vitruvius, their fronts were turned towards and more current shape to the letters, and to form them the east, though often little regard seems to have been paid with fewer strokes of the reed or the pen. to their position, as they were occasionally deposited under ALPHO'NSIN. An instrument for extracting balls: so the peristyle of a temple, and not unfrequently in the open called from the name of its inventor, Alphonso Ferrim, a air. In the larger temples there were often three different Neapolitan surgeon. altars: the first was in the most sacred part, in front of the A'LPINE PLANTS. Low plants which grow naturally statue of the god; the second was before the door of the in hilly or mountainous situations, where they are covered temple; and the third was portable, called anclabris, with snow during great part of the winter; and for which on which the offerings and sacred vases were placed. reason, in gardens, they require the protection of frames Amongst Christians, the altar is a square or oblong table and glass during winter. In this respect alpine plants dif- or tablet, placed at the east end of the church, for the celefer from rock plants; which, in gardens, only require to be bration of the mass, or, in Protestant churches, for the grown among rocks or stones, without the protection of a celebration of the sacrament. These are varied in their frame and glass. form almost as much as those we have already described. ALPINIA'CEIE. One of the names of the natural or- The word Altar was adopted by the early Christians, toder of plants called Zingiberaceae. gether with the corresponding Greek term, vtaoarripiov, ALRU'N.E. (Germ. Alraun, Alraun-bilder.) Small im. (but not, unless, perhaps, in a single instance, /fcopot,) to ages carved out of the roots of trees, exhibiting rude repre- express the table of the Lord (1 Cor. x. 21). But the word sentations of the human figure, generally female. The altar is stated to have been used by the fathers in four difveneration paid to these figures formed a peculiar feature ferent senses (v. Suicer, in voc. Svoaaorrnpiov): for, 1. in the superstition of the northern nations. They were Christ himself, from Hebr. xiii. 10. 2. The church of looked on as the Penates, or household gods, of families; Christ in general. 3. Individual members of the church. laid in boxes, and presented with meat and drink. They 4. The Lord's table. It is observed that the fathers of the are supposed by some to represent female magicians or first three centuries universally speak of the altar, and not druidesses. of the table, although constantly admitting the charge ALSEGNO. (It. To the mark.) In Music, a notice to which the heathens made against them of their having no the performer that he must recommence from that part of altars, conceiving the term as used by the heathens to imthe movement to which the sign or mark $ is prefixed. ply the offering of a sacrifice upon the altar, and the preALSINA'CEAE. A rather extensive order of weedy sence of the statue of the deity to whom the offering is plants, allied to the much more beautiful Silenacere, from made. From the fourth century the word table is frewhich they are known by their calyx consisting of distinct quently adopted, as by St. Chrysostom, St. Augustin, &c. sepals. The order derives its name from Alsine (aloos, a In King Edward I.'s Book of Common Prayer, the word sacred gem, in which places it is found,) the common altar was retained in the communion service: but great chickweed. opposition being raised against it, especially by Bishop ALT. (Lat. altus, high.) In Music. A term applied to Hooper, on account of the ambiguity of its meaning, and the high notes of the scale. the colour it might seem to lend to the Romish notions of A'LTAR. (From alta ara, Lat.; or, according to some, the eucharist, it was abandoned, and table substituted from ~M, God, and'rn, described. or appointed.) In Ar- throughout. This, however, did not satisfy the more viochitecture, a sort of pedestal whereon sacrifice was offered. lent party, and on the restoration of the reformed worship Servius tells us that among the ancients there was a differ- at the accession of Elizabeth, the people proceeded to ence between the ara and altare, the latter being raised on take the first step towards a real and not a verbal suba substruction, and used in the service only of the celestial stitution, by pulling down the altars in many churches. and superior divinities, whilst the former was merely on Hereupon the queen issued an injunction, wherein she the ground, and appropriated to the service of the terrestrial declares that "it is no matter of great moment whether gods. To the infernal gods the altars were made by exca. there be altars or tables, so that the sacrament be duly and vations, which were termed scrobiculi. Some authors have reverentially administered;" and directs that where the maintained that the ara was the altar before which prayers altars had been pulled down, tables should be erected in were uttered, whilst the altare was used for sacrifices. It the same place. does not, however, appear that ancient authors made these A'LTERATIVES. (Lat. altero, I change.) Medicines distinctions, but that the words were used by them indiscri- which cure diseases by slow and imperceptible degrees, minately. The earliest altars were square polished stones, without producing sensible evacuations. on which were placed the offerings to the gods. Whilst ALTE'RNATE. (Lat. alternatus, changed by turns.) sacrifices were confined to libations, perfiumes, and offerings In Botany, parts are said to be alternate with each other of that sort, the altar was not of large dimensions, and was when one is placed upon the stem a little higher or a little even portable; but as soon as man thought he was doing lower than the other; the word is chiefly applied to leaves, honour to the Divinity by an offering of blood, the altar ne- and is used in distinction to opposite, in which parts arise cessarily expanded in dimensions. Different forms were the same plant on opposite sides of the stem. contrived, according to the nature of the sacrifice, on which ALTERNATE. (Geometry.) When two straight lines are the throat of the victim was cut and the flesh burnt. Of intersected by a third, the interior angles on the opposite this sort is the circular altar of the villa Pamphili at Rome, sides of the intersecting line are said to be alternate. one of the largest and most elegant of existing remains of Thus A M N and M N D are alternate that class. Upon it is to be seen the cavity for holding the A \-M B angles: and so also are B M N and fire, and the grooves for carrying off the blood. The va. M N C. If the two straight lines A B rieties of altars follow the service to which they were and C D be parallel, the alternate anassigned by difference in their forms, ornaments, and situ- gles are equal. In proportion, the alations. Some, as we have already observed, served for \ ternate terms are the first and third. burning incense and receiving libations. Some were for and also the second and fourth, and the the sacrifices of blood, and others for receiving offerings terms of a proportion are said to be taken alternately, or by and sacred vases. Many were erected merely as monu- alternation, when the second and third are made to change ments of the piety of the devotee, whilst others were con- places; and it is a well known theorem, that a proportion structed to perpetuate some great event. They served for subsisting among four quantities of the same kind is not adjuration, as well as for an asylum to the unfortunate and disturbed by this change. Thus, if a: b:: c: d, then, al evil-doer. The forms varied from square to oblong, from ternately, a: C:: b: d. 37 ALTICA. AMBARVALIA. ~A'LTICA. A name applied by Fabricius to a subdivision A'LUMSTONE. A silicious subsulphate of alumina. of the Linnaean Chrysomelme, characterised by the oblong ALU'RNUS. A genus of coleopterous insects, charac. body, bifid lip, and thickened hind legs. terised by having short filiform antennae; palpi four to six A'LTITUDE. (Lat. altus, high, altitudo, height.) In very short; maxillae horny and short. Astronomy, denotes the angle of elevation of a celestial ob- ALUTA'CEOUS. (Lat. aluia, tanned leather.) A pale ject, or the angle of the visual ray with the horizon. The brown colour. altitude of a star is apparent or true. The apparent alti- ALVE'OLAR. (Lat. alveolus, diminutive of alveus, a tude is the angle ascertained immediately from observa- cavity.) Belonging to the alveoli, or sockets of the teeth. tion; the true altitude is found by correcting the apparent ALVE'OLATE. In Botany. When the surface is coaltitude for refraction, parallax, &c. Altitude is frequently vered with numerous deep hollows, as in the receptacle of used in Elementary Geometry instead of height. The al- some Compositee. titude of a triangle is measured by a straight line drawn ALVEO/LITES. A genus of fossil zoophytes, allied to from the vertex perpendicular to the base; and the alti- the corallines: one species of which (Alv. suborbicularis) tude of a cone by a straight line drawn from the vertex occurs in the Portland stone. picrpendicular to the plane of the base. A'LVINE. (Lat. alvus, the belly.) A term generally ALTO. (Lat. altus, high.) In Music, the counter-tenor used as relating to the intestinal excretions. part, or that immediately below the treble or highest. It is A'MADOU. German tinder; a fungus found chiefly in a word also used to denote the tenor violin. old oaks and ash trees. It is boiled in water, dried, beaten, ALTO RELIEVO. (See RILIEvo.) soaked in a solution of nitre, and again dried for use. A'LUDEL. A piece of chemical apparatus used in the AMA'IN. A sea term, signifying to yield, to let go. process of sublimation, and much resembling the ancient Thus, to strike amain is to lower or let fall the topsails, in aletmbic. token of surrender. To wave amain is to make a signal to A'LULA. (Lat. ala. a wing.) In Ornithology, the group a vessel to strike its topsails. Amain is also a term used of ill-feathers, attached to the joint of the carpus; as in the in letting down a thing into the hold or elsewhere, or in snipe. These are also called the'bastard wings' (ala lowering a yard, or the like, to denote that the sailors are spuria). to let go that part of the rope which they held before, and Aq'UM. A salt composed of alumina, potash, and sul- let down the thing easily and by degrees. phuric acid, and in its usual form containing a large quantity AMA'LGAM. A combination of mercury with other of water of crystallisation. Its octohedral crystals consist of metals. Medallists apply the term to soft alloys generally. Alumina - 3 atoms = 54 10-76 AMALTH_ E'A. In Mythology. The name of a goat in Potassa - 1 " 48 9-95 Crete, alleged to have suckled Jupiter: or of the nymph Sulphuric acid - 4 " 160 33-74 who tended the goat. The cornut Amalthaea, or horn of Water 24 " 216 45-55 the goat in question, was the magic cornu copiae, or horn of - ~- plenty. Crystallised alum 1 = 478 100 00 A'MARANTH. (Gr. d, priv., e'apatvw, I wither, and Alum dissolves in about five parts of water at 60~. The dvOos, a flower.) Plants with richly coloured flowers. solution has a sweet and astringent taste, and is a powerful whose parts are of a thin dry texture, so that they are a styptic. When crystallised alum is heated, it melts, and long while before they wither. They give their name to gradually losing water of crystallisation, becomes a white the natural order of Amarantliacete. Amaranthes mespongy mass, called burned alum. lancholicus, hypochondriacus, caudatus, &c., are the anAlum is largely manufactured for the uses of the arts, nuals known in gardens by the names of Love lies bleeding, especially dyeing and calico printing. What is termed Prince's feather, &c. The name, in composition witli alum ore, is an albuminous slate, containing sulphuret of other words, is used to designate plants not belonging to iron; it is calcined, exposed to air, lixiviated, and the solu- the same genus, but to the same natural order, Globe-ama. tion so obtained mixed with sulphate of potash, and crys- ranth is Gomphrena globosa. tallised. The alum works near Paisley, and at Whitby, in AMARANTHATCEE. The order which comprehends Yorkshire, are the largest in England. the amaranthus, and other similar dry-flowered genera. Milk, curdled by stirring it with a lump of alum, fur- Some of the species are objects of ornament, as cocksnishes alum whey, which is sometimes taken as a remedy combs (Celosia coccinea), globes (Gomphrena globosa), vafor relaxed bowels. Alum curd is made bv beating the rious species of amaranthus, trichinium, &c.; but the prin white of eeg with a piece of alum till it coagulates. cipal part consists of tropical kinds. The order partici. ALIAJMINA. Aluminous earth; earth of alum; argil. pates in the harmless qualities of Chenopodiaceaw, Iroan; When a solution of ammonia is dropped into a solution of which it is not very different. alum, a white precipitate falls, which, thoroughly washed, AMARYLLIDA'CE.E. (Amnaryllis, one of its genera.) dried, and heated, is pure aluminous earth. There are A natural order of beautiful Endogens, with inferior fruity two properties of tlis earth which render it of great impor- six stamens, and six nearly eq.al segments of the flower. tance in the arts; one is, that it forms a plastic mixture The greater part consists of bulbous species inhabiting the with water, and, though it is not the predominant ingredi. Cape of Good Hope, and the tropical parts of both hemisent in, yet it confers the valuable property of plasticity pheres. Snowdrops are the most northern form. A few, upon, all natural clays, which enables them to be moulded such as agave and doryanthes, are trees in stature, alinto the various forms of pottery and earthenware; the though only herbaceous plants in duration. other is the remarkable affinity of alumina for colouring A'MATEUR. (Fr.) A person familiar with, and who and extractive matter, whence its use in the arts of dyeing encourages any particular art or pursuit, without being and calico printing. professionally engaged in it, is said to be an amateur. But In the pure and crystalline form, alumina constitutes the the term is usually restricted to those whio are skilled in sapphire, one of the hardest and most valuable of the and patronize the fine arts. gems. In its common state, aluminous earth is a soft AMAURO'SIS. (Gr. daavpo, dark.) A loss of sightde. white powder, strongly attractive of moisture; hence, alu- pendent upon defective action of the nerve of vision, and minous fossils are often recognised by adhering to the independent of visible injury. It is also called gutta seretongue, and many of them exhale an earthy smell when na: drop serene of Milton. breathed upon, as we observe in common slate. Alumina AMAZO'NIAN STONE. A beautiful green felspar, consists of 52-94 aluminum, and 47-06 oxygen; like the found in rolled masses near the Amazon river. other earths, as they are usually called, alumina, there- A'MAZONS. ((r. d, without, and pasuo, breast.) Fefore, is a metallic oxide. Aluminum is with difficulty ob- male warriors. Tribes, either real or imlaginary, belonging tained, and in small quantities, by heating chloride of alu- to Africa and Asia, aumong which the customin prevailed for minum with potassium; it is a grey, difficultly fusible the females to go to war; preparing themselves for that metal, not easily acted on by water, and which, when purpose by destroying the right breast, in order to use the heated in the air burns with great brilliancy, and forms bow with greater ease. According to Greek tradition, an alumina by the absorption of oxygen. Amazon tribe invaded Africa, and was repulsed by TheAlumina has but a feeble attraction for acids, and does seus, who afterwards married their queen. Ience, all fe. not fully neutralise them; and when it has been heated male warriors have been called Amazons; and tile river red hot, or is in an indurated state, as it exists in the sap- of that name owes its appellation to one of the early Span. phire, in corundum, and some other minerals, it is abso- ish navigators, whio tfancied lie beheld armed womien on its lutely insoluble, banks. The wars of the Athenians and Amazons formed The aluminous salts are mostly colourless, soluble in favourite subjects for Attic art: they were depicted in ttie water, and of a sweetish astringent taste. Exclusive of Pcecile or painted chamber of the Parthenon. See Justin alum, the acetate of alumina is the most important of these Diod. Siculuis, Strabo, &c. salts, being used as a base or mordant by the dyers. (See AMBARVA'LIA. (Lat. ambire arva, to go round the DYEING.) It is usually prepared by mixing a solution of fields.) In Roman Mythology, religious fates to propitiate 190 parts of acetate of lead with one of 487 parts of alum; a Ceres: so called from the victims being carried round the white precipitate of sulphate of lead falls, and acetate of fields (ter circum ibat hostia fruges, Virg. G. i. 345.), ilumina remains in solution. These sacred rites were performed by an order of priests. ALIVMINITE. Native subsulphate of alumina. Fratres Ambarvales, twelve in number. They were ce. ALU'M1INI'M. The metallic base of alumina. lebrated in the end of May, when the blessing of the god. 38 AMBASSADOR. AMENDMENT. aess was invoked on the coming harvest. The victims left hand; but, generally, they seem to be more specious were accompanied by crowds of country people, having than solid. their temples bound with oak leaves, dancing and singing A'MBITUS. (Lat. ambio, Iencompass, or circumvent.) lie praises of Ceres, to whom libations were made of ho- The circumference or extreme edge of any thing; the enney and wine. (Facciolati; Adam's Antiq.) compassing border of a leaf. AMBA'SSADOR, or EMBASSADOR. In Politics, the AMBITUS. In Politics. A term used by the ancient Roname of the highest order of foreign ministers. An am- mans to designate the soliciting and canvassing for offices bassador is not only the agent of the country which sends and honours. It was of two kinds, the one, anmbilus plpihim, but also represents personally the dignity of its so- laris, laudable; as, where a candidate openly avowed his vereign. The greater powers of Europe send ambassa- pretensions, publicly stated the grounds on which he sodors to each other, with the exception of Prussia, which licited the suffrages of the electors, and left them to forii never employs ministers of this class. The word ambas- their opinion upon his claims without privately solicitiiii sador is if very uncertain derivation, but is supposed to be their votes. The other, and more common kind of arbhi derived from the Italian word ambasciare, to solicit. In tus, was either disreputable or unlawful. It consisted in charters and diplomas of later date than the ninth century, using artful solicitations, cajolery, offers of money and prtothe names of those who had solicited the grants are fre- ferment, and all those resources for corrupting the fri-e quently signed at the foot with the designation of "ambas- choice of electors, so well understood, and successfull? ciatores," or solicitors; and it may hence be presumed practised, in our own times. The bribery of electors was that the title was originally given to envoys who attended forbidden, although to very little purpose, by repeated aclsi at a court to solicit some favour for another party. As to of the Roman legislature. (Facciolati Lexicon, Dictionthe rights and privileges of ambassadors in England: if an ary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, Taylor & Walloin. ambassador commit any act which is a crime against the 1842, &c.) law of all countries, as treason, felony, &c., he is punisha- A'MBLE, AMBT,ING. (In Itorsemanship, Terme (:i ble as a private alien. But an ambassador is not criminally Mankge.) A peculiar kind of a pace in which a horse's two liable for such acts as are only mala prohibita against sta- legs of the same side move at the same time. tute or custom: as, infringements of the laws of the ex- AMBLO'TIS. (Gr. dp6Xwuat, abortion.) The generic chequer. By 7 Anne, c. 12, an ambassador or public min- name, in the system of Illiger, of the Marsupial geinus, iiiister, and his domestic servants, bona fide registered ac- cluding the wombat. cording to the act, are privileged from arrest: and the goods AMBLYO'PIA. (Gr. dl6AXvs, dull, and (ot/, the sigh.t.} of an ambassador cannot be taken in distress. This statute Imperfect vision. was passed in consequence of the arrest and ill treatment AMBLY'PTERUS. (Gr. dt6)Xvs, obtuse, and -rrTpov. n of Count Matuschef, the Russian ambassador. As to the fin.) The name of a fossil genus of fishies, with obtuse am,! rights and duties of ambassadors in modern international rounded pectoral and ventral fins, and characterised by usages, see the elaborate work of M. de Wicquefort, L'Am- having small and numerous teeth, set close togethler like a bassadeur et ses Fonctions, 2 tomes, 4to, 1746; F. von Mo- brush, which shows the hlabit of these fishes to have been shamon (Law of European Embassies, Landshut, 1806); to feed on decayed sea-weed an/d soft animal substancesr and the valuable Manuel Diploma/ique of Von Martens at the bottom of the water. (Leipzig, 1822), may also be consulted. A'MBO. (Gr. dap6ov, a boss, or knob.) In Architecture. A'MBER. A yellow resin-like substance, found occa- The elevated place, or pulpit, in the early Chlrislian sionally in detached pieces on the sea-coast, but most ge- churchles, from whence it was usual to address the collnerally dug up in diluvial soils: it is probably an antedilu- gregation, and on wlhich certain parts of the service were vial resin, and often contains leaves and insects. Its spe- chanted. cific gravity is about 1070. It is hard, and becomes strong- A'MBREIN. Thie fatty matter of ambergris; convcriily electro-negative by friction. It contains a trace of odo- ble by nitric acid into anibreic acid. rotus volatile oil, a resin easily soluble in alcohol, a resin AMBRO'SIA. (Gr. signifying, immortal.) Tie foodl o difficultly soluble in alcohol, and an insoluble resin, which the gods, as nectar was their drink, the use of whoichl coi, is its chief constituent (80 to 90 per cent.) When burned, ferred immortality. it exhales a fragrant odour. Distilled per se, it yields in- AMBROSIAN CHANT. In Music. So called firoom St. flammable gases, water holding succinic and acetic acids, Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, who composced it foi:.r,,l and empyreumatic oil in solution (the spirit ofamber ofold church therein the fourth century: it is distinguislhed li'i,: Pharmacy), sublimed succinic acid (salt of amber), and an the Gregorian chant by a great monotony and want ofbetiu empyreumatic oil (oil of amber). The acid, when puri- ty in its melody. fled, amounts to from 3 to 5 per cent. The residual char- A'MBUBAIlE. A Syrian or Arabic term. moanrliI micoal amounts to 12 or 13 per cent., and when strongly sical girls from Syria, who prostituted thenmselves -t. heated, yields a little volatile matter resembling camphor. Rome. See Hor. Sat. lib. i. sat. 2. v. 1. and FacciolaiA substance resembling amber, called fossil copal, some. Lexicon. times occurs with it; it is less soluble in alcohol, and yields AMBULA'CRA. (Lat. ambulacrum, an alley.) T'i, no succinic acid. narrow longitudinal portions of the sltell of the sea-turchint The largest known mass of amber was found near the (Echinus), which are perforated witli a number of small surface of the ground in Lithuania, about twelve miles from orifices giving passage to tentacular suckers, and alternateo - tihe Balric; it weighs eighteen pounds, and is in the royal with the broad tuberculate spine-bearing portions. cabinet at Berlin. AMBULATO'RES. (Lat. ambulo, lwulk.) The namn. Tihe chief use of amber is as an article of ornament, cut of an order of birds in the system of lliger, correspoiiditiooc into beads or necklaces, and in the manufacture of var- nearly with the Passeres of Linn,'ous. nish. A'MBULATORY. Formed for walking. In Otonitholo A'MBERGRIS. (From ambre, and gris, grey amber.) gy, the term is applied to the feet of birds wlitre the toe,.~ Tlhis substance has been found in the intestines ol the sper- are placed three before and one behind. m:iceti whale: it is probably a product of disease: perhaps AMBU'SCADE. A military term derived from the Italt i kind of gallstone. It has also been found upon the coasts ian imboscata, concealed in a wood. It is also applied too of various tropical countries, in masses of various sizes, of any snare laid for an enemny. a grey, speckled appearance, and interspersed throughout AMIBU'STION. (Lat. amburo, lburn.) A medical ternm ita substance with the beaks of the sepia octopoda, which for a burn or scald. is thle common food of the whale. When genuine, amber- A'MEN. (Ileb. ir2, signifying, let it be, or raliher, let i, gris has a peculiar odour, not easily described or imitated, be irrevocably.fixed.) It is understood to express belief amc and which is exceedingly diffusive, especially in solution, assent at the end of a prayer. It is sometimes translatedt. so that a very minute quantity of ambergris is perceptible verily, as when used at the beginnin, of a diascourse. in perfumes, and is thought to exalt their odour. A grain AME'NDE HIONORABLE. In French laaw, a specie, or two, when rubbed down with sugar, and added to a of infamous punishment, to which criminals guilty of an ofhogshead of claret, is very perceptible in the wine and fence against public decency or noraility were condemned gives it a flavour, by some considered as an improvement. under the ancient system, and are so st ill in some instances. Thle best ambergris is softish and somewhat waxy wlien Such were, sedition, forgery, sacrilege, fraudulent bank cut; its specific gravity varies from 780 to 896: it fuses at ruptcy, &c. The simple or dry amende honorable consist1400 or 1500, and at a higher temperature gives out a white ed merely of an acknowledgment by the criminal of his of smoke, which condenses into a crystalline fatty matter, fence in open court, bare-headed and kneeling. The Its chief co mponent (about 80 per cent.) is a peculiar fatty amende honorable in figuris was made by an offender matter (ambreine), which may be obtained by boiling it in kneeling in his shirt, a torch in the hand, a rope round the Balcohol; as the solution cools, it deposits crystals, which neck, and conducted by the executioner. It was, and still may be purified by pressure in folds of blottingpaper. Am- is, usually conjoined with some other punishment; some breine fuses at 1000; its odour is agreeable, and it rises in times capital. as in the case of parricides. &c. vapour at 2200. AME'NDMENT. In a general sense, is any chanre AMBIDE'XTER. (Lat. ambo, both, and dexter, right made in anything for the better. In Parliamentary Pro hand.) One who uses both hands alike, the left as well as ceedings, it is an alteration in the words of any bill or mo. the right. Numerous theories have been advanced to ex- tion, which it is competent for any member to move whoer ulain the preference so generally given to the right over the the bill or motion has been read. (See PARLIAMSENT.1 39 AMENORRH(EA. AMNESTY. AMENDMENT. In Law. The correction of an error corn- which are sometimes observed on dirty windows in Lou mitted in any process: as the amendment of a declaration, don, consist of sulphate of ammonia. plea, &c. The deficiency of means of amendment in Ammonia was originally obtained (in the form of muripleading at common law, led to the statutes of amendments ate of ammonia) by burning the dung of camels, which and jeofails, beginning with that of 14 E. 3. All amend- was collected for the purpose in Egypt, especially about ments are held to be within the discretion of the court, and the temple of Jupiter Ammon (whetce the term sal amallowed in furtherance of justice according to the particu- moniac). It was afterwards produced by the distillation of lar circumstances of each case. putrid urine: at present, the demand for ammonia in its AME'NORRHCEA. (Gr. d, without, pnv, a month, and various states and combinations is in this country chiefly p91w, Iflow.) Morbid irregularity or deficiency of the men- supplied from two sources; the distillation of pit coal, and strual discharge. that of refuse animal substances, such as bone, clippings AMENTA'CEOUS. Having amenta; a name formerly and shavings of horn, hoof, &c. applied in Systematic Botany to such plants as have their When coal is distilled (see GAs), a large quantity of amllowers arranged in amenta. But as very different kinds of moniacal liquor, as it is called, is formed, to which sulphu. structure were combined by this character, the order ric or muriatic acids are added so as to form a sulphate or Amentaceae of Jussieu is broken up in several others, and a miuriate of ammonia. When the animal substances just the term is but little used. mentioned are distilled, a quantity of impure ammonia AME'NTHES, in Eastern Mythology, is the kingdom passes off with the other products, which is also converted of the dead, or Tartarus of the ancient Egyptians. into sulphate or muriate of ammonia. A'MENTIA. (Lat. amens, deprived of mind.) Idiotism. Pure ammonia is obtained in the form i(f a gas, by heat AME'NTUM. (Lat. amentum, a thong, or loop.) A kind ing a mixture of quicklime and muriate of ammonia. It of inflorescence such as is found on willows and poplars; is very pungent and acrid; and so soluble, that one nmeait differs from a spike only in being deciduous. sure of water absorbs nearly 500of gaseous ammonia: this AME'RCIAMENT. (From the French merci.) The solution is known under the name of liquid ammonia, and pecuniary punishment of an offender against the king or is used in medicine. Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen other lord in his court, when by his offence he is said to and hydrogen; it consists of stand at the mercy of the king or lord. Nitrogen I atom = 14 82-35 AMETABO'LIANS, AMETABOLIA. (Gr. d, without, Hydrogen 3 = 3 17'65 and sera6osq, change.) A sub-class of insects which do not undergo any metamorphosis. 1 17 100-00 A'METHYST. Purple rock crystal. The finer varie- It is decomposed when passed through a red-hot tube, and ties are in great request for cutting into seals and brooch every 100 volumes of ammonia are resolved into 200 volstones. Some of the ancient vases and cups are com- umes of a mixture of 3 volumes of hydrogen and 1 of posed of this mineral, and it was an opinion among the nitrogen. Persians that wine drank out of an amethystine cup would Carbonate of ammonia is used in medicine as a stimunot intoxicate: hence its name, from the Greek dLeOvaros. lant, and frequently employed, under the name of smellA'MIA. The name of a Linnaean genus of abdominal ing salt, as a restorative in faintness. It is obtained by sub. fishes founded on a single species (Amia calva, Linn.) a limation from a mixture of muriate of ammonia and carnative of the freshwater streams of Carolina, North bonate of lime. Muriate of ammonia has been above reAmerica; and which is still its sole representative. It is ferred to as the common source of pure ammonia. Sul-. an example of the Sauroid fishes of Agassiz, and is re. phate of ammonia is also manufactured for the same markable for the cellular structure of its air-bladder, which, purposes. as Cuvier remarks, is similar to the lung of a reptile. Ammonia is recognised by its pungent smell, by its tranAMIA'NTHUS. (Gr. daitavros.) A term applied to as- sient alcaline effect upon vegetable colours, and by produ. bestus, in consequence of the resistance which it affords cing white fumes when approached by muriatic acid. to the action of fire. Thus, if we burn a piece of quill, and hold a glass rod A'MIDES. Compounds containing a base apparently dipped in muriatic acid near the smoke of it, dense white composed of 1 atom of nitrogen, and 2 of hydrogen. The fumes appear, announcing the presence of ammonia, term Ammonide, from their resemblance to ammonia, formed by the action of heat upon the animal matter. would perhaps be more correct. AMMONI'ACUM. A gum resin used in medicine: it is A'MIDINE. The soluble part of starch. imported in drops and cakes from Africa and the East AMID-SHIPS. A nautical term, denoting the middle of Indies, and is said to be the produce of the Dorema ammothe ship, either with respect to her length or breadth. niacum. It is of a pale buff colour, and stands in the maA'MMOCCE'TES. (Gr. dpios, sand, and KoiTr., a bed.) teria medica among the mildly stimulating but uncertain The name of a genus of Cyclostomous fishes, of which the expectorants. It is sometimes applied externally in the'pride,' or'stone grig' (Amm. branchialis), is a well-known form of a plaster. example. This fish buries itself in the sand or clay of the A'MMONITE, AMMONITES. An extinct genus of molbanks of rivers; has many of the habits of a worm; pos- luscous animals which inhabited convoluted chambered sesses a skeleton reduced to membraneous consistence; siphoniferous shells, sometimes called Cornua ammonisa, and ranks among the lowestof organised vertebral animals. and vulgarly snake-stones. From their affinity to the A'MMODYTES. (Gr. do/pog, sand.) The name of a nautilites, and the known organisation of the animal of the Linnaean genus of apodal fishes, characterised by a com- pearly nautilus, fossil shells of this genus are referred to pressed head, narrower than the body; and both elong- the Tetrabranchiate order of Cephalopods, and constitute ated. Gill-openings large, with seven branchiostegal rays; the typical genus of the second family of that order dorsal fin extending nearly the whole length of the back; (Ammonitida). They are characterised by their conspi. anal fin of considerable length; dorsal and anal fins sepa- cuous whorls, and the marginal-external position of the rated from the caudal fin. The sand-eel (Ammodytes tobi- siphon. They abound in the strata of the secondary foranus, Lin.) and the sand-launce (Ammodytes lancea, Cuv.) mation, varying from the size of a bean to the dimensions are examples of this genus. of a coach-wheel. Their name is derived from their reA'MMON. In Mythology, apparently a Libyan divinity, semblance to the horns upon the statue of Jupiter Ammon. adopted by the Greeks, and by them identified with their AMMONI'TIDAE. A family of Ceplialopods, with chainamJupiter. bered siphoniferous shells, characterised by the septa ~" stat corniger illic being sinuous, with lobated margins. piter, ut memorant, sed non aut fulmina vibran.. AMMO'NIUM. A name given by Davy to the hypothetical base (supposed to be metallic) of ammonia. AccordThe name appears to be derived from aippos, sand; and ing to the hypothesis of Berzelius, ammonium is a comthe situation of his celebrated temple in an oasis, sur- pound of I volume of nitrogen with 4 volumes of hydrogen. rounded by African deserts, indicates his origin. Alexan- AMMO'PHILA. (Gr. dppos, sand, and 1iiXrw, I love.) der visited the temple, and assumed the title of son of this The name of a genus of hymenopterous insects, called divinity, in order to impose on oriental imagination. It sand-wasps. The generic characters are, proboscis conic, possessed a celebrated oracle. The lines of Lucan, partly inflected, concealing a bifid, retractile, tubular tongue; quoted above (Pharsal. lib. ix. lin. 510. &c.), describing the jaws forcipated, 3-toothed at the tip; antennae filiform in temple, and the refusal of Cato to visit it, and consult the each sex, with about 14 articulations; eyes oval; wings Fates respecting an enterprise, of the justice of which he plane; sting pungent, concealed within the abdomen. was convinced, are among the finest and best known por- AMMUNI'TION. In Military Language, signifies all tions of his poem. sorts of warlike stores and provisions, but more especially AMMO'NIA. Volatile alcali. This important compound powder and ball. is chiefly produced artificially. It exists, combined with A'MNESTY. (Gr. dpvPr/o-a, oblivion.) In Politics, freeacids, in some of the saline products of volcanos, and, in donm from penalty, granted by a solemn act to those guilty very small quantities, it is discoverable in sea-water. It is of some crime. Usually, by an act of amnesty is meant found in putrid urine and in the salts produced by the de- one passed to comprehend a number of individuals guilty composition of animal matter; it exists occasionally in of offences of a political nature, as rebellion, &c. Among very minute quantites in the air, especially in large towns, remarkable amnesties in modern European history, may where pit-coal is burned; and the small stellated crystals be cited, that granted on the restoration of Charles II., from 40 AMNION. AMPHITHEATRE. which were excepted those concerned in the death of met twice every year in the spring at Delphi, and at The& Charles I; that granted on the second restoration of the mopylae in the autumn. Its functions do not seem to have Bourbons, in January, 1816, from which, besides the regi- been of a political nature further than to see that no memcides, several others were excepted by name; and the law ber of the union was destroyed; but were chiefly directed of amnesty for political offences in France, in 1836. to religious matters, and more especially the protection of A'MNION. (Gr. davo,alamb.) Themembranewhich the temple of the Delphian Apollo. The principal ancient surrounds the foetus in utero. it includes a thin watery authorities which we possess respecting the objects and fluid, the liquor amnii. constitution of the amphictyonic council, are to be found A'MNIOS. In Botany, a thin, semitransparent, gelatin- in the orations of AEchines and Demosthenes: the 16th ous substance in which the embryo of a seed is suspended book of Diodorus Siculus; 9th of Strabo; and 10th of when it first appears, and on which the embryo appears to Pausanias. See also Ant. Van Dale's Dissertationes, Amst. feed in its early stages. Sometimes it is wholly absorbed; 1702; Paper by Valois, in the Mim. de l'Ac. des Inscriptions, sometimes a portion of it is solidified in the form of albu- tfc. iii. 191. v. 405.; St. Croix, Des Gouvernemens E'ederamen; occasionally, as in the cocoa-nut, a portion is consoli- tifs; Tittmann's Prize Essay on the Amphictyons; and dated into albumen, and a portion remains always in a fluid Muller's Hist. of the Dorians. state. AMPHIGA'MOUS. (Gr. auqot, in the sense of doubtful, AMNIO'TIC ACID. An acid supposed to be peculiar to and ya oe, marriage.) The most imperfect of all plants, the liquor amnii of the cow, but now known to belong to the having no trace whatever of sexual organs. They form liquor of the allantois. one of the classes in De Candolle's Natural System. (See AMO'MEAE. (See AMOMvM.) One of the names of the BOTANY.) plants more commonly called Zingiberacese. AMPHI/PNEUSTS. (Gr. do(tbS, on both sides, and wvew, AMO'MUM. (I-hamma, Arabic; aducov, oftheGreeks.) I breathe.) Merrem so calls a tribe of reptiles compreA Zingiberaceous plant, with aromatic seeds, much em- bending those which have both lungs and gills at the same ployed under the name of cardamoms, grains of Paradise, time, as the true amphibia or perennibranchiates. &c. The species occur exclusively in the hottest parts of AMPHIPODS. (Gr. ajoil, on both sides, and orovg, a India and Africa. foot; feet diversely conformed.) The third order of crusAMO'RPHOUS. (Gr d, without, and sloplfn, form.) taceans in Latreille's arrangement, and the only one in Bodies devoid of regular forms. which subcaudal natatory feet co-exist with sessile eyes. AMPELI'DEA. Botany. (Gr. d1reXos, a vine.) One AMPHI/PROSTYLE. (Gr. dptb, both or double, 7rpo be. of the names of the natural order VitaceaE. fore, arvXAo, a column.) In Architecture, a term applied A'MPELIS. The name of a Linnaean genus of Passe- to a temple having a portico or porch in the rear as well as rine birds, characterised by a straight convex beak, ofwhich the front, but without columns at the sides. This species the upper mandible is the longer, and is subincurved, and of temp.e never exceeded the number of four columns in emarginate on both sides. The Bohemian chatterer, or front and four in the rear. It differed from the temple in wax-wing (Ampelisgarrulus,) Linn., is a well known spe- antis, in having columns instead of antte at the angles of cies of this genus; but is referred in the recent systems of the portico. Ornithology to a distinct section or subgenus, retaining the A/MPHISBJE'NA. (Gr. adpif, both, flalvelv, to walk.) name of Bombycilla, originally applied to it by Brisson. A genus of serpents or Ophidian reptiles, in which the tail AMPHI'BIANS, AMPHI'BIA. (Gr. d/lt, both, and and head are equally obtuse, and the scales of the head so ftos, ltfe; having the faculty of existing both in water and similar to those on the back, as to render it difficult, on a on land.) In modern Zoology, this term is restricted in its cursory inspection, to distinguish one extremity of the body application lo those animals which possess organs for from the other. Hence these reptiles have been supposed breathing water, and organs for breathing air, or gills and to have the power of creeping backwards or forwards with lungs conjointly. Many cold-blooded animals, from the equal facility. slowness of their circulation and the great capacity of their AMPHI'SCII, or AMPHI'SCIANS. (Gr. dqbt, about, lungs in proportion to the vascular surface which alters the and oKia, shadow.) A term used by the ancient geograchemical state of the contained air, can remain a long time phers, to denote the inhabitants of those climates in which under water without being necessitated to seek the surface the shadows, at noon-day, fall in opposite directions at for a fresh supply: such are all the Vertebrata called Rep- different times of the year; that is to say, towards the tilia by modern zoologists, and which Linnaeus, from the north, when the sun at noon is to the south of their zenith, above mentioned faculty, included under the term Amphi- and towards the south when the sun is to the north of their bia: yet if these animals were kept submersed longer than zenith. The term consequently applies to the people who the period necessary for renewing the air in their lungs, live between the tropics. they would inevitably be drowned; they are, therefore, not AMPHITHE'ATRE. (Gr. dapte, about, and Soarpov, a strictly amphibious. Not so, however, with that small por- theatre.) In Architecture, a double theatre, or one of an tion of the order which retain their branchiae throughout elliptical figure; being, as its name imports, two theatres life;-these perennibranchiate reptiles suffer nothing from joined at the line of the proscenium; by which contrivance a prolonged aquatic existence, but, on the contrary, are all the spectators, being ranged round on seats rising the most affected by a too long continuance on dry land; a de- one above the other, saw equally well what was passing in siccation of their external fringed gills, according to some the arena, or space inclosed by the lowest range of seats. recent experiments on the Siren lacertina, occasioning The origin of the amphitheatre was among the Etruscans, their death. Those warm-blooded mammalia which have to whom also are attributed the first exhibitions of gladiatotheir general form and locomotive instruments adapted for rial fights. From these the Romans acquired the taste for aquatic life, as whales, porpoises, walrusses, and seals, are, such shows, which they communicated to every nation from the rapidity of their circulation and the prodigious subject to their dominion. Athenteus says, "Romani, ubi extent of the vascular and respiratory membrane of the primum ludos facere cceperunt, huic asciti artifices ab lungs, still more dependent upon a fresh supply of air for Etruscis civitatibus fuerunt, ser autem, ludi omnes qui their existence than the pulmonated reptiles, and are con- nunc a Romanis celebrari solent. sunt instituti." (L. iv. sequently further removed from a true amphibious organ- cap. 17.) The most extraordinary edifice remaining in isation. This is, in fact, enjoyed by a very small propor- Rome is the amphitheatre, generally called the Coliseum. tion of the animal kingdom; besides the perennibranchiate begun by Vespasian and finished by his son Titus. Words reptiles, a few species of mollusca, as the Ampullaria, and are inadequate to convey a satisfactory idea of its stupensome insects and crustaceans, are the only'examples dous and gigantic dimensions. AMPtI'BIOLI'TE. (Gr. d4:ftgla, and Xlto;, a stone.), " Omnis Cesareo cedat labor amphitheatro, The name given by Linnaeus to the parts of reptiles, or am- Unum pro cunctia fama loquatur opus," phibia, which were changed to a fossil stubstance. says Martial. It covers five English acres and aquarter of AMPIll'BOLE. (Gr. dauf6osXo;, equivocal.) A name ground; the walls are of the height of 166 feet; it had seats which some mineralogists apply to hornblende, because it fr 87000 spectators, with standing room for 2,000 others; may be mistaken for agite, and a vast arena, where thousands of gladiators and wild AMPHl'BOLI. In Ornithology, the name of a family of beasts contendd at once scansorial birds, in the system of lliger, including those in which the external posterior toe is versatile. Butcherd to make a Roman holiday AMPHIBO'LOGY. (Gr. dplt, about, and Xoyos, dis- This magnificent ruin has suffered much from earthcourse.) In Rhetoric, an equivocal phrase or sentence, of quakes, and the destroying influence of lime; and to the which the sense may bear more than one interpretation. disgrace of the Papal government, it was allowed to be AMPIII'CTYO'NfC COUNCIL. This was a congress used, in comparatively recent times, as a convenient quarof the deputies of twelve northern Greek tribes, viz. Thes- ry, whence the materials of many modern edifices have salians, loeotians, Dorians, Ionians, Perrhsebians, Mag- been derived.-Still, however, its remains are such as to netes, Locrians, (Enianians, Achawans of Phthia, Malians, astonish the spectator: Phocians. and Dolopians, or Delphians. In the Dorians and A ruin-yet what -nil! From its maes, lonians were included the Lacedaemonians and Athenians. Walls, palaces, nalf-cities, have been rea'd; who each sent one deputy. Each of these tribes had two Yet oft the enolrmous skeleton ye pass, representatives in the council called the Hieromnemon And marvel where the spoil could have appear'd. (tIpovrwl7uwv) and Pylagoras (nrvXayopas). The congress Latterly, more attention has been paid to the preserve41 AMPHITRITE. ANABAS. tlon of this noblest monument of Imperial Rome. The A'MULET. A substance worn about the person, an-. walls have been propped up in some places, and sentinels supposed to have the effect of protecting the wearer have been placed for its protection.-Besides this amphi- against some real or imaginary evils. Those of the Per theatre there were three others in Rome, namely, the Am- sians and Egyptians are said to have been small cylinders phitheatrum Castreuse, probably built by Tiberius, on the ornamented with figures and hieroglyphics. The Greeks Esquiline; that of Statilius Taurus; and that built by Tra- and Romans employed for the same purpose a great vajan, in the Campus Martius. The other principal amphi- riety of gems and small figures of deities, heroes, or anitheatres were those of Otricoli, on the Garigliano, of brick, mals, the bulls, and various other articles. Some of these Puzzuoli, Capua, Verona, the foot of Monte Casino, Pes- were hung around the necks of children, to defend them tumrn, Syracuse, Agrigentum, Catanea, Argos, Corinth, Pola from the evil eye. In more modern times, scraps of paper in Istria, Hipella in Spain, Nismes, Aries, Fr6jus, Saintes, or parchment inscribed with verses of the Bible, or with and Autun. This last has four stories, similar in that re. magical characters and jargon, have often been used for spect to the Coliseum. But that in the most perfect state the same purposes. The celebrated Arabian talismanir is the amphitheatre of Verona, which, with the exception medals are called by the Arabs Ain, from the first letter o/ of the exterior wall, is still perfect. The first that were the inscription always beginning with that character. erected, were, as we learn from Pliny, constructed of AMYGDA'LEE. (Gr. dyavycaXov, an almond.) A dll wood, and usually seated in the Campus Martius, or in vision of Rosaceous plants, comprehending the peach, rlie some place out of the city. Accidents occurring from plum, the apricot, and similar objects. The species have their insecurity, they were abandoned for the more sub- all a fleshy or succulent fruit, gum in their bark, and hystantial species of fabric whereof we have been speaking. drocyanic acid in their leaves. They occur principally in The first person who is, said to have erected an amphithe. cold and temperate latitudes. atre in Rome, was Caius Scribonius Curio, in the games AMY'GDALOI'D. (Gr. dpsv;yaaov, an almond, and he gave to the people on the occasion of his father's fune- eiese, a form.) Almond-shaped. The term is applied to ral obsequies. Determined to surpass, in the way of certain rocks in which other minerals are occasionally imigames, all that had hitherto been seen, he constructed two bedded like almonds in a cake. theatres of wood, back to back, which, after the theatrical AMYRI'DA'CE/E. Balsamic exogenous plants, consistrepresentations had been finished, were turned round with ing of shrubs or trees, found almost exclusively in the Trothe spectators still in them, leaving the stages and scenery pies. Bdtellium, balsam of copaiva, gum elemi. and balsam behind, and, by their opposite junction, forming a perfect of Tolu, are all produced by species of this order, the type amphitheatre, in which the people were gratified with a of which is the genus amyris (myrrha, myrrh.) show of gladiators. The part in which the gladiators ANA. A termination of the neuter plural form in Latin. fought was called the arena, from being usually covered used in English and French to denote anecdotes of emiwith sand to absorb the blood spilt in the conflicts for nent persons, or selections from their works. The first of which it was used. The arena was encompassed by a wall, the French collections termed "Ana," and from which called the podium, fifteen or sixteen feet in height, imme- that denomination originated, is the Valesiana; containing diately round which sate the senators and ambassadors, detached observations on passages of classical antiquity by As in the theatres, the seats rose at the back of each other; the celebrated scholar Valois, or Valesius: it appeared at fourteen rows in the rear of the podium being allotted to Paris in 1695. The Menagiana, (Paris, 1715) is a more the equites, and the remainder for the public generally, amusing work, consisting of anecdotes, criticisms, aind who sate on the bare stone, cushions being provided for miscellaneous observations on all possible subjects, attri. the senators and equites. Though generally open to the buted to the academician Menage. The popularity of this sky, there were contrivances for covering the whole space work produced a multitude of other " Ana:" among which with a sort of awning. The avenues by which the public may be mentioned the Huetiana, 1723; the Scaligerana, entered were many in number, and bore the name of Thuana, Poggiana, and a variety of similar books, consistvomitoria. See the work of Maffei, Degli Amfiteatri; and ing of extracts from the works of distinguished writers, or the section on Amphitheatres in his learned and excellent of thoughts or sayings attributed to them. work, Verona Illustrata. The modern history of the Coli- ANA, or AA (contracted from ana). In Medical prescum is given at considerable length in Hobhouse's Illus- scriptions, implies "of each." trations to Childe Harold. ANABA'PTISTS. Properly, all sects are so called that AMPHITRI'TE. The name of a genus of cephalo- insist upon the repetition of baptism upon admission into branchiate or tubicular Annelides, characterised by golden- their communion, from a notion of the invalidity of the recoloured short bristles, arranged like a crown, in one or ligious ceremonies of other denominations. There were two rows, on the anterior part of the head. One species several such in the early period of the church, as the Cainhabits the south coast of England, and forms for its habi- taphrygians and Novatians: but they are to be distinguished tation a very delicate, straight, conical.tube of grains of from the sects which arose in the 15th and the beginning of sand, agglutinated together by the mucus exuded from the the 16th centuries, under the papal dominion, especially ill skin: this is the Amphitrite auricoma. Germany; and adopted, in their ignorance and fanaticism, AMPHI'TROPAL. (Gr. dulot, round, and rperw, Iturn.) preposterous notions of the qualifications requisite for adin Botany. This is said of an embryo which is turned mission into the visible church. Their idea of primitive round albumen, or curved upon itself in such a manner society consisted in the rejection of all the customs and that both its ends are presented to the same point. decencies of life; in the community of goods and of wo~AMPIIIU'ME, AMPHIU'MA. A genus of true amphibi- men; in uncompromising hostility to all modes of artificial ous reptiles, with a persistent branchial orifice on each life, and to government generally, as the foundation and side of the neck; palatal teeth in two longitudinal rows; a sanction of social distinctions. Theyrhad, of courtse, no inlengthened body, and four rudimental extremities, each di- dulgence for the ordinances of any church but their own, vided either into three or two toes according to the species. and required baptism for themselves as the essential preAM'PHORA. (Gr. dpaopeos, two-handled.) In Sculp- liminary for admission within their pale. Early in tile ture and ornamental Architecture, a vase or measure hav- progress of the Reformation, finding their numbers daily ing two handles, used as a measure for liquids by the increasing under the licentiousness of opinion which the Greeks and Romans: they are frequently applied as orna- unrestricted abuse of private judgment produced among a ments on sarcophagi, &c. rude and uneducated people, they united in a hostile leagiue AMPHORA. A kind of earthenware vase with two han- against all existing institutions, and declared open waiH dies, used by the Romans to hold wine and other liquids. against the governments of Lower Germany. After conm Also a liquid measure, containing probably about nine gal- mitting the greatest atrocities, andt causing an universai Ions; but its exact size is not satisfactorily made out. panic throughout Europe, their progress was arrestedl by a AMPLE'XICAUL. (Lat. amplecto, Iembrace, and can- complete defeat in Saxony, in which their leader, Muncer, lis, a stem.) A leaf or bract whose base projects on each perished. The remnant, however, escaping. establisliedi side, so as to clasp the stem with its lobes. their opinions with more or less moderation of tone in HolAMPLIFICA'TION. In Rhetoric, the lengthening a dis- land and elsewhere. Some of the party seized, soon after, course or a passage by the enumeration of minute circum- upon the town of Munster, overthrew the magistracy, and stances, the employment of epithets, particularity of de- established society upon their own principles: but eventuscription, &c., with a view to produce a deeper impression. ally were put down with great slaughter. (,ee, as to thl Exaggeration is properly a species of amplification, in Munster Anabaptists, Mosheim's Ecclesiastuli l History, which circumstances and facts are not merely dwelt upon, sect. ii. part ii. c. 3., where reference is made to tlie best but represented beyond their true dimensions. works on the subject.) It should be observe, lihat thie AM'PLITUDE. In Astronomy, denotes the angular dis- anabaptists were not dependent upon religioaus views only tance of a celestial body, at the time it rises or sets, from for their support, but that the war soon assuimed the chathe east or west points of the horizon. The amplitude of racter of a struggle between the lower and upper classes; a fixed star remains the same all the year round; chat of and the enormities committed by the insurgents must be the sun or moon is constantly changing. At a given lati- attributed as much to revenge for oppression as to religitude, it depends on the declination of the object. Ampli- ous fanaticism. (See BAPTISTS.) tude is sometimes used to denote the horizontal distance A'NABAS. A genus of Acanthopterygious fishes, ii) to which a projectile is expelled from a gun, or what is which the surface of the pharynx is broken into numerous more frequently termed the range of the gun. little branched appendages and cells, capable of retaining 42 ANABLEPS. ANALOGY. water, and of gradually dropping it into the branchial cavi- impelled to fulfil his destiny, committed a capital offence ty, so as to moisten the gills; whereby these fishes have in Auvergne, and was actually hung in the place to which the curious faculty of voluntarily quitting the wat,-r, the omen pointed. creeping about on land, and even, it is said, of climbing ANAL. In Ichthyology, the fin which is placed between trees. The only known species (Anabas testudineus) is the vent and tail, and expands perpendicularly. the Perca scandens, or climbing perch, of the older ANAL GLANDS. Comp. Anat. Organs for secreting naturalists substances, sometimes attractive, but generally repulsive in A'NABLEPS. (Gr. dva6sen'o, I raise the eyes.) A name their properties, and applied to purposes of defence; they applied to a genus of malacopterygian viviparous fishes, present every grade of the glandular structure, from the eharacterised by a remarkable projection of the eyes from simple caecum, or tube, to the conglomerate mass; develltie stiles of the head, and a still more singular structure of oped from, and consequently always running into, the ter. the cornea and iris, from which there result two pupils, mination of the intestine, near the anus. In insects, the and the eyes appear to be double on each side, although they sweet fluid ejected by the aphides, and of which the ants have but one crystalline lens, one vitreous humour, and one are fond, is, at least in some species, the product of secernretina. ing tubules opening near the anus. Odorous substances,ANACLA'STICS. (Gr. dva, up, and KXao, I break.) sometimes fragrant, sometimes fetid,-are in different speThat part of Optics in which the refraction of light is con- cies of insects respectively emitted from the same part; sidered, commonly called Dioptrics. The term was ap- and the singular defensive acrid vapours discharged exploplied by Desmairau to the apparent curves formed by the sively by the insects calledt "bombardiers," are the probottom of a vessel when looked at through a body of water. ducts of anal glands. In the mollusks, the most remarkaANACA'RDIA'CEXE. A natural order of exogens, ble example of the anal glands is presented by the higher founded upon the Anacardium occidentale, or cashew nut. organised cephalopods, where they are represented geneIt consists of tropical trees, often abounding in a fluid resin rally by a single, sometimes by a bilobed or trilobed, cyst. of extreme acridity, but forming a valuable varnish in some with part of its parietes spongy and glandular, and which cases. Marking nuts, the fruit of Semicarpas anacardium, secretes the inky fluid which these animals eject to blacken black Burmen varnish from Melanorhcea usitatissima, the water around them for the purpose of concealment in mastich, Scio turpentine, pistacia nuts, sumach, are all pro- time of danger. Among fishes, an anal bag opens by a sinduced by various species of this extensive natural order. gle narrow duct, as in cephalopods, into the termination of ANA'CHORITE. See ANCHORITE. the rectum, in rays and sharks; but it no longer exercises ANA'CHRONISM. (Gr. dva, backward, and Xpovog, the function of a secerner of colouring matter. In reptiles, time.) An inversion or disturbance in the order of time: the anal bags are either single, double, or triple; and in as where, in Shakspeare's King John, cannon are intro- many species, as in frogs and tortoises, are developed to a duced, which were not in reality employed until a hundred great size, and serve for aquatic respiration. In crocodiles years afterwards. they are two in number, and emit into the cloaca a mucoA'NACOLU'THON. (Gr. dvaKosXovOov, not following.) caseous secretion, without any strong odour. In birds, the A Grammatical term, denoting the want of sequence in a anal follicles have a similar function, but they are aggre. sentence, one of whose members corresponds not with the gated into a single cavity, which is called the "bursa Fabri. remainder. This figure recurs more frequently in the cii." In quadrupeds, the anal follicles are generally colGreek than in any other language. lected into two sacciform groups, each having an opening ANA'CREO'NTIC. In Poetry, a species of ode devoted near the verge of the anus. The insupportably disgusting' chiefly to the praises of love and wine;- odour of the secretion of these glands has rendered some " u.id nisi cam multo venerem confundere vino, of the viverrine quadrupeds, as the skunk, &c., proverbial; Praecipit lyrici Teia musa Senis?" in others, the odour is not stronger than serves to attract the individuals of the same species to one another, which The name is derived from Anacreon of Teos, who flour- is the common function of the anal glands in this class of ished in the sixth century B. c. The genuineness of the animals. Odes which pass under his name, has, however, been ques- ANAL VALVES. A mechanical structure for defending tioned by some critics; but some of them are, at all events, the terminal orifice of the intestines in some of the cepha. very ancient; and they have been universally admired for lopods, which swim forwards, from the retrograde entrance their simplicity and sprightliness;- of foreign or noxious substances. This mechanism is re" All thv verse is softer far quired from the position and direction of the anal opening, Trhan the downy feathers are, which is turned forwards towards the base of the funnel or Of my wings, or of my arrows, Of my mother's doves and sparrows; respiratory channel. Graceful, cleanly, smooth, and round, ANA'LCIME. A variety of zeolite, which by friction All with Venus' girdle bound." becomes weakly electric: from dvaXKis, weak. The poems of Anacreon have been rendered familiarto ANALE'CTA. AservantingreatRoman houses,whose the English reader by the translations of Cowley and duty it was to collect the scraps after a meal; whence he Moore. The best editions of the original are those of Fis- derived his name, from the Greek sva)Eya, lpick up. cher and Brunck. ANALE'MMA. (Gr. auvaXap6avo, ltakeup.) In GeomANAESTHIE'SIA. (Gr. d, without, and daoavopls,Ifeel.) etry. An orthographic projection of the sphere on the Diminution or loss of the sense of touch, plane of the meridian. In this projection the eye is supANAGLY'PHIC. (Gr. dva, upon, and yX6va, I carve.) posed to be placed at an infinite distance. Every greatcir. In antique Sculpture, chased or embossed work on metal, cle whose plane is perpendicular to the plane of projection, or any thing worked in relief. When raised on stone, the -the horizon, for example-is represented by the chord production is a cameo. When sunk or indented, it is adia- hich f s its diameter. A sma circle parallel to the glyphic or an intaglio. plane of projection, is represented by a circle. Every cirANAGNO'STA. (Gr. dvayiv0UsKsU, Iread.) A domes- cle, great or small, of which the plane when produced does tic servant employed by wealthy Romans to read to them not pass through the eye, or is not perpendicular to the at thrir meals and on olier occasions. The ancient monks plane of projection, will be seen obliquely and under the and clergy preserved the same custom, and name, form of an ellipse. Analemma also denotes an instrument A'NAGRA.M. (Gr. l'a, back, and ypajw, Iwrite.) The of brass or wood on which the projection is made, (the nmost proper, and most sdifficualt, species of anagram is that plane of projection being the solstitial colure,) with a movewhich is formed by the reading of the letters of a word or able horizon attached to it, by means of which some of the woreds backwards:~ as " evil," r live." common astronomical problems may be solved, though not very exactly. Ptolemy wrote a treatise on the Analemma. " Live, vile, and evil, have the self-same letters; of which there is a Latin translation from an Arabic verHe lives but vile, whom evil holds in fetters." commentary by Commadine. Acoring to sion, with a commentary by Commandine. According to Aless perfect anagram is that which is made by trans- Delambre, it contains only some complicated rules for position of letters ad libitum: and an anagram in which the computing the true values of the arcs of the sphere from the transposition is helped out by the admission of letters not straight lines by which they are represented on the anain the original word, or the rejection of some of those which lemma. Since the invention of trigonometry, contrivances it contains, is termed impure. The manufacture of ana- of this sort have become useless. grams, particularly out of proper names, formed a favour- A'NALE'PSY. (Gr. dvaXap6avw.) A species of epiite exercise of ingenuity in the 16th and 17th centuries; leptic attack of sudden and frequent recurrence. when a common mode of flattery was by inventing some ANALE'PTIC. A restorative medicine. complimentary transposition of the letters of the name of A'NALOGUE. A body that resembles another. A fosthe person addressed. But none of the anagrams of that sil shell of the same species as a recent one, is its anaperiod exceed, in felicity, Dr. Burney's on Lord Nelson: logue. "Horatio Nelson," "Honor est a Nilo." Of all the extrava- ANA'LOGY. (Gr. dva)oyo5. according to rule orprog organces occasioned by the anagrammatic fever, when at its tion.) In Geometry, signifies the same thing as proportion. height, none probably equals what is recorded of an eccen- or the equality or similitude of ratios. (See PROPOhTION, tric Frenchman in the 17th century, Andr6e Pujom. lie and RATIO.) read in his own name the anagram "': pendu a Riom" (the ANALOGY. In modern Zoology, this term is restricted to seat of criminal justice in the province of Auvergne), felt the relation which anim,'s bear to one another jo thi 43 ANALYSIS. similarity of a smaller proportion of their organisation: reversed: i. e. we may make certain assumptions, and thus, the Ascalaphus italicus, in the length and knobbed ex- from them form certain legitimate deductions; and we tremities of its antennae, the colouring of its wings, and its may then proceed to take the truths thus deduced for general aspect, exhibits a striking resemblance to a butter- granted, and by a counter-process arrive, as inferences, at fly; but in all the essential parts of its organisation it ad- what, in the former case, were the grounds from which we heres to the neuropterous type of structure; its relation to started. Here it is evident that the distinction lies not in the Lepidoptera is therefore said to be one of analogy, the reasoning, but in the subject-matter concerning which while it is connected to the ant-lions by the order of affini- we reason. ty. As it has been found in some instances, that two se- ANALYSIS. In Chemistry, this term is applied to the re. ries of animals, arranged according to the greater amount solution of compound bodies into their elements. It is of resemblances, or the relation of affinity, are connected either qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative analysis conto another by analogical resemblances at given points of sists in the determination of the component parts, merely the series, the relation of analogy has been regarded as dif- as respects their nature, and without reference to their refering from that of affinity not only in degree, but in kind. lative proportions: it is an imperfect, and often a very easy If a zoologist, for example, were led, by a too superficial operation, as compared with quantitative analysis, by which glance at the external resemblances of two animals, to we determine not merely the components of a compound, place them in the same series contiguous to one another, but their relative proportions: to effect this, much scienand it were discovered that the resemblance was but skin- tific skill and practical dexterity are required, more espedeep, or limited to a temporary state of being, as a stage of cially in the identification of new substances. The theory metamorphosis, but contradicted by a dissimilarity of a of definite proportionals, or the Atomic Theory, as it is greater proportion of the internal organisation, then it usually called, has materially facilitated many analytical would be said that he had mistaken a relation of analogy processes, and is especially valuable in furnishing an for one of affinity; a phrase which the reader, however, unerring test or criterion of the general accuracy of the will readily perceive merely expresses the fact, that a results. false judgment had been formed, from not taking into In reference to chemical analysis generally, but more consideration the whole of the points of comparison ne- especially as regards organic products, we often employ cessary for determining the mutual relation of animals to the terms proximate and ultimate analysis: the former each other. referring to the immediate combinations which form the ANALOGY. In its Rhetorical sense, signifies a similarity subject of experiment; the latter to their final resolutions of two things in their relation to a third, though there may into elementary principles. Thus, in regard to sulphate of be the greatest difference in their structure, form, colour, lime, it is resolved by proximate analysis into sulphuric &c.: thus, a hat is analogous to a turban, and both are acid and lime, and these are called its proximate elements; analogous to a bonnet, having a similar relation to the head but sulphuric acid is itself a compound of oxygen and sulof the wearer. In this sense, a porpoise is analogous not phur; and lime, of oxyen and calcium; oxygen, sulphur, only to a fish, but to every other animal which habitually and calcium, therefore, are the results of the ultimate moves and seeks its food in the water. It often happens, analysis of sulphate of lime; and there are many theoretihowever, in Zoology, that a similarity of relationship to a cal points in chemistry dependent upon the views which medium of locomotion, a kind of food, &c., is accompanied are taken of the various groupings of these ultimate princi..with a certain amount of corporeal and organic resem- pies. Wheat flour is a compound of starch and gluten; blance; and this is necessary to constitute an analogy in starch is compounded of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon; the zoological sense, though by no means in the strictly and gluten, of the same elements with the addition of nilogical application of the word. trogen; so that the ultimate components of wheat, are ox. ANALOGY. In ordinary Language, denotes a relation or ygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. See Rose's Practisimilarity between different things in certain respects. cal Treatise on Chemical Analysis; Griffin's Blowpipe The conclusions to which we are led concerning one thing, Analysis, &c. by reasoning from our experience concerning another si- ANALYSIS. In Geometry, a method of conducting gemilar thing, form what is termed analogical knowledge. ometrical inquiries, invented by the philosophers of the The word analogy is generally employed to designate an school of Plato, or, according to Theon of Alexandria, by nmperfect degree of similarity. Thus, a physician, argu- Plato himself, and one of the most ingenious and beautiful ing from the effects which he had seen produced by a drug contrivances in the Mathematics. The essence of the anain one man, to its probable effects on another man, would lytic method of establishing the truth of a proposition conbe said to reason from experience: but reasoning from the sists in assuming the proposition enunciated to be true. efIects produced on an inferior animal, to the probable and deducing consequences from that supposition till a effects on man, would be, more properly, reasoning by conclusion is arrived at manifestly true or manifestly false; snalogy.-In Rhetoric, the word analogy is employed in a or at least known to be true or false by its agreement or somewhat stricter sense; it designates, not the specific re- disagreement with some proposition which has already semblance between two objects, but a resemblance be- been demonstrated. Analysis is thus the converse of syntween the relations in which they stand to other objects. thesis, or composition, —a form of reasoning by which we Thus, to term youth " the dawn of life," is said to be a me- ascend, through a series of propositions, from some known taphor by analogy; not because of any actual resemblance truth to the conclusion we are in search of. The distincbetween youth and morning, but because the one is to life, tion between analysis and synthesis, as well as the definiwhat the other is to the day.-In Mathematics, analogy tion of the two terms in the sense in which they were unsignifies the similitude of certain proportions.-In Gram- derstood by the ancient geometers, is concisely given by mar. it means a conformity in the principles of organisa. Pappus. in the Preface to the Seventh Book of his Mathetion of different words or collections of words. matical Collections. "Analysis," says Pappus, "is the ANA'LYSIS. (Gr. ava\~s, I dissolve.) A Greek word course which, setting out from the thing sought, and which which signifies the resolution of a thing into its component for the moment is taken for granted, conducts by a series parts.-In Logic, analysis is used in opposition to synthesis, of consequences to something already known, or placed as a method of arriving at adequate defini.tions. In the among the number of principles admitted to be true. By synthetical method, we begin by assuming some quality this method, therefore, we ascend from a truth or a proposiwhich the subject is known to possess. Finding ti:'. to be tioii to its antecedents; and we call it analysis, or resolucommon to other subjects than the one we wish to define, tion, as if indicating an inverted solution. In synthesis, on we add on some further property and so on, until we have the contrary, we see out from the proposition which is the adequately distinguished it from all other things. Thus, last in the analysis: and proceed by arranging, according man is an animal, man is a hot blooded animal, man is a to their nature, the antecedents which present themselves hot-blooded viviparous animal, &c. &c., may be taken as consequents in the analytic method, and combining as a specimen of a synthetical process. In analysis we them together till we arrive at the conclusion sought. Ariashould reverse the method; assuming the most distin. lysis may be distinguished into two kinds: in the first, guishing characteristic, and descending, through succes- which may be called contemplative analysis, we propose to sive gradations, to that which is least so. Correspondently discover the truth or falsehood of an affirmed proposition: with this distinction, an analytical proposition is one in the other belongs to the solution of problems, or the inveswhich the subject is implied in the predicate; e. g. " mat- tigation of unknown truths. In the first we assume the ter is extended." A synthetical proposition, on the con. subject of the proposition advanced to be true, and proceed trary, is that in which the terms have no necessary con- through the consequences of the hypothesis till we arrive nection: e. g. "John is tall:" "the world is round." As at something known. If this result is true, the proposition applied to mental phenomena, analysis is the referring is true also, and the direct demonstration is obtained by them to the acts or faculties of the mind which they ne- stating in an inverse order the different parts of the analy. cessarily imply, either as contemporaneously contribut- sis. If the ultimate consequence at which we arrive is ing to their production, or as rendering their production false, the proposition was also false. In the case of a propossible by their past operation. blem, we first suppose it to be resolved, and deduce the The distinction frequently made between analytic and consequences resulting from that proposition till we arrive synthetic reasoning, rests on a somewhat vague use of lan- at something known. If the last consequence involves guage. Strictly speaking, all reasoning can be but of one only something which can be executed, or is comprised kind. A process of ratiocination admits, however, of being among what geometers called data. the proposed problem 44 ANALYSIS. ANATHEMA. can be solved; and the demonstration, or rather in this forms geometrical results into laws of nature; when those case the construction, is obtained, as in the former case, laws, while they embrace the universe, unveil to our eyes by taking the different parts of the analysis in an inverse its past and future conditions; the sight of this sublime order. If the last result is impossible, the thing demanded spectacle affords the noblest of the pleasures reserved for is also impossible." the human race."-Exposition du Systeme du Monde, p. The names of the ancient writers on the geometrical ana- 424.) lysis have been preserved by Pappus in the preface before ANAMORPHO'SIS. (Gr. civa, backward, and popoq, referred to: they are, Euclid, in his Data and Porismata; form.) A term employed in Perspective, to denote a drawApollonius, in his treatise De Sectione Rationis, and in his ing executed in such a manner that, when viewed in the Conic Sections; Aristaeus, De Locis Solidis; and Eratos- common way, it presents a confused or distorted image of thenes, De Mediis Proportionalibus; but of these only the the thing represented, or an image of something entirely Data of Euclid and some fragments of Apollonius, have different; but when viewed from a particular point, or as come down to our times. The subject has, however, been reflected by a curved mirror, or through a polyhedron, it fully investigated by the moderns, and a complete system recovers its proportions, and presents a distinct represenof the ancient geometrical analysis may be found in the tation of the object. works of Dr. Simson of Glasgow. (See also Leslie's Geo- ANAMORPHOSIS. In Botany, when any part assumes an metrical Analysis.) appearance unusual with it. The calyx of the rose asBy the term analysis the ancient geometers understood suming the appearance of a fruit, the stipule of a prosopis a certain mode of reasoning altogether independentof signs become spiny, the stem of a cactus when succulent and or symbols, and which might be carried on by ordinary tube-like, are cases ofanamorphosis. language. In its modern acceptation, analysis is synony- ANA'NAS. (Ananas, Brazilian.) The plant that promous with algebra, or the calculus, and is opposed, not to duces the delicious pineapples of the gardens. It is of synthesis, but to geometry. In this sense the original South American origin, but has been gradually dispersed meaning of the word is entirely lost sight of; and, instead through similar climates till it has become apparently wild of being used to denote a particular mode of reasoning, it in Africa and many parts of Asia, especially tile Malayan rather indicates the instrument by which the reasoning is Archipelago, where it arrives at a greater degree of excelcarried on. Algebra may be employed with advantage, lence than in its native woods. whether the method of demonstration be analytical or syn- ANA'NDROUS. (Gr. d, without, and dvq)p, (genitive thetical. dvJpo5), amale or stamen.) When flowers are destitute of One great advantage arising from the use of algebra in the stamens, they are usually called female flowers. solution of geometrical questions, consists in this, —that the A'NAPAEST. (Gr. dvanralaros.) A foot in Greek and demonstration is reduced to certain rules, and carried on Latin metre, consisting of two short syllables followed by a by systematic processes; in consequence of which, the long, being the name of the dactyle. analyst, having reduced his problem to equations, can ge- ANA'PHORA. (Gr. dva~opa, raising up.) In Rhetonerally determine at a glance, whether the solution is pos- ric, a repetition of words or phrases at the commencement sible or not. It must be admitted, that the demonstrations of sentences or verses. Thus in Cicero, Verr. iv. c. 10.. of many of the propositions of elementary geometry by the Verres calumniatores apponebat, Verres adesse jubebat, ancient methods have a peculiar elegance which the alge- Verres cognoscebat, Verresjudicabat. braic methods cannot always reach; but, in point of power ANAPLOTHE'RIUM. See ANOPLOTHERIUM. and applicability, the modern analysis is vastly superior to A'NARCHY. (Gr. d, without, dpXw, Igovern.) In Polithe ancient. "The geometrical synthesis," says Laplace, tics, the constitution of a country in which not only lawful "has tI he advantage of never losing sight of its object, and of government, but regular government defacto, is superseded illuminating the whole path which leads from the first ax. by force. Hence Milton metaphorically terms his personiioms to their last consequences; whereas the algebraic fled Chaos an "Anarch." analysis soon causes us to forget the principal object in or- ANARRHI'CHAS. A name conceived by Gesner and der to occupy us with abstract combinations. But in thus applied by Linnaeus to a genus of spiny-finned osseous isolating the objects, after having abstracted from them fishes, characterised by having their mandibular, palatine, what is indispensable to arrive at the result he is in search and vomerine bones armed with large osseous tubercles, of, in abandoning himself to the operations of analysis, and bearing on their summits small enamelled teeth; anteriorreserving all his forces to overcome the difficulties which ly the jaws support longer and more conical teeth: by it presents, the analyst is conducted to results inaccessible means of this powerful dental apparatus the species of this to synthesis. Such is the fecundity of analysis, that it is genus, which inhabits the northern seas, called the " wolf. sufficient to translate particular truths into this universal fish," is enabled to break and bruise the testaceous defen. language, in order to perceive a series of other new and un- sive coverings of shellfish, the soft parts of which form its expected truths arise from their mere expressions. No ordinary food. language is equally susceptible of the elegance which re- A'NAS. (Lat. anas, a duck.) The name of a Linnean suits from the development of a long series of expressions genus of Anserine birds, characterised by a large, broad, intimately connected with one another, and all flowing obtuse bill, furnished at the margin with numerous thin, from the same fundamental idea. Analysis also unites transverse, projecting plates; and an obtuse papillose or with these advantages that of being always capable of lead. ciliate tongue. The subdivisions of this extensive group of ing to the simplest methods; for this purpose it is only re- web-footed birds, which were indicated by Linnaeus, have quired to apply it suitably, by a skilful choice of indeter- since been raised to the rank of genera (see ANATIDME), and minate quantities, and to give the results the form the most the term Anas is now restricted to the species which preconvenient for geometrical construction or numerical cal- sent a flattened bill, the base of which is always of greater culation. Modern geometers, convinced of the superiority breadth than depth, as wide (or wider) at the extremity as of analysis, have especially applied themselves to extend at the beginning; with nostrils placed nearer the upper its domain, and enlarge its limits."-(Exposition du Sys. margin and base of the bill. The legs are shorter and tame du Monde, 4to. p. 423.) placed farther back than in the goose (Anser); they have a Analysis is in general the instrument of invention; and it shorter neck, and the windpipe is dilated at its lower end is supposed, not without reason, that the greater part of the into two osseous capsules, of which the left is usually the discoveries, for which the mathematicians of the 17th cen- larger. The ducks, thus characterised, are subdivided intury were distinguished, were made by its means, though to those which have the hind toe provided with a memthey were given to the world in a synthetical form. It is brane, and those in which it is naked. Both divisions are evident, from the posthumous works of Pascal and Rober- again broken up into numerous minor groups, which are val, that they first obtained the solution of many of their distinguished by generic terms. problems by the method of indivisibles, and afterwards de- ANASA'RCA. (Gr. dva, through, and aapE, flesh.) A monstrated the truth of their results in the manner of the diffusion of water through the cellular membrane of the ancients. Newton himself thought that a mathematical limbs, as in dropsy. proposition ought not to be made public, or was not fit to be ANA'STOMO'SING. When two parts, growing in difseen, till invested in a synthetic dress. Synthetic demon- ferent directions, meet and grow together, as the veins in stration is now rarely met with in any other than the most leaves. elementary works; the algebraic analysis has become the ANA'STOMO'SIS. (Gr. dva, through, and aropa, s ordinary instrument of mathematical investigation. "Ne- mouth.) The communications of the vessels of tile body vertheless," says Laplace, "'geometrical considerations with each other. ought not to be entirely abandoned; they are of great utility ANA'STROPHE. A name given in Classical Philology in the arts. Besides, it is interesting to figure to one's self to some species of inversion (see INVERSION) or departure in space the divers results of analysis; and reciprocally to from the usual order of succession in words. From the read the affections of lines and surfaces, and all the varia. Greek dvaarpetw, I overturn or invert. Such phrases as tions of the motion of bodies, in the equations which ex- mecum, vobiscum. &c., in which the preposition follows press them. This connection of geometry and analysis the word governed by it, or in which it is placed between throws a new light over both sciences; the intellectual ope- two words governed by it, &c., are instances of anast rophe. rations of the latter, rendered sensible by the former, are ANA'TIIEMA. (Gr. dvaafca.) Properly, a thing laid more easily apprehended, and more interesting to follow; by, consecrated, or devoted: hence a person upon whom and when the imagination realises these images, and trans- the ban of the church is laid, is said to be anathematised 45 ANATIDE1. ANATOMY. or in the Jewish phrase, to be "anathema." St. Paul brary of George III., and which he had access to, Dr. liun. says, lIf we or an angel from heaven preach any other ter observes, that he saw with astonishment that Leonardo gospel to you than that which we have preached, let him had been a deep student, "and was at that time the best be anathema:" and upon the authority of this and similar anatomist in the world." We must give the fifteenth cenpassages, the church assumed from the first the power of tury the credit of Leonardo's anatomical studies, as he was anathematising or excommunicating evildoers and heretics. fifty-five years of age at its close. At the beginning of the ANA'TID2E. The name of a family of web-footed birds, sixteenth century Berengarius and Massa wrote upon huof the swan, goose, and duck kind, of which the genus man anatomy; but such was the authority of Galen even Anas is the type. at that time, that few dared publish any statement or opinANA'TOMY. (From dva, through, and retvw, I cut.) ions contradicting those of their infallible master. About This term literally means dissection, but is generally under- the middle, however, of the sixteenth century, this spell stood to signify a knowledge of the internal structure of was broken by the celebrated Vesalius of Brussels, who the human body, in the acquisition of which dissection is taught anatomy at Paris and Louvain, and afterwards in essentially necessary. The anatomy of other animals is Italy. He boldly demonstrated the errors of Galen; de usually designated Comparative Anatomy; and that of scribed accurately the dissections of thie body, corrected plants, Vegetable Anatomy; which see. and improved anatomical nomenclature, and insisted upon Although some anatomical knowledge must have been the necessity of diligence and actual observation in dissec accidentally acquired by the earliest inhabitants of the tion, as the only solid foundation of successful medical and globe, and although there are several allusions in the early surgical practice. lie had many opponents, and is said to books of the Old Testament to the subject, no dissections have been detected in the very mischievous error for of the human body were performed with a view to ascer- which he blames Galen; namely, that of describing the tain the position and structure of its internal organs, or to human viscera from dissections made upon quadrupeds. elucidate their functions, till a much later period. Among the most remarkable contemporaries or imineHomer ha:s, it is true, been complimented, and in some diate successors of Vesalius, were Fallopius and Eustarespects justly so, for the precision with which he de- chius,-the former of Padua, the latter of Venice; whose scribes the wounds of his heroes; and the ancient Egyp- names, as annexed to their discoveries, have been handed tians are said to have acquired great anatomical skill by down to posterity. Indeed, the schools of Italy seem to their practice in the art of embalming; but these, and simi- have been the only accessible sources of practical anatomy lar statements, have no bearing upon the pursuit of anato. at that period: in France and England an antipathy to dismy as a science, or in connection with surgery, medicine, section prevailed, which was fatal to all anatomical im and physiology. Thales, Socrates, Xenophoni, and Plato,. provement. Cortesius, whio wrote at the beginning of thire are each quoted by anatomical historians, as having ac- seventeenth century, and who, after having been professor quired no inconsiderable anatomical knowledge; Plato is of anatomy at Bologna, filled the chair of medicine at Maseven said to have anticipated the celebrated discovery of sana, complains that he was prevented finishing a treatise the circulation of the blood. "The heart," he says, "is on Practical Anatomy, in consequence of having only been the centre of the blood-vessels, the spring of the blood, able twice to dissect a human body in the course of twenwhence it flows rapidly round: blood is thie pabulum of ty-four years, "whereas in the academies of Italy there is the flesh, in order to the nutriment of which the body is that opportunity once every year." intersected by canals, like those of gardens, to convey the About this time the name of the renowned Harvey beblood like water from a fountain, to the remote parts." comes conspicuous in the annals of anatomy: he, like his The first author who is supposed to have written on hu- most eminent contemporaries, studied medicine in Italy. man anatom'y is Hippocrates; and the first recorded dis- Fabricius ab Aquapendente, who was his master, lihad just section was, probably, made by his contemporary Demo- made the highly important discovery of the valves of tire critus of Abdera. This carries us back to about 400 years veins; and it was this which, probably, more especially dibefore the Christian era, from which period, to that of Ga- reeled Harvey's attention to the use of thle heart, and tihe len, (that is, in the space of 600 years,) little progress vascular system: for at that time the liver was considered seems to have been made in the knowledge even of the as its great centre, and thie veins were supposed to convey structure and position of the visceraof the body, much less the blood from it to the remote parts of the body. liarin their uses and diseases. vey's great discovery of the circulation of the blood was It would appear from Galen that the most eminent anato- taught by him' in his lectures as early as 1616, though not mists of antiquity were Erasistratus and IHerophilus, who published till 1628, in consequence of his desire to demon. taight anatomy in the celebrated school of Alexandria, strate the subject in detail, and to collect proofs and illusand are said to have been the first who were authorised to trations of the correctness of his doctrines. This discovery dtissect human bodies: hence, probably, the high rank was not only of vast intrinsic importance, but, as is tihe wvhich the school, founded by the Ptolemies, acquired, case in all similar instances, it led to others; and the route and maintained for several hundred years. The works of of the blood had no sooner been traced and described, tihe above-mentioned anatomical professors have been lost, than the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is but they are abundantly quoted by their more immediate conveyed into the circulation became an object of research: successors. this was successfully developed by Asellius, an Italian phyAmong the Romans the first anatomist was, probably, sician, in the year 16-27. IIe was so fortunate as to see the Asclepiades, who flourished in the time of Pompey; and lacteals filled with chyle, and to trace them to their cornsoon afterwards Rome became a celebrated seat of miedi- mon trunk, the thoracic duct, and thence into the bloodcal science. Celsus, Areteeus, and Galen, are the orna- vessels. The lymphatic system was also soon afterwards ments of this period; especially the latter, as an anato- detected, and first described by T. Bartoline, a Danish anamist; though it appears probable that his descriptions tomist; and this was foillowed by important details bearing were often taken from dissections of inferior animals, and upon the anatomy of the gravid uterus and of the generaapplied to the corresponding organs of the human body: tive system, in which nearly all the celebrated anatomists it is, hiowever, said, that he anticipated many subsequent of Europe had a share; and among them Harvey was condiscoveries, and that a great part of his writings were for a spicuous, though Dr. Ilunter attributes, with apparent inlons time nnintelligible, till cleared up and explained by justice, his knowledge upon this subject, and even the i hr labours of his successors. merit of detecting thire use of the arteries, to his master During the dark ages anatomy sustained the fate of other Fabriciuns.'re pihysiology of generation was more espebranchles of knowledge; and, with few exceptions, little cially followed up by Swamnmerdam, Malpighi, and Leuenprogress was made in it, till the revival of learning in Eu- hoek, who were enabled greatly to extend the bounds of rope; the prejudice, too, against the dissection of the hu- anatomical knowledge by their ingenious use of the miman body was not only maintained, but sanctioned by the croscope. highest existing authorities. In the year 1315, a System of Although England has produced many celebrated anatoAnatomy was drawn up by Mundinus, chiefly, it is said, mists, there is no one to whom it is so deeply indebted as founded upon such parts of Galen's doctrines as had been Dr. William Hunter, who was born in 1718, at Kilbride, ir preserved by the Arabians. This work deserves notice, Lanarkshire, and was contemporary with the celebratec as having been the anatomical text-book of the schools of Cullen. Dr. Iunter went to London in 1741, taking witli Italy for a period of nearly 200 years. Mundinus is, in- him an introduction to Dr. Douglas, who was then engaged deed, celebrated by his contemporaries as the restorer of in a work upon thle bones, and was in search of a young anatomy. Early in the fifteenth century, when learning man who might assist in his dissections. He found ill began to revive in Europe, in consequence chiefly of the William Iunter a person so exactly suited to his purpose, introduction of the writings of the Greek authors, nume- that he not only engaged him as an assistant, but receivedl rous treatises on the Sciences made their appearance, him into his family and made him his son's tutor. As our amongst which anatomy formed a prominent subject; and object here is to give a brief historical Outline of Anatomy, among its most successful followers, the name of the cele- rather than the biography of its successful cultivators, we brated Leonardo da Vinci may be recorded, although he must pass over many interesting points in Dr. Hlunter's apparently only pursued it in reference to his own art. early history, till he came before the public as an anato-,See the sketches annexed to Memoire Storiche di L. da mist, which was in the year 1743, when he communicated Vinci, by C. Amoretti, Milano, 1804.) In reference to some to the Royal Society an Essay " On the Structure and Dis. of the drawings and their descriptions, preserved in the li- eases of Articulating Cartilages;" and was remarke] foi 46 ANATOMY. his diligence, ingenuity, and skill in the arrangement of should remain in the metropolis in which the fortune ex. anatomical preparations, of which he had accumulated a pendled upon it had been amassed, as a monument of his considerable collection, with a view of pursuing his favour- gratitude, and an example to his successors, he was, neverite object, namely, that of publicly teaching anatomy. He theless, sufficiently liberal and patriotic to devote it to the commenced this arduous task in 1746, under the auspices use of the public, by bequeathing it to the university which of Mr. Sharpe, of Covent Garden, in whose theatre he had granted him his degree. made his first appearance as a public lecturer. In 1747 le Dr. Hunter not only gave a new impulse to anatomical became a member of the Corporation of Surgeons; and in science, the effects of which have been transmitted to the the spring of the following year, having concluded his present time. but his zeal in behalf of his favourite purcourse of lectures, he accompanied his pupil, Mr. James suit tended to make many converts. Among these, the Douglas, into Holland and France. lie returned in time celebrated John Hunter stands foremost. Hearing of his to begin his winter course, during which he not only ac- brother's reputation, he offered his services as an assistquired a high character as an anatomist, but commenced ant in his inquiries, and his proposal was kindly accepted. the practice of midwifery, in which he soon attained emi- Accordingly, in September, 1748, he left Lanarkshire, being nence, founded not merely upon his person and address, then twenty years of age. His disposition to excel ill both of which were agreeable and well suited to that line anatomical pursuits soon became evident. In the course of the profession, but upon his anatomical skill; so that, in of the succeeding year he had rendered himself sufficientall cases of danger and difficulty it soon became customary ly master of the subject to instruct his brother's pupils in to call in his aid. In this respect his celebrity became so the dissecting-room; and in 1755 was admitted to a partextended, that he afterwards acquired great and merited nership in the lectures. His ardour and enthusiasm as an reputation as a general anatomical physician. In 1762 Dr. anatomist were most extraordinary, and hle became as Hunter entered into a spirited vindication of his claims to eminent in surgery as his brother was in physic; yet his certain anatomical discoveries, in a work entitled "'Medi- more lucrative professional avocations were never allowed cal Commentaries:" and in the same year he was ap- to supersede his scientific zeal; and tile result was, the pointed physician to the queen of George III. His profes- formation of a Museum of Comparative Anatomy, which sional avocations now became so numerous and urgent, is at once a memorial of a scientific mind and a skilful that he was obliged to take a partner in his lectures, and for hand. Mr. Hunter died suddenly on the 1Gtlh of October, that purpose selected his pupil, William Ilewson, who af- 1793, at the age of 65. Ile directed by his will that his Muterwards joined Mr. Cruickshank, two gentlemen whose seum, upon which he had expended nearly the whole of names occupy no unimportant place in the history of his large professional income, should be offered to the practical and structural anatomy. purchase of the English government; and, fortunately for In 1754 Dr. Hunter began his great and splendid work the credit of the country, the proposal met with a very dif. on the "Anatomy of the Gravidl Uterus," which was not ferent reception to that which we have above recorded in completed till 1775. This gave him a high rank amongi reference to his brother. It was purchased for the sum of European anatomists, and foreign and domestic honours 15.000/., and made over, under certain conditions, which were abundantly conferred upon him in consequence; but have be'nm not only faithfully, but liberally, fulfilled, to the it is to the establishment of his Museum, and School, that Royal College of Surgeons in London. It is one of the we are principally to look for the new impulse which was most splendid collections in the world, and in many regiven to the study of anatomy in Iondon, and for the cele- spects unrivalled; it is open, under proper regulations, to brity which that metropolis has since maintained. The ac- public inspection, in the magnificent building erected by count of the origin and progress of this Museum, therefore, the College for its reception, on the south side of Lincoln's deserves to be briefly recorded here. When Dr. Hunter Inn Fields. had acquired a competent fortune, the result entirely of Another convert to anatomical pursuits, educated in the his high professional merit and unwearied diligence, he school of William Hunter, was his nephew,. the late Mat. fo)und wealth still pouring in upon him, and became desi- thew Baillie. His virtues and his talents placed him high rous of applying this surplus to some great national pur- in public estimation; his anatomical knowledge was the pose of public utility; and what more important or useful foundation of his professional eminence; and the exceltitan a "'Metropolitan School of Anatomy?" lie accord- leince of his lectures, both as regards matter and manner, ingly, in the year 1765, during the administration of Mr. tended to exalt the reputation of his uncle's school, and to Grenville, presented a memorial to that minister, in which establish the importance of anatomy as the basis of medithe requested the grant of an unemployed piece of ground cal. no less than of surgical practice. near the King's Mews, at Charing Cross, for the site of iis We have dwelt upon the Hunterian School, from the intended building; upon which he undertook to expend conviction that it gave a character to anatomical pursuits, 70001. and to endow a professorship of anatomy in perpe- which has materially and beneficially influenced their subtuity. After waiting for some time without a reply, sequent progress, not only in London, but throughout the he renewed his request, or rather repeated his pro- kingdom. Their importance and their necessity as the posal; and his second application, which was even in basis of the sciences of medicine and surgery are now more liberal terms than the former, shared the same su- publicly felt and acknowledged; the aversion to the dissec. percilious treatment. Although disgusted, as he well tion of the human body is on the wane; and the degrading might be, at this unaccountable neglect, lie determined aind disgraceful practice of allowing the schools of anatothat the town in which he had acquired his wealth and re- my to he supplied with subjects for dissection, by the re. putation should not be without soine useful and honorable volting process of exhumation, has been superseded. memorial of his labours: he accordingly purchased apiece Human anatomy is usually subdivided into descriptive, of ground in Great Windmill street, near the iHaymarket, antd morbid, or, more correctly, pathological. where he erected a spacious dwelling-house, behind wvhich Descriptive Anatomy embraces a description of the dif was a magnificent fire-proof room, fitted up as a museum fereit organs of the body, together with their relative situaand library, and communicating with a good anatomical lions and connections; it examines the textures of which theatre, and an extensive series of apartments for dissec- they are formed, enumerates the nerves and vessels by tion and for the preparation of anatomical specimens. which they are supplied, and gives all general and particuThis building was completed in 1770. lar details concerning their organisation. Itaving done Dr. Hunter expended upon this Museum a sum exceed- this, it proceeds to the analogies that subsist among the ing 20,001.: it included, besides its unrivalled anatomical materials of which different organs are composed; and is treasures,a splendid and valuable collection ofbooks, coins, thus led to specify the proximate constituent parts of the medals, and antiquities; of minerals, shells, and other ar- livintg body. titdes of natural history. By his will, the use of this Mu- 3Morbid or Pathologicac Anatomy comprehends all that seum, under the direction of trustees, devolved upon his relates to the effects of disease upon healthy structures; nephew, Dr. Matthew Baillie; and in case of his death, to and carefully traces and describes the changes of texture Mr. Cruickshank, for the term of thirty years; at the end and of composition which they thus suffer, in reference tn of which period lhe entire collection was bequeathed to the entire organ, as well as to its individual parts. the University of Glasgow, together with a sum of 8,0001. We shall now proceed to give a short description of the for its preservation. Dr. Iunter died on the20th of March, parts of which the human body is constructed, referring 1783; so that his will, in regard to his Museum, has long for the account of individual organs to the separate terms,ince been carried into effect, and it is now in Glasgow. under which they are enumerated. To say nothing of the books, antiquities, and objects of Anatomical teachers generally first direct the student's natural history, it contained, when sent to its final destina- attention to that branch of the subject which is termed tion, the. finest series of anatomical specimens in Europe. Osteology; in other words, to the bones or skeleton, conThus, through the apathy of the administration of thatday, stituting the hardest and most durable part of the whole was this unrivalled collection lost to the metropolis. Dr. structure, and that which gives it its stability and general Hunter's munificent intentions must, however, never be form. At the period of birth, the bones, for obvious reaforgotten: hlie furnished a noble and rare example of a man sons, could not exist with the degree of induration and who, as soon as he had rendered himself independent by firmness which they possess in the adult; we accordingly his own exertion, in a laborious and difficult profession, ap- find that, at that period, they are mostly soft and flexible lied the whole of his large income to a great public ob- resembling cartilage, with certain specks df osseous matter eoct: and, though tl warted in his original desire, that it which gradually extend and increase, as the process cJ 47 ANATOMY. ossibhcatlon advances during the growth of the young ani-, port of life. We accordingly find that the heart is so con mal. In contemplating this bony skeleton when it has thus structed as lo propel the blood which it receives through become perfect, we are struck with the admirable adapta- tile structure of the lungs, and after it has there been aerated. tion and mutual connection of the various parts of which it to transmit it over the body: in fact, the heart is a hollow consists; the separate bones being extremely numerous, muscle: when it relaxes, its two principal cavities, or ven(including the teeth, amounting to about 250,) and attached tricles, are enlarged, and tile blood flows in; when it conto each other by unequal surfaces, the cavities and emi- tracts, they are diminished, andt the blood is propelled into nences of which mutually correspond. These connec- two large tubes or arteries, one leading to the lungs, and tions, termed articulations, are extremely various; some called the pulmonary artery, and the other to the system admitting of every variety of motion, others of limited mo- generally, and called ihe aorta: these arteries are not only.ion, and other.s, as it were, continuously united. In the elastic, but also muscular, so that they drive the blood orn former case the evils of friction are perfectly provided wards from the heart, its retrograde motion being effeclu against by the peculiarity of the articulating surfaces, which ally prevented by valves placed at their origin. are covered with an extremely smooth and elastic sub- The arteries are divided and subdivided into an infinite stance, called cartilage; and lubricated, or as it were oiled, number of ramifications; and the branches fromn the same by a slippery fluid termed synovia, which here performs trunk are frequently observed to unite or anastomose in precisely the same office as that of the various anti-attri- their course; so that when, by any accident, some are obtions which are used in machinery. But as the bones must structed, an adequate supply of blood may be kept up by be more or less restricted in their range of motion, there the others. As, however, the blood cannot return to the are peculiar means by which that end is attained: some heart by these vessels or arteries, we find that they inoscu. being prevented from changing their relative situations by late, or communicate at their extremities with another secertain modes of articulation; others, where a slight mo- ries of tubes or vessels, which are called veins. These are tion is required, being united by cartilage; and others, more numerous than the arteries, and generally accompawhere extensive and varied motions are wanted, being con- ny them in their course. They have a less muscular pow. nected by ligaments, membranes, or flesh. Ligaments are er; and as they are not assisted by the heart in propelling white, fibrous, glistening, and flexible substances, occurring the blood, they open to it larger and larger channels as it in an infinite variety of forms and situations. They are, for advances, and are supplied with valves by which its reflux the most part, exterior to the joint, and, by their great is prevented. This is, in fact, the circulation of the blood strength and trifling elasticity, preserve the relative position (first made out by Harvey, as before mentioned); the veins or connection of the bones in their various movements. ultimately terminating in two large trunks which pour the Membranes are thin, whitish webs or textures, more flexi- blood into the right auricle of the heart; whence it is proble and elastic than ligament. They not only assist in the pelted into the right ventricle, from which arises the pul-. security and motion of joints, but fulfil a variety of other of. monary artery, transmitting it through the lungs; from the fices. They surround or line the cavities and the organs of lungs the blood (having been aeirated) returns by the pulthe body, and contribute to unite and combine the whole; monary vein into the left auricle of the heart, which conand, at the same time, interpose and preserve a distinc- tracting, propels it into the left ventricle, from which arises tion, enabling separate parts either to co-operate or to act the aorta. Such, then, is the extraordinary mechanism by independently of each other. They vary in strength and which the circulation of the blood is effected; but it must texture, and different terms are applied to them in different not be supposed that the whole of the blood is thus directly parts of the body: two within the skull are called matres; returned from the arterial into the venous system: a part those which envelope muscular fibres are called aponeu- of it is transmitted by minute arterial ramifications into the roses; that which covers the lungs and lines the cavity of different structures and organs of which the body is cornthe chest is termed pleura; that which lines the cavity of posed, each of which is gifted with the power of assimilathe abdomen and its included viscera is named peritoneum; tion, that is, of converting the blood, or a part of it, into a those which inclose articular surfaces are termed capsules; substance of its own kind. Some of these minute or capilthat wlich covers bone, periosteum; and, in other cases, lary vessels also terminate upon the surface of the body, they are called coals, or tunics. The remaining substance where they exhale perspirable matter; others, upon the concerned in the connection of the bones is flesh; it is membranes lining the cavities of the body, where they sethus, that the upper extremities are connected with the crete the fluids which lubricate and moisten the interior sur. body, and that many of the joints are rendered secure. But faces; and others again go to the glands, —those peculiai flesh performsanotherandmoreimportantoffice, inasmuch organs or structures, which have not only the power it as it constitutes a principal part of the organs termed mus- separating certain parts of the blood, but of converting it elcs, through the medium of which the various movements into new forms, which are called secretions, some of whicl, of the body are effected. Many of the muscles contain, be- are ejected, others retained, for the purpose of the aninal sides flesh, a substance analogous to ligament, through the economy. medium of which they are attached to the bones, and to Thus, then, it appears that the blood nourishes and pre which the term tendon is applied: muscles and tendons are serves the body and all its parts, and that it is continually composed of bundles of fibres, which may be unravelled to tending to the renovation and reproduction of the different extreme minuteness; and when what appears to be a sin- organs; but this very process implies another, and no less gle fibre is viewed under the microscope, it resembles a extraordinary, function, which is performed by a distinct chain of infinitely small globular particles. But though the system; namely, that of absorption. There are, in short, muscles are the immediate organs of motion, they are de- a series of vessels which are continually carrying away the pendent for their powers of contraction and relaxation upon useless and worn-out materials; removing them in a state the nerves with which they are supplied. These, when of solution; furnished, like the veins, with valves; termi. separately examined, appear in the form of white cords or nating in a common trunk, called the thoracic duct; and threads; and, when traced to their origin, are found to is- pouring its contents into the veins, just before they enter sue as it were from the brain, and from its elongation, the right auricle of the heart. termed the spinal marrow. The trunks of the nerves are It appears, therefore, that a continual system of deposi. subdivided into branches, and these again into filaments, tion and removal is carrying on within the living body; that which enter into, and are, as it were, lost in the substance the ramifications of the arterial system are constantly renoof the muscles and other organs of the body. Their func- vating the different organs, whilst the absorbents are as tions are in some cases obedient to, and in others indepen- constantly removing the materials of which they consist dent of, the will: to the former belong the nerves of the lo- Nothing, therefore, is stationary or permanent; and as the comotive muscles; to the latter, those of the heart, viscera, blood, on the one hand, conveys the materials required, so, &c. When they are divided, the peculiar functions of the on the other, it receives those which are removed: and organs which they supply are impaired or impeded: thus, such as are useless, or would be hurtful if retained, are the muscles may be deprived of the power of contracting, thrown off either by the intestines, the kidneys, the lungs, the glands of secretion, the eye of sight, the ear of hearing, or the skin. It now only remains to show how this wasie and the skin of feeling. The nervous trunks, which issue is compensated for, and by what means those materialg in pairs from the brain or spinal marrow, amount to about which are thrown off in one form are replaced in another forty; and in tracing them and their branches, they are this leads us to the functions of another branch of the ani found in certain different places to swell into knots, which mal machinery, called the organs of digestion; those or are termed ganglict, or they are reticularly aggregated into gans, namely, by which the food is converted lilto blontd. plexuses. Different animals require different kinds and quantifies. Havine thus shown howthe bones are connected and put of food; some living almost exclusively upon animal, other., into motion, and from what sources their motion is derived, upon vegetable substances; hence their division into can it may next be inquired how they and the other organs of nivorous and graminivorous tribes. Man partakes ol both the body grow and are nourished. This brings us to con- and, accordingly, the structure of his digestive organs is ini sider the blood and its vessels. termediate between the comparative sim plicity of the trul. The composition and propertiesof the blood, and the ex- carnivorous, and the complexity of hlte graminivorou*s traordinary changes which it suffers in its passage through classes. In all the higher orders of animals, however, tle the pulmonary vessels, are elsewhere defined. (See mechanism of digestion is of a complicated character. BLOOD, and RESPIRAT.TON.) Without this exposure to the The first change which the food undergoes is in the action of the air in the lungs, the blood is unfit for the sup. mouth, where it is torn, ground, and moistened by ma 48 ANATOMY. ANCHOR. cnmcery expressly adapted to those operations. The teeth in thickness and induration on different parts of the body Mre admirably contrived for this purpose; some of them but every where without feeling, and called the epidermis, tutting, and as it were mincing, others rubbing and grind- immediately beneath it is a soft mucous substance termed ing, whilst a fluid is supplied by the salivary glands so as rete mucosum; and under it the cutis, or true skin. These lo render the mixture of a proper consistency to be swal. external coverings of the body are attached to and connecttowed: this is effected by the organs of deglutition: the ed with the parts beneath, by cellular membrane. But food is propelled from the mouth into the tube which con- though the animal owes much of its general security to veys it to the stomach, and which is called the cesophagus; these textures, it owes more to the senses, instincts, and andt is, at the same time, prevented, by an extraordinary appetites, with which it is so miraculously endowed. "By anud complicated arrangement of the parts concerned, from these it is led to pursue what is useful, and to guard against passing in any other direction, and, more especially, from danger, inconvenience, and want. Nor is this all; there entering the trachea or air-passage into the lungs. In the has likewise been conferred, to a certain extent, upon all stomach the food is subjected to the secretions of that or- living bodies, the power of reproduction, by which they gan, called gastric juice, which is acid, and by which it is are frequently able to repair the slighter injuries to which gradually converted into a greyish homogeneous semi-fluid the different organs are exposed; and if this power be exsubstance, termed chyme; so that by the time the food ceedingly languid in the latter periods of old age, it is behas reached the right end of the stomach, or the pylorus, cause the author of nature never intended that the animal its original characters are entirely changed; its separate structure should be immortal. He has fixed its bounds. materials are no longer discernible, and it has acquired which it cannot pass; and has measured out the time wheti distinct properties; it is, in short, digested. How these the fairest fabric must crumble into dust, and its animating changes are effected we know not, though many attempts spirit return unto Him, the great Almighty Incomprehenhave been made to explain them upon chemical and me- sible Being, who first bestowed it." (See Dr. Barclay's In chanical principles. Dr. Hunter, in his Introductory Lec.- troductory Lectures to a Course of Anatomy, and Dr. Wil ture, has the following apposite remarks, in reference to liam Hunter's Two Introductory Lectures, for details rethis and similar phenomena, "I must therefore expect," specting the history, uses, and importance of the study of he says, "that you will not hereafter be surprised, when Anatomy.) you find me avowing great ignorance in many of the most ANATOMY, COMPARATIVE. So called because the organconsiderable questions relating to animal operations, such isation of the lower animals was first principally studied as sensation, motion, respiration, digestion, generation, &c. with immediate reference to that of the human subject. In my opinion, all these subjects are much less understood Galen, who visited the schools of Alexandria at a period than most people think them. Our vanity deceives us, and when the dissection of the human body was no longer per. persuades us that we have got the whole as soon as we mitted, sought in the anatomy of the ape to acquire a vicahave acquired a smattering of natural knowledge. Hence rious knowledge of the anatomy of man. Vesalilis, after it is that the different sects of physiologists have endea. the revival of literature, dissected various quadrupeds, and voured to explain animal functions upon such different compared their organisation with that of man, in order to principles. Hence, for example, to account for digestion, correct the errors of Galen, and to establish the true knowsome have made the stomach a mill; some would have it ledge of the peculiarities of the human structure. to be a stewing pot, and some a wort-trough; yet, all the Succeeding anatomists have investigated the structure while, one would have thought that it must have been very of the lower animals, to acquire the knowledge necessary evident that the stomach was neither a mill, nor a stewing- for experimenting upon them with success; and still more pot, nor a wort-trough, nor any thing but a stomach." important discoveries in physiological science have result When the food has been thus far digested in the sto. ed from tracing the modification and disappearance ofdifmach, it passes into the duodenum, or upper end of the ferent organs in the descending series of animals, as the intestinal canal; a tube, the whole length of which is about only means by which we can obtain just notions of the six times that of the body, and which, therefore, is various- uses and relative importance of the different organs in the ly and strangely convoluted to enable it to be packed into animal economy, and a perception of the laws which rcgu-:he abdominal cavity. Into this portion of the intestines, late their co-existence in the same individual. various vessels and glands deliver their secretions, partly Aristotle, Harvey, and Hunter, combined the investiga for the purpose of lubricating its surface, and partly to as- tion of the mature animals of different classes with obeer sist in the further changes which are to be brought, about vations of the different stages of development of the cm in the chyme. Of these fluids, two are especially remark- bryo, and their example has been assiduously and success. able, from the importance and size of the glands by which fully followed by the ablest comparative anatomists of the they are secreted, and of the ducts by which they are con- present day, whereby some of the general laws of anima. veyed; namely, the bile, which is of a green colour and organisation, of development, and of the analogies which bitter taste, and is secreted in the liver; and the pancreatic apparently different parts bear to one another throughout juice, which appears to resemble saliva, and which is se- the great scheme, have been discovered. creted by a gland called the pancreas. The influence of A very important application of comparative anatomy is these fluids upon the chyme is direct and important: the to the determination of the relative degrees of complexity pancreatic secretion probably acts as a diluent merely; but in the organisation of different animals, and of the number the effect of the bile is more complicated; and it appears and value of the points of resemblance which different to be essential to the further change of the chyme into species manifest to each other in the totality of their organchyle, which is a white milk-like fluid, formed in the upper isation. A study of the anatomy of animals, guided by part of the intestine, and absorbed by a distinct set of yves- these views, is essential to the determination of their natusels which, from the colour of their contents, have been ral affinities, which is the highest aim of the philosophic called lacteals, and which convey the chyle, that is, the naturalist. portion of the products of digestion fitted for nutrition, into Lastly, the labours of the comparative anatomists contin. the above-mentioned trunk of the lymphatics, whence it is ually tend to bring to light examples of structures, designed transmitted into the veins, which open through the medi- with reference to especial purposes, of the most striking um of the right auricle into the right ventricle of the heart. and forcible description; and thus provide for the moralist The bitter principle of the bile, and its colouring matter, and divine a storehouse of facts peculiarly adapted to the are obviously not absorbed by the lacteals, but remain with illustration of the doctrine of final causes. (See Grant's the residue of the food, which is slowly propelled along Outline of Comparative Anatomy; also, A General Outline the whole of the intestinal tube, and, having undergone of the Animal Kingdom, by Thos. Rymer Jones, 1841.) certain changes in its passage, is ultimately voided as ex- ANA'TROPOUS. (Gr. dvarpeTreo, I invert.) A very crementitious. common kind of embryo, produced by one side of the Having now enumerated the various classes of organs in ovule growing upon itself, while the other remains im the human body, and adverted to their leading functions; moveable, till, at last, that part of the ovule which was having seen how the bones are united by articulations, and originally next the apex, is brought down to the hilum, the connected by ligaments, flesh, and membranes, forming a base of the nucleus in such cases being at the apex of the variety of levers adapted to the motions of the limbs, and ovule. The common apple, and the greater part of plants, supporting and protecting the soft parts, as in the skull and offer an example of this. spine; how the brain and nerves are concerned in the sen- A'NCHOR. (Gr. dyKvpa.) Contient energies, and in presiding over and directing muscu- H sists of a straight bar, called the lar motion, and influencing the functions of the viscera; shank, A B, which ends in two having likewise seen how each part of the body is nour- arms, B C, B D, on which are ished by the blood, which is sent from the heart by the ar- placed the triangular plates called teries, and conveyed back to it by the veins; how the use- flukes, or palms; the extremity less and decayed parts are removed by the lymphatics; E or F is called the pea (peak) or how the nutritious part ef the food is carried into the blood bill; the point B is called the by the lacteals; and how venous is changed into arterial crown. At the end A is placed blood in the course of its passage through the pulmonary the stock G H, which, when of ressels; it only remains to observe, that the whole fabric wood, consists of two pieces of is as it were protected from eternal injuries by its integ- ~ oak, hooped together. When the xments. Of these the most exterior is a covering, varying stock is ofiron, it passes through 49 B D ANCHOR. ANDALUSITE. a hole in the end of the shank. The stock is at right angles said to be fished. When the ship is fairly at sea, the ring to the plane of the flukes, and is a little longer than the is lashed close up to the cathead, and the fluke brought shank. At A is the ring, which is of iron, to which the ca- close to the ship's side, or inside the bulwark, and the cable ble is attached, and by which the anchor is lifted or hung. and buoy rope unbent; the anchor is then secured. When a hemp cable is used, the ring to which it is bent Messrs. Porter & Co. of Dunstan, near Newcastle, Eng(fastened in a particular way) is covered first with tarred land, have recently patented a new anchor, of the greatest canvass, and then with pieces of rope secured firmly round practical utility and importance. It is manufactured in it; this is called a puddening, and protects the hemp from two distinct parts; one forming the arms made of bars, the iron. When a chain cable is used, it is shackled to the extending from pea to pea, without any crossing or weldring, which is not then puddened. ing, moving as it were on a pivot, and the other the shank. Men of war and large ships carry two large anchors of By this arrangement, the fatal risk of an unsound weld at equal size, at the bows, called, thence, bower anchors; the crown, the part in which the present anchor often and two others, of the same size, called the sheet and the fails in the hour of peril, is averted. Among its many ad. spare anchors; besides two or three others, which are vantages are,-a strength threefold greater than that of the much smaller, for temporary occasions. ordinary anchor of the same weight, it cants and bites more The anchor, after being let go from the ship's bow or readily than the common anchor, even in the most stub. side, whether the shank be vertical or horizontal when it born ground; it is impossible to foul it; it cannot lodge on enters the water, arrives upright at the bottom, in conse- its stock end; it holds on the shortest stay beak; it may be quence of the resistance of the water on the stock, when it taken apart at will; and it cannot injure a vessel's bows, falls over, and rests on the crown, one corner of a fluke, when hanging a cock bill. (See London United Service and the end of the stock. From this position of stable Gazette.) equilibrium on three points forming a long narrow triangle, ANCHOR. In Architecture, an ornament applied to a small force disturbs it, when the stock, falling flat, one mouldings somewhat resembling an anchor intermixed of the bills must pierce the ground, penetrating deeper as with eggs, and by some called a tongue, from the resemthe cable pulls, until the arm is partly or entirely buried. blance it bears to the forked tongue of a serpent. It is Since the security of the vessel depends on the hold the found in the mouldings of all the orders, but is only applied anchor has of the ground, it is evident that the direction of to that called the eclhinus or quarter round. the fluke should be such that the reaction of the soil A'NCHORAGE. Ground fit to hold a ship's anchor, so against it, from the pull of the cable, may tend most effect- that she may ride safely. The ground best suited for this ually to keep it down. purpose is hard sand or stiff clay; and the best position is The pressure on the fluke being perpendicular to the that which is land-locked, or out of the tide. surface, take A B to represent the pull of the cable, then AN'CHORITE. (Lat. anachoreta. Gr. avaXwptec, 1 the resolved portion of this perpendicular to the fluke is retreat, or withdraw.) More properly, anachoret, a hermit, B C or A B cos. A B C; or person who has retired from the world with the purpose and the effect of this in 1~ gC of devoting himself entirely to meditation and prayer. keeping the fluke down is I Such was the case with many of the early Christians, beB D = B C cos. C B D = ginning perhaps with such as fled from the persecutions of B C sin. A B C, because Decius and Diocletian, and retired into forests and deserts, A B is horizontal, and 1~ A at first with a view to security merely, and afterwards con. C B D is 900 —C B A, ver- tinued, from religious motives, the mode of life they had tical; hence B D = A B there adopted. The adoption of perfect solitude was essin. A B C cos. A B C, which is maximum when A B C = sential to the character of an anchorite: but they were ne450. The flukes of anchors in general make the angle cessarily bound by vows. The origin of this class of reliwith the shank much greater than this; but Lieut. Rodger, gionists preceded that of the Coenobites, or monks living R. N., has, among other improvements, adopted this angle in societies: but in later times the monks used frequently in his patent anchor, having established the above conclu- to leave their monasteries, with the permission of their sion by experiment. superior, and devote themselves for a time, or for their Anchors are made of broad flat bars forged together. whole lives, to the solitude of anchorites. As the greatest strain upon the shank takes place during ANCHO'VY. (See ENGRAULIS.) the act of weighing, the diameters of the shank are made ANCIIYLO'SIS. (Gr. ayKvXoW, I bend.) A stiff, im. unequal, the longest being placed vertical. This improve- moveable, or bent joint. ment is, we believe, due to Mr. Pering, on whose plan an- A'NCIENT DEMESNE. In Law, all lands which, havchors have of late years chiefly been made. ing been in possession of Edward the Confessor, and from The weight of an anchor in men of war is estimated him having passed to William the Conqueror, are named roughly at about 1 cwt. to a gun; in merchantmen, about in Doomsday Book as Terra Regis, are said to be held in, cwt. for each 15 tons. The weight of the anchor is not ancient demesne. The tenure is peculiar, resembling -strictly proportional to the size of the vessel, as large ves- copybold in some respects.:see are less affected by sudden or violent motions than A'NCIENTS. (Fr. anciens.) In the more general:smallerones are. Large anchors are thicker in proportion sense of the term, Ancients means those who lived long'to their length than smaller ones are; that is, the weight ago, or before the moderns. But the term is now usually [increases faster than the cubes of the dimensions. employed to designate the Greeks and Romans; and if -When an anchor is left behind, it is recovered either by any other people be meant, it is customary to specify them, tlifting it by the buoy rope, or, where that is not possible, by as the ancient Germans, the ancient Jews, &c. sweepiag for it; which is dragging a hawser, hung between ANCIENTS, COUNCIL OF. In French History, one of the two boats, slowly over the bottom till it catches the upper two assemblies composing the legislative bodies in 1795. duke, by which the anchor is then weighed. It consisted of 250 members; and derived its name from When ene anchor is down the ship is said to be at single each of them being at least forty years of age. It was put anchor; when two are down, the ship is generally moored. an end to by the Revolution of the 18th Brunsaire. (See -MOOKED; CABLE; BUOY.) Ships rarely ride by AN'CILE. The shield of Mars, which, according to more than two anchors: in bad weather a third is often let tradition, fell from heaven in the reign of Numa, and was go under foot, as a precaution in case of one of the cables accompanied by an oracle, which declared that, while it.parting. remained in Rome, the city could never be taken. Its When, the anchor is dragged by the pulling of the cable, figure was that of an oval compressed in Ihe middle, so as it is said to come home. When the cable gets twisted to be widest near the two extremities. Numa had it preround the anchor or stock, the anchor is said to be foul. served in the temple of Mars, to whose priests, the Salii. "The anchor.is sometimes hove up without one of the its care was committed; and at the same time had eleven flukes, which has either been fixed in a cleft of the rock more shields made to exactly the same pattern, in order to and wrenched off by the force of weighing, or been snapped prevent the genuine one from being distinguished and off, as some think, by striking against a point of rocks in its stolen. rapid descent. Every year, in the month of March, these ancilia were When the ship is at single anchor, the wind or tide may carried round the city by the Salii, with solemn dances carry her over the anchor; if the water is deep, she may and music, for thirty consecutive days, during which time so drag the cable as to foul the anchor, in which case it no business connected with war was allowed to be carried may not hold again; if the water is very shallow, she may on in the city. get upon the anchor, the fluke entering the ship's bottom, ANCI'PITAL. Having two opposite edges or angles. or she may break the shank by striking upon it. Keeping ANCI'PITOUS. (Lat. anceps, two-edged.) When any the ship clear of her anchor is, therefore, an important, as thing is compressed, with the two opposite edges thin. It it is also a nice point of-seamanship. is chiefly applied in Botany to leaves and stems. ~When the anchor-is lifted out of the ground, it is said to ANCO'NES. (Gr. ayu(ov, the point of the elbcw.) In be aweigh; when hove up to the surface of the water, it Architecture, the consoles or ornaments cut on the keyis awash.'The anchor being hove up by the cable only to stones of arches, or on the side of door-cases. They are the hause holes, is lifted by the ring to the cathead: this is sometimes used to support busts or othr.r figures. called catting it. The fluke next the ship's side is then ANDALU'SITE. A mineral composed of 52 alumina, lifted up to its resting-place,called the bill board; it is now 58 silica, 8 potass, 2 oxide of iron. It is very hard and io 50 ANDANTE. ANGIOSPOROUS. fusible, by which characters it is distinguished from fel. current of air, the water in the branch spar. It was first observed in Andalusia in Spain All\ at which the wind enters is depressed, ANDA'NTE. (Ital. going.) In Music, signifies that the for example, to B, and consequently notes are to be played distinctly. rises in the other branch to C, and the ANDR[EA'CEE. (Andraea, one of the genera.) Little difference at C, of the levels at which it moss-like plants, differing from the mosses in the want of stands in the two branches, is the height an operculum and peristome, and in having a four-valved ofacolumn of water, the weightof which theca. forms a counterpoise to the force of the A'NDREASBE'RGOLITE. From Andreasberg, in the wind. The relative velocities of the Hartz. A mineralogical name of a species of Harmo. B wind are thus ascertained, the variation tome. of the velocity being n early proportional ANDRE'NA. The name of a Fabrician genus of bees, to the square root of the resistance. including those which have the tongue 3-cleft, and the The bore of the tube is diminished at labium cylindrical, with two membranous bristles on each the bottom to check the undulations of AxsideR. a^TT. the water caused by a sudden gust of ANDROC2E'UM. (Gr. dyvIp, amale, andoiKoa, ahouse.) wind. Various other contrivances have been proposed, All that part of a flower to which the male organs apper- of which one of the simplest is to expose a flat board of lain. The ring of stamens in a plant is an androcaeum: given dimensions to a current of wind, and observe to so is the fringe at the mouth of the tube in the passion what extent it will force back a spring attached to it, and flower, taken together with the true stamens. The term resting against an immoveable obstacle. may be literally translated the male apparatus. ANEMO'NIN. or ANEMO'NIA. An acrid crystallisable ANDRO'GYNOUS. (Gr. dvalp, a man, and yupi, a wo- substance obtained from some species of anemone. It man.) An animal which possesses the organs of both burns like camphor. sexes, as the snail. An hermaphrodite. A'NEMOSCO'PE. (Gr. dvpso, wind, and saKQc, I in Physiology, the possession of the organs of both sexes look.) An instrument for indicating the direction of the in the same individual, either naturally, as in the snail; or wind. A common vane, or weathercock, is an instrument preternaturally, as in the free martin and similar monsters. of this kind. Sometimes the vane turns a spindle which An hermaphrodite. descends through the roof of the building into the chamber In Botany, a union of both males and females, either in where the observation is to be made. An index fixed to the same flower, which is also called hermaphrodite; or the spindle points out the direction of the wind, on a comupon the same plant, the sexes being in different flowers, pass card fixed to the ceiling. By means of wheel-work, as in the birch and similar trees. The latter is what Lin. the direction of the spindle, or the axis of the index, may naeus called mon(ecious. easily be changed, so that the compass card may be placed A'NDRON. (Gr. dvp, a man.) In Grecian and Roman on a wall of the chamber, or in any convenient position for Architecture, the apartment appropriated to the reception observation. of the male branches of the establishment, and always in A'NEURISM. (Gr. dvcvpvuo, I dilate.) A turmour the lower part of the house: the gyncecea, or women's formed by the morbid dilatation of an artery, and which is apartments, being in the upper part. therefore distinguished by its pulsatory motion. ANDROPE'TALOUS. (Gr. avgp, a man, and 7reraXov, ANFRA'CTUOUS. (Lat. anfractus, a winding backward apetal.) Is used in speaking of double flowers which are and forward.) When the lobes of an anther, of the margin produced by the conversion of the stamens into petals, as of any thing, is folded back upon itself, and doubled and the garden ranunculus. Most double flowers are of this bent till all trace of its normal character is lost. The anther nature. of a cucumber is anfractuous. ANDRO'PHORUM. (Gr. dvop, a man, or, in Botany, a A'NGEL. A coin of the value of about ten shillings. It stamen, and OEpcEv, to bear.) A columnar expansion of the was impressed with the figure of an angel, in commemoracentre of the flower, on which the stamens seem to grow, tion of a saying of Pope Gregory, that the pagan Angli os as in the passion flower. In reality, it is formed partly of English were so beautiful, that if they were Christians they the adhering filaments, and partly of an elevation of the would be angels. growing point. ANGEL, GOLDEN, or ST. GEORGE, or ST. CON A'NECDOTE. (Gr. dvcKorov, something inedited, or STANTINE. An ancient order ofknighthood, fabulously tpublished.) In its original sense, some particular rela- reported to have been instituted by Constantine, but proba. tive to a subject to which publicity had not been given in bly by the imperial house of Comnenus at Constantinople, previous works on that subject. In its secondary sense, and revived by the Emperor Charles V. The grand masthe narrative of a particular action or saying of an indi. tership of this order was resigned by the last representavidual. tion to the house of Comnenus to that of Farnese, dukes ANE'LLIDES,ANELLA'TA. (Lat. anellus, alittlering.) of Parma; and now belongs to the crown of Naples. Generally, but improperly, written Annelidans or Anne- ANGEL-WATER. A mixture of rose, orange-flower, lides. A classof articulate animals with a long cylindrical and myrtle water, perfumed by musk and ambergris. It body divided into ring-like segments, having red blood, and is made in Portugal. respiratory organs, but no jointed extremities. The class AN'GELS. Spiritual beings ministering to God. In the is divided, according to modifications of the respiratory Scriptures they appear as messengers, which the word system, into Cephalobranchiates, Dorsibranchiates, and properly denotes (Gr. dyyXogs), by whom God conveys his Abranchiates, of which the Serpula, or tube-worm, the commands to men. The term seems also to be applied to Aphrodita, or sea-mouse, and the Lumbricus, or earth- the highest order of ministers in the Church of Christ, if worm, are respectively examples. we may so interpret the "' Angel of the Church of Ephesus, ANELY'TROUS. (Gr. d. priv., and )vsrpov, a sheath.) of Pergamus," &c. and the passage in the Epistle to the A name sometimes given to those insects which have two Corinthians, " A woman ought to have power (a veil, as or four membranous wings, either naked or covered only some interpret) on her head, for fear of the angels." We with hairs or scales. read also of the devil and his angels. ANEMO'METER. (Gr. dvepos, the wind, and parpov, ANGI'NA. (Gr. dy~ca, Istrangle.) A disease attended measure.) An instrument for measuring the force or velo- with a sense of anxiety and suffocation: the term is apcity of the wind. An instrument of this sort was first in. plied to sorethroat, and to certain symptoms arising from vented by Wolfius, and described by him in his Elementa organic disease of the heart; the latter gives rise to a dis-.letheseos. It consists of four sails,like those of awindmill, tressing difficulty of respiration, and is hence termed Anturning on a horizontal axis. On the axis is a perpetual gina Pectoris. screw, which turns a cog-wheel, to the axis of which a A'NGIOCA'RPOUS. (Gr. dyyalov, a case, and Kapsro;, lever, carrying a weight at its extremity, is attached. When fruit.) When seed vessels are inclosed within a covering it is calm, the lever and weight assume the vertical posi- that does not form a part of themselves; as the filbert, tion. When the wind acts on the sails, the lever is raised which is covered by its husk, the acorn seated in its capin a vertical circle, to an elevation at which the weight ex- sule. The wood is also applied sometimes to such fungi actly counterbalances the force of the wind. The angle of as have their spores included in a peridium, or hollowelevation of the weight is measured on a dial, the index of shell, as Lycoperdon. which turns on the axis of the cog-wheel. Several im. ANGIO'LOGY. (Gr. ayyov, a vessel, and oyos, adis provements have been made on this form of the instru. course.) The doctrine of the vessels of the body. ment. T'e sails have sometimes been placed horizontal- ANGIOSPE'RMOUS. (Gr. dyYtiov,avessel,and a-spa, ly; and Mr. Benjamin Martin gave the axis the form of the seed.) When seeds are inclosed within a pericarp, as in fiuse of a watch, having a cord winding upon it with two most plants. The word is now chiefly used in opposition weights at the ends, which answers the same purpose as to gymnospermous, when seeds are not included in a perithe lever and weight. carp, as in fir-trees and others. Linnaeus intended to apply Dr. Lind's anemometer consists of a glass tube, bent in. it in the same sense; but he contrasted it with small-lobed to the form of the letter U, and open at both extremities. seed-like fruits, which he mistook for naked seeds. One of the extremities, A, is also bent round to the hori. ANGIO'SPOROUS. (Gr. dyyctov, a vessel, and aropo, zontal direction, in order that the wind may blow into it. a seed.) A term applied to such fungi as Lycoperdon, The tube being partially filled with water and exposed to a which have their spores inclosed in a hollow shell or bag. 51 ANGIOTOMY. ANIMAL. ANGIO'TOMY. (Gr. dyyctov, a vessel, and Crepvo, I the solution of a cubic equation. The general division of rut.) The dissection of vessels. an angle into any proposed number of equal parts, is a A'NGLE. (Lat. angulus, corner.) In Geometry, this problem which Mathematicians have not yet been able to term is employed in several senses, and to signify very dif. solve. In modern Mathematics, the term AngularSections ferent things. Euclid defines a plane angle to be " the in- is used to denote that branch of analysis which is employed clination of two lines to one another, which meet together, in the investigation of the properties of circular functions. but are not in the same direction;" a definition somewhat ANGUI'LLIFORM. (Lat. anguilla, an eel, forma, shape.) obscure, and also defective, inasmuch as in strictness it Eel-shaped fishes, or those belonging to the tribe of eels. can apply only to acute angles, and gives no idea whatever A'NGUIS. The name of a Linnaean genus of Amphibia of angular magnitude. The definition given by Apollonius, serpentes, characterised by having subcaudal and abdominamely, "the collection of space about a point," is still nal imbricated scales; which scales consequently form a more exceptionable. In fact, it is extremely difficult to uniform covering over the whole body. The genus is now form a correct idea of its nature from any description subdivided into the subgenera Pseudopus, Ophisaurus, that can be given in the terms of a definition. Acontias, and Anguis, properly so called; the reptiles The simplest way, perhaps, of obtaining a clear concep. comprehended under the latter denomination have the tion of angular magnitude is by means of revolving motion. tympanum concealed beneath the skin; the maxillary Suppose a straight line A B to revolve about teeth compressed and hooked, and no teeth on the palate. the point A from right to left, and to occupy C The Anguis fragilis, or slow-worm, is a well-known exsuccessively the different positions A B, A C, ample of this genus. A D, A E, and A F. At A C it forms angle ANGUSTU'RA BARK. The bark of the Cusparia febriB A C with its first position A B, of which A fuga, originally imported from Apgustura in South AmeriB and A C are the sides, and the point A the ca; it is occasionally used in medicine as a tonic, and in summit or vertex. The line A C is then in-. the case of diarrhoea. It was first described by Mr. Brande dined to its first direction A B. When at A D, it is per- in the year 1791. A poisonous bark is occasionally found pendicular to its first direction, and the angle formed by A in commerce under the name of spurious Angustura. B and A D is called right. At A E the separation is equal which appears to be the produce of a species of strychnos. to two right angles, and the line lies in the same direction ANGU'STATE. (Lat. angustus, narrow.) When any as at first, or A E and A B are in the same straight line. part sensibly diminishes in breadth. (See ATTENUATED.) When it arrives at A F, three right angles have been de- ANHELA'TION. (Lat.) Difficulty of breathing. scribed; and, on returning to A B. a whole circuit or four A'NHYDRITE. An anhydrous sulphate of lime. right angles. The right angle B A D is considered the unit A'NIYDROUS. (Gr. d, without, and svwp, water.) of angular magnitude. B A C, which is less than the right Without water. A term often applied to salts, and to cerangle, is called acute; and E A C, which is greater than tain acids when deprived of water. the right angle, is called obtuse. The angle D A C, or the A'NIL. One of the plants yielding indigo. defect of B A C from the right angle, is called the comple. ANIL. (Sanscr. nili, indigo.) A kind of indigo, said to ment of BA C; and E A C, or the defect of B A C, from be a native of America, although now cultivated in the two right angles, is called the supplement of B AC. East Indies. It is very like Indigofera tinctoria, the true When an angle is considered in this manner as result- indigo, from which it chiefly differs in having compressed ing from revolving motion, it is obvious that two straight legumes which are not torulose. lines meeting in a point, form not only one, but an indefi- ANILLE'ROS. In Politics, the name given to the mod. nite number of angles. Thus, A B may pass into the posi. erate party among the principal actors in the Spanish revotion A C after describing merely the angle B A C, or after lution from 1820 to 1823. They had the greatest influence, describing that angle together with one, two, three, or any and directed the Cortes. Arguelles and Martinez de la number of revolutions. If we assume A to represent the Rosa were at their head. measure of the angle B A C, and C that of the whole cir- A'NIMAL. (Lat. anima,soul, or life.) The name of the cuil, then the same angle B A C will be represented not higher division or kingdom of organised beings, distinonly by A, but also by A+ C, A-+2C, A+3C, and so on. guished by endowments of sensation and voluntary motion, This extension of the signification of an angle is of very super-added to the organic functions which animals posgreat importance in Trigonometry,. sess in common with plants. A solid angle is defined by Euclid to be "made by the It has been objected to this definition, that the so-called meeting of two plane angles which are not in the same sensitive plant is susceptible of impressions which cause plane in one point." These magnitudes are of a very pe. action and motion of its parts, and that the embryos of Alculiar kind; and, unlike all other subjects of geometrical gae and Confervae have locomotion, while many of the lowinvestigation, admit of no accurate comparison one with er animals are fixed as immoveably to the earth as plants. another. No multiple or submultiple of such angles can But these objections have no real value; and could only be taken, and we have no way of expounding, even in the have arisen from confounding irritability with sensation, simplest cases, the ratio which one of them bears to ano. which are two very different phenomena. It is the properther. Hence all our reasoning concerning them must be ty of all living organised beings, and essential to their exischiefly confined to the plane angles by which they are tence as such, to be susceptible of the impressions of cercontained. tain stimuli, which occasion a reaction of the part stimulaANGLE, FACIAL. In Zoology, signifies the angle made ted; and the main object of physiology is to determine the by the intersection of two lines drawn, the one from the precise mode in which each organ of a plant or animal remost prominent part of the frontal bone over the anterior acts when stimulated. But, it is here only necessary to margin of the upper jaw, the other from the external orifice state, that the muscular fibre in animals reacts when stim. of the ear-passage along the floor of the nasal cavity. ulated by an angular puckering called contraction, and this ANGLE, FRONTAL. In Ornithology, signifies the angle property is termed irritability. It is independent of the which the culmen, or upper line of the beak, makes with nerves and of sensation, for a portion of muscle removed the forehead. from an animal body manifests the same contraction when ANGLE, SPHERICAL. In Trigonometry, signifies the irritated, whether mechanically, galvanically, or chemicalangle made on a sphere by the intersection of two great ly. In the living animal the most common stimulus of the circles, or the inclination of the planes of these circles to muscular contraction is the operation of the nerves, exci. each other. A spherical angle is measured by the arc of ted by the will, and is commonly the consequence of an a great circle intercepted between those two points of its act of sensation; but this is by no means the only stimulus sides which are at the distance of a semi-circle from the by which the irritable property of the muscle is or can be point of intersection, or the vertex of the angle. called into play. In plants, universally, there are also irri. ANGLE, VISUAL. (Optics.) The angle formed by two table parts, or parts which react when stimulated by prorays of light, or two straight lines drawn from the extreme ducing motion of a part or the whole of the body. It is points of an object to the centre of the eye. The apparent this property which occasions the motion of the cambium magnitude of objects depends on thgniagnitude of the or sap; it is by the same endowment that growing plants angle under which they are seen; nevertheless, in observ- incline to the light, and extend their roots to the most congeing distant objects, our ideas of their magnitude are greatly nial soil; or entwine their tendrils around the bodies which modifidd by the judgment which we form of their distan- serve as their support; or move the stamens in regular ces. (See APPARENT MAGNITUDE.) succession towards the female part or pistil (saxifrage), or A"NGULAR MOTION. The motion of a body moving incline the pistil successively to each stamen (lily). By a circularly, or oscillating about a fixed point. The angular modification of the same irritable property, some plants motiob of a planet is measured by the angle described at close their leaflets or flowers at sunset; while others, like the centre of the sun, by a straight line drawn from that the nocturnal animals, go to sleep, as it were, at the ap-vint to the planet, called the radius vector; and its amount proach of day. By a higher degree of this irritability the is reciprocally proportional to the periodic time of the leaflets of the fly-trap (Dioncea) approximate each other, planet. and inclose the irritating insect which has alighted upon A'NGULAR SECTION. The division of an angle into them; and the Mimosa pudica withdraws its leaves from any number of equal parts. The bisection of an angle the offending touch;-while the Desmodium exhibits du-. is accomplished by elementary geometry. The trisection ring the day a constant alternate movement of the lesser requires the aid of solid geometry, being equivalent to folioles, analogous to the quicker vibration of the cilia 52 ANIMAL. ANISOBRYOUS. which beset the respiratory organs of many molluscous teeth and jaws for comminuting and destroying its vitality animals, and which is equally independent of the nerves if living; muscular actions, by which it is swallowed, and and of the will. The conditions of all these vegetable mo- a reservoir for its reception endowed with chemical and tions, which essentially distinguish them from the volun- vital powers for dissolving and assimilating such parts as tary movements of animals, are, that they never proceed are proper for nourishment, and which are selected and from an internal impulse, but are invariably the conse- taken into the system through the purely vital sensibilities quences of external stimulus, and take place, as it were, of the absorbent internal surface, while such parts as are mechanically, and in the self-same manner; while in ani- unfit for nourishment are expelled. mals the motions arise out of an internal determination A still more important difference in connection with the frIm parts not moving to the moving powers. There is al- digestive functions, arises out o? the limitation of the so an essential difference in the nature of the motion itself, powers of assimilation in the animal kingdom. Animals even when we compare the simplest animal with the plant. can convert into their own substance only matter which If we touch the feeler of a polype, it recedes from the irri- has already been organised; while plants have the power tant by a true contraction of the part within itself; but in of assimilating the inorganic binary compounds, carbonic the case of the sensitive plant, there is nothing like this con- acid and water. This property of plants is more importraction of the part touched, but only an articular plication tant than perhaps at first sight might be suspected; for in of a contiguous part, without the dimensions of the irritated the vital operations of animals a great quantity of organised leaf being altered. Experiment has also shown that the in- matter is constantly decomposed, and it is rendered, at ail tumescent parts of the mimosa, in which the irritable events, useless as nutriment for other animals; while, by property is concentrated, move the leaf by an extension of means of combustion and other decomposing processes, an cells, and not a contraction of fibres. incalculable quantity of vegetable matter is continually reIt is true that many of the lower aquatic animals are root- solved into binary compounds, or the ultimate elements of ed to the bottom; and these are often aggregated, and matter: hence, if the power of producing new ternary orgrow in a branched or plant-like form, as the serpularia ganised compounds out of carbonic acid and water had not and other corallines; but, although voluntary motion of been given to plants, both these and animals must, in pro the whole is impossible, yet it is sufficiently conspicuous in cess of time, inevitably have been annihilated, and succesthe different parts, and the vital endowments of the indi- sive creations of animals and vegetables would have been vidual polypus manifest a multiplied animal enjoyment, indispensable to maintain the present system of things. It not the condition of a vegetable. The simplest monad of is a beautiful instance of the harmony which pervades the infusions exhibits the voluntary characteristics of the ani- relations of nature, that animals contribute as essentially t. mal, by varying its movements to avoid obstacles or seize the support of vegetables, by a process of excretion, as its food, while the locomotive embryo of the Conferva these to the maintenance of animal life, by their powers dilatata proceeds blindly onwards in an unvarying course, of assimilation. The product of the respiratory interchange till its irritability is exhausted, and excites no idea of ani- which takes place between the circulating'fluids and the atmality in the mind of an observer who has had any expe- mosphere in animals, is carbonic acid; which is the essenrience in the observation of animalcules. Ehrenberg has tial aliment of plants; and which, when in health, and exasserted that he can distinguish a moving embryo of posed to the influence of the sun's rays, plants absorb from the Algae from a polygastric monad as easily as a tree from the atmosphere by their respiratory organs, the leaves, a bird. and exhale the superfluous oxygen which is extricated in The nerves are the organs on which spontaneous motion the assimilative processes. Thus the constitution of the'nd sensation depend, and they chiefly distinguish the ani- atmosphere is maintained by the different products which mal from the vegetable. Hence the nervous system has are evolved in the respiratory processes of plants and been termed the essence of an animal. All the other sys- animals. tems of organs appear in their plan of arrangement to be The circulation of the nutrient juices is much more insubject to the modification of the nervous system; and it dependent of the external influences of light and heat in is upon this system, therefore, that, in the classification of animals than in plants; and in most classes of the animal animals, their primary division is founded. Recent and kingdom, the motion of the blood is principally determined more accurate researches have proved the existence of by the contractions of an express muscular organ called nerves in many of the lower organised animals, where their the heart. presence had been denied; and, as in every species in From a general review, therefore, of the nature and pro. which the nerves have been detected, sensation has been perties of living animals, their distinguishing characterisfound to depend exclusively upon them, we are hence led tics may be summed up as follows: to assume that all animals in which sensation is observable Animals are the only beings in nature which manifest must have it depending on nervous matter present in some sensation and spontaneous movements. They digest orcondition or other in their tissue; even where, as in the ganised substances alone, and are always provided with a fresh-water polype, this is apparently homogeneous, and mouth, and an internal digestive cavity or canal. where, from the extreme divisibility of the individual Their nutrient fluids are received by an absorbent inter. without loss of vitality in the detached parts, we may rea- nal surface; while in plants they are taken up by an absor. sonably conclude the nervous molecules to be dispersed bent external surface. throughout the corporeal mass. Animals at all times, in respiration, exhale carbonic acid The attributes of sensation and voluntary motion modify, and absorb oxygen. (See Carpenter's Comp. Physiology.) as might be expected, all the other functions which ani- ANIMAL/CULES. (See INFUSORES.) mals possess in common with plants. For example, as re- ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. The principal products of gards nutrition: vegetables which are fixed to the soil ab- the animal kingdom are chemically characterised by the sorb immediately by their roots the nutritive parts of the presence of nitrogen as one of their ultimate elements, surrounding fluid. These roots are indefinitely subdi- which is generally in combination with carbon, hydrogen, vided; they penetrate the smallest interstices, and seek, and oxygen. When, therefore, they are subjected to deas it were, at a distance, the nourishment of the plant to structive distillation, ammonia is a common product; it is which they belong. Their action is tranquil, but uninter- also often evolved when they are triturated with caustic mitting; being only interrupted when dryness has deprived potash, or quicklime. them of the juices which are necessary for them. ANIMA'TION. (Lat. animare, toenliven.) In Painting, Animals, on the contrary, which are rarely stationary, the expression given to a figure when indicating activity in but which have the power of moving, not only parts of the its members. Thus a figure truly and vigorously execubody, but the entire body, from place to place, require the ted, is said to be animated. means of transporting the provision necessary for their A'NIME. A resin which exudes from the Hymenwca subsistence; accordingly, they have received an internal Courbaril. It is brought from South America. It was forcavity, appropriated for the reception of the nutriment, merly used in medicine, but is inert. and apon the parietes of which open the pores of the A'NIONS. (Gr. daa, upwards, and iwo, going.) Subab:.*onent vessels, which have been justly compared to stances which in electro-chemical decompositions are internal roots.. evolved from their combinations at the surface by which An internal cavity is requisite for animals on another the electricity enters the electrolyte. (See ELECTROrE.) ground;-their food must first be digested. Plants are A'NISE. (Arab. anisun. Gr. dvcaov.) The aromatic supported by water containing carbonic acid, or the already fruit of an eastern annual umbelliferous plant called Pimdissolved organised material of the soil. But nutrition in pinella anisum. It is principally employed in the manuanimals does not immediately commence by the absorp- facture of liqueurs, and against flatulence. Star-anise is a tion of such fluids as the soil or the atmosphere furnishes, very different thing, the produce of Illicium anisatum, a but their food consists of substances already in organic tree belonging to Winteraceae. combination, which must be prepared and submitted to in- ANISE'TTE. The French liqueur, made by distilling struments for dividing and comminuting it, and to the ac- anise, fennel, and coriander seed with brandy, and sweettion of solvent fluids. Thus digestion, or the preparatory enins the produce. assimilation of the food, Is entirely peculiar to animals. ANISO'BRYOUS. (Gr. dvtrog, unequal, and 8fpvo, I They alone are endowed with organs of sensation, which grow.) A name given by some writers to monocotyledoguide them in the choice of aliment. They alone possess nous plants: having only one cotyledon they grow at first labial and other prehensile organs for seizing the food; with more force on one side of their axis than the other 53 ANISODACTYLES. ANNUITY. ANISODACrTYLES, ANISODAC'TYL.E. (Gr. dvtaos, for colouring cheese. It imparts little colour to water, but unequal, and SaurvUos, a digit.) The name given by Tern- dissolves in alcohol and in alkaline solutions; its colour is minck to an order of birds, including those Insessorial not materially altered by acids or alkalis. species the toes of which are of unequal length, as in the ANNO'NA. In Roman writers, means, in a general nuthatch. sense, the year's increase, or the fruits of the year; and it ANISODY'NAMOUS. (Gr. dvitos, unequal, and wvva- also means the contribution or tax payable in corn, imposed la;, power.) A name given to monocotyledonous plants, on some of the more fertile provinces of the empire, as for the same reason as anisobryous, which see. Sicily, Egypt, &c., for the use of the army and of the capiANISOSTE'MONOUS. (Gr. davltos, unequal, and'rrq- tal. The poorer class of citizens were entitled to a share nov, a stamen.) When the number of stamens in a flower of this tribute; and their habitual dependence on it was not neither corresponds with the calyx nor corolla in number only a fruitful source of idleness, but of all sorts of disor or power; as, for instance, when a flower having five se. der. To grant an increased allowance of corn was one ct pals has three or seven stamens; in such a case the sta. the surest methods by which to attain popular favour. mens are neither equal to the number of sepals nor any - Summa favoris power of their number. Annona momentan trahit. Namque assert urbes ANISO'STOMOUS. (Gr. dvtros, unequal, and aroua, a Sola fames, emituque metus, cum segne potentes mouth.) When the divisions of a calyx or a corolla are un-nt. Nsc" pte~ isP anatimere. equal. Seldom used; the term unequal or irregular is usu- The office of Prafectus Annonte was of great importance ally employed instead. at Rome, and was generally, indeed, exercised by the em. ANISOTO'MIDAE. (Gr. dvtoso, unequal, and reTvw, I perors. (See, for further particulars, Contarenus, De Re cut.) A family of Coleopterous insects, having moniliform, Frumenturia, passim.) or beaded, antennae, subelongate, slender at the base, gradu- A'NNUAL. (Lat. annus, a year.) A plant which arrives ally increasing towards the apex, with a terminal club- at perfection, passing from a seed into a perfect plant, yield.shaped multiarticulate joint; palpi various, generally fili- ing its fruit, and perishing, within the space of a year. The form; head small and ovate; body convex, never linear, term also applies to all cases where duration is for one This family includes eight genera: Tritoma, of which we growing season only. Many plants have perennial roots have one indigenous species, Tr. bipustulatum; Phalacrus, and annual stems; that is, stems perishing and being reof which Stephens describes twenty-eight British species, newed annually: such plants are usually denominated remarkable for their brilliant colours, and faculty of rolling Herbaceous. up the body into a ball; Ephistemus, of which only three ANNUAI'RE. A name given by the French to publica. species are known, which have been detected in tile neigh- lions on continuous or similar subjects, which appear in bourhood of London; Leiodes, abundant in species, of yearly parts or numbers. Of the existing Annuaires, that which twenty-six are British; Agathidium, of which we published by the Bureau des Longitudes, is the most cele. have twelve species, inhabiting putrid wood and fungi, also brated. There are also an Annuaire Historique, corresfound near London; Clambus, of which various species, all ponding to our Annual Register, an Annuaire de l'Etat extremely minute, are known; Clypeaster, a term already Militaire. an Annuaire du C'lergg de France, &c. appropriated to a genus of Echinidee; lastly, Sericoderus, ANNU'ITY. A rent or sum receivable yearly for a term distinguishable from the rest of the family by its truncate of years. elytra. An annuity may be receivable during a definite number A'NKER. A measure of wine or spirits equal to 10 of of years, or di.ring a period of uncertain length; for examthe old gallons, or 8 imperial gallons, = 2310.6 cubic pie, during the life of one or more individuals. In the inc'hes. former case it is called an Annuity Certain; in the latter, A'NNALS. A chronological history: derived from the a Contingent Annuity. Roman "Annales Pontificum," or "Annales Maximi," An annuity which is not to be entered upon immediate. which were annual records of passing events connected ly, but after a certain number of years, is called a Deferred with religious observances, kept by the Pontifex Maxi- Annuity; if it is not to be entered upon until after the death inus. of some person or persons now living, it is called a Rever. Annals are a species of historical writing; but they seem, sionary Annuity. When limited by the duration of a given notwilhstanding, to differ materially from history, as the life or lives, it is called a Life Annuity; and when it is to latter is now understood. Annals should comprise a suc- continue only for a term of years, provided an individual cinct account of the events having reference to some pecu. or individuals now living shall survive that term, it is called liar subject, as they occur in successive years. Inquiries a Temporary Life Annuity. is to tile remote causes and consequences of events seem The practice of raising or investing money on annuities to be misplaced in them; though they are the essence of is attended with many advantages in the ordinary affairs of history. Cicero, when speaking of annalists, says," Unam the world. A merchant or trader thus finds the means of dicendi laudem putant esse brevitatem, non exornatores re. clearing off his engagements gradually by the profits of his rum, sed tantumnarratores." Annals are, in fact, rather ma- trade, and without losing possession of the capital necessaterials for history, than history. In the one, events only ry for carrying on his speculations; and one who possesses are narrated, in the other they are narrated and reasoned unemployed capital is thus enabled to convert it into an upon. The annalist may, no doubt, reason upon facts as equivalent annual income for life, and thereby derive the well as the historian; but such reasonings are not so well utmost benefit from it while he lives, without the risk of or happily placed in a book divided into years, as in one destitution from its failure. The accurate determination of that depicts the continuous stream of events, without the value of annuities in present money, is therefore a subbreaking it into limited compartments. Hailes's " Annals ject of very considerable importance. We propose to exof Scotland" is, perhaps, the best work of its class in English plain the principles on which the calculation is made, and literature. to apply them to a few of the cases of most frequent occurANNA'TES, or FIRST FRUITS. A fine paid to the rence. king, as head of the church, by one promoted to an eccle- Annuities Certain.-The values of annuities of this kind siastical benefice, and supposed to amount to one year's depend only on the rate of interest of money, and the num value of that benefice. This, however, is evaded by as- ber of years duringwhich they are payable; and are easily iluming as the basis of the valuation that made in 1535, and calculated. Suppose it were required to determine the:ontained in what is termed the " Liber Regis." In Eng- value, in present money, of an annuity of 100 per annum, and, first fruits go to the augmentation of Queen Anne's to continue five years, or till five payments have been )ounty. made, the interest of money being five per cent., we should ANNEA/LING. (Anhelan, Sax.) There are many sub- reason as follows: The first payment of ~100 becomes itances which. when rapidly cooled, after having been due at the end of a year from tile present time; but since neated, become exceedingly brittle; an inconvenience ~/100 in hand is equal to 105 receivable at the end of a )ften prevented by very slow cooling: this is especially the year, the present value of the first annual payment is 1El00 case with glass, which is therefore suffered to cool very reduced in the proportion of 100: 105, or of I to 1-05; that gradually in an oven constructed for the purpose, and the isit is equal to 100 process is called annealing. Many of the metals which is it is equal to In like manner, the present value have become harsh and hard in the process of manufac. of.~100, to be received at the end of two years, is less than ture, are softened in the same way: thus the blank pieces if it were receivable at the end of one year, in the proporfor coinage, several metallic wires, &c. are annealed. 1 ANNE (ST.), ORDER OF. An order of knighthood, origi- tion of —; consequently, the present value of ~100 to nally established in Holstein, and carried with the princes 105 1 of that country into Russia. It was made a Russian order be received at the end of two years, is ~ 100. Pursuin 1796; and is now widely diffused. (1'05)* ANNO'TTA. Is the pulp of the seeds of the Bixa Orel- ing the same reasoning, the present value of ~I00, to be lana, an exogenous tree common in Cayenne and other received at the end of three years, is ~ /;: at the end parts of America: it is made into a pulp, which, after hav-' (1-05)' ing fermented, is rolled into pieces of two or three pounds' of four years, it is ~ 1 and so on till the end of the weight: it is imported under the names annotto, Roucou, (1-05)4 or Orleans, and is used occasionally as an orange dye and term. But it is evident that the present value of tli whole 54 ANNUITY. nmmuity is the sum of the values of all the annual payments; value at one age from the value at another age, which great nence the required value of the proposed annuity is- ly abridges the labour of calculation. Thus, suppose the 100 100 100 100 100 age of the individual on whose life the annuity depends to be iJ5- +, + /(10T5) + -(105)4 f+ ~ - 40, and the probabilities of a life of 40 continuing 1, 2, 3, &c., 1'-0 5' 1'-0' - (1-05 - (1-05)4 q- (1.05)5' years to bepl,p3,p3, &c.,we have, by what isalready shown. This reasoning may be easily generalised. Let adenote A =pi a + p- a2 + p3 a3 +-.... +px vx. the annual payment, r the rate of interest, n the number of Now, let Al be the annuity on a life of 41, that is, one year years during which it continues, and S the present value of older than the former; and let the probabilities of a lite of all the payments, we shall then have- 41 living over 1, 2, 3, &c. years, be ql, q2, q3, q4, &c., we a a a a shall have 1-+r (+r)2 + ( +r)3 (1 + r)- A2ql= q+'v2 + q3v4..... q4 vx-1. = (1 But the quantities qi, q2, q3, &c. are not independent ofpi, For the sake of abridging, put v =-_ and the for- p%,p3, &c.; the one set are evidently functions of the other. I + r In lact, the probability that a life of 40 will live over 2 years, mula will become- is equal to the probability that a life of 40 will live over I S = a (v +2 +'3....... + vn) year, multiplied into the probability that a life of 41 will live or~cav~l V 2i, i i' *''+, nover 1 year. This is evident from the manner in which the or S = a v (1 + a' +. a'2 +) a"3... + a'ns l). probabilities are obtained; for, n, ni, n2, being the numbers The sum of the series within the parenthesis is respectively alive at the ages of 40,41, and 42, the probabili-1 (I - va); therefore, S = (1-van); or, writ- ty that a life of 40 will live over I year, is n, and that it will I r -Ia v-v n Ing 1 for S= "(-I n). continue 2 years, or _X_. In like manner, the pror I-v r'n ni an From this it is easy to see the method of proceeding in bability of a life of 40 living over3 years, is equal to the proall other cases of annuities certain. For instance, let it be bability of a life of 40 living over I year multiplied into the required to find the present value of an annuity deferred probability that a life of 41 will live over 2 years; and so on. for three years, that is, not to be entered upon till after the Hence, p2 = pt qi, or q' -=Y9, q2 = P., q3 =4, and so end of three years; and to continue ten years from that pi pi pi time. It is evident that we have only to find the value of on. We have, therefore, an annuity of the same amount for thirteen years, and also Al, +p3 4.. +p vx-1); for three years. and to subtract the latter value from the +... ); former. The difference is the value of the deferred annuity. Again, suppose that the annuity, instead of being payable v A p 2 3 botpdes by.l v, yearly, is to be paid half yearly, or quarterly. It is obvi-. t a At =p2 ai +3 pa3 +pt a q. + o. ous that an annuity of ~100 per annum for ten years, to be A =sbtractin this equption r4. paid in half yearly payments, the interest of money being t+p +p 5 per cent., is the same thing as an annuity of ~50 per an- we get niiittn for twenty years, payable yearly, interest being 2 a'AtptwenceA=pa( A). pe or ~cent.;oran annuity of~25perannum, payable yearly.n 2 This formula, which was found by the celebrated Euler, for forty years, interest being rul per cent. The principle nuity on a life at any aue from the value of an anof the calculation is the same in all the cases. Life Annuities.-When the annuity is to cease with the ty on a life one year older, and renders the computation of the whole table not much more laborious than the direct life of an individual, or any number of individuals. the cal-able not much more laborious than the direct calculation of the annuity on the youngest life. "To the culation of its value is a little more complicated, as it be. caculation of the annuity on the youngst life. "To the comes necessary not only to find the present value of the value of an annuity on a life one year older, add unit; mul. payment to be made at the end of any given year, but also tiply the sum by the probability that the given life will live to take into account the probability of its being received, over one year, and lso by the present value of to e re that is to say, the probability that the individual or individu- the en o a ye a. Mls, on the duration of whose lives it depends, will be alive the annuity on the given life." at that period. Let the annuity depend on the continuance The values of deferred and temporaryannuities on single if a single life, and let us denote the probability that the lives, are easily found from the table of the values for the life w'ill be in existence at the end of whole of life. For example, let itbe required to deternine life 1, 2, 3, 4, in exist e y, the present value of an annuity on the life of an individual i, 2, p3., 5, & p,. years, now aged 40, but deferred 10 years, that is to say, not to 1by pi, 0, p3, pi, p5,<&c.; commence till the expiration of 10 years. After the 10 and, as before, let v = -. The present value of El, to years, if the individual be then alive, the value of the an1 +r nuity on the remainder of his life is the annuity on a life of be received certainly at the end of a year, is v; but the pro- 50: let this be called B. The present value of ~1 payable bability of receiving it is pi; therefore, the value of ~1 at at the end of 10 years is v10; and the probability of rcceiv. the end of the year, subject to the chance of the given life ing it in the event of an individual now aged 40 being then being then in existence, is pi v. In like manner, the value alive, is pl0; therefore, the present value of B subject to of El, to be received certainly at the end of two years, isav2; the contingency, is pio vio B. In general, the value of an and the chance of its being received isp2; therefore, the annuity deferred n years, is pn vn An, where An represents value subject to the contingency ispi vS, and so on. Let A the annuity on a life n years older than that corresponding denote the value of ~I to be received yearly during the to A. whole continuance of the given life, and we have evidently A temporary annuity on a single life for n years, is found A =- pt a' +p2 v a2 p3 + a3 +p4 v+ 4 v+ &c. by adding together the first n terms of the series continued till p becomes nothing, or till the extremity of piv + p2 +2 p3 v3, &c. human life. But it is frequently more easy to find it by means of the It is now necessary to consider the nature of the quanti- deferred annuity on the same life for the came term of ties represented bypl,pS,p3, &c., and to show in what years; for it is obvious that the temporary annuity and demanner they are to be computed. By the doctrine of ferred annuity are, together, equal to the whole annuity. chances, the probability of the occurrence of any event is Thus, let A be an annuity for the whole of life, Atn a temrn measured by the quotient that arises from dividing the num- porary annuity of the same amount for n years on the same her of chances favourable to its occurrence by the whole life. and Adn the same annuity deferred n years, we shall number of ways in which it can happen. Consequently, if have Atn =- A - Adn. n denote the number of individuals living at a given age, Annuities on Joint Lives.-The method of calculating ni the number of the same individuals alive at the end of annuities to be paid so long as two or more individuals one year, n2 the number living at the end of two years, shall continue to live together, is equally simple. Let the n3 the number living at the end of three years, and so on, probabilities that A and B will live over nI n2 n3 n4 we shall have pI - sp2= p3 =., p4 =!, and 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. years na n n n ssbe pi, p2 p3, p4, &c. so on. The numbers n, nl, n2, &c., are taken from a table qi, q2, q3, q4, &c. of mortality, or a table constructed to show the ratio of the respectively, then the probability that both will live over number of individuals who enter upon every given year of 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. years life to the number who survive that year, or who die in the will bepi ql, p2 q2, p3 q3, p4 q4, &c. course of it. and the value of an annuity on their joint lives, which we There is no other method of finding the value of the se- may denote by AB, becomes nes represented by A than that of calculating the value of AB =pt qi v +p p q2 a' +3 3 V3 + p4 qi4 v4 + &c., its different terms separately, and adding the whole into continued tillp or q becomes nothing, or to the last ase in, one sum. Nevertheless, as the object in general is not to the table. When more lives than two are involved, the determine merely the value of an annuity on a life at a par- method of proceeding is obvious. ticular age, but to construct a table showing its value for all Another question of this kind frequently occurs, namely, the different ages of life, there is a method of deducing the to determine the value of an annuit.y on the survivor of two 55 ANNUITY. ANODON. or more lives. Let us suppose two lives only are concern- als none of which couldbelostsightof, sothatno uncertainty ed; and let A be the value of the annuity on the first life, remains about the accuracy of the data. The values of the B that on the second, and AB that on the joint lives (i. e. to annuities are in general considerably higher than those be paid till one of the lives shall drop). Letpx = the pro- given by the Northampton Table, at the same rate per bability the first will live over x years, and qx = the cent. and approach to those of the Carlisle Table. The probability the second will live over x years. We shall observations also indicate a considerable difference bethen have tween the values of male and female life at the same ages, i - pm probability 1st will die before the end of x years, a fact which appears to be borne out by all the accurate registers of mortality which have been kept in England and 1 - qx = prob. 2d will die before the end off years, other European countries. (See MORTALITY. Also see (l —px) (1 — qx) = prob. both will die before end of x y ears; De Morgan on Probabilities, 8vo.) and hence the probability that both will not die before the ANNUITY. In Law. A sum of money paid yearly, and end oft xyears, is 1 -(1 -px) (1 - q), which is equal to charged on the personal estate, or on the person, of the inpa + qx -pa qx. This expression, therefore, is the mea. dividual from wholn it is due: thus differing from a rent. sure of the probability that a payment will be received at charge, which is charged on real estate. Annuities are the end of the xth year; and supposing the annuity to be commonly employed as a system of borrowing and lending; ei, the present value of that payment certain is v^x Mul. the borrower of the money being the grantor of the annuity. tiplying this into the above probability, we get the value in and the lender the grantee. An annuity is either for a term present money of the payment to be made at the rth year, of years, for a life or lives, or in perpetuity; and the latter, if one or both of the lives survive, viz. although charged on personal property, may by the terms px vx + qx v - ~Px qx rx. of the grant, descend as real estate. A perpetual annuity is Now, if we substitute successively the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, redeemable by the grantor, subject, however, to conditions &c. for x in this expression, we shall have the value ofhe i the grant, by which he may preclude himself from re1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, &c. payment, and the sum will be the value deeming for a certain period of years. An annuity for life of the annuity to continue during the life of the survivor. or years is only redeemable by consent ofthe parties, unless But it has been shown that it has been rendered redeemable on specific conditions in the original grant. Annuities for life. on account of the risk pt vI + p2 v2 + p3 v3 + p4 v4 + &c. = A, to which the grantee is exposed, are not within the usury qi vi + q2 v + q3 v3 + q4 V4 + &c. = B, laws: they are, therefore, commonly resorted to as a mode p\ ql tp +p2 q2 v2 + p3 qSv3 v3 qp4 4 -4+ &c. = AB; of raising money by loan at high interest. By the stat. 52 therefore, the value of the annuity is A + B - A B; that G. 3. c. 141., a memorial of every instrument by which anis to say, the value of an annuity on the survivor of two lives nuities for life are granted must be enrolled in the Court is equal to the sum of the annuities on each of the single lives of Chancery, containing the date, names of parties and wit. diminished by the annuity on the joint lives. (For applica. nesses, and conditions of contract, and the grantor may tions of the doctrine of annuities, see the terms Assu- have the instrument cancelled, if the consideration money iANCE, SURVIVORSHIP.) is not bonafide paid him. This act is intended to relate Annuity Tables.-In consequence of the numerous and only to annuities, granted in return for loans. Aiinuities important applications of the doctrine of life annuities to created by will are general legacies, and subject to abatecommercial purposes, great pains and labour have been ment, in proportion with other legacies, on a deficiency of bestowed in the formation of tables of their values at all the funds of the testator. If a person on whose life an an the different ages of human life. These tables differ very nuity is charged dies between two days of payment, the considerably, not from any difference in the methods of grantee has no claim pro rata, for the proportionate amount constructing them, tut from the difficulty of estimating of the yearly or quarterly sum incurred since his death. with numeral precision the probable duration of human This act is further explained by 3 G. 4. c. 92., 7 G. 4. c. 75. life. The first table of the kind which we possess was AN'NULAR ECLIPSE. An eclipse of the sun, in which given by Dr. Halley, in a paper inserted in the "Philoso- the moon conceals the whole of the sun's disk, excepting a plical Transactions" for 1693, and founded on observations bright ring all round the border. (See ECLIPSE.) (,f mortality made at Breslaw. De Moivre, in a tract en- AN'NULATE. Formed or divided into distinct rings, iitled "Annuities on Lives," published in 1724, gave a very or marked with differently coloured annulations.,'levant formula for determining the value of a life annuity AN'NULET. (Lat. annulus, a little ring.) In Architec-:i any age, founded on the hypothesis that the annual de- lture. A small square moulding which crowns or accomtirements of life are equal; or that out of a given number panies a larger. Also that fillet which separates the flutings of individuals, equal numbers die every year, till the whole of a column, though improperly used in that sense. It is become extinct. In 1742, Thomas Simpson published sometimes called a list or listella; which see. tables of annuities on single and joint lives, calculated from ANNULO'SA. (Lat. annulus, a ring.) A term used to observations of mortality made in London. These were designate, sometimes a part, sometimes the whole, of the extended in a supplementary work published in 1752. De- Articulate division of Invertebrate animals. parcieux, in 1746, published his excellent "Essai sur les A'NNULUS. (Lat. annulus, a ring.) This word is used Probabilites de la Duree de la Vie Humaine," with tables in Botany in several different senses. In the mushroom of annuities on single lives, calculated from the probabili- and some other fungi it is applied to a collar which surties deduced from the registers kept in different religious rounds the stipes just below the hymenium; in mosses it houses, and the lists of the nominees in the French Ton- signifies a rim external with respect to the peristome; in tines. These tables were decidedly the best that had ferns it is an elastic rib which girds the tlieca nearly all then appeared, and even now, when much more extensive round, and which by its contraction tears the theca open observations have been attained, are of great value. But and disperses the spores. the tables which acquired the most extensive reputation ANNU'NCIA'TION, ORDER OF THE. Founded in Sawere the celebrated Northampton Tables, calculated by voy by Amadeus VI., in 1335, as the order of the Collar: Dr. Price from registers kept in the city of Northampton. received its present name from Charles III. The reigning These, till a late period at least, have formed the guide of king of Sardinia is grand master of the order. the transactions of all the assurance offices. They give the ANNUNCIATION, Feast of the. A festival of the Christian probabilities of life, and consequently the value of the an- church, in commemoration of the announcement of the nuities, considerably lower than all other good observations conception of our Saviour to the Blessed Virgin, by the anhave subsequently proved them to be; but, in proportion gel Gabriel. (St. Luke i. 26. 38.) It is celebrated on the as the annuities are too low, the premiums for assurance 25th of March, commonly called Lady-day. deduced from them are too high; and hence they were ANO'BIUM. The name ofa Fabrician genus of Coleoipextremely safe for the offices, though proportionally unjust terous insects, characterised by antennae filiform, the last for the assured. In consequence of the competition re- joints larger: thorax nearly round, not margined, receiving suiting from the recent great increase in the number of as. the head; palpi clavate; labium entire. surance offices, they now transact their business on more A'NODE. (Gr. dva, upwards, and 6cos, a way.) The equitable terms. way by which electricity enters substances through which An extensive set of annuity tables was given by Mr. it passes: opposed to cathode, the road or way by which it Milne in his "Treatise on the Valuation of Annuities and goes out. Assurances on Lives and Survivorships," published in A'NODON. (Gr. d, priv., b.s will never be exactly equal to the circumference, for thei well as in England; but other periods, as three and eight, are only the chords of small arcs, which of necessity art have been customary in different trades, places, and times. smaller than the arcs to which they belong. The former period was fixed in England by the statute 5 Numbers are formed by successive additions of unity Eliz. c. 4., which regulated apprenticeship throughout the which is necessarily a finite quantity. In consequence ol realm in general. By 54 G. 3. c; 96., the legal force of this finitude, it may be affirmed that no magnitudes which apprenticeship was finally destroyed; that is, persons were flow, or increase, by insensible degrees, can be expresses allowed to exercise their respective trades without having generally by numbers. For example, let a straight line bt served; London, and a few other corporate towns, being taken at random, and suppose that we wish to determine itL excepted. Apprenticeship is, therelfore, now only recog- length, our unit of linear measure being one foot. On ap nised by the law as the mode of learning a trade. plying successively a scale divided into feet to the differentt APPROA'CH. In Fortification, a term given to the trench parts of the given line, the chances are infinity to one that or covered way by which a besieging army may advance the last division does not exactly coincide with the extremifrom its camp to the wall of a fortress without being ex- ty of the line. We may diminish our unit by reducing it posed to the fire of the defenders. Approaches sometimes to an inch, or to the hundredth or the thousandth part of an consist of covering masses only, formed of earth in bags, inch; the chances of ultimate coincidence will not thereby fascines, stuffed gabions, woolpacks, bales of cotton, or be increased, though the difference between the last diviother materials within reach. sion of the scale and the extremity of the line may be diAPPROACH, CURVE OF. In Geometry, the name given to minished till it becomes smaller than any quantity we may a curve which possesses this property, —that a heavy body be pleased to assign. Precisely similar to this is what takes descending along it by the force of gravity, makes equal place when we attempt to express by decimals a vulgar fracapproaches to the horizon in equal portions of time. It tion whose denominator is not a measure of any power of was proposed by Leibnitz, and its properties investigated ten. Thus, the fraction Y3, expressed decimally, is.33333. by Bernoulli and others. &c. The first figure of the series gives the approximate APPROACH ROAD. In Landscape Gardening, is the road value 3-tenths; the first two figures give 33-hundredths: the which leads from the public or main road, through a park first three, 333-thousandths, and so on; the addition of or pleasure ground, to the mansion of a country residence. every figure to the series making the difference of its value In the ancient or geometric style of gardening, this road from 1-third ten times smaller. The difference may,therewas bounded by lines either straight or regularly curved, fore, be diminished till it becomes smaller than any assign and was generally accompanied by one or more rows of able quantity, but it cain never entirely disappear. trees on each side, at regular distances: but in the modern Another instance of the necessity of having recourse to style, the approach road is led in graceful sweeps, which approximation, is presented in seeking to find the roots of are made to appear as if they were determined by existing numbers. If a number is not an exact square, its square circumstances, either in the surface of the ground, or in root cannot be expounded by rational numbers, whether inthe trees or other objects which are placed on it. There tegers or fractions. The same thing occurs with respect to ought to be no bend in an approach road for which there numbers which are not cubes, and so on. In these cases is not an obvious and sufficient reason, either naturally exact numerical values of the roots cannot be found. Il existing, or created by art. other cases exact values may exist, though our methods of APPRO'PRIATION. In Landscape Gardening, is the analysis are not sufficiently perfect to enable us to discovet art of so blending the scenery of one estate with that of them. Notwithstanding the successive efforts of the great the others that adjoin it, as to make the one subservient to est algebraists since the days of Lucas de Borgo, no gene the other, in a scenic point of view. This is effected by ral method has yet been discovered of solving equation) forming appropriate fore-grounds,in the estate at command, of a higher degree than the fourth; consequenlly, the to the distant views, in the estates not at command; or in values of quantities involved in such equations (can only be fields immediately adjoining, by imitating in our own field obtained approximately. It is to this subject that the alten a part of what is contained in the field of our neighbour: tion of our best writers on analysis lhas chiefly been direct thus, if the park of A. should be chiefly planted with pines ed; in fact, the discussion of the different methods of al and firs, and that of B. chiefly with oaks; A., in order to proximating to the roots of equations of the higherdegreel appropriate the scenery of B., must substitute oaks for a formns one of the principal subjects of pure Algebra. part of his pines and firs; more especially in the imme- The method of exhaustion, by which the ancient mathe diate vicinity of the grounds of B. maticians attempted to find the rectification and quadrature. APPRO'VER. In Law, a person who being indicted of of the circle, was the first instance of a systematic method treason or felony, and not disabled from giving legal evi- of approximation. The Indivisibles of Cavalleri effected dence, upon his arraignment, before any plea pleaded, con- the same object in a more rapid and general manner, and fesses the indictment, and takes an oath to reveal all trea- prepared the way for the differential calculus. The invensons and felonies that he knows of, and therefore prays a tion of the method of infinite series led immediately to gecoroner to enter his appeal or accusation against those that neral methods of approximating to the values of all radical are his partners in the crime contained'. the indictment. quantities, and subsequently to the roots of all kinds of corn. APPRO'XIMATE. In Zoology, when the teeth are so pound equations whatever. Vieta was the first who showed arranged in the jaws, that one passes on the side of the how to find successive values of the roots of equations, eacli next, and there is no intervening vacancy. approaching more nearly to the true value than the preced. APPROXIMA'TION. (Lat. proximus, nearest, next to.) ing; but his method was tedious and imperfect. Other A drawing near to. In Mathematics, quantities are said to methods, more easy and general, have been given by varibe approximate which are nearly but not absolutely equal. ous mathematicians; among which, the best known are In a general sense, the term approximate may be applied those of Newton, Halley, and Raphson, and those which to every result of natural philosophy or experimental have been proposed at a later period by Lagrange, Legenscience. For example, the magnitude of the earth, the (tre, Budan, and others. These methods are in general distance of the sun, the masses of the plants, in fact, all drawn from the most abstruse parts of the theory of equathe elements of astronomy, are only known nearly, or by tions, and could not be explained in this place with fie deapproximation. In these cases, however, the want of ab- tails necessary to render them of any use. For the best solute knowledge arises from the imperfections of our information on the subject, we may refer the reader to the senses, or the errors of our instruments. In the language excellent work of Lagrange, " Trait de la Resolution des of Analysis, approximation is used to denote those methods Equations Numeriques;" the "Nouvelle Methode pour of calculation by which we obtain near values of quantities resoudre les Equations Numteriques" of M. Budann; the which cannot be found accurately, either on account of the " Supplement a I' Essai sur la TlhCorie des Nombres," by nature of their composition, or the imperfections of our Legendre; and the article Equations, in the Encyclopedia methods of calculation. Britannica, by Mr. Ivory. (See EQUATIONS.) The problem of finding the length of the circumference A'PRICOT. (Lat. prnecox, early, or Arab. berkhach. of a circle, by means of inscribed polygons, affords an in- butterfruit.) The fruit of Armeniaca vulgaris, a native of stance of approximation to the values of geometrical quan- Cachmere, and probably of the mountains of Caubul, and titles. It is a principle in Geometry, that any are of a cir- cultivated from Persia and the Oases of Egypt throughout cle, however small, is greater than its chord. Now, sup- the temperate parts of the world. In its wild state the pose a regular polygon of 100 sides to be inscribed in a cir- apricot is a small round pale waxy yellow fruit, rosy on one ele, and that we know the exact length of one of the sides; side, and agreeably subacid; in that state it is dried in largf, it is evident that the sum of all these lengths will give an quantities under the name of n;ishnishs; in its most i)rapproximation to the length of the circumference, though proved state it becomes three times as large and sweetel - itwould fall short of it by a very sensible quantity. But but it is then apt to become insipid. For the confectioner s suppose that, instead of a polygon of 100 sides, one of purpose, the Brussels and Breda apricots, which are near 1000 siles were inscribed in the circle, the aggregate approaches to the wild fruit, are better adapted than to ~' lengths of the sides would now approach much more nearly larger and sweeter kinds. to the length of the circumference. By continuing to ATPRIL. The fourth month of the year. The name is multiply the number of sides, we may obtain an approxi- probably derived from Lat. aperire, to open, either fromnt mation to any degree of nearness we please; but whatever the opening of the buds, or of the bosom of tl.e earth it Iae number of the sides of the polygon may be, their sum producing vegetation. 68 A PRIORI. AOUEDUCT. A PRIO'RI. (The argument a priori.) In Philosophy most Anglicised, as in the words aquavitm, aquafortia and Rhetoric, is a phrase somewhat loosely applied to de- aquamarine. signate a class of reasonings. It is generally understood to AQUA FORTIS. Nitric acid. apply to any argument in which a consequent conclusion A'QUAMARFNE. See BERYL. is drawn from an antecedent fact, whether the conse- AQUA REGIA. A mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, quence be in the order of time, or in the necessary relation so called from its power of dissolving gold, the king of the of cause and effect; — e. g., "The mercury sinks, there- metals. lore it will ramin." This is an argument drawn from an an- AQUA TOFFANA. See AQUETTA. tecedent in time, not from a cause to an effect. A murder AQUA'RIUM. (Lat. aqua, water.) In Horticulture. A has been committed; a party falls under suspicion, as hav- place in gardens, in which only aquatic plants are grown. ing had an interest in the death of the deceased, or a quar- It is generally a small pond or cistern, containing shelves rE. with him; this suspicion is founded on the argument or benches at different depths from the surface, in which a O.rri, from cause to effect; because the fact of his en- pots are placed containing the plants. miny or interest would afford a cause for his committing AQUA'RIUS. The Waterbearer. The eleventh sign of the murder. On the other hand, another party falls under the zodiac, through which the sun moves in part of the suspicion, as having been seen to quit the house at a par- months of January and February. Also, one of the twelve ticular time, having marks of blood on his clothes: these zodiacal constellations. are arguments a posteriori, in which we reason either from AQUA`TICS. AQUATILIA. (Lat. aquaticus.) A name consequent in the order of time to antecedent, or from ef- applied by Nitzch to an order of birds; by Cuvier, to a feet to antecedent cause. The famous a priori argument family of Mollusks; by Latreille, to a division of Crustacea of Clarke and others in favour of the existence of a God, by Lamarck, to a family of bugs (Cimicid&e); each of which was an argument drawn from certain primary axioms in groups includes animals which live in, swim on, or fremetaphysics; while the common course of reasoning to quent the margins of waters. prove the same truth from the visible proofs of design in AQUA'TIC PLANTS. Plants which grow in water, the works of nature, is an instance of the latter or'a pos- which may be either running or stagnate. In the former teriori form. case they are called river plants; in the latter, pond plants. A'PSIDES, or APSES. (Gr. dirac, circle, or curvature.) Such as grow in the sea are called marine plants. The two points of the orbit of a planet or satellite, at which A'QUATINT. (Lat. aqua, water, tinta, dyed.) In Enit is moving at right angles to the straight line joining it graving, a species of execution resembling an Indian ink with the primary. These two points of the orbit are the drawing in effect. (See ENGRAVING.) two extremities of the major axis, or the points at which a A'QUEDUCT. (Lat. aqua. water, and ductus, a conduit.) planet is at its greatest and least distance from the sun. A conduit or channel for conveying water from one place The point at the greatest distance is called the higher apsis; to another; more particularly applied to structures erected that at the least is called the lower apsis; consequently, for the purpose of conveying the water of distant springs the higher apsis corresponds with the aphelion, and the across valleys, for the supply of large cities. lower apsis with the perihelion. The line joining these The largest and most magnificent aqueducts, with the two points, which is the transverse axis of the orbit, is existence of which we are acquainted, were the work of called the line of the apsides. It has a slow angular mo- the Romans; and the ruins of several of them, both in tion in the plane of the planet's orbit; and the time which Italy and other countries of Europe, remain to the present the planet employs in completing a revolution with regard time monuments of the power and industry of that enterto its apsides is called the anomalistic period. (See APHE- prising people. The aqueduct of Appius Claudius was the LION. ANOMALY.) most ancient, and constructed in the 442d year of Rome. APT ENODY'TES. (Gr. d. priv., rrl-vos, that canfiy,) It conveyed the Aqua Appia to the city, from a distance of A genus of diving web-footed birds, peculiar to the antarctic between 7 and 8 miles, by a deep subterranean channel of shores, having wings too short for flight, covered with more than 11 miles in length. The aqueduct of Quintus short stiff feathers, resembling scales, and used as fins or Martius was a more extraordinary structure. It com-addles for swimming under water. The legs are short, menced at a spring 33 miles distant from Rome, made a hick, set far back, with four toes, all turned forwards, circuit of three miles, and afterwards, forming a vault of ltree of them long and webbed, the fourth very short. 16 feet diameter, it ran 38 miles, along a series of arcades ~The bill is longer than the head, straight, and slightly at an elevation of 70 English feet. It was formed of three:urved at the tip: nostrils in the upper part of the bill, con distinct channels, placed one above the other, conveying cealed in front by feathers. The Patagonian penguin is the water from three different sources. In the uppermost representative of the genus. flowed the Aqua Julia; in the second, the Aqua Tepula; A'PTERANS. APTERA. (Gr. d, priv., rTepov, aw ing; and in the undermost, the Aqua Martia. The Aqua Virningless.) A term including a proportion of the class of ginia, constructed by Agrippa, passed through a tunnel of insects, the value of which varies in different systems of 800 paces in length. The Aqua Claudia. begun by Nero Entomology. In the Linnaean system it is the seventh or- and finished by Claudius, conveyed the water from a disder of insects, distinguished by their having no wings. tance of 38 miles. This aqueduct formed a subterraneous Kirby makes his Aptera the twelfth order of the class of stream of 30 miles in length, and was supported on arcades insects, but acknowledges that it is not a natural one, and through the extent of 7 miles: and such was the solidity limits the definition of it to those insects which are apterous, of its construction, that it continues to supply the modern or never acquire organs of flight. In Latreille's last sys- city with water to the present day. The waters of the tem, aptera is no longer applied to designate an order of river Anio were also conducted to Rome by two different insects. channels; the first was carried through an extent of 43 A'PTEROUS. In Botany, denotes any part of a plant miles, and the latter through upwards of 63 miles, of which which is destitute of membranous expansions. The term 6,5 miles formed one continued series of arches, many of is usually employed in distinction to alate, or winged. them upwards of 100 feet in height. Nine great aqueducts A'PTERYX. (Gr. d, priv., 7r-rsprv, a wing.) A genus existed at Rome at the commencement of the reign of of birds represented by an extremely rare species, a native Nerva. Five others were constructed by that emperor, of New Zealand, in which the wings are reduced to a single under the superintendence of Julius Frontinus; and it apdefensive spur. pears that at a later period the number amounted to twenA'PTHOUS. (Gr. (G r. v, to inflame.) Resembling ty. The supply of water furnished by these different Aphtha or Aptha, the disease called the thrush. works was enormous. " According to the enumeration of A'PUS. A name applied by Scopolo to a curious genus Frontinns, the nine earlier aqueducts delivered every day of Entomostracans; characterised by a flattened, semi- 14,018 quinaria. This corresponds to 27,743,100 cubic feet. transparent, membranous envelope, which protects the We may therefore extend the supply, when all the aquebody like a shell,' having a deep cleft posteriorly; and ducts were in action, to the enormous qluantity of 50,000.000 bearing in front two large eyes, placed close together, with cubic feet of water. Reckoning the population of ancient a third smaller one behind. The first pair of lags are long, Rome at a million, which it probably never exceeded, this filamentary, and branched, representing antennae; the re- would furnish no less than 50 cubic feet for the daily conmaining sixty pairs are short, compressed, and modified s'ilnption of each inhabitant." —(Leslie's Element qf Natu-. so as to form a respiratory organ; according to the struc- ral Philosophy.) ture which characterises the Branchiopodous, or gill-footed The remains of some Roman aqueducts in other parts of order, to which the Apus belongs. The species of Apus Europe give evidence of the existence of works on a stiit appear in immense numbers in our freshwater pools; they more magnificent scale than those of Rome. Of these the prey chiefly on tadpoles; and some attain the length of an aquseduct of Metz was one of the most remarkable. A inch and a half. number of its arcades still remain. It extended across the APYRE'XIA. (Gr. d. priv., and srvper-;, fever.) The Moselle, a river of very considerable breadth at this place. Intermission of feverish disorders. and conveyed the water of the Gorse to the city of Metz. A'PYROUS. (Gr. d. priv., and srvp, fire.) A term for- The water was received in a reservoir, whence it was con. merly applied to substances which resisted a strong heat ducted by subterraneous canals, formed of hewn stone, andi without change. so spacious that a man might walk in them upright. Tihe A'QUA. (A Latin word of uncertain derivation, but pro- arches appear to have been 50 in number, and 50 feet higf bably from atqua, smooth, or level.) Water. It is often al- at the deepest part. Some of the middle ones have beer 69 AUUEOUS SOIL. ARBORESCENT. jwept away by the descent of ice down the river; those at eyes, and the sexual orifices situated on the thorax, or anthe extremities still remain entire. terior part of the abdomen. The aqueduct of Segovia, in Spain, is in a still more per- AREO'STYLOS. (Gr. dpatos, wide, and raTvXo, a colfeet state than that of Metz. About 150 of its arcades re- umnu.) In Architecture, that style of building in which the main, all formed of large stones without cement. There distance between the columns used is four and sometimes are two rows of arcades, the one above the other, and the five diameters; the former, however, is the distance to height of the edifice is about 100 feet, passing over the which the term is strictly applied. It is only suited to the greater part of the houses of the city. Tuscan order. Aqueducts have been constructed in modern times, par- AR,'EOSY'STYLOS. (Gr. dpatos, wide, cvv, with, and ticularly in France, which rival those of the ancient Ro- orvXos, a column.) In Architecture that style of building in mans. One of the most remarkable was constructed by which four columns are placed in a space equal to eight louis XIV., for conveying the waters of the river Eura to diameters and a half. In this arrangement the central inVersailles. It extends about 4400 feet in length, or nearly tercolumniation is equal to three diameters and a half, ancl aeven-eighths of a mile, and is upwards of 200 feet in the others on each side only half a diameter, by which height. It contains 242 arcades, each divided into three coupled columns are introduced. rows, forming in all 726 arches of 50 feet span. The intro- ARALIA'CEE. (Aralia, one of the genera.) An order duction of cast-iron pipes, which has only taken place with- of Exougens, differing in little from the Apiaceous or umbelin the last century, has superseded the use of such expen- liferous plants, except in having more than two parts in sihe structures. their fruit. They are commoner in hot than in cold latiA'QUEOUS SOIL Agr. and Itort. Soil naturally tudes, and form an unexpected transition from Apiacem to abounding in water, the fluid being supplied by springs in Vitaceae. The only state of them in Europe is the dininuthe subsoil. live Adoxa moschatellina. AQUE'TTA. (Ital. little water.) A celebrated poison ARANEI"DANS. ARANE'IDE. (Lat. aranea, aspider.) used by the Romans under the pontificate of A!exander A tribe of the Pulmonary order of Arachnidans, with a coVII. It was probably a preparation of arsenic, and was also riaceous integument; modified anternne, or chelicers, con. known under the name of aqua Tofan-a, from a woman of sisting of a single joint armed with a claw, perforated near the name of Toffana. who prepared it at Naples. the apex for the transmission of venom; breathing by pulAQtUIFOLI'ACEE. (Lat. Aquifolium, the holly.) A na- monary ones, which are either two or four in number, with tural order of Exogens, connecting the monopetalous with the abdomen pedicellate, and the arms provided with four the polypetalous subclasses. The whole of the species are or six spinnarets. either shrubs or trees, and scattered over most parts of the ARANEO'SUS. (Lat. aranea, a spider.) Covered with wcrld. Ilex, Prinos, and Cassia are the commonest genera. hairs crossing each other like the rays in a spider's web. A/QUILA. (Lat. aquila, an eagle.) The genus of Ac- A'RAR. The Barbary name of T'huja articulata, the cipitrine or Raptorial birds, including the eagles proper, or tree whose wood is chiefly used by the Mahometans ofAfthose species of the Linnaean Falco which have no trench rica for the construction of their mosques, and whose resin ant tooth and corresponding notch in the beak. is the sandarach of commerce. A'QUILA ALBA. (Lat. the white eagle.) An alchemical ARA'TION. Agr. Lands are said to be in a state of name of calomel. The old chemists designated sal arnmmo- aration, when they are under tillage. niac and other sublimates by the term aquila. ARA'TOR. Agr. Literally a ploughman, but common AQtUILARIA'CEE. (Aquilaria, eagle wood, one of the ly applied to an arable farmer. genera.) A very small order of Indian plants, secreting a ARAUCA'RIA. (Araucanous, a tribe of Indians in the fragrant resin, and nearly allied to Thymelace.e. The spe- southern parts of Chili.) Fir trees with very rigid branches, cies are but little known. T'he Aquillaria agallochum is tile having leaves like scales, either small and sharp pointed, or tree that produces the eagle or aggul wood, and which, in stiff, spreading, and lanceolate. The cones consist of leaves ali probability, was the aloes wood of Scripture. something like those of the stem, only longer, and conARABE'SQUE. (French.) Painting and Sculpture, af- taining large seeds. Two species occur in South America, ter the Arabian taste. This is a term applied to a species of and two in New-Holland. ornament, capricious, fantastic, and imaginary, consisting A'RBALEST. (Lat. arcubalista, a cross-bow.) This of fruits, flowers, and other objects, to the exclusion, in weapon is supposed to have been introduced into European pure Arabesques, of the figures of animals, which religion armies by the crusaders, although used long before in the forbade. That the Arabians originated this sort of orna- chase (in England as early as the reign of William the ment is not the fact; it was known to and practised by the Conqueror). The arrows used with the cross-bow weri, ancients at a very early period. Foliage and griffins, with short and thick (quarrels, bolts). The weapon was used in ornaments not very dissimilar to those of the Arabians, the English armies after the reign of Richard I.; but the were by no means unfrequent in the friezes of temples; Italians, and especially the Genoese, were most expert in and on many of the ancient Greek vases at Herculaneum, the use of it at one time. A large force of Genoese crosson the walls at the baths of Titus, at Pompeii, and many bow men served in the French army at Cressy, where their other places, elegant examples of this species of decoration weapon was found very inadequate to match the English are to be found. It is, however, to Raphael that we owe long-bow. Yet so deadly a weapon was it at one time conthe most splendid specimens of the style, which he digni- sidered, that papal bulls were issued in the twelfth century, fled, and left in it nothing to be desired. Since his time it condemning and forbidding its use in combats between has been practised with varying and inferior degrees of Christians. It was disused in England, as a weapon of merit, especially by the French in the time of Louis XIV. war, in the reign of Henry VIII. Cross-bows were of Arabesques lose their character when applied to large ob- several sizes: the large or stirrup cross-bow was bent by jects, neither are they appropriate where gravity of style is the foot. required. A/RBITRARY. (Lat. arbitro, I judge.) In a general A`RABLE. (Lat. arare, to plough.) Land fit to be sense, means that which is not defined by any rule or law, brought into a state of tillage, or of aration. but is left to the sole judgment and discretion of some one A'RABO-TEDE'SCO. (Ital. arabo, and tedescho, Ger- individual or body of individuals. It is commnonly used in man.) In Painting and Sculpture, a. style of art composed political discussions to designate despotical or irresponsible of Moorish, Roman. and German-Gothic. power. (See DESPOTISis.) ARA'/tEE, or AROIDEIE. (Arum, one of the genera.) ARBITRATION. In Law, the investigation before an Acrid Endogens, with the flowers arranged upon a spadix, unofficial person of the im-atters in difference between coninclosed within a spathe. In hot countries they some- tending parties. Hiis judgment is called an award. The times become arborescent; in many cold countries they reference to him may be made, wliether legal proceedings are unknown. Most commonly they arise from a fleshy concerning the question referred have been instituted or underground tuber, from which an eatable faecula is pro- not. The reference is made by writing under seal or cured by washing away the acrid matter. Their flowers otherwise, and even by parole agreements, but in this latter are almost destitute of floral envelopes; the sexes are case the submission cannot, as in the others, be made a mostly placed in different flowers, and their embryo has a rule of court. (See AWARD.) slit on one side. ~ Caladium seguinum, the dumb cane of A'RBOR. The principal spindle or axis which coumnu the West Indies, derives its name from its juice paralysing nicates motion to tihe other parts of a machine. the muscles of the mouth, if chewed; nevertheless, the ARBOR DIANJE. The tree of silver, that metal having leaves of certain caladiums are eaten by the negroes like been called Diana by old chemists; it is made by putting spinach, but they are too acrid for an European palate. quicksilver into a solution of nitrate of silver, which causes ARA'CHNOID. (Gr. dpaXirr/, a spider, and eisog,fJorm.) the separation of the silver in a beautiful arborescent and Cobweb-like. It is an Anatomical term, applied to the crystalline form. tunic of the vitreous humour of the eye, and to the thin ARBO'REOUS. Woody, or growing on wood. Herbamembrane placed between the dura and pia mater of the ceous plants, the stems of which take a ligneous character, brain. are called suffrutescent, or arboreous, according to the deARACHNI'DANS, ARACHNIDA. (Gr. dpaXvh, aspider.) gree of woodiness which they exhibit. Plants which grow A class of Apterous, spider-like Condylopes, having the on trees are also called arboreous, such as the arboreous head conflAent with the chest, and the body, consequent- lichens, arboreons mosses, arboreous fungi, &c. ly, oonsisting of but two segments, with eight legs, smooth ARBORE'SCENT. Stems of plants which are at first 70 ARBORETUM. ARCH. Herbaceous, and afterwards become somewhat woody and ARC. In Geometry, a portion of a circle or other curve tree-like. line. The arc of a circle is the measure of the angle formARBORE'TUM. In Gardening, a place in a park or ed by two straight lines drawn from its extremities to the pleasure ground, or in a large garden or nursery, in which centre of the circle. a collection of trees and shrubs, one of each kind, is cul- A'RCA. The name of a Linnean genus o the Vermes tivated. In such a scene there ought to be sufficient room Testacea, characterised by a bivalve and equ valve shell, for each species and variety to attain something like its having numerous sharp alternate teeth at the hinge. In natural size and shape; though, from the limited space modern systems the genus is placed among the Acephalous generally allowed to collections of trees and shrubs in gar- Lamellibranchiate mollusca, and is raised to the rank of a den scenery, this is very seldom the case. The most family (Arcadre), subdivided into the subgenera Area, complete arboretums in Europe, so far as respects the CucullTea, Pectunculus, and Nucula. number of species collected together, are those of Messrs. ARCA'DE. (Fr.) In Architecture, a series of arches Loddiges, at Hackney; and of the London Horticultural crowned with a roof or ceiling, with a walk or passage Society, at Chiswick. See Loudon's Arboretum Britanni- thereunder. The piers of arcades may be decorated with cum, Loudon's Encyclopedia of the Trees and Shrubs of columns, pilasters, niches, and apertures of different Great Britain. forms. The arches themselves are turned sometimes ARBORICU'LTURE. (Lat. arbor, a tree, and colere, with rock-worked and sometimes with plain rustic arch to cultivate.) The art of cultivating trees and shrubs, stones or voussoirs, or with a moulded archivolt, springing which are chiefly grown for timber or ornamental pur- from an impost or platband, and sometimes,-though that poses. The culture of trees and shrubs grown for their is not to be recommended,-from columns. The keyfruits as food, is included under horticulture, and is some- stones are generally carved in the form of a console, or times called Pomology. The origin of arboriculture may sculptured with some device. Scamozzi made the size of be traced to the progress of agriculture; because, as popu- his piers less, and varied his imposts and archivolts in pro. iation increased in any given country, it would become portion to the delicacy of the orders he employed, but necessary to clear away the natural woods in order to grow Vignola made his piers always of the same proportion. corn, and other products of the field and garden. After ARCA'NUM. (Lat. a secret.) A term often applied to this was done to a certain extent, a scarcity of wood, both Chemical and Medical preparations by the old philosophers. for fuel and building purposes, would be found, and then Thus they called red oxide of mercury, obtained by the recourse would be had to artificial plantations, or arbori- action of nitric acid, Arcanum corallanum; sulphate of culture. This art may be considered almost exclusively potash, Arcanum duplicatum, &c. as one of modern times; because, though the Greeks and ARCE'STHIDA. (Gr. dpxev0os, a juniper berry.) A Romans planted both timber and ornamental trees, yet small cone whose scales become succulent, and grow tothey did so only on a very limited scale, and near their gether into a fleshy ball. houses, for the purposes of shade or ornament. They ARCH. (Lat. arcus, a bow). In Building, a structure of also planted the elm and the poplar, for supports to their stones or bricks, or distinct blocks of any hard material, vines; and they cultivated osier beds for the purposes of disposed in a bow-like form, and supporting one another basketnmaking; but there is no instance on record of their by their mutual pressure. In describing arches some having planted trees with a view of cutting them down technical terms are made use of, which it will be conveni either for timber or fuel. Wood for these purposes they ent to define. The arch itself is formed by the voussoirs, procured from the native forests, to the management of or stones cut into the shape of a truncatedwedge, the upperwhich they paid particular attention. In Britain, the first. most of which at plantations of barren timber on a large scale, with a view C is called the to profit, were made during the reign of Henry VIII.; and i- - key-stone. The the kind of tree planted was chiefly the oak, which was seams or planes, raised from the acorn where it was finally to remain. in which two adSince that period, the formation of artificial plantations has jacent voussoirs teen on the increase, more especially during the latter end are united, are of the last and the beginning of the present century, when \ D called the jointts; the foreign supply of timber was comparatively limited by a A s\\ ~ 3 B the solid i.asonthe war, and when there was a great demand for timber ry, A E and B F for ship-building. The discovery of coal mines, and more against which thl especially the increased facility of working them after the /: F extremities oftlhe invention of the steam-engine, by providing fuel exclusive- 0 arch abut or rest. Iv of wood, has rendered the necessity of preserving natu- are called the abutments; and the line from which the are]h ral woods, and of forming artificial plantations, less in Bri- springs at A a B b, the impost. The lower line of the arcth tain than in any other country in the world. In conse- stones, A C B, is the intrados or soffit; the upper line, the quence of this, there is no other country in which so small extrados or back. The beginning of the arch is called the a portion of its surface is covered with forests; the woods spring of the arch; the middle, the crown; the parts bebeing almost every-where planted and maintained for tween the spring and the crown, the haunches. The disornamental purposes. On the continent of Europe, the tance A B between the upper extremities of the piers, oi practice of sowing or planting barren timber was little the springing lines, is called the span, and C D is the known before the time of Louis XIV., though the natural height of the arch. woods both of France and Germany were appropriated, There is considerable difficulty in determining the form and carefully preserved, for many generations before. At which an arch ought to have, in order that its strength inav the present time, in consequence of the continental na- be the greatest possible, when it sustains a load in addition lions depending almost entirely on wood for their fuel, the to its own weight; in fact, the determination cannot be care of the natural forests, and the formation of artificial accurately made, unless we know not only the weight of plantations, form an important part of the duties of go- the materials the arch has to support, but also the manner vernment. In North America, in the oldest cultivated in which the pressure is connected; that is to say, unless parts of the country, the formation of artificial plantations we know the amount and direction of the pressure on is barely commencing, while in the back settlements, or every point of the arch. Supposing-, however, that the newest parts, the felling and clearing of timber is only now arch has to sustain only its own weight, and supposing, taking place. further, that the friction of the arch-stones is reduced to The science of Arboriculture depends on a knowledge nothing, a relation between tile curve and the weight of the of the nature of trees, of the different agents in cultivation, voussoirs may be found by comparing the pressures which and of the purposes to which trees are applied in the arts. are exerted on the different joints. Thus the pressure on The practice includes nursery culture: viz. propagation by any joint, s q for example, arises from the weight of that seeds, by cuttings, layers, grafting, &c., and raising in beds portion of the arch which is between s q and the summit and rows; transplanting, pruning, thinning, and, finally, C H. Now, the portion of the arch C q s H is sustainl I felling, and the succession of kinds. The nursery culture by three forces: the pressure on the joint s q, the pressur, is carried on in limited spots, called nursery grounds, or on C H, and its own weight. Let s q be prolonged till it nursery gardens, by gardeners or nurserymen; and the meets C D in 0. and let n be its intersection with A B. It other operations in woods, groves, rows, hedgerows, is a theorem in statics, that when a body is held in equilihedges, copses, osier holts, &c., by foresters, woodmen, brium by three forces balancing each other, these forces or hedgers. are proportional to the three sides of a triangle formed bv ARBU'STUM. The classical name for an erchard, hop- lines respectively perpendicular to the directions of tihe yard, or vineyard. forces. The three forces sustaining C q s H are, therefor",. A'RBUTUS. (Arbutus, Lat.; ar, rough, and boise, bush, proportional to the sides of the triangle 0 D n; for tiiin Celtic, according to Dr. Theis.) A genus of evergreen pressure on s q acts in the direction perpendicular to s Ic t ees, with conical pallid flowers and a bullet-like succulent or 0 n; the pressure on C H is perpendicular to D 0. arnid austere fruit, rough externally, and containing numerous n D is perpendicular to the direction of gravity. The pres. minute seeds. Several species, all hardy, are known in sure on s q is, therefore, to the pressure on C H as n D tA gardens; the most common of which is Arbutus unedo, D 0. In like manner, the voussoir p r q s being so shape( the most beautiful A. andrachne. that rp, when produced, meets 0 H in the point 0; tt 71 ARCHAEOLOGY. ARCHITECTURE. pressure on the joint rp is to that on C H, as mn D to D O. vital functions to the influence and superintendence of a Hlence, the pressure on s q is to the pressure on r p as spiritus archwaus. D n to D so. We are thus led to infer that the voussoirs A'RCHAISM. (Gr. dpxaiLo, ancient.) In Rhetoric ana ought to increase in length, from the key-stone to the Literature, the use of an obsolete expression or phrase piers, proportionally to the lines D n, D m, &c.; for in this giving an air of antiquity to the passage in which it occurs. case, the surfaces of the joints being increased in propor- ARCHA'NGELS. A superior order of angels. The tion to the pressure they sustain, the pressure on every term occurs once in Scripture, being applied by St. Jude to point of the arch will be equal. It will also be observed that Michael. the angle rn 0 D is equal to the angle made by a tangent to ARCHBI'SHOP, or METROPOLITAN. The primate of the cure at q, and the horizontal line parallel to A B; the a province containing several dioceses. The term first angle m 0 D equal to that made by the tangent atp and the came into use in the fourth century, and was then consideri.orizontal line; and the radius D O remaining constant, D n ed superior to that of metropolitan, and equivalent to patriis the tangent of the point of these angles, and D m of the arch, or bishop of an imperial diocese, such as Rome, Con. second; hence the pressures on the successive joints are stantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, and Carthage. proportional to the differences of the tangents of the arches ARCIIDE'ACON. An Ecclesiastical offilcer, ranking reckoned from the crown. From this property, when the next to the bishop. As deacons were originally attendants intrados is a circle given in position, and the depth of the upon the bishop, so the archdeacon was one selected from key-stone is given, the curve of the extrados may be found. among the deacons of several dioceses. His functions were When the weights of the voussoirs are all equal, the arch confined to attending upon and assistilng the bishop in the of equilibration is a catenarian curve, or a curve having the discharge of his spiritual duties and the imanagemnent of form which a flexible chain of uniform thickness would as- his diocese, and had at first no jurisdiction. There are now suime if hanging freely, the extremities being suspended more archdeacons than one in each diocese, the whole fiom fixed points. number in England being sixty; and they are employed by Such is the form which theory shows to be the best adap- their bishops in visiting the clergy of the diocese, and in teod to give strength to an arch, on the supposition that there the dispatch of other matters relating to the episcopal is no superincumbent pressure. But it seldom if ever hap- superintendence. pens that this is the case, and therefore it is entirely unne- ARCH-DUKE. A title originally assumed by various cessary, in the actual construction of an arch, to adhere dukes, but in the sequel appropriated to those of the house closely to the form determined on the above supposition. of Austria by the Emperor Frederic 11I. in 1453. It is now Indeed, on account of the friction of the materials and the strictly confined to the younger sons of an Emperor of adhesion of the cement, the form of the arch, within cer- Austria. tain limits, is quite immaterial, for the deviation from the A'RCIIER. (From the Latin arcus, a boor.) A bow-man form of equilibration must be very considerable before any one who uses a bow.'The use of thle bow in war may be danger can arise from the slipping of the arch-stones. The traced to the earliest antiquity, and to the history of almost Roman arches, which have resisted the attacks of time for every people. The exact time when the English long-bow so many centuries, are generally in the form of a semicir- began to be used in war is not exactly ascertained; the cle. For bridges, it is better to employ a smaller segment Normans brought with themi the arbalest or cross-bow; but of a circle; frequently the elliptic arch is preferred, on ac- from the reign of Edward II., the long-bow, the favourite na count of the beauty of its form. tional weapon, seems to have been fully established. When It has not been satisfactorily ascertained in what country fire-arms began to come into use, various attempts were arches were first erected. They do not occur in any of the unsuccessfully made, by statute and proclamation, to prebuildings of the Egyptians that can unquestionably be re- vent this ancient weapon becoming obsolete. In France the ferred to an ancient date; and if they were not altogether officers who attended the lieutenant of police were, before unknown to the Greeks before the period of the Roman the Revolution, always called archers, although provided conquest, their principal uses appear to have been very lit- with carbines. Artillery is a French terni, originally sigtie(l understood. They do not appear ever to have been r.ifying archery, and the London artillery con;pany were a employed in roofing the temples, or to have formed a part fraternity of bow-men. (See Hansard's Book of Archery.) of ornamental architecture. By the Romans, however, A'RCIETYPE. (Gr. dapxervroe, from (iponr, ori-in, and the advantages of the arch were well understood at a very rvrso,type.) The original of that which is represented in remote period. The Cloaca Maxima, which is an arched a picture or statue; and, figuratively, the reality which is structure, is referred, with the greatest probability, to the shadowed out in prophecies or mysteries. Thus, in Theage of the Tarquins; the arched dome is supposed to have ology, the death of our Saviour is said to be the archetypt: originated with the Etruscans, and to have been employed of the Jewish sacrifices, which were instituted as types of for the convenience of the augurs, affording them a shelter that event. (See TYPE.) from the weather, and permitting them at the same time to A'RCIIIL. (A corruption of orseille, French.) A kind have a view of the whole range of the horizon. In the mag- of purple dye obtained tronm the lichliens, called lIrcela tncnificent buildings erected under the empire the arch is of toria and fucibrnims. It is chiefly procured in the Cafrequent occurrence; and it was by the Romans that it naries. was first applied to its most useful purposes, namely, the ARCIIMA'NDRITE. A title of the Greek church. equiconstruction of bridges and aqueducts. The Romans, valent to abbot; the word miandia signifying a Mon71ste'py however, appear to have given little attention to the graces in the language of the Lower Empire. of form in the erection of their arches, for they seldom de- &'RCIIITECTURE (Gr. apXI, cEgio,nimg, s v. aErviated from the semicircle. It was in the middle ages that tificer.) The art of Buildingr accordiima to certain proper the pointed or Gothic arch was introduced, when Christians tions and rules determnined and regulated by nature andt and Saracens vied with each other in giving beauty to their taste. Architecture becomes an art at that period only iln public buildings, by multiplying and combining arches in the history of nations when they have reaocied a certain all possible manners. The associated architects of those degree of civilisation, of opulence, and of luxury. In ani ages, says Dr. Robison (Ency. Brit. art. Arch), having earlier state, it can only be recckoned an ong the trades or studied this branch of the art of building with so much at- occupations necessary to the wants of nmankind; its applitention, were able to erect the most magnificent buildings cation is then very lin;iecd, its use little ncore than fuirnishwith materials which a Greek or Roman architect could ing man with shelter irotn time waters otf the hleavtens, and nave made little or no use of. There is infinitely more sci- protection froim the inclement vicissitude s of the seasonsi entific skill displayed in a Gothic cathedral than in all the At its birth, however, it assumes a, character in all countries uildings of Greece and Rome; indeed, these last exhibit which in the sequel stamps it with such rcn-arkable and ery little knowledge of the mulual balance of arches, and distinguishing features, that in the summnrit of its Srandeur re flill of gross blunders in this respect; nor could they the traces of its early origin are still discernible. Notwithave resisted the shock of time so lona, had they not been standing the interval of so many ages from its origin, we.most solid masses of stone, with no more cavity than was may even trace the general formm oI architecture to three'idispensably necessary. It is somewhat remarkable that distinct states of the human race, which necessarily influlose architects do not appear ever to have studied or paid enced the nature of the habitations suitable to eacih, and iy regard to the theory of equilibrated arches. The form which ultimately became standard nmodels of the art. which they adopted was strong, and capable of resisting People whose dependence for their sustenance was orn considerable inequalities of pressure, and hence the dura- hunting the beasts of the field, as well as those who lived bility of their constructions. For further particulars on on the produce of the waters, from the natural indolence this subject, see BRIDGE. DOME. induced by those occupations and the little industry called ARCHIIEO'LOGY. (Gr. dpyatos. ancient, and Xoyog, a for in such courses of life, would not be at an early periomi description.) The science or study of Antiquities, and chief- led to the construction of dwellings. They availed tiherly. in ordinary langruage, of those minor branches of anti- selves of the natural caverns of tlie rock, or at n:ust holqluities which are discarded from the contents of general lowed them out, for shelter and protection. history; as genealogies, national architecture, manners, cus- Nations occupied in a pastoral life, through a large portion toms, heraldic and similar subjects. of the year, obliged, for the sake of fresh pasturage, fieARCIItE'US. (Gr. dpX, principle.) A term used bythe quently to change their abode, and thus lead a wandering old chemists and physicians to imply the occult cause of life, would find the most suitable dwelling one which they rertain phenomena. Van Helmoont and Stahl ascribe certain could remove with themselves; hence the use of tents 72 ARCHITECTURE AIRCHITECTURE. Agriculture, which requires continued and active indus- ders. the whole length of the frieze becomes one plain sur try on the same spot, doubtless induced man to exert his face. The inclined rafters of the roof formed a projecture energies in the erection,f solid and durable dwellings. beyond the face of the building, which delivered the rain For his produce no less than for himself were they neces- free of the walls. The ends of these rafters are the origin sary, and the wooden hut with its sloping roof was the off- of mutules and modillions, the former whereof appeared spring of his wants. in the cornice with their undersides inclined, as in the ParIt is not, however, to be understood that in every country thenon at Athens. The form of the pediment followed from the art can be traced to a single principle, since among the inclined sides of the roof, which were regulated in resrine nations, as will hereafter be seen in relation to Egyp- spect of their inclination by the nature of the climate. tMan architecture, more than one will be found to enter into (See art. ROOF.) Here, then, in the skeleton of the hut, the combination. Causes, independent of the habits of the may be traced the origin of the different members of arpeople, may have had their influence on the formation and chitecture, which will be better understood by reference to taste of differe-nt species of architecture; yet will these in the subjoined diagram. Figs. 1 and 2 exhibit the parts of a their turn be found dependent on the first named. In short, it is to the three states of mankind that we must re-.................... fer to account for those striking peculiarities which prevent ~ us from confounding the art of one people with that of an-............ other. In some of its- details caprice may have had a.-.'-"-'....... share; but in every country the great leading forms spring.......... from principles dependent on the different states of life we J I have just enumerated. Those who have sought for the original types of this art........d S d in subterraneous temples and excavations exclusively, have -........ fallen into error. These are found in almost every country. Many of them, suchl as the famous ear of Dionysius, and the quarries of Syracuse, had been the quarries that furnished stone for their neighbourhoods. By the help of roof in section and elevation: a a are the architraves, or history, and an acquaintance with the habits of the nation, trabes; b b the ridge piece, or columen; c the king post, or by a knowledge of its origin and earliest mode of life, only, columna of a roof; d the tiebeam, or transtrum; e the are we able to form a just opinion on its architecture. By strut, or capreolus; ff the rafters, or cantherii; g g g g the aid of these we recognise the origin of Egyptian archi- the purlines, or templa; h h the common rafters, or asseres. tecture. A taste for subterraneous dwellings has existed It has been suggested, but with less probability, that the among the Egyptians from the remotest period even to the main supports being by degrees placed at greater distances present'hour. The massive and colossal character of their from each other than the strength of the architrave would edifices seems to bear a strong relation to hollow caves of safely admit, inclined struts were placed from the sides of rocks: and though the Egyptians grafted on this at a later the columns or supports to the underside of the architrave. period forms and details, whose types may be traced to to lessen its bearing, and that these gave the first notion of carpentry, yet it is quite clear that the types of the masses the use of arches in architecture. The subject has been must be found in a far different origin. The same passion pursued into many more details, on which our limits do not for subterranean works appears in parts of Asia. The cli- permit us to enter. mate, and similar physical causes, would seem to have led It is difficult, perhaps now impossible, to fix the exact to it. At Elephanta none of the parts appear to have been period of the invention of architecture in Greece. Every derived from imitation of any system of carpentry; the col- art is perfected by slow degrees, and is the result of the laumns cut out of the rock, the short and massive propor- bours of many. In the time of Iomer, architecture does tions, the shape of the capitals, and their details through- r.t seem to have been in so forward a state as to have beer. out, point to an entirely different type for their invention. reduced to principles and proportions of a fixed nature. In the architecture of China we have remarkable indica- No mention is made by the poet of the use of the orders of tions of timber construction. M. de Pauw justly observes, architecture. The material seems with him of more imit is impossible to mistake the objects which served as portance than the form; and well selected and polished models for the earliest Chinese buildings. In them the stones, more than fine proportions, are enumerated as the tent is the object of imitation, and this is quite in character principal merit of the palace of Alcinous. with the primitive habits of the Chinese, who, like all the The Doric order, doubtless the earliest of the orders, reTartars, were Nomades or Scenitwe, encamping with their mains without testimony which can satisfactorily assure flocks ages before they gathered into cities. Their cities us of the period of its invention. Its name is not alone sufof the present day exhibit the appearance of a vast encamp- ficient proof that it was invented by Dorus, the son of ment, and the gtreat extent of them seems to indicate an in- Helen. and king of Achaia and Peloponnesus. It is possisJlidity of construction that will not allow of a number of ble it might have acquired its name from having been used stories above each ether. at the celebrated temple which that prince built at Argos in The wooden hut, then, which has been universally as- honour of the goddess Juno; or it might have been, that, suined as the model or type of all styles of architecture, from the use of it by the Dorians, it obtained introduction and among all people, could not have been that of Chinese into the other parts of Greece. Certain, however, it is that or Egyptian, though it unquestionably was that of Grecian in the time of Alexander the Great the three original orders architecture. The Greeks, working upon this, transferred to of architecture had been brought to perfection. Moral as stone the forms of an assemblage of carpentry, a construe- well as physical causes had contributed to bring the arts to tion which gave birth to the members of the orders of ar- this state. Liberty, love of country, and ambition, had made chitecture which are to this day the ornaments of our Athens the common centre of science and art. The defeat buildings. This style, be it remembered, belongs to a na- of the Persians at Marathon, with other victories, had retion whose chief occupation is agriculture. In pursuing stored peace to the country. In the period preceding the this theory, a few observations only will be needed. The Peloponnesian war, there was a general burst of talent in first trees driven into the earth for the purpose of bearing a Greece. In it the chisel of Phidias was employed; philosocoverincm for shelter, were the origin of the insulated col- phy, eloquence, the military art, the arts and sciences, all umns of the portico of a temple, and became one of the conspired to give the epoch lustre. It was in this age that most splendid features of the art. As the trees were wider the Greeks commenced the rebuilding of the temples and in diameter at the bottom than the top, so were the columns edifices that had been destroyed in the Persian war, builddiminished in thickness as they rose. Scamozzi imagines ings whose ruins had been carefully preserved, perhaps, that the mouldings at the bases and capitals of columns had for the express purpose of keeping alive a. remembrance of their origin in cinctures of iron, to prevent the splitting of the danger that constantly menaced them as a nation. It the timber; others, however, think that the use of the was not, indeed, until after the flight of the gene-ral of former was to elevate the shafts from the dampness of the Xerxes, and the victory of Themistocles, that a general earth, and thereby prevent rot. The architrave or chief restoration of their monuments was commenced, and the beam speaks its origin. It was the great beam placed hori- city of Athens rebuilt; a city whose edifices miht be conzontally on the tops of thle columns, and destined to receive sidered, as M. Quatremere de Quincy has well observed, tlhe covering of the entire building The joists of the ceil- as so many trophies of the victory at Salamis. This was in-g lay upon the architrave. the space in height which they the epoch of a pure and grand style of architecture, and, occiiupy hbin- calletl the frieze, the ends of the joists in the indeed, of art generally. The sculpture of that period is Doric order bearing the name of triglyphs, from their being marked -by the same character of purity, sublimity, and sculptured with two whole and two half glyphs or chan- grandeur; and the Elgin marbles, fortunately now posnels. Soi'Oetines the ends of them are sculptured into sessed by England, exhibit a perfection wvlich has never consoles, as in the cowr posite order of the Coliseum at been approached by modern art, and which we scarcely Ro'ne. The space betwxven the triglyphs was for a long conceive can be surpassed. It was in this age that the period left open, as we find from a piassage in the Iphigenia temple of Minerva, known by the name of the Parthenon of Euripides, where Pylades advises Orestes to slip through (because that goddess preserved her virginity pure and in lhe mretopes in order to set into the temple. These inter- violate), was erected; a building which displays, perhaps Fals were afterwards filled up solid; and in the other or- the finest model of the Doric order. ARCHITECTURE. ARCHITECTURE. The Ionic order seems, at this period, to have likewise us. It has been of late the fashion to decry the utility of received the finishing touches of that grace and elegance this author. Those that have done so know little of the whereof it was susceptible. This order, passing from art. Though in matters relating to the history of architecGreece to Asia Minor, seems, in that enervating climate, to ture, our author deals somewhat in fable, the more imhave acquired elegance and finish at the expense almost portant parts of his work are invaluable; and if one of the of solidity. Whether we are indebted for its invention to most profound architects that ever existed could dignify the people whose name it bears, is of little importance. Vitruvius with the title of "our old master," it ill becomes Upon the relation of Vitruvius no dependence can be placed. the small fry of the present age to carp at him. UnAt the period, however, of the erection of the temple of der Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus, the Pantheon was Minerva Polias at Athens, which was about the time we raised; one of the most magnificent examples of Roman have alluded to, it seems to have been brought to a state of grandeur. Amongst other superb structures he introduced perfection that leaves us nothing to desire. The capitals baths, and constructed a considerable number of fountains of this example are splendid specimens of decorated temples, &c. Under the successors of Augustus, the pubarchitecture, lic buildings of the nation continued to increase; but thto By a substitution of acanthus leaves for the olive, laurel, art began to degenerate in the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, and lotus leaves of the Egyptian capital, Callimachus is and Claudius. It could not be expected, that. it would re said to have invented the Corinthian capital, the feature vive under such a personage as Nero, who deprived thc which distinguishes the Corinthian from the Ionic order. finest statues of their heads to substitute his own portrait The tale seems an idle one; but though almost threadbare, on their shoulders. He was, however, a great encourager we cannot omit it, and will give it in the words of the au- of buildings on a highly decorated and colossal scale; witthor who has recorded it. "A Corinthian virgin, of mar- ness the Domus Aurea, built for him by Severus and Celer, riageable years. fell a victim to a violent disorder. After in which, from all accounts, richness and luxury thenmher interment, her nurse, collecting in a basket those arti- selves were exhausted. The wisdom and greatness of cles to which she had shown a partiality when alive, car- character of the emperor Trajan were infused into the ried them to her tomb, and placed a tile on the basket, for buildings of his reign. The triumphal arches, but especithe longer preservation of its contents. The basket was ally his column and forum, incontestably prove the rise ol accidentally placed on the root of an acanthus plant, which, the art under his auspices, at which time his architect, pressed by the weight, shot forth, towards spring, its stems Apollodorus, who raised the column to his memory, was and large foliage, and in the course of its growth reached highly patronised. Hadrian and the Antonines were also the angles of the tile, and thus formed volutes at the ex- much devoted to the art, in which the former himself practremities. Callimachus, who for his great ingenuity and tised. Marcus Aurelius was so attached to the arts, that taste was called Catatechnos by the Athenians, happening he became a pupil of Diognetus. Antoninus Pius, at an. at this time to pass by the tomb, observed the basket, and cient Lanuvium, built a country house, whose ruins at the the delicacy of the foliage which surrounded it. Pleased present day astonish by their extent: as an index to its with the form and novelty of the combination, he con- magnificence, it may be mentioned that a cock for regulastructed. from the hint thus afforded, columns of this spe- ting the supply of water, of the weight of forty pounds, and cies in tlhe country about Corinth, and arranged its pro- formed of silver, has been extracted from its ruins. The portions, determining their proper measure by perfect art, however, was then in its decline, and soon after disaprules." peared under his successors. The arch of Septimus SeveThe annexed diagram gives a repre- rus is an extraordinary falling off from what it had been; sentation of the circumstance, as usual- and it is difficult, in such a short period, namely, since the ly found in architectural works: the reign of Marcus Aurelius, to conceive how the art of sculpreader, however, is at liberty to make ture, more especially, could have become so debased. nis own representation of it, which will The details of what is called the goldsmiths' arch indicate most probably be as near the truth as the decay of good taste; its profiles are bad, and the orna. that here given. ments overloaded. But few ancient examples of the For a short time architecture was prevented from enCorinthian order are extant of so ear- tirely sinking, by the fostering hand of Alexander Sevemus ly a date as the age of Alexander. Its but the fall of the western empire completed its ruin: it Is, delicacy and slenderness render it very susceptible of the however, from the reign of Gallienus, whose arch proves ravages of time; and it has been suggested, that the value to what a state it was reduced, that we must reckon the of the material of which the columns and capitals of this or- total extinction of the arts. Architecture was indeed nm,)st der were made, excited the cupidity of the Romans to re- likely to have survived the general wreck, and perhaps move them. was not completely involved in the universal ruin. In an The general opinion runs, that architecture, as well as age when no sculptor existed, the baths erected by Diothe other arts, was carried into Etruria by the Pelasgi, at cletian exhibited a grandeur manifest even in their stuiwhich period Doric was the only order in use in Greece, pendous remains; it seems, however, that a bad taste and was the only one, moreover, as far as can be judged must have reigned in the design of them, inasmuch of, adopted by the Pelasgi. But they changed its character, as we learn from history, so overloaded with ornaments stripping it of triglyphs, and adding to it a base.-The Reo- was the edifice, that during the public games a great nunmmans. who borrowed their earliest architecture from the ber of spectators lost their lives by the fall of some of the Etruscans, adopted, under the name of Tuscan, this Doric flowers from the ceilings and entablatures. Diocletian's order, thus cheated of its fair proportions, which is in truth palace at *palatro is another proof of the enormous efforts but a species of Doric. made by that emperor, and of what the art could then do. Rome appears to have been indebted to the people of About the same time. or in the time of Aurelian, were Etruria for its earliest work of any note. It has always erected the extensive buildings in Coelosyria, at Balbec. been supposed, that to an Etruscan architect was confided and Palmyra; vicious as they are in taste, one is astonished the construction of the immense sewer which drained the at the vastness of the plans, the boldness of tle undertak. city, and in which might be discerned a presage of its fit- ing, and the funds lavished on their construction. There ture grandeur. The undecorated and simple art of Etru- is nothing more instructive to a student on the rise, proria suited the roughness and austerity of a warlike and gress, and decline of Roman art, because the eye can althen needy people. The art of architecture was long ne- most cover it at one glance, than an examination of a series glected among them. Their temples and palaces for a of Roman coins; and it is recommended, as likely to long period were protected from the seasons by a covering make an impression on the mind much stronger than the of nothing more than clay and straw. Marble and slavery most elaborate treatises on the subject. entered Rome together, under the reign of Augustus. Ef- Though architecture, from various causes, was destined feminacy had been induced by the riches of the known to survive the other arts, its protracted existence could no,; world which centered in the city, whose inhabitants did extend beyond the period of the removal of the seat o( not apprehend that slavery would follow in the train of the empire to Byzantium. The endeavours of Constantine to arts which were bound to the triumphal chariot, erect his city into a metropolis that should rival honiie. Augustus, sensible that the only mode oftranquillising which he spoiled of its treasures, were vain; all his efforts the people, when liberty was no more, would be by intro- to embellish it with the most splendid n-onuments only ducing the pleasures and luxuries attendant on the arts, proved how ineffectual are the attempts of kingis to subject exerted himself most zealously for their prosperity: his the arts to their power. That which Constaiitine left beconduct on this point is sufficiently exemplified in the hind him in the eternal city and the rest of Italy, fell a prey boast attributed to him, "That he found the city built of to the unrestrained fury of the Visigotlis. The edifices brick, and left it constructed with marble." Livy compli- which they afterwards reconstructed were from iranrerint ments him as the founder or restorer of temples, " Tem- of those they had destroyed; but their ignorance or torgetplorum omnium conditorem aut restitutoren." His pa- fulness of the stations and proportions in which they liairi tronage drew the most skilful Grecian artists to Rome, originally been used, induced a sad confusion of tire di)which now became the capital of the arts, and architecture ferent members-entablatures inverted, and other grot(s reached all the perfection it could there attain. It was un- que arrangements, were to be seen in their bu!ildings. TIhli der Augustus that Vitruvius wrote his work on architec- vast number of columns which the ruins supplied was iise. ture, the only ancient text-book on the art that has reached as piers for arcades, from which originated, beyond doubt. 71 ARCHITECTURE. ARCHITECTURE. Lhe plan of the Gothic cathedral, after its passage through his hand, he succeeded in reviving the ancient rules of art, various modifications. Quatremere de Quincy attributes the just use of the orders, and was himself the first to (Enc. Method.) the use ot the arch springing from columns make a practical application of his discoveries. He well to the ignorance of the builders of the'period, who knew knew how to unite theory with practice, andf from a pronot, he assumes, the mode of connecting the different found acquaintance with the monuments of antiquity was lengths of an architrave; but it seems scarcely probable led to the principles of sound construction, without which that they, who so well knew the mode of connecting the all other knowledge in architecture is useless. voussoirs of an arch, should have been deficient in under. The cathedral at Florence, begun in the Gothic style by standing the principle in question, which is either that of Arnolpho, was reserved for Brunelleschi to finish, which the arch itself or of the simplest joggling. From this he effected with a boldness worthy his genius. Hie surperiod to the restoration of the arts at a late period, all mounted the church with the tambour dome, which had, sight of the original types seems to have been lost; and though projected by the original designer, been considered in the end arose a style under the name of Gothic, which by the artists of the age more as a phantom of the imagiwill be separately treated of. Here occurs a considerable nation than a subject for reality. We have not room here gap in the history of the art: all is dark on the subject, to record the strange schemes that were proposed for carthough the ancient taste does not seem to have passed rying the project into execution; the facility with whicl away altogether. The first glimmer of returning light ap- the architect effected his object marks him as an artist, in pears under Justinian, in the church of St. Sophia at Con- that age, of surprising resources and ability. stantinople, in the sixth and seventh centuries. It was the The erection of the dome and cupola of Santa Maria de' chef d'oeuvre of the lower empire, and perhaps, indeed, Fiori opened the road for some of the grandest examples the only specimen it has left us. The church of St. of human skill applied to the art: it was the subject of euMark at Venice rose in the tenth or eleventh century; logy from Michwel Angelo, and is still the astonishment of it was the work of Greek architects, and is invaluable in those who know how to appreciate the difficulties by which tracing the history of architecture: its plan and its beauti- it was surrounded. The school formed by Brunelleschi ful proportions remind the spectator of the magnificence spread by means of his disciples through Italy, and propaof the ancients. Nearly about the same period other gated the art in that revived state, which acquired liberal cities of Italy began to exhibit advances in the art. In and enlightened protectors in the Medicis, the dukes of 1013 the Florentines laid the foundations of the church of Milan, and many nobles of Italy, who opened their palaces S. Miniato; but the most extraordinary movement of the to its professors, and the learned generally. These latter, period was the cathedral at Pisa, erected by Buschetto da who had after the arrival of cardinal Bessarion and other Dulichio, a Greek architect, in 1016: this building is lined Greeks rendered Italy illustrious by their labours, soon both inside and outside with marble, and the roof is borne opened the works of Vitruvius to the architect, in which on four ranks of columns of the same material. The corn- they were considerably aided by Leo Battista Alberti, of merce of the Pisans enabled them to explore the Levant, the noble and ancient family of the Albertis of Florence, the islands on the coast of Asia Minor, Egypt, and Africa, who himself did not disdain to practise architecture, as an for the most costly and precious marbles which were used art. Bold and ingenious as Brunelleschi his predecessor, in the work. Painters and sculptors were brought from his designs have the further charms of a grace and elegance Greece to embellish their buildings, and these contributed which the former did not exhibit; and his work on the art, to introduce a better taste in the arts. Had Buschetto the only one at that period which could be put in competilived to form a school here, there *can be little doubt that tion with the ancient master Vitruvius, whose obscurity in architecture would have been at once re-established; but many parts left much for experience to dissipate, displayed such does not appear to have been the case, and the suc- such vast stores of erudition, such a profound knowledge cessful cultivation of it was, consequently, deferred for a of construction, and so accurate an acquaintance with the time. The falling tower, as it is usually called, or cam. works of the ancients, that it not only contributed to its panile, at Pisa, was raised close to the cathedral in the firm establishment, but left little to desire on the theory twelfth century; its inclination evidently arises from a and practice of architecture. failure in the foundation; its style evinces but little pro- About the period that Alberti was thus engaged, an extragress as compared with the cathedral. ordimary work in thie history of the art appeared from the In the thirteenth century the church of the Virgin of pen of Francesco Colonna(in 1467), under the title of" PoAssisi was erected in Tuscany, and the castel del Ovo at liphili Hypnerotomachia," and published in folio by Aldus. Naples; the first by Lapo, and the last by Fucio, both This book is now extremely rare; it is replete with plates, Florentines. Nicolo da Pisa, their countryman and co- some of great beauty, from wood blocks, and in it the autemporary, was employed on several edifices of consider- thor, in a supposed dream, promulgates sound precepts, ation in Bologna, Padua, and Venice. His greatest work noble ideas, and principles valuable to the amateur and arwas the church at Padua, dedicated to St. Anthony, the chitect. Felibien recommends to the artist its perusal, sculpture in which is chiefly from his hand. The church, which he considers almost as necessary as that of Vitruvihowever, at Florence, della santissima Trinita, is his finest us. Indeed the poetic descriptions in it of pyramids, mauwork, of which it is no small encomium to say that it was solea, colossal statues, circi, amphitheatres, temples, and the admiration of so great a man as M. A. da Buonarotti. palaces, seem to have made more impression at the time Arnolfo di Lapo built the church of St. Croce, and design- than the dry doctrines of Vitruvius, and Italy soon saw reed the cathedral also at Florence of Santa Maria de' Fiori. alised the poetic dreams of the author. In the period of a All the cities of Italy, indeed, at this epoch seemed to be century and a half the cities of Italy were embellished emulous of outvying each other. Paolo Barbetta was en- with the works of Bramante, M. A. da Buonarotti, Raphael, gaged at Venice on the church of Santa Maria Formosa; Julio Romano, San Gallo, Baltazar Peruzzi, Giocondo, Sain many works were in progress at Bologna; the marble Micheli, Sansovino, Serlio, Pirro Ligorio, Vignola, Palladio, chapel of the church of Santa Maria Maggiore at Rome, Scamozzi, and a long list of others whose names are an about the year 1216, was executed by Marchione: every honour to their country. effort indicated the speedy restoration of pure art. These It was late before pure art reached England. In it scintillations. however, of good taste were confined to lnigo Jones is the father of architecture, and we, fortunateItaly; in the other parts of Europe the Gothic style,-one, ly, still possess some of his beautiful designs. He can indeed, in some of its monuments, of stupendous gran- scarcely be said to have completely emancipated himself deur, of which we shall treat in another article,-was pre- from the trammels of the debased Elizabethan style, as it valent, and soon afterwards in Germany carried to the is called, till the beginning of the reign of Charles I., which utmost pitch of perfection. It was in the thirteenth and was a splendid epoch of the arts in that country. From fourteenth centuries that the cathedral at Strasbourg was many concurrent causes, the French school of architecture erected, under the designs of Irwin Steinbeck. The four- has exhibited and still exhibits a very high degree of ex. teenth century produced also in France and England some cellence, and may perhaps be fairly considered as holdextraordinary Gothic structures. ing the highest rank in the present day. In Italy architecture was fast approaching to a perfect re- ARCHITECTURE, Chinese. As a description of the buildstoration. John of Pisa, son of the Nicholas whom we have ings of China would be out of place in a work of this najust mentioned, was employed by his townsmen on the ture, the subject of the present article is confined to a geCampo Santo. This public cemetery was in the Gothic neral view of the principles, the character, and the taste of style, and is remarkable for the elegant simplicity of its Chinese architecture. To describe its general forms, for plan and the beauty of its details. It is a singular link of the purpose of identifying them, is unnecesary; they are the chain of history of this art: there is no difficulty in dis- universally known. cerning the struggle in the mind of the architect to free When we reflect on the limits to which in Chinathe arts (O himself from those Gothic shackles which seemed to hang imitation have for so long a period been confined, we are led en it as an impediment to an immediate return to the clas to the conclusion,whatever be the cause,that the Chinese are sic taste of the land, which became completely restored in deficient in that activity of mind which conducts other na. Italy in the fifteenth century. The troubles throughout tions by degrees to perfection. In China the rise of the arts Europe were stilled at the time that Brunelleschi appeared seems to have been constantly repressed by the state of meas the restorer of genuine art, to which title he has a just chanical drudgery and servitude in which the people are reand honourable claim. By a diligent investigation of the stricted. In their painting, for example, the most exact e.mains of ancient Rome, with the scale and compasses in imitation of plants, fruits, and trees, is thought indispen7a ARCHITECTURE, CHINESE. -,tile. A Chinese painter would think it necessary to count country, and its duration for such a number of ages leads the scales between the head and tail of a carp he was about us to conclude that it will not lightly be abandoned by the to represent; in other words, he is more of a naturalist people that have adopted it. than an artist, In China, every matter relating to building ARCHITECTURE, Egyptian. The preservation of the is the subject of regulation by the police, which, rather than Egyptian monuments of architecture, in many instances theory, governs its architecture. The laws of the empire so perfect as they still appear, is highly calculated to excite detail and enforce with the greatest precision the mode of our surprise and admiration, inasmuch as ancient Egyp. constructing a lou or palace for a prince of the first, second, ceased to exist in its splendour long before the period of or third rank, of a grandee, of a mandarin, &c. A man, the earliest histories that have come down to us. Almost, unless he hold some office, who acquires a fortune by his as it were, separated from the rest of the world, by seas own exertions, is not allowed to build a house above his of sand as well as water, and bordering on the most savage rank in society; his condition has nothing to do with it. tribes, it seems indebted to those circumstances bfor the According to the ancient law of the kingdom,the numberand protection its edifices have received. Had the country height of the apartments, the length and height of a build- received as successors to its early inhabitants a powerful ing. are all regulated with precision, from the plain citizen people, if rich and industrious cities had risen on the sites to the mandarin, and from the latter up to the emperor him- of the old ones, the temples of Egypt would doubtless self. Herein alone we have sufficient to account for the have been used as quarries admirably suited to the pur poverty and want of invention in Chinese art. pose. Arabian hordes, and the almost barbarous and In speaking of the principles of Chinese architecture, the wretched inhabitants of the present day, have indeed built word is not applicable in the same way as when we speak their villages on some of the ancient sites. The terraces of classic architecture, but is meant to apply to those pri- of some of the temples serve as floors to modern habitamitive causes which gave birth to it. Character and taste tions; and at Thebes, a town of two stories, or rather two n every species of architecture are the necessary results stories of towns built on the ceilings of these everlasting of these elements. M. de Pauw has well described it, in ruins, indicate that the means of destruction have not been respect of its principles and elements. It is impossible, he equal to the natural resistance of works of such solidity. says, to be mistaken in the objects which were the models No people ever existed whose whole feelings were so much of imitation of their first buildings: they are imitations of apassion for ever-enduring monuments. Religion, a genius tents, and that is in consonance with all our knowledge of formed by that religion, government, habits, climate, matethe primitive state of the Chinese, who were, like all the rials, all united to confer on their buildings a durability as Tartar tribes, nomadic. This, beyond doubt, is the true great as the power of man can confer; and the efforts reorigin of their dwellings. However the missionaries of Pe- suiting from such causes were successful. kin may have refuted M. de Pauw upon some inaccura- In a preceding article we have adverted to the three cies, there can be little hesitation in agreeing with him on classes of mankind, whose different wants had an influence this head. One of its strongest proofs is the form of the on their styles of architecture. It is not a forced suppoChinese roof. Nothing but the form of a tent or pavilion sition that the primitive inhabitants of Egypt used the excould have given the idea of it; and though carpentry was cavations with which nature furnished them for protection ior a long period made subservient to this form, reasoning against the heat of a sultry climate. As the inhabitants of fronom the progress of all inventions, it would be impossible Tyre, Sidon, and Palestine were indebted to their forests to believe, where carpentry supplied the architecture, of cedar for becoming great workers in wood, so the it should all at once have adopted combinations and cover- Egyptians, from their earliest mode of life, from their ings so light and at the same time so complex. There is quarries and the facility they acquired in hollowing them another point of analogy with the tent construction, which out, gained that aptitude for working stone, and that high is, that there is nothing like the appearance of a member degree of perfection, so manifest in their works. It is true of wood, similar to our architrave, destined to lie on the that their country is not the only one in which excavations tops of the columns, and receive and support the remain- abound; but in most other places these excavations have derof the carpentry. The Chinese roofs, on the contrary, been caused by working them as quarries, and no trace of jut out beyond the columns, whose upper extremity is architecture or human abode can be perceived in them. Lidden by the eaves: hence the omission of the use of In Egypt, on the contrary, where the caverns still furnish (apitals. It is easy to perceive that extreme lightness must dwellings for the inhabitants, immemorial custom has asresult from the imitation whereof we are speaking. The signed them to the use of mankind. The immense subspirit and character of tents carried into the construction terraneous apartments of Egypt must not be placed to tho of cities might, at least in reality, be lost and altered by a account of luxury in sepulture. Herodotus tells us, that change of materials. The semblance of lightness might the priests would not allow him to visit the subterranean be found in union with essential solidity of construction; apartments of the labyrinth in which they dwelt, and which the character would have been intellectually the same. were considered the most beautiful. Now, if this species Here, however, identity of material has contributed to the of dwelling was used in the refined times of Egypt, a identity of the copy with the original. The Greeks, whose fortiori would it have been so in the earlier ages. Throughmodel was carpentry, copied in, as it were, a figurative out Egyptian architecture its origin appears. A simplicity manner, and the change from wood to stone soon removed bordering on monotony; extreme solidity, amounting to the appearance of weakness and lightness that was found heaviness; are its principal characters. There is entire in the model. In China the material remains the same, absence of every thing that can be traced to a type of carand its architecture of wood still copies the model of wood; pentry, as in the Grecian orders; hence it appears certain, hence, the lightness of the original is transferred to the that at least its type was different, and that type was cavern copy. excavation. The exception that seems to arise froim the Lightness is the essential character of Chinese arclhi- use of columns does not militate against the theory; for tecture; but there is another characteristic quality, both decoration invariably refers to nature for objects of imitaof the model and the copy, that is observable in the edifi- tion; and nothing would sooner occur in decorating pillars ces of China, which is its gayness of appearance. In this in every style than the imitation of trees and plants, withrespect scarcely any style presents a more pleasing effect. out referring to them as a type. Its roofs, single and double, brilliantly painted, its gaily The honours of sepulture seem to have been the cause diapered porticos, the gloss over the whole surface, the of the most stupendous of the Egyptian monuments. Dio harmony of this species of decoration, with the light and dorus Siculus tells us, that the kings of Egypt expended flowing forms of the buildings themselves, produce a sense sums upon their tombs more immense than other kings of pleasure to eyes constantly accustomed to their con- did upon their palaces. They were of opiniont he obtemplation, which would doubtless be disgusted with our serves, that the frailty of the body during life was not cold and monotonous mode of decoration. worthy of a substantial and solid abode. They considered It is particularly in ornament and decoration that we are a palace like an inn, which is occupied by many in succesaccustomed to investigate taste, which is the result of a sion, and in which one stops but for a day. Their tombs, combination of all the physical and moral causes that in- however, they considered as the real palace in which the fluence art. Yet, as every thing in architecture is connected abode was to be perpetual; hence, they spared no expense by a sort of mutual relationship, it is difficult to fix the in rendering them worthy of such an object. Some have exact proportion that exists between construction and de- supposed that the pyramids were but imnmense cenotaphs, coration, and especially in Chinese architecture. In speak- and that the bodies of the kings were interred in some ing of ornament in architecture, one naturally recurs to neighbouring subterranean spot; in short, that these sculpture for the purpose; but this is not found in Chinese masses of stone were erected to mislead one firom the spot architecture. With the Chinese, ornament consists in which the body occupied. Tlhis, however, would not nmake varnishing columns, colouring roofs, coating walls with them the less monuments of sepulture. Some have atporcelain, and the like expedients. Tb " figures painted tributed to the pyramids a mystic, others an astronomical. on their buildings are connected with tneir religion, and purpose. the merit of the art is secondary. The art of ornament- From Egypt were derived the principal mysteries that ing in China is a sort of patchwork, yet the parts of Chi- passed into other religions, and it was in the darkness ol nese architecture are in unity with each other. A foreign subterranean apartments that those initiations had birth, in style could never be made to amalgamate with it; it has which secrecy was the first law. Secrecy was there deified been developed in a mode conformable to the wants of the under the figure of Harpocrates. According to Plutarch 7G ARCHITECTURE, EGYPTIAN. the sphinxes with which the entrances of their temples being fixed. Beyond the propyla was situated the temple were decorated, signified that Egyptian Mythology was itself (or naos), which consisted of two parts, the pronaos mysterious and emblematic. The number of vestibules or fore temple, and the secos or sanctuary, which in Egypenclosed with a series of doors, prevented the temple itself tian temples was very small, and contained a figure of the from being seen. This, which none were allowed to ap- divinity, usually represented under the form of some aniproach, was small in extent, and in it the sacred animal or mal. Some of these temples were of very large dimenits image was preserved. It was in the galleries, porticos, sions; that of Jupiter at Thebes was more than 1400 fee' and dwellings of the priests, that the large area which the long and 300 feet wide, exclusive of the porticos that led tt temples covered was occupied. it. The forms of all the plans are either square or recExcepting some varieties in the plans of their temples, a tangular. The art of designing a plan in modern architee sameness of character and uniformity is observable in ture becomes difficult from the necessity of keeping tl:c them, which pervade their fronts, their general forms, and apartments within such bounds that they may be covy(rei the details of their decoration; which latter are mostly of or roofed, and of arranging the decorations, aind of count erthe hieroglyphic species, certainly the most monotonous poising thrusts; but the Egyptian architect had no suc) oh all decorations. To give the reader a general idea of the difficulties to contend with. Columns were brought. to tlia temples of the country, a diagramni of that at Esneh is sub- spot and covered at once with masses of stone, all con: ioined. With the Egyptians, heaviness seemed to be sy- bining without much contrivance with the exterior walls. hence, the abundant use of columns in the interior of theit buildings. Great regularity appears in their plans. The temple at Phil', evidently from its being suited to the form....~ ~;~jl ~-'of the island on which it was built, is the only exception tc'^'I;~~'^^"'^ ^l'* ti-ict observation. Their intercolumniations are narrow,/~ 111,j }y ^ 1a rarely exceeding twice and a half the width of the coluri n, and usually not more than a diameter and a half The ele/~^'( ^: ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^^i\vation is always uniform and monotonous, always of one.1~-I _'._lU_ I__il~l J~lstory, and without columns above columns. The pyrami. Esneh. dal form seems to pervade every edifice, and the result must be great solidity. Their columns may be considered nunymous with strength, height with grandeur, and si/ze or as of two sorts, circular on the plan, and polygonal; the mass with power. Uniformity of plan is universal. The former differ only among each other by their being sculpright line and square was never abandoned, and, as M. de tured or not with hieroglyphics. Those representing as il Caylus observes, there exists no circular monument in this were bundles of rods or trunks, are generally eicircled at style. In the elevations the uniformity is still more strik- different heights with bands like the hoops of a cask, geneing, no division of parts, no contrast, no effect. It would rally in two or three ranges of three, four, or five each. seem that the ideas we have for judging of art, were no This part of the arrangement seems lo have been quite arguide with the architecture of that country. Uniformity of bitrary. The polygonal column frequently occurs, bul decoration was an almost necessary result of the institu- more generally where the edifice has been formed out of a tions of the country: the edifices were destined to receive rock or quarry. All the columns rise from their bases in cortain inscriptions in symbolic characters, and were not right lines, diminishing to the top, without any appearance allowed to be left in that respect to the caprice of the ar- ofentasis or swelling. One can hardly say that any pre. chitect. cise proportion is preserved between tlieir height and their As respects the materials for building which the country thickness. In describing them, we can only say that they affirded, we shall speak as concisely as possible. Thougil were short, thick, and of enornious diameter, the latter in palm trees are found about thie deserts of Lybia, and near some cases extending to as much as eleven feet. What Dendera, timber of every sort is scarce: indeed the soil is are understood by pilasters, are not found in Esyptian not suitable to the growth of trees. Tile most common buildings, though some quadrangular columns might give next to the palmi tree is the acacia; but. with the exception that idea, excepting only in the small sepulchral chamber of the palm tree, morst of thie trees of Egypt are unfit for of the great pyramid. Bases are also rarely found; but 5'ildint purposes. The oak does not grow in Egypt, and the capitals of their columns exhibit great variety. In the modern inhabitants import that from Arabia, as well as general form they are either square, vase-formed, or the fir which they use in thleir buildings. Brick seems to swelled; some of them are very elegantly shaped and de. have been a material used fiom the earliest date; it was corated with the lotus, the palm branch, and other kinds ot linburnt, being merely dried in the sun. Pocoek says it is vegetation, and occasionally with the human head. They made of the mud deposited by the Nile, which is of a black are usually without abacus, and are connected to the archicolour, sandy, and mixed with flints and shells. One of the trave by a small die or square block out of the same piece pyramids described by Pocock, was constructed with this of stone as the capital. The entablature rarely, if ever. species of brick, and unconnected by any cement. Bricks, consisted of more than an architrave surmounted by a huge however, were used after undergoing the heat of the fire at cavetto, which finished upward with a bead or fillet. This a very early period, as we learn from Scripture, Exod. v. cavetto was frequently ornamented with glyphs and other 6., where we find the Israelites condemned to the labour of indentations of the surface, and the wings of the vulture making bricks without straw to burn them. Stone of al- in the centre. The covering of the temple was a flat termost every description, marbles, and granite, were to be had race, though there are no proofs, by the remains of steps in profusion; and these, as we have before observed, the to ascend to it, that it was so used. Egyptians were very expert in working. Some years ago a question was proposed by the French In construction there must have been considerable me- Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, whether the chanical knowledge employed, for some of the blocks of Greeks borrowed their architecture from the Egyptians; stone were of enormous dimensions; and to form an idea that question has been well answered by M. Quatremnrre of the quantity used, it is only necessary to mention that de Quincy, in the Encyc. 5Method.. to whom we are indebt the walls of some of their temples extend to the extraordi- ed for much in this article, and the substance of his answer nary thickness of twenty-four feet. Indeed, the walls to is as follows:-There is no such thing as general human the principal entrance of the gate at Thebes are no less at architecture, because the wants of mankind must vary in their base than fifty feet in thickness. The stones are all different countries. The only one in which the different squared inside as well as on the external face; no' rubble- species of architecture can approach each other is intelwork is to be seen; another cause of the surprising dura- lectual: it is that of impressions which the qualities whose bilitv of their monuments. The roofs are all formed of effects the building art accomplishes can produce upon the single blocks of stone from pier to pier; no trace of the mind of every man, of whatever country he may be. arch is any where discoverable. In the pyramids the pas- Some of these impressions result from every species of sages are covered with stones inclined to each other, ter- archtecture. Architecture sprung as well from the huts of minatins in a point, one stone lapping over the other. Greece, as from the subterraneous excavations of Egypt The Egyptian temple, unlike that of the Greeks, which and the tents of Asia, and from several mixed principles may be almost all taken in at one view both interiorly and to us unknown: thus the use of the word architecture is exteriorly, consists of an assemblage of porticos, courts, absurd. We ought to name the species; for between the vestibules, galleries, and other apartments communicating idea of architecture as a genus and as a species, there is with one another, each of which in size had little relation the same difference as between language and tongue; and to the rest of the edifice. They were usually in a spot to seek for a simple origin of architecture, is as absurd as surrounded with walls; and those which were not so sur- a search would be after the primitive language. If so, the rounded1 were inclosed in front by a wall engaged to the hut of Vitruvius would not be an ingeuious fable, as some columns, and extending in height about a half or a third of have said, but it would be a ridiculous falsehood if he had the shaft. Strabo says that at the entrance of temples was pretended that it was the type of all architecture. Vitru a large paved court three or four times or even more of its vius, however, spoke only of Grecian architecture: andi i! width in length, which the Greeks called the dromos. This in Egypt there exists another type, that only proves that was ornamented with sphinxes in rows. Through the the hut was not the type of Egyptian art, but that it waa dromos was the propylum or fore portico; thence to that of Greek art, and that theory would be fabulous whicli another, and from that to a third, the number of them not pretended to be universal We will conclude this article 71 ARCHITECTURE, GOTHIC. Jy adding that similarity between certain forms of orna- trived to counteract the thrusts of the vaulting. If a cornm mont, certain details borrowed by the one from another, parison be made between this large hall (now used as a proves nothing more than that between the people by church), of the baths of Diocletian, with the nave of a whom they were used there was some interchange of com- Gothic church, the difference will be found to be more such merce or other intercourse, which could not long subsist as must result from the nature and employment of the without some sort of necessary transfusion of the inven- materials, than from difference of style. From the age of tions and habits of one of those countries into the habits, Constantine down to the ninth century, the edifices within manners, and customs of the other. the limits of the Roman empire are but degraded speciARCHITECTURE, Gothic.-To form a correct idea of the mens of Roman architecture; and there is no evidence Gothic style of architecture, it will be necessary to trace from their remains (few indeed they are) that the Goths its progress through one very different in its details, though and other barbarians who devastated Italy had any other not exactly so in its plan and arrangements. Its type is of influence on the arts than hastening, perhaps, that fall from a mixed character, and not, as we have seen in the two which it would seem nothing could have saved them. We foregoing articles, founded on the habits of a people. quite coincide in the opinion of Mbller, who in the text Though a search into the origin of the pointed arch is an to his Deukmaehler der Deutschen Baukunst says, "Icanidle and useless inquiry, it will be necessary in the end not possibly agree to the opinion of those connoisseurs to glance at that as incidental to the style under con- who ascribe an individual and peculiar style of architecture sideration. to the Goths and Lombards in Italy and Spain, to the The ancient basilica, which derived its name from ba- Franks in Gaul, and to the Saxons in England." The Rosileus, king, and oikos, house, was the part of the king's man architecture of the fifth and sixth centuries was the palace in which justice was administered to the subjects. model, and the constant correspondence from every part The building for this purpose retained its name long after with Rome kept up an influence from thence over the arts the extinction of the kingly office, and was in use with the and sciences. Fine proportions were lost, and the art Romans as well as with the Grecians. Vitruvius does not, completely degenerated into a servile imitation of earlier however, give us any specific difference between those forms. The art of construction and the preparation of maerected by one or the other of those people. He has (ch. terials did not, however, fall away from solid building. i. 1. 5.) given the details of its form and arrangement, and The basement of the palace built, it is supposed, at Terrawe refer the reader to his work for the particulars of it. cina, by Theodoric, the Gothic king, who reigned in Italy The name was afterwards transferred to the first monu- from A. D. 493 to 525, is in the Roman style. So also is the ments of Christian worship, not because, as some have church of St. Apollinaris at Ravenna; and the circumsupposed, the first Christian emperors used the ancient ba- stance mentioned by the writer above named, who up to silica for the celebration of their religion, but more proba- the period at which we are writing, D'Agincourt excepted, bly with reference to the idea of sovereignty which the re- is the only writer of any value on the subject, of the emligion exercised, though no assertion is here advanced that ployment by Theodoric as architects of one Aloysius, an such a conclusion is necessarily to be drawn. There is no architect called Daniel. and the well known Boetius, a nadoubt that the most ancient Christian basilica were con- tive and senator of Rome, is a strong corroborative proof structed expressly for the purpose of that religion, and their that the edifices of the Goths were built by Romans and in architectural details sufficiently point to the epoch in which the Roman style. Neither does it appear likely that upon they were erected. Nevertheless these new temples of the irruption of the Lombards in the year 568, after the religion, both in the whole and in the details, borrowed so sway of the Goths had lasted so long, they should have esmuch of those of the ancient basilica, that even on this tablished a style of their own. They were a rude people, account it is not suprising that they should have retained whereas the Goths, we know, had become quite a civilised the name. A general notion of one may be formed nation, whose style was suited to the wants and habits of from the annexed diagram, which will immediately the country. It is true that D'Agincourt ascribes to the Lombards the church of St. Julian, near Bergamno, and some / -^ll~.lfc^ ~ others; but it has not been proved that the churches in an~H -nu~ ~question were really erected by the Lombards. The appellation of Lombardic to the style of church building / i.which existed in France and Gern:any stands on too slen. der an assumption to be admitted; indeed, it has been deUa..>^ I9monstrated by Maffei, IMuratori, and Tiraboschi, that neither the Goths nor the lonbards introduced any style IC ""'I^ ^D O | in particular, but employed the arclitlects whom they fouind iI,~~~~~~~ ~in Italy. si ow how admirably it was suited to the reception of an extremely numerous congregation. The numberless col- nnlis svlii: h were at hand, the remains and ruins of an- cient erific ^s, were put in requisition for the construe- tion of thles basilicae, of which, adopting the former th to h century. Afer the i h century. huildings of hat name as the type, they proportioned the The late learned Mr. Dallaway says, in his Discourses elevation to the extent of the plans, and in some cases upon Architecture in England, that "at the beginning of decorated it with the richest ornaments. Instead of con- the eighth century all Europe formed but one Gothic kingnecting the columns together by architraves on their top, dom;, and it is certain that anterior to A. D. 800, there are which were not at hand as were the former, arches were very few Gothic remains. From that period to the general tlrown over, not only to connect them, but that thereon introduction and use of the pointed arch in the twelfth cenwalls milht be carried up to bear the roofing. On this tury, the leading form of the churches was a parallelogram, sort of substruction, vaults could not with safety have been consisting of a nave. side aisles, a transept on each side borne. From these the obvious and natural step was to forming the arms of a cross, and beyond the intersection piers, connected by arches and ornamented with pilasters of the transept with the nave was placed a choir, terminated ~r columns. Thepiers underwvent achange by being made by a semicircular added building called the apsis. The circular on the plan; these again, for the purpose of giving whole of these buildings were constructed with very thick the interior a lighter appearance, were made polystylic or walls, pierced with comparatively small openings. In the in ribs, and ultimately received a vaulting and cross vault- vaulting of the nave and aisles, and over all windows and ings in character with their plan below. Though the prac- doors, the covering was semicircular. The nave was lofty, ice of vaulting large areas, and the pointed arch, did not and was mostly constructed with groins. The section A appear till aconsiderable time after the building of the first shows the general appearance of the arrangement. The Christian basilicas, it is to be observed that the Temple of gables were not much inclined, and in the upper part of the Peace at Rome had previously to that period exhibited a building rows of small pillars appear in the walls. The prospecimen of the profound knowledge of the Romans in the files of the different members are all of Roman origin: practice of vaulting; in that example groined vaults of very many are correctly copied in their forms. In England enl;rge dimensions were borne on entablatures and columns. deavours have been made to subdivide this style into Saxon Nor does this knowledge appear to have been lost in al- and Norman. The subdivision is useless. Speaking of arrncst the last stage of decline of Roman architecture under chitecture as an art, they are of the same school, and the the emperor Diocletian. In the baths of this emperor are style has been by Moller called the Christian or Rorrar. to be seen not only groined vaults in three divisions, whose style; by others, the Romanesque style; either of w;hiclh span is nearly seventy feet, but at the back of each springer a are appellations suitable, and would sufficientiy carry theit auttress, precisely of the nature of a flying buttress, is con- meaning with them. 78 ARCHITECTURE, GRECIAN. Towards the latter end of the twelfth century, and in the the late Dr. Milner, who, whatever may be the opinion on beginning of the thirteenth, very considerable deviations his theory of its origin, was well informed upon and intiwere introduced. For the flat southern gable, says Miiller, mately conversant with the general subject. Dr. Milner was substituted the high northern roof, which brought with says that it arose from the imitation of pointed arches, genit the pointed arch in place of the semicircular one, being a erated by the intersection of semicirconsequence necessary for the harmony of the parts among cles, thus: There are, however, many each other. With the elevation of the roof and vaulting reasons why this account is not satcamne a slender proportion of towers, columns, capitals, isfactory, though it must be admitted &c.; and at the latter end of the century the flat pilaster that in the Romanesque style this combination is frequent. spreads outwards, and is converted into a flying buttress. ly to be found. Dr. Milner seems entirely in his hypotheAt this period the edifices were in several respects anoma- sis to have lost sight of a circumstance that is quite fami lous, inasmuch as we have a mixture of circular and pointed liar to every artist, namely, that it is a principle in all art arches, pillars, and vaults intersected by horizontal cornices that the details of every style are subordinate to and do, and the like. The duration of this heterogeneous style was pendent on the masses, and not the converse; how then very linited, being immediately succeeded by the univer- could it have been probable that the leading features of a sal prevalence of the high pitched gable and the pointed style so generally used should have had its origin in an ac arch. The plans of the edifices were not materially cidental and even unessential decoration like that of the changed except in the omission of the apsis, and a general learned doctor's theory. In short, none of the hypotheses idea may be formed of the whole by an inspection of the mentioned can be considered satisfactory; and, as Mbller section marked B in the preceding cut. It appears incon- observes, the solution of the question, whether the pointed trovertible that the Germans were the first to carry this style belongs to one nation exclusively, is attended with style to its highest perfection. As early as A. D. 1248, the greater difficulties. After all, the problem for solution is cathedral of Cologne was begun upon its present plan, a not who invented the pointed arch, but in what way is its building which, if finished, would have been the grandest prevalence in the thirteenth century to be accounted for. and most beautiful in the world. Erwin von Steinbach, ARCHITECTURE, Grecian.-Grecian architecture, which soon after 1276, built the porch of the minster of Strasburg; was transplanted after its perfection to an Italian soil, a building more, perhaps, esteemed than the last, because where it assumed almost another forum, will not require ar. nearly brought to a state of completion. The style which extended notice in this place. The particular detail of the we have just been describing wants no other distinctive ap- changes it underwent will be found in the articles DoRIC, pellation than the pointed. Imagination seems after its es- IONIC, and CORINTHIAN orders. The architecture of the tablishnment to have been tortured to invent new combina- Greeks, adopted afterwards by the Romans, has, indeed, tions of ornaments and tracery. It overstepped at length with certain modifications, long been the architecture of the true bounds of architecture, and was abandoned in the the world. Its origin and types have been considered in sixteenth century for the introduction and restoration of the article Architecture, and an explanation of its terms Roman, or, more properly speaking, Italian architecture. will be found under their several heads in this work. We The author above quoted says that the architects of these shall, however, present a cursory sketch of its rise and times were adapted to their age, and that their works are progress. the result of the time in which they lived; and that, how- Cadmus, about 1519 B. c., is reported to have introduced ever we admire and imitate these works, we are not able to into Greece the worship of the Egyptian deities, and also reproduce them, on account of the circumstances under the practice of quarrying stone; to him also is attributed which the style arose not being the same. the instruction of the Greeks in the art of fusing and workThe powers of mechanical construction exhibited in the ing metals, from which period it is said the Greeks rapid.pointed style are such as to excite our admiration and as- ly advanced in civilisation. According to Pausanias, the tonishment; the exact calculated proportion between Greeks at an early period had raised some extraordinary strength and burthen, the counteraction of thrusts of vault- structures, such as the treasury of Minyas, king of Orchoing, and the consequent lightness and boldness resulting menus, and the walls of Tiryns, which that author de. from those calculations, evince an intimate acquaintance scribes as a work worthy the admiration of every age. with the most important and useful qualification which an From the Homeric writings we find that the form of goarchitect can possess, namely, the production of the great- vernment was patriarchal, that the chief buildings were the est possible effect with the most limited means. T'lis palaces of the princes, and that the altar was the only qualification was possessed by the architects of the thir- structure for sacred use, and that even this was little more teenth century in the highest degree. and to an extent quite than a hearth, on wnich the victim was prepared for the unknown to the Greeks and Romans. meal; for, until after Homer's time, no regular priesthood The name Gothic, which has been given to the styles of existed in Greece. It seems protable that the temple was architecture just described, is, from what has been ad- not used until the kingly and sacerdotal offices were sepavanced, very inappropriate. It is, however, now no longer rated. It would be difficult, perhaps now impossible, to used in its application as a term of reproach. That the trace the degrees from the use of the simple altar to the esGoths had no share in its invention or perfection is quite tablishment of the regular temple, or when the latter beclear, and, as Mr. Dallaway justly observes, " it is not worth came a necessary appendage to the religion of the country. the dispute whether the Gothic power was ever annihilated Eusebius and others have conjectured that the early tem. in Europe, or whether they subsisted in the conquered ples were but stately monuments, raised in honour of the countries as a separate people." We subjoin an enumera- primitive heroes who had conferred benefits on mankind. tion of the different hypotheses upon which endeavours In respect of the houses of the Greeks, they appear to have have been made to account for the invention of the pointed been simple in plan, and at an early age consisted of two arch. 1st. Warburton (notes to Pope) asserts that Gothic stories, as was indeed the case with the dwellings of the architecture originated in Spain under Moorish architects; East mentioned in the Scriptures. its type being an avenue of lofty trees, the intersecting Between the period commonly assigned to the siege of branches at top forming the sharply pointed arch, and the Troy to the time of Solon and Pisistratus, we have few stems of a clump of trees being represented by columns means of investigating the progress of Grecian art. Goguet,plit into distinct shafts. Warburton, however, not only (Origine des Loix) says that Asia Minor was the cradle in lost sight of accurate ctronology in his hypothesis, but is which architecture was nursed, and thinks that to this wanting in originality. Stukely had made a similar re- country we are indebted for the invention of the Doric and mark. Spence (Anecdotes of Pope) puts in his claim be- Ionic orders. All authors seem to admit that the Corinfore Warburton, and Sir Christopher'Wren had a notion thian did not appear till some time afterwards, and that it that the invention belonged to the Saracens; so also had had birth in the mother country, and not in the colonies. Thomas Warton. 2d. The hypothesis of Sir James Hall, Perhaps the earliest temple recorded is that of Jupiter, at ingenious but far from satisfactory. He first assumes that Olympia, which, according to Pausanias, must have been the first English churches were made of wickerwork, and built 630 years before the Christian era. If Livy be nght, then states them to have been the prototypes of those built that of Diana at Ephesus was of a period little less remote, with stone, furnishing, that is, the wicker work, from its and at this time the science of mechanics was in its infansprouts, the original examples of every ornament or parti- cy; for even in the time of Thucydides, though the powers cle that was introduced. 3d. That it is founded upon the of the crane were known, they were not compendiously structure of framins in wooden buildings. 4th. That of applied for the purpose of raising weights. Mr. Murphy, the editor of the celebrated work on the con- Admitting that the system of imitation in the Doric order vent of Batalha, in Portugal. His reasoning is as follows: was founded on the elementary forms and parts of the hut, The pyramids of the Egyptians are tombs; the dead are it was in that case guided by the principles that nature herburied in churches, and on their towers are pyramidal self adopts in her operations. otherwise no bounds would forms; consequently, the pyramids of the towers indicate have limited the caprice and imagination of its improvers. that there are graves in the churches; and as the pyrami- In the copy, no part is precisely similar to the model; but dal form constitutes the essence of the pointed arch style, an analogy, and that very strong, is observable. The prcand the pyramids of the towers are imitations of the Egyp- portions and parts of the Doric order, in different examples, tian pyramids, the pointed arch is derived from the latter. plainly indicate that the Grecian artists considered themWe cannot suppose the reader can require any refutation selves restricted only by general rules, inasmuch as ve if such a set of syllogisms as this. 5th and last is that of find them varying the height of the Doric column from foun 79 ARCHITECTURE. INDIAN. diameters to six and a half in height (see DoRIC ORDER), is that of the roofs of the Grecian tenmples. Their cools conI while the height of the entablature varies in terms of the sisted. of course, of two inclined sides, which at the ends diameter from 1-72 to 1-97. Lord Aberdeen, in his Inquiry formed a pediment. From experience it was soon found into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Architecture, has that the angle at which the sides of a roof should be insuggested that the height of the capital of this order, in dined to the horizon, should be such as eftfctually to shelterms of the upper diameter of the shaft, will afford some ter the interior of the building firom the inclemencies of t e indication of the comparative antiquity of an example; but seasons. Hence greatly inclined roofs are indispensable in there is no ground for the suggestion, as the author of this northern climates: the reverse as the climate approaches article has pointed out in a treatise on Grecian Architec- the equator: but this will be nmore fully explained undf ture prefixed to his edition of Chambers' Civil Architecture. the article RooF. Here we shall merely state that, ac The intercolumniations used in the Doric order at Paestum, cording to the hypothesis, the inclination of the sides of Corinth, and Segesta, and the Parthenon, are equal to roof should, for the latitude of Athens, be 1t;3) degrees about one diameter of the colui.n. They are about a The actual inclination of the roof of the teln ple of Erec quarter of a diameter more at the Temple of Theseus, theus is 15' degrees, temple of Theseus 15 degrees, t' whilst in an example at Syracuse they are somewhat less Parthenon 16 degrees, and that of tile Propylea 143i. Cor. than a diameter. paring the law with the Roman examples, tie cliIia The age of Pericles exhibited almost all that art could be would require an inclination of the sides of the roof wit. imagined to accomplish; the Peloponnesians and their the horizon of 22 degrees, and the variation between th! colonies had erected the temples at Corinth, Nemea, Pies- examples remaining is from 22 to 24 degrees. tumrn, Syracuse, and other places in Sicily: thus, in a space The invention of the arch does not at present appear tof little more than three hundred years from its introduc- belong to Greek architecture. It was one of' tlie most im tion, it appears that the art was raised to the summit of portant inventions in the history of architecture; but s. perfection. It is probable that the Ionic order is not far disputed a point is not to be touched upon in a work of this behind the Doric in antiquity. In the former, the different nature. We incline to tile opinion that its invention does examples exhibit a variety not less to be noticed than that not belong to the Greeks, for this simple reason, that the7 we have observed in tie latter order. The height of the have left us no examples of it that have come to our knowIonic column varies in the three examples of the temples ledge. on the Ilyssus, Minerva Polias, and Erectheus, from eight ARCHITECTURE, Indian.-It is very properly observed b7 diameters and a quarter to nine and a half in height; but M. Quatremnre de Quincy, that, in spite of all theories, an in the heights of the entablatures there is not so much va- infallible mode of estimating the state of the architecture riance. The cornice of the Grecian Ionic may be consid- and other arts of any people is by their representations of ered as bearing a constant ratio to the whole height of the the human fornm. Every people, he says, who during a entablature, as two to nine; while the whole height of the number of ages have persevered in falsely representing ths latter seems nearly constant at two diameters in height. figure void of all proportion, and according to a certain barThis order received the addition of a base to its shaft, barous and ignorant routine, must be convicted of a wan. which was wanting in the Doric order; but, for the varie- of that sentiment which leads to a knowledge of truth, airc ties, the reader will refer to that article in this work. The of that intelligence which knows how to find in nature rule~ volutes, which are its distinguishing features, are found for the choice of forms and arrangements applicable to thi with many varieties. In the temple on the Ilyssus, that of art of building. Every people who do not manifest in the' Minerva Polias at Priene, and that of Apollo Didymueus, works this conformity to nature must be ignorant of th? the volute contains only one channel between the revolu- arts of imitation, and all their productions must be the re tions of the spiral; whereas in those of Erectheus and Min- sult of an irregular taste. These observations particular." erva Polias, at Athens, each volute has two distinct spirals apply to Indian architecture, whose exact antiquity is sti, with channels between them. In the former of these two a problematical question. In a country abounding wit-. the column terminates with an astragal and fillet, just be- deserted monuments, where are found the traces of an ar. low the eye of the volute; in that of Minerva Polias, with a cient language now no longer spoken, books no longer ur single fillet. In each, the neck of the capitalis ornamented derstood, the vestiges of a religion whose creed and allege. w i honeysuckles. The shafts are usually cut with flutes ries seem to have had some resemblance to those o, of an elliptical form, to the number of twenty-four. These Greece, one is naturally led to surmise that civilisation ex flutes vary from those of the Doric order, in their separa- isted at a very early period. These opinions would seen. tion from each other, through the intervention of fillets, corroborated by the extraordinary chronologies which th'. The distinguishing feature of the Corinthian as of the modern Indians have produced as incontestable authoritie.y Ionic order is the capital. In a preceding article the ele- for their remote antiquity. The chronology. however, o& gant story by Vitruvius of its invention has been told, be- the Hindoos will not bear the test of strict investigation cause that has been rendered almost sacred by tradition; neither has any inscription or historic monument been dis but it must be observed, that long before the age of Calli- covered, nor annals found, which give us an idea of.h' machus, its reputed inventor, perhaps even before capitals changes, revolutions, or prosperity which the country ma, or columns themselves were known to the Greeks, the have experienced. It is, however, certain, that India has leaves of the palm tree, the flowers of the lotus, and even been possessed and successively invaded by several peo volutes, were applied as ornaments to the capitals of pie, and that its creeds, as well as its religious allegories: Egyptian architecture; and, be it observed, the form of the indicate such great diversity and mixture of opinions a; bell itself in no small degree resembles the contour of the might lead us into every species of error in matters of hidlotus flower. The Greek Corinthian and the Egyptian cap- torical research. itals of this class, are more distinguishable by their re- It is natural to suppose, that the subterraneous or excaspective heights than by peculiarity of other features. The vated monuments of India are prior in date to raised cr former, however, has a lightness and elegance which the constructed works; and yet, in point of fact, there are in thti Egyptian. perhaps from moral and political causes, never former neither less details, less caprice in form, nor less prcattained; but if even a slight intercourse between the two fusion of fantastic ornament, than in the latter. Hence th countries existed, there would appear considerable proof monuments themselves afford us no clue to their respec of the identity of the primitive inventors. tive antiquities. M. Meiners contends that none of them Our knowledge of the Greek Corinthian order is unfor- are more ancient than the vulgar era, whilst M. Langles. i tunately circumscribed, from the destruction and decay to critic of no ordinary sagacity, is of an opinion rather dif which from its extreme delicacy it was exposed; never- ferent, namely, that Indian art was brought from Egypt theless, under even these circumstances, the few examples and that traces of such a.n importation are very distinctll that remain induce a supposition that it was not in such marked, as well as that Greek art is strongly indicated in high estimation as those we have already named, inasmuch them. If, however, those nmonunments. whose date we have as the only examples that have come down to us are those good reason for believing is recent, exhibit the same taste of what is called the Tower of the Winds, and the Choragic as that manifest in those monuments whiose (late is uinMonument of Lysicrates, both at Athens. But the former known, we may fairly assume that the same style of arcliof these is scarcely to be classed among examples of Co- tecture existed in this country at a period preceding the rinthian, and the latter (as we now understand,the Corin- conquest of Alexander and the epoch in swhicl this early thian order) is in some respects alittle outre in the species. civilized country had intercourse with the Grecians. In the Choragic Monument the height of the entablature is Though we have no historical nor chronological guides to somewhat less than a fifth of the total height of the order. enlighten us on the subject of Indian architecture. it is ti, The base varies little from that of the Ionic order, except- be recollected that there is some analogy between thle iring in the non-appearance of the horizontal fluting in the regular taste that prevailed in India, and that of tlhe rest o( upper torus. Asia. Southern India abounds with excavated Imoni)oii(ii To the orders enumerated may be added one scarcely to of art; these are equally found in the centre as well as itii be named here, because apparently under no rules which sides of the vast peninsula. Throughout the region nuinrvi regulated its proportions, namely, the figures called Carya- seems to have supplied the first associated intl:hilanitides, which were employed for the support of an entabla- with excavations, either ready formed or easily converted 1. ture. For the supposed account of their origin, the reader the purposes wanted. It therefore appears probable thai is referred to the article CARYATIDES. the originating principal of the building art in India is fbund The only subject remaining for notice, under this head, in the subterranean dwelling: and as we find constructed q' ARCHITECTURE, INDIAN. edifices so similar in proportion, form, and details to those That which is known to the architect by the term ordon.. mat are, as it were, quarried out, it is fair to conclude that nance, which means, in its ii ost extended sense, the comthe former are the type of the latter, which are, conse- position of a building and the due arrangement of its sequently, >f a later date. veral parts, and which the Greeklis and Romans practised Construction scarcely seems a term applicable to the in their architecture with so niuch success, is not percep greater number of works of Indian architecture. Itmeans tible in Indian architecture, as far as we are acquaintedl the raising of a work composed of dlivers materials, or of with it. It seems easy to account for this, for notwithpieces joined together to form a mass; hence it cannot be standing some of the existing monuments have received!iroperly applied to an excavated structure. The edifices the name of palaces, there is little doubt of their being alt,)f India may be divided into two classes, the quarried and Idestined originally for religious purposes. Hence the arconstructed; the last are mostly those towers improperly chitects, confined to certain established routines, were not cialled pagodas. Of the unconstructed class may be raiiked at liberty to exercise their invention and ingenuity; and tile sevosn large pagodas of Mavalipouram, which consist of even had they been so, the system of castes. in perpetua. large masses of stone more or less engaged to the earth, ting uniformity of practice, had a tendency to repress them. and contiguous to similar masses. These masses were Again: scarce any system could be conceived less likely shaped and sculptured exteriorly in accordance with their to develope talent in ordonnance than the use of subterrageneral form, partly pyramidally and partly by irregular nean edifices, which admit of no variety of plan, no extent zones, in the same style as the pyramidal tower of the con- of elevation, nor lead to any of those conceptions which structed pagoda. No order is apparent in the respective the taste of the architect generates when he has length. dispositions of the masses, neither is regularity in the plan breadth, and materials at his command. In the caves at and exterior form to be detected. These edifices are ex- Ellora, a plan of the Indra Subba whereof is here subtremely small in the interior, being hollowed out of the joined, if we examine what may be called the columns mass, and remind us of the monolythic temples of Egypt, which were cut out of immense blocks of granite, and as IHerodotus tells us, removed to very considerable distances. In other respects, there was clearly some resemblance between the art of India and Egypt; it is found in the excava- -3 tions of monuments, and in working large natural masses of 1 stone in their original situation. Butto infer from this sim- d-3 D E ilarity of taste that there was communication between the two nations, seems too much; and still more hypothetical I LJ would it be to infer a resemblance of style in architecture, friom a similarity of practice; for nothing is more unlike the Egyptian than the Indian style of architecture; and in the end it will be seen that, except in the practice of excavalion, there is no similarity at all. The dimensions of the we find some of them hexagonal, without base, capital, ol pagodas, as they have been called, compared with those of ornament; some square, with a long cap, like carpentry. the Egyptian pyramids, no less than their excavated ternm- The greater number are composed of three parts; a square ples, have been much overrated by travellers. Of the latter, pedestal, running up more than one half of the total height; thie dimensions are generally but moderate, and the diffi- a small portion of shaft, if we may so term it, crowned culty of their execution could not have been very consider- with a capital of strange form, whereof words cannot give able. If the description that comes to us be correct, the any definite idea. The reader who is desirous of acqiuain sltter are hollowed out from quarries of calcareous stone, tance with the temples at Ellora, may advantageously refeI and the dimensions are on so moderate a scale, that even to Daniel's plates of these curious objects. Decoration in the celebrated temple at Elephants is only 130 feet long, 110 architecture, consists of large and small details, which refeet wide, and but 14 feet 6 inches high. The operation of ceive the name of ornaments. The larger parts are hollowing out a cavern of this sort can scarcely be dignified columns and similar masses. In the system of Indian dewith the name of art; but in the pagoda construction we coration there is no trace of what may be calledcl an order; must admit some display of that which at least approaches but among the larger masses of decorations for support, it. The pagodas are, in many instances, of considerable sculptured elephants very frequently occur. In one of the heightt, but to compare them with the pyramids of Egypt temples at Ellora, for instance, there are thlre, n.ases of is out of the question: these, the only buildings of much building, on the same line, whose bases are st ulttureld height, are pyramidal in general form. Sonnerat, vol. i. p. with elephants, seen in face. Lions are also muc;, used a. 217., gives us some idea of them: he says, " Around the objects for decoration. most celebrated temples the surrounding walls are thick From information which Sir C. W. Malet obtai-ed, the. and much raised. On each side is a gate surmounted by works at Ellora were said to be executed about tue vear a pyramidal tower, with a curved mass of enormous size. 900, by Elloo, the rajah of Ellichpour, who at that period is The tower is loaded with figures," &c. &c. If we may said to have founded the town: and the late Dr. Heber trust to the representation of the pagoda of Chillambaram bishop of Calcutta, observing that no mention was made by M. Durocher de la Perigne, given by Caylus in the 31st of these excavations, even incidentally, in anv Sanse-rit vol. of the Memoires de l'Acad6mie, the pyramidal form manuscript, and that tle idols were the same as those still is therein strongly marked. In it the height of the whole worshipped in India, dates them in the 13th century. Butt is but 120 feet, and at its base it is but 80 feet wide. The all this is conjecture, unsupported by any historical docutermination is not in a point, but is truncated at a height ment that entitles it to any weight. and a wide field is open Which makes the plan of its summit about 36 feet wide. to the traveller and antiquary, in investigating these curious The pyramid is unequal sided, the flanks being much nar- and fantastic monuments, as illustrative of the early histor) rower than the faces. But the largest of these monuments is of the art. that described by Lord Valentia, namely, the pagoda ofTan. ARCHtITECTURE, Moorish or Saracenic. VWhen the vie jore,whichheconsidersthefinestspecimenofthisspeciesof tories of the Arabians had extended their emlpihe from building. This is 200 feet high, placed on a basement of 40 Constantinople to the confines of Spain, the manainimitv feet in height. Time pyramidal mass rises by twelve sets off, of their leaders, and the brilliant talents of their calipls, or bands, sculptured in various ways. Such samples of ma- raised the nation to a pitch of glory and power which exsonry, however, required no great display of constructive hibited itself in some very extraordinary productions in skill for their execution, either in working or transport of the architectural art. In Africa and in Spain, where their the materials. At Chillambaram, for instance, the pyra- empire became firmly established, the edifices they erectmidal part is constructed to the height of 30 feet only in ed sufficiently prove with what success they cultivated the masonry, the remainder being of brick. The mass is arts and sciences. For the notice here given of sonie of coated with ornaments of stone and of a species of white the most extraordinary edifices for which Spain is indebted cement of the country. As in Egypt, none of the monu- to its ancient conquerors, we are assisted from the celements of this country exhibit any trace of the arch: the brated work by Murphy, published in 1815, to which the coverings of the apartments are all horizontal, and the di- reader who seeks further information may rtelfer. mensions in all are necessarily limited by the want of that We do not, in the limited space of such an article as expedient which, in modern architecture, has been the this, think it necessary to extend any intquiry into the parent of the most stupendous monuments whereof art earliest works of the Saracens, sucih as thie original Moswas capable. The ceilings in Indian architecture are of que of Omar, built in 640. Neither of that nor other of enormous blocks of stone, laid on the supports wherewith their works (few indeed in number) have we sufficient the buildings are constructed, being the simplest and most historical evidence to compare them with the architecture inartificial mode of contriving a covering to an apartment. of the pe.iold i otler It must be apparent to every one, that the art of India was countries but we riro many degrees below that of Egypt. Though, in the last- ceed at once to that penamed country, art was limited by the habits of the people, rinod when some of its yet it is equally certain that their knowledge in the use of most distinguishing fea masonry was carried to great perfection. as are here exhibited m SI w a c tlF res ere suhiarce ARCHITECTURE, MOORWDI-H MEXICAN. Thie mosque at Cordova was begun by Abdelrahmen, the combinations of the building art in these edifices, ther the second king of Cordova, and finished by hisson towards is nothing to surprise, from the supposition of extraord the end of the eighth century. Its plan is a parallelogram nary means used in their erection. The domes whicl of 600 feet by 400), formned by an embattled wall with coun- crown their apartments are neither lofty nor large in dianmeterforts also embattled; the height of this wall varies from ter, neither do they exhibit great mechanical skill. The:35 to 60 feet, and its thickness is 8 feet. This large quad- Moorish architects seem to have had no notion of raising rangular space is divided internally into two parts; viz. a vaults fronm lofty piers. Inthe mosque at Cordova, tle span court, 200 feet long by the lenglth of the edifice, and the from pier to pier would have been less than 0O feet, which mosque itself, which is about 400 feet square. The mosque to vault would not have required very extraordinary skill; consists of 19 naves, for:red by 17 rows of columns, from vet herein we find timber ceilings throughout. The use of south to north, and 32 narrower naves, tromn east to west. orders seems to have been unknown to thetin; they em Eaclt of these naves is 16 feet wide, from north to south, ployed the antique columns which they found ready tc by 400 feet long; the width of them in the opposite direc- their hands, or rude imitations of them, without any appa. tion is less. Thus the intersection of the naves with each rent acquaintance with the types from whlich they were deot her produce 850 columns, which, added to the 52 columns rived, their principles or proportions. Hence thteir columns of the court, form a total of near a thousand columns. may be more appropriately termed posts. In the itrms of Their diameter is about a foot and a half. and their mean Moorish architecture one does not discover a character of height about 15 feet, and they are crowned by capitals of a originality arising out of local causes. The Arabians hall Corinthian or composite species. These columns, which wandered far from their country, in which they had never have neither socle nor base, are surrounited by arches cultivated the arts; their architecture was, therefore. nefrom column to column. The ceilings are of wood paint- cessarily formed upon mnodels which were before them, ed, each range forming on the outside a small roof, sepa- such as the degenerated Roman and Byzantine. Such elerated from those adjoining by a gutter. One of the n-ost ments as these, with the materials which the lower en pire striking effects of the edifice is produced by the beautiful afforded, formed theirtaste and monuments. Thie form of marbles whereof the columns atre composed. It seems theirarcades, whereofwe have given somie exaniples above, probable that the larger portion of these columns might is confined to this style of architecture. They may be dihave been procured from the Roman ruins in the city; an vided into two classes, both of them vicious in construction., opinion which is strengthened by their being without bases, fromi not affording the necessary resistance to thrust near or such as ill suited the style of the columns or capitals,. the abutments. In masonry, failure would follow such In the commencement of the sixteenth centiry,reat forms, if practised on a large scale; but where arches are changes were made in this mosque, for the purpose of formed of brick, the large surface of cement used, if it be converting it into a Christian church; these, it is said, good and the centres not struck until the cemnent is set hard, mnined the original effect, but enough is left to indicate what allows great caprice in their forms. If the pleasure-we it anciently must have been. It is always considered as might almost use the word sensuality-of tie eye be the one of the earliest Moorish buildings in Spain. Tlie de- sole object, it cannot be denied that success attended the corations throughout are in stucco, painted of different efforts of the Arabian architects of Spain. The details of colours, and occasionally gilt, in imitation of the churches their decoration, and the fantasticness of their forms, canof the lower empire. One cannot doubt that its architects not fail to please the eye; and though they may not satisfy wvere well acquainted with the Byzantine architecture, in the spectator, they are capable of p'"-.-ucing on his mind which the walls, the arcades, the pavements, in short all some of the most seductive charms of which the art is cathe parts. were covered with paintings: and it is clear that pable. The embroidery and painted draperies of the East the Arabians, who really had invented no architecture of appear to have been transposed to their architecture. The their own, spreading themselves in those countries wherein variety and profusion with which they used their ornathe arts had been established, were thus led to a trial of ments. moreover, give their masses the appearance of a con. imnitating the old masters. geries of painting, incrustation, Inosaic, gilding, and foliage: T'he Alhambra, at Granada, is perhaps the most curious much, perhaps, of this was induced by the law of their reand interesting Moorish edifice in Spain. It served the ligion, which forbade the representation of animals or the double purpose of palace and fortress, and is situate on the human figure. If taste be not required to produce a reason summit of a rock that commands the town. According to for the admission of ornament, nothing can be more splen. travellers who have visited and described this edifice, you did and brilliant than the effects that resulted from their niay here fancy yourself in a fairy-built dwelling. After combinations. It cannot be denied that in this proftision cf passing the principal entrance, you arrive at two oblong ornament we find the details beautifully executed, asd courts, one of which is called the court of the lions, and some of their forms extremely fine; and the mode of piercis celebrated in Arabian history. A portion of the section ing domes for light, which they practised by means of starof this court is given below. Round these two courts, on like formed openings, is attended with an almost niagical the ground floor, are disposed all the apartments of tile effect. palace: those for state look out towards the country; the ARCHITECTURE, [3exican. From the historian Robertrest, cooler and more retired, have small openings for son we collect, that the cities of Mexico, large and populight under the interior porticos, the whole of which are lous as they are described, were rather the asylums of decorated with painted stucco, porcelain, and the most men just emerged from barbarism, than the peaceable valuable marbles. dwellings of a civilised people. Tiascala, according to its description, nearly resembles that of an Indian village. It was but a heap of low straggling huts; according to the caprice of eacli proprietor, built of turf and stone, and thatched with reeds, the light being received by a door so low - that it could not be entered uilright. In Mexico, from ita peculiar situation, the disposition of the houses was more I Vv^ ^-^kr' ^^^orderly, but their structure was equally mean. The Mexi-, ~ can teimples, and other public edifices, do not appear to i ^^'> ^ t^}^^! ^ f have deserved tile high praises which Spanish authors 5 > s \T^' f^ ^T==-^ ~ have bestowed upon thliein. The great temple of Mexico, the most celebrated in New Spain, as far as can be gath-'.i. ___~ ered from the obscure and inadequate description of it, has been represented as a magnificent building, raised to such a height thlat the ascent to it was by a flight of 114 steps, yet it was but a solid square mass of earth, faced ^^[ _ ^ 1_^.. _ ~~[::~ ~_) partly with stone. Its base on each side extended 90 feet: _- -_ /A- -....... ^M^^^. _____-___^ ^ it decreased gradually as it advanced in height, terminating at top in a quadrangle of about 30 feet, whereon was placed There is on a neighbouring hill another palace, called a shrine of the deity, and two altars on which the victims the Generaliffe, now in a state of ruin; but its ruins show were sacrificed. All the other celebrated temples of New that it was inferior to the Alhambra neither in size nor Spain resembled that of Mexico. The temple of Cholula, splendour. It is precisely in the same taste, and the de- which was considered the n'ost sacred in the country, was tails are similar, proving that the two edifices are contem- also the most considerable; yet, accorduing to Torquet'ada poraneous. it was but a solid mound of earth, about a quarter of ~ Surprising as the works we have juit named must be league in circuit. considered, we do not discover in th thiiat real grandeur The Spanish historians led us to suppose that the palace which exists in the works of the Egyptians, the Etrurians, of the emperor and the houses of the nobles exhibited the Grecians, or the Romans. The mode of construction, some elegance of design and convenient arrangernent: Nwe though sufficiently durable, is not scientific, as respects the have, however, no vestiges of these remaining, antd, from working of the materials. Brick was the material most in the mode in which Cortes conducted the siege of Mexico ise; the masonry, where employed, is covered with a coat- it seems likely that all the monuments of any importance ina of stucco, the painting whereof, in different colours, is were destroyed. Still, as at the period when Robertsor g great source of the admiration these buildings excite. In wrote his history only two centuries antI andhalf hal elausetl ARCHITECTURE, ROMAN. it seems impossible that in so short a time edifices of im- asserts, ornamented the Forum, and had centred in it au portance should have left no trace of their existence. that could tend to its beauty as well as to its utility. The The great hillock at Cholula, to which the Spaniards have first Tarquin was a native of the city of Tarquiniuin in given the name of temple, is without any steps to ascend Etruria, and brought to Rome that taste for grandeur and it, and without any appearance of stone. Perhaps it has solidity which were the distinguishing features of the arts never been more than a natural eminence of the ground. in the country he had left. He constructed the immense In several accounts, though under different names of walls of the city in regular masonry, and laid the foundaplaces, we find descriptions of monuments pyramidal, as tions of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which, in level. well as in steps, of which the ruins are sufficient to furnish ling the hill on which it stood, was attended with prodia clue to the whole design. The attempt to restore them gious labour and expense. The temple mentioned, acin drawing was made in 1804, and published at Rome by cording to Tacitus, was continued by Servius Tullius and D. Pietro Marquez, entitled "Due Antichi Monumenti di Tarquinius Superbus, the latter engaging workmen from Architettura." His restoration was founded, we believe, Etruria; but it was not finished till after the expulsion of on descriptions published in the Literary Gazette of Mex- the kings. Such was its magnificence, says Tacitus, that ico, in 1785 and 1791, by D. Gius. Ant. Abzate. The first all the victories of the Romans added to its wealth and demonument is at a place called Papantla. Its form is pyra- coration more than to its extent. His words are, " Horatius midal, (that is, in general effect,) being built in steps or Pulvillus dedicavit, ea magnificentia, quam immensae posstories, of six ranks, one above the other. The lower step tea populi Romiani opes ornarent potius, quam augerent." is 100 feet long, on the four faces. The other dimensions The description of it by Dionysius brings to mind the Greof the steps are not given, but each had in its height a cer- cian temple, with its two interior ranks of columns, its petain number of square niches, each 3 feet every way; the ristyle and pediment, eulogised by Cicero. It was twice lowest contained 24 on every side, the second 20, the third destroyed, and twice rebuilt, on the same foundations. 16, the fourth 12, the fifth 10. and the sixth S. It is pre- These notices suffice to show that the Romans at an early sumed there was a seventh step, which had 6 of these period were inferior to no nation in those matters of archiniches on every side. Upon one of the faces of this pyra- tecture whicih were necessary and useful to a people mid there were smaller steps, serving as a staircase to Such was the opinion of Strabo, who adds, that in some re mount to the top, whereon, it is supposed, there was a spects, such as paving their great roads, constructing aquesmall chapel enclosing the idols to which the sacrifices ducts and sewers, the Romans far excelled the Greeks. were made. The author (Marquez) above mentioned Usefulness in their enterprises, and solidity in carrying gathered from the same documents some ideas upon them into execution, were the characteristics of the art another Mexican monument, if in architecture may be so among the Romans at a period when magnificence of a,alled a hill surrounded by five or six enclosures of stone, hiLh degree was confined to the temple. vhose object was to retain the earth in its place. This also The necessary materials are wanting to enable us to folterminates by a platform at top, which is supposed to have low up historically the taste of the art during the ages of the been occupied by a small temple, after the manner of the republic. There is scarcely the vestige of a ruin of the country. Some writers have thought this last was merely period; it is, however, easy to form, either from the politia tfortification, but it seems more probable that it was a re. cal state of the times, or from the encouragement given to ligious edifice, inasmuch as the basement of it is sculptured the other arts, and especially to literature, some idea of the with filures supposed to be the hieroglyphics of the coun- extent to which the architecture of the Romans flourished. try. The name (Xochicalco) of this hill, interpreted by The conquest of Greece by the Romans produced to their those who possess a knowledge of the Mexican language, city not only an importation of works of art, but the artists bears out the conjecture that it was used for the last named themselves, who. be it observed, can be created only purpose. where opulence reigns. In architecture, however, the RoARCHITECTu RE, Roman. It can scarcely be said that mans at this time had erected monuments of such dimenthe Romans had ani architecture peculiar to themselves. sions as were beyond the means of the little and separated That which we understand by the name is a modification, states of Greece. The new state of things brought to its some call it a debasement, (we disagree with them), of the aid all that it needed. The great use which at this period architecture of the Grecians. We are ready to admit that was made of the Corinthian order, is one of the proofs of the Romans gave to their art the lasciviousness of the the public and private wealth. From the time of Augustus courtesan, whilst the Greeks preserved in theirs the modest we see the extent to which richness of detail was carried. demeanour of the staid matron; but our senses may be A small portion of the Baths of Agrippa, known to us uncharmed by the one, though the other may make a strong- der the name of the Pantheon, one of the most splendid ex. er appeal to the understanding. In strictness, Roman and amples of the art, enables us to appreciate the art of this peGrecian architecture are identical. Wherever the Greeks riod, though now despoiled of the bronzes of its pediment, penetrated, their genius, not less than their arms. extended its gilt caissons, and the profusion of sculptures that and founded their influence. The religion, the language, adorned it. In the time of Augustus. Rome was not only the habits, and the arts of the Greeks, appear to have been the capital of the world, but the world itself; it possessed carried into Italy at a period of very high antiquity. Nu- within itself all the food that was necessary ior the nourishmerous colonies of that nation established themselves on ment of the art. Private individuals in the city possessed the shores of that country. and even in the interior of the the wealth of kings, military glory created a necessity for peninsula, where they erected cities long before the exis- monuments, and the amusemnents of the theatre, the races tence of Rome. Italy, as far as we can trace, had no origi- and fights of the circus and amnphitheaire, required accomnal arts of its own, nor can any thing be found in it whose modation for such multitudies of spectators, that art exorigin was not Grecian. Hence, as has been observed, panded from the calls to which it wissubject. Rome now there is, strictly, no such thing as Roman architecture. began to raise monuments of a description unknown to the But as every nation which cultivates the arts, impresses Grecians-triumphal arches, bath-s as large as cities, imthem with a character peculiar to itself, so when we speak mense porticos, amphitheatres. and naunmachia. The marof Roman architecture, we mean that peculiar character bles of all the quarries of the then known world were alwith which Greek art was invested under the Roman em- most exhausted in supplies, and even Evypt furnished the pire,-that character which was manifest in a greater exu- city with means of addins to the general ragnificence. berance of ornament in all the parts of the orders, and Applied to such new species of edifices, it would have which changed the sections of the mouldings of an order been indeed surprising if architecture had preserved its from profiles formed by the sections of a cone, to those original Greek purity. It was the mediumn foir satisfying a formed by the horizontal sections of a cylinder. An inter- vanity which knew no bounds, and was ultimately obliged course of very ancient date existed between Etruria and to gain its end more by effect than purity, by richness and Greece; in the former ofwhich, at the period in question, exuberance of ornament rather than by harniony, and by the language and mythology of Greece prevailed to a con- grandeur of lines rather than by beauty of forms. Archi. siderable extent. From what is known on this subject, we tecture was at all periods a favourite art among the Romay safely state that Etrurian architecture, was identical mans. Not a single name of a Roman sculptor has reachedl with that of Greece. History tells that Rome, from its ori- us, and Pliny mentions only two or three painters. From gin, borrowed from Etruria artists to execute their great Vitruvius we learn, that before his time several bad writworks, though, afterwards, the city possessed a large num- ten on the art. The names of FusSitius. Terentius Varro, oer of native architects, which was not the case with the Publius Septimius, Cossutius. and C. CMutius are menprofessors of the other arts. That the Romans at this pe- tioned by him. riod were not barbarous and ignorant of the arts, more than The luxury in art induced by the sculpt r, aided the nunmone omemoria. of their skill in architecture still attests. her of different combinations in t)he Corinthian capital. Livy records a circus, traced by Tarquin, between the which we have above stated to have been a favourite with Aventine and Palatine hills, for the celebration of feasts and the Romans; this was carried to an excessv which in the ameste to commemorate the victory over the Latins. Tar- end produced a new order, known by the naire of the quinius Superbus soon afterwards encompassed this circus composite. Thus, Roman architecture havingn, Rays Qu with covered porticos. This was at the epoch of the con- tremere de Quincy, exhausted all the resources of richstruction of the great sewer or cloaca. Perhaps in no age ness guided by taste in the use ofornsane.nts, throws ashie were two more splendid undertakings carried on at the all sobriety, sacrifices the whole to details andr accessaries. same time. This Tarquin, as Dionysius Halicarnassensis covers all parts of the surface withnut distinetion, loads thi 83 ARCHITRAVE. ARGONAUT. lifferc tit in nibers with ornaments and sculptures, like a in scarcely any positive point of structure from pnmuw& person who,, to decorate a piece of cloth, covers it entirely and its co-ordinates. (See MYRSINACE E.) with embroidery. A'RE. See A LA MIRE. We close this article with a few observations on the Do- A'REJE. In Entomology, the larger longitudinal speciea ric order. This. in Greece itself, at the time of her subju- into which the wing may be divided: they are termed cregation, had begun to be affected by change. It had lost tal, intermediate, and anal, according to their rela.tivw much of the primitive simplicity of its character and the position. severity of its principles. The various wants in edifices ARE'CA. (Areec, the Malabar name.) An East Indian less simple in plan, a taste for elegance and richness which palm tree, whose nuts are folded in the leaf of the piper was found in the other two orders, contributed to diminish betel, and, mixed with a little lime, are chewed by the nathe severity of its forms and profiles. Thus, in the portico tives of the country bordering on the Indian Archipelago of Augustus at Athens it was strangely changed in appear- as a stimulating narcotic. ance. In Rome it was adopted with proportions still more ARE'NA. A Latin word signifying, in its original mean slender, and an aspect infinitely less severe. (For re- ing, sand, but applied in a secondary sense to that part of marks on English Architecture, see the word ENGLISH.) the amphitheatre in which the gladiators fought, whi;:i was A'RCHITRAVE. (Gr. dpXciv, to govern, and Lat. trabs, covered with sand. The word is sometimes applied'o the a beam.) In Architecture, the lower of the three members whole amphitheatre. of the entablature of an order, being, as its name imports, ARENA'CEOUS. (Lat. arena, sarnd.) Sandy. the chief beam that is employed, and resting immediately ARENA'R1A. (Lat. arena, sand.) A genus of wading on the columns. Its origin is given under the article AR- birds, wanting the hinder toe: of this genus there is but CHITECTURE. A French writer has called it the founda- one British species-the Sanderling. tion of the head of an edifice. The architrave sometimes ARENA'RIOUS SOIL. (Lat. arena, sand.) In Agr. and receives the name Epistylium, from the Greek words, inL, Hort.. soil in which sand is the prevailing ingredient. upon, and r-v)Xo, column. ARENA'TION. (Lat. arena, sand.) The cure of disA'RCIIIVES. The repositories of the public records of eases by sprinkling hot sand upon the body. a state or community: sometimes the records themselves ARE'OLA. (Dim. of area.) The ring or margin which are so called. The word is supposed to be derived from surrounds the pustule of small and cow pox. the Greek dpxua, used for public registers by Josephus. ARE'OLJE, in Entomology, are smaller spaces into A'RCHIVOLT. (Lat. arcus volutus, a turned arch.) In which the wing is divided by the nervures: they are Architecture, the ornamented band of mouldings round the termed vasal, middle, and apical, according to their relavoussoirs or arch stones of an arch, which terminates hori. tive position. rontally upon the impost. The archivolt is decorated ana- ARE'OLATE. In Entomology, divided into small spaces, logously with the architrave, which it may in arcades be or areolations. said to represent. AREOLATE. In Botany, in composite plants, when the A'RCHON. (Gr. dirXwv, ruler.) The title of the chief florets are placed so completely upon the surface of the magistrate of Athens. The office was originally instituted receptacle, that many a pentagonal area, or space, is left after the death of Codrus, the last king of Athens, and was when the ovaries drop off. vested in one person who enjoyed it for life, and was sue- AREOLA'TION (Lat. area) means any small space, ceeded by his son. Its duties were those of a limited distinctly bounded by something different in colour, texture, monarchy, accountable to the assembly of the people; its &c. The spaces of parenchyma, which in leaves are duration was afterwards limited to ten, six, and, finally, one bounded by veins, are areolations. year, when its functions were divided among nine persons, AREO'METER. (Gr. dpaios, rare, and pterpov, measuire. taken at first by suffrage, and afterwards by lot, from the An instrument for measuring the density or specific gr;Ati nobles. One was chief among them, and was called Epo- ty of fluids. (See IYDROMETER.) nymus, or, naming Archon, because the year was distin. AREO'PAGUS. The science of measuring the densit) guished by his name. The second, or king Archon, exer- or specific gravity of fluids. cised the functions ofhigh priest. The third, or Polemarch AREO'PAGUS. The chief court of judicature at Athens (polemarchos,) was originally the chief military comman- so called because it met in a hall on an eminence, called der. The other six were called Thesmothetae, or setters the hill of Mars, ('Apetos rna os.) This court, which was forth of the law; they presided as judges in the courts, and of very early origin, was raised to the high character it the six formed a tribunal which had a peculiar jurisdiction. afterwards enjoyed, by Solon, who appointed that it should The nine together formed the council of state, on which the consist of the archons who had undergone, with credit, the whole administration rested: but this was transferred by scrutiny they were subject to at the expiration of theix Solon to the senate. The exclusive right of the nobles to office. The areopagus had cognizance of capital crimes, this office was taken away by the measures of Cleisthenes, and from it was no appeal to the people, whose decisions who threw it open to the people at large. See especially it was sometimes known to annul. It controlled all issues Boeckh's Public Economy of Athens. from the public treasury, and exercised a censorship ovei A'RCTIC. (Gr. dpKros. the bear.) An epithet given to the citizens. Its powers were much reduced by thre meathat part of the heavens, in which are situated the constel- sures of Pericles and his partizans. On the subject of this lations of the Great and the I,ittle Bear. Arctic Pole, the celebrated institution, our best ancient aut!hority is tlin north pole of the heavens, or the northern extremity of the Oratio Areopagitica of Socrates. See also Meursius, Dt axis of the diurnal motion. Arctic Circle, in geography, Areopago; Du Canaye, Recherches sur I'A., in the MIem. dc denotes a small circle of the sphere parallel to the equator, l'Acad. des Inscr., 4-c. vol. vii. p. 174.: and Petitus, Ac and 232 degrees from the north pole. At this latitude, the Leges Atticas. See also Boeckh's excellent work on Atheans sun, at the summer solstice, comes exactly to the horizon and her Institutions. at midnight, without descending below it. The corres- A'RGEL. The Egyptian name of the leaves of th( ponding circle in the southern hemisphere is called the Cynanchum olenfolium, which are mixed with senms Antarctic. The arctic and antarctic circles separate the leaves. frigid from the temperate zones. A'RGENT, in Heraldry. (Fr., argent, silver.) One of A'RCTOMYS. (Gr. dpnros, bear, and pv, nmouse.) The the metals employed in blazonry: it is equivalent to pear, name of the subgenus of Rodentia, or gnawers, including aniong precious stones, diamond among planets. In en the marmot. graving it is represented by a plain surface. ARCTU'RUS. A star of the first magnitude in the con- ARGENTINA. A Linnwean genus of abdominal fishes. atellation of Bootes, designated in the catalogues ass aBootes. belonging to the salmon family; characterised by a small It has a sensible proper motion. mouth, without maxillary teeth; the tongue armed with A'RCUATE. (Lat. arcus, a bow.) A part of an animal curved teeth; and a transverse row of small teeth on the so called which is linear and bent like a bow. vomer; banchiostegal rays, six. The argentines rank in ARCUA'TION. (Lat. arcus, a bow.) An obsolete term the order MIalacopterygia, or soft-finned fishes of Cuvier. for the mode of propagating trees by layers, the shoots be- The name is derived from the silvery glistening appearance ing bent. in the scales of these fishes. A'RDEA. The name of a Linnaan genus of Gralle, or A'RGENTINE. In Mineralogy, nacreous carbonate of wading birds, characterised by a straight, sharp, long, sub- lime, so called from its silvery lustre. compressed bill, with a furrow extending on each side, ARGILLA'CEOUS SOIL. (Lat. argilla, clay.) Soil inn from the nostrils to the apex of the bill. The genus was which clay is the prevailing earthy ingredient. subdivided by Linnseus into the Cristatee, corresponding to ARGOL. The tartar of wine. the modern genus Anthropoides;- the Grues, or cranes; A'RGONAUT, ARGONAUTA. Applied by Linnaeus, in the Ciconice, or storks; and the Ardeae, or herons; which the singular number, to the testaceous cephalopod, Jesig~atter have been subsequently subdivided into Ardeea, or nated by Aristotle and the ancients, nautilus, and common nerons proper; Nycticoraces, or night-herons; and Botauri, ly called at the present day the paper nautilus, frcm the or bitterns. fragile nature of the boat-like shell in which the inhabiting ARDISIA'CEE. (Ardisia, one of thegenera.) Exogens, cephalopod occasionally floats on the still seas of the warmwhich might, without much inaccuracy, be termed woody er latitudes Many modern naturalists limit the applicaprimulaceous plants. They form herbs and trees in warm tion of the term argonauta to the shell, supposing that ito countries, and have a succulent fruit; but they really differ true constructor is yet to be discovered, and that the ce 84 ARGONAUTS. ARISTOCRACY. phalopod which has hitherto been exclusively found in it, signal interposition of God, but which the heretics contis a parasite. (See OCYTHO:.) dentially ascribed to assassination by poison. A'RGONAUTS. The name given to the chieftains "who Under Constantius, the successor of Constantine, in the accompanied Jason in the ship Argo on his fabled expedi- East, the Arian party was taken into favour, and the orthotion" to Colchis, after the golden fleece of Phryxus. The dox persecuted and proscribed: and when on the death ol,riginal facts on which this mythological story is founded Constans, the whole empire fell into his single hands, the cannot now be recalled; but it is generally supposed to cause of heresy began to flourish in the West also, and the represent the result of some bold commercial expedition " whole world," says St. Jerome, ", groaned to find itself Ariihat overstepped the previous discoveries of its age, or an." It was at this period, also, that many northern namore probably still, the series of enterprises by which tions, who were just preparing to pour themselves upon ~Greek maritime knowledge was extended to the furthest the western empire, were converted to the Christian faith, shores of the Euxine." We have a poem on the subject, in which they were instructed, according to the Arian inwhich falsely goes under the name of Orpheus, who is said terpretation. This circumstance contributed materially to to have been one of the Argonauts himself, and an epic by the permanence of these opinions; for after the orthodox Apollonius Rhodius, a Greek poet of Alexandria., and like- emperor Theodosius had re-established the doctrine of the wise one in Latin, by Valerius Flaccus, who flourished in Nicene creed throughout his dominions, the West was sub-.he age of Vespasian. jected to a second inundation of heresy in the preceding A'RGUMENT. In Astronomy, denotes the angle or century. The conversion of Clovis to the Catholic faith at quantity on which a series of numbers in a table depends. the end of the fifth, and of Theodelinda, queen of the LomnFor example, suppose a table were formed showing the bards, in the sixth century, combined with the successes of amount of horizontal refraction at every degree, &c., of the generals of Justinian, in Italy and Africa, restored the altitule; then the altitude would be termed the argument orthodox opinions throughout the greater part of these reof the refraction; and the table is said to be entered with gions; and from that period Arianism dwindled away, anc the argui.ment. all traces of it seem to have been lost for many centuries. ARGUMENT. In Logic, an expression in which, from In modern times these opinions have been revived. The something laid down as granted, (i. e. the premises,) some- inferiority of the Son to the Father was proclaimed by thing else (i. e. the conclusion,) is to be deduced. In or- Servetus, in 1531: and in Geneva, the very place in which dinary discourse, argument is very often used for the he suffered death, these opinions took root, and have since premises alone, in contradistinction to the conclusion; e. g. become very prevalent among the disciples of the Church " the conclusion which this argument is intended to estab- which Calvin founded. The immediate followers of Serlish. is, &c. &c." This word is also sometimes employed vetus removed, upon his death, to Poland. In England, to denote what is, strictly speaking, a course or series of the principal revivers of Arianism, were Whiston and:rguiments: it' is in this sense that we speak of' War- Samuel Clarke, who flourished at the beginning of the 18th burton's argument to prove the divine legation of Moses." century. Their doctrines were embraced by great numThe word argument is frequently used to express what bers of the Presbyterian and Independent preachers, and may be properly called a disputation: i. e. two trains of gave rise to a great deal of controversy among the memargument opposed to each other, as when it is said that A bers of those communities, and of the church also. It is and B had a long argument on any subject, a.nd that A remarkable that the congregations which in modern times had the best of the argument. (Vide WVhatcly's Loic, p. have embraced any form of Arianism, whether at Geneva, 3110.) in Poland, or in England, have in almost all cases degeneA'RIANS. The followers of the theological opinions of rated into Unitarianism. At the present day, there exist Arius, a presbyter of the church of Alexandria in the fourth few, if any, churches of professed Arians. century, who denied the equality of the Father and Son, It should be remarked, that the term Arian, which is vu.. and is generally considered as the author of a system garly attributed to those who conceive of the second and which continued, under various modifications, to exercise third persons, that though inferior to the first, they are nethe most extensive influence upon the Christian world of vertheless divine, admits of many distinctions and qualifiany heresy of ancient times. It was in the year 319, that cations. Questions arise among sects generally denomithese views were first promulgated at a meeting of the nated Arian, 1st, As to the similarity of substance between clergy of Alexandria; and their author, after some delay, the Father and Son: 2d, As to the existence of the Son; excommunicated by the patriarch Alexander. The pro- whether he was created before the world; whether that gress, however, which the opinions continued to make, ex- creation was from eternity: 3d, As to the relation of the cited, after a few years, the notice of the emperor Constan- Son and Spirit, concerning whose rank among the Divine tine, who addressed a letter to Alexander and Arius jointly, personages there are many conflicting opinions. Dr. Clarke, in which he attempted to attain the object for which on though generally considered to hold Arian sentiments, proother occasions he resorted to more violent methods, that fessed himself a believer in the Trinity, and continued a of reconciling the conflicting parties upon whatever basis, member of the established church. He distinguished the and securing harmony at all events. At the earnest de- Son from the Father, considering the latter as the primary sire, however, of the orthodox party at Alexandria., he con- author of all good, to whom all honour and worship is due: vened the general council of Nicaea, which assembled in the power which was original in the Father being derivative the year 325, and proceeded to institute a full investigation in the Son, who derives also from him his Divinity and other into the matter in dispute. On this occasion the Nicene attributes. The Holy Spirit, he considered to hold a simicreed was drawn up, in which the clause which principally lar subordination to the Son. When the question, whether affects this subject is the assertion of the consubstantiality the Father can annihilate the Son, was propounded to Dr. of the Son with the Father, or the Omoousion. This the Clarke, he confessed that he had not reflected upon this Arians would not concede. A middle party arose under imputed consequence of his scheme, and declined to give Eusebius of Nicomedia, who proposed, but without effect, any answer. the term Omoiousios, asserting, not the identity, but the ARICI'NA. An alkaloid discovered in 1829, by Pelletier similarity of substance. This, which is generally denomi- and Coriol, in a bark from Arica, resembling a species of nated the Semi-arian scheme, satisfied neither the Catho- chinchona. lies nor the Arians, who from their rejection of it acquired A'RIEL. (Arilla, in low Latin, a piece of red cloth.) A the title of Amonoioi. The Catholics triumphed, and their membrane, eitber fleshy or otherwise, originating from the opponents submitted to the decree of the emperor which placenta, and growing on a seed either partially or entirely. required them to acknowledge the creed propounded for Instances of it occur in the nutmeg, wlvere it constitutes their acceptance. From this time, according to some writ- mace: and in the Euonvmus Europeuns, where it is a red ers, the Eusebians became a mere political party, who en- succulent membrane. It is remarkable that this part, the deavoured to preserve the favour of the prince, for which use of which is unknown, never appears till after the young they had already made the greatest of sacrifices, by a repe- seed is fertilised. tition of similar unworthy arts. At this period another A'RIES. (Lat. the Ram.) The first constellation of the Eusebius, the courtly bishop of Caesarea, and celebrated ancient zodiac. Aries also denotes the first sign or the firsi historian of the Christian church, became one of the lead- 30 degrees of the zodiac; the first point of Aries being the ers of this branch of Arianism. His talents and inenuity point in which the equator intersects the ecliptic, and from are represented as being of singular service to the cause of which the longitudes are reckoned. In ancient times the the heretics, by inducing the emperor, after some delay, to signs and constellations of the zodiac coincided; but owing command the restoration of Arius to the church of Alex- to the precession of the equinoxes. the twelve signs go andria, and the banishment of Athanasius. A day was ap- backward among the constellations, at the rate of about 5.' pointed, upon which Alexander, the aged bishop, should annually, and the first point of Aries is now situate in the admit the still suspected heretic to the holy communion: constellation Pisces. his protestations of orthodoxy were such as to satisfy the ARIES. In ancient Military Science, the Latin name of prelate that God only could discover his real sentiments, the battering ram, an instrument with an iron head used to and he solemnly declared that in His hands lhe left the batter and beat down the walls of besieged places. matter. In the midst of the fears and scruples ofthe one par- ARIOSO. See,LEGATO. ly. and the anticipated triumph of the other, the proceeding ARISTO'CRACY. (Gr. dtc-roef, the best, and Kparelv, to was suddenly terminated by the death of Arius: a deliver- govern.) According to the acceptation in which the word ance of the church, in which the Catholics discovered a is used by ancient writers, a government in which all tho 85 ARISTOLOCHIA. ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY. ovt citizens of the state, i. e. those excelling either in he- the heavenly bodies, or that Locke himself created tne reditary distinction or in wealth. ruled their fellow-citizens. human understanding. The logic of Aristotle is, what it When the power was in the hands of a small class of these, professes to be, an enumeration of the leading classes, or who had acquired it by chance or usurpation, such a genera, to which all our notions may be referred; an ac government was said to be an oligarchy. Thus aristocracy count of the various methods by which we arrive at genera. ts enumerated by Aristotle among the distinct forms of propositions. and reason from these when formed; and a government; oligarchy is only mentioned as a perversion body of rules for the conduct af the understanding in going of aristocracy: and the distinction as taken by him is, that through these processes. (See LOGIC, CATEGORY, d&C.) in an aristocracy the governors rule for the public good, Metaphysics is the science of being, as such; and herein and in an oligarchy for their own. In modern times, those is distinguished from physics, which considers only tile governments have usually been termed aristocratic in modifications of being, and the changes to which they are which a small privileged class of noble or wealthy persons subject. Each of the physical sciences has its own funda. either governed absolutely, or shared the government in mental axioms, the truth of which it is compelled to asvarious proportions with the sovereign or with the people. sume: it is the province of metaphysics to verify these Th-sm the Republic of Venice presented the purest example assumptions, and to discover their unity and connexion of an aristocracy among the older governments of Europe: Aristotle's metaphysical system, though it may be said to while the government of the United Provinces, before the owe its origin and many of its peculiarities to that of his French Revolution, might also be cited as an instance of great predecessor, Plato, yet deviates from it in many imaristocratic commonwealth; and Great Britain of a mo- portant respects. Both the one and the other admit the narchy tempered by aristocracy. In a stricter sense, how- existence of a faculty, the sphere of which transcends the ever, the word has been used by modern speculative poli- objects of sense: they differ as to the method by which ticians to signify any government in which'' a minority of this faculty is to arrive at its determinations. Plato doubtadult males" constitute the ruling class. In this sense, the less conceived, that in virtue of the necessary connection government of France, that of England both in respect of in which all conceptions stand to each other, we are able, the House of Commons and of the HIouse of Lords, and, in so soon as we have awakened one idea in our consciousshort, almost every state in which a census is adopted as ness, to arrive at the knowledge of all the rest. Aristotle, the qualification of those who elect representatives in the on the contrary, conceived all deductive science to be illunational assembly, must be cited as aristocratic. The word sive which does not rest, for the truth of its fundamental aristocracy is also frequently used to signify a class of per- principles, on a previous induction from particulars. sons in the state: the wealthy and noble classes in a body, Agreeably to this conviction. he begins his Ontological or the latter class by itself. speculations with the consideration of the individual, as it ARISTOLO'CHIA. (Gr. dptcOro, best, and NoXeta, child- presents itself in the world of sense. To the production birth.) A genus of exogenous plants, usually having twin- of each separate exercise, four causes are necessary: the ing stems and one-sided bent, yellow or purple variegated material cause, the formal, the final, and the moving cause. flowers, the odour of which is often very offensive. They The three latter, he seems to admit, are substantially idenare reputed to be powerful stimulants and aromatics. One tical, inasmuch as in Nature the end of a thing is that very species, but not a twinim:n one, is occasionally met with wild thing itself in its completeness: wlhile the moving cause in England (A. clematitis, common birthwort): a few are may be conceived as the type pre-existing in the mind of natives of the South of Europe, but the principal part of the artificer, which is the same with the form which he the genus is tropical. communicates to the material. We should greatly inisARI'STOLO'CIIA'CE.E. The natural order of which conceive Aristotle's meaning, if, as has sometimes been Aristolochia is the type. Asarum (see AsARABACCA) is the done, we identified his forms of things with their outward only other common genus associated with Aristolochia; figure, or even with the notion of them apprehended by but there are several tropical forms. The wood of this the understanding. The form of a thing may be differently order is remarkable for growing without forming concen- expressed, as the law of its being, the principle of life tric zones, although undoubtedly exogenous. within it, which animates and gives an individual existence ARISTOTE'LIAN PHILOSOPHY. In attempting to to the matter; which, on the other hand, without its prejive an account of the doctrines of Aristotle of Stagira, sence, would remain a mere blank potentiality, destitute we feel embarrassed by peculiar difficulties. The preju- of all qualities, and therefore unintelligible and inipercelpdices under which, until lately, the name of this philoso- tible. This distinction between matter and form re-appears, pher has laboured, and still, perhaps, continues in a great under different names, in various portions of the Aristo. measure to labour, would seem to render a more than telian philosophy, and is with him a solution of most of the usually detailed account of his writings necessary, in order difficulties in ontology and physics. He conceives it to be to justify what, in the view we shall take of their nature the only mode of explaining the possibility of a thing coniand value, may contradict the ordinary opinion. At the ing into existence, the difficulty of comprehending which same time, there is perhaps no ancient philosopher, the had led the electic philosophers to deny any reality to outfull comprehension of whose system requires so extensive ward phenomena. He himself conceives the universe to a knowledge of the works of his predecessors in scientific be eternal. WVith Plato, however, lie strenuously asserts research, and so careful a collation of detached passages the existence of reason, as something immutable and uni in his own writings, which are composed for the most part versal: co-eternal with, but unaffected by, thle sliifting phein a fragmentary and unmethodical manner, and an ob- nomnena of the world. HIe liffers froim that philosopher, acure and concise diction. The latter difficulty will be the in making the universal reason identical with God, instead more apparent, when we state the now unanimous opinion of being, with its correlative being, a creation of the Divine of the learned, that the works of Aristotle which remain to energy. us are entirely of the esoteric or acdromatic class, intended, Of Aristotle's strictly physical researches we shall say not for publication, but to serve as notes to the oral lectures little. Ie does not hiniiself seem to conceive that great which he delivered to the more instructed of his pupils. It certainty can be attained in this departiment of nunsan requires no more than a cursory glance at the titles and the science. When, hiowever, we reniember, that his Iistory bulk of Aristotle's writings, to be convinced of the cornm- of Animals has received very higih praise fromt no less a prehensiveness of his views, and the daringness of his de- naturalist than Cuvier, and w'hen we reflect liat this was sign. He divides the whole circle of knowledge into three perhaps thie only branch of natural science in which lihe great provinces, Metaphysics, or the Phiilosophia prima, was furnished with experimental data, swe shall be inclined including, as its instrument, logic; Physics, or the Second to attribute the errors and deficiencies of lis pliysical thleoPhilosophy, under which termi, in addition to the sciences ries rather to the deficiencies of the Greeks in tlie niecesordinarily falling under that denomination, he embraces a sary mechanical apparatus, than to any disqualification in great portion of the philosophy of the human mind, as the the philosoliher hiirself. In hiis treatises on tlie Soul, on phenomena of sensation, memory, and fancy; and, thirdly, Memory and Recollection, and on the Nature of Dreams, Ethics, or the science which treats of the conduct and he has earned the perhaps still higher praise of having duties of man, regarded both as an individual and as a created the science of Psycholooiy, and of having discovercitizen. His Logic is contained in his Categories, his trea- ed the guiding clue to thle explanation of our mental phe tise on Interpretation or the Nature of Propositions, his nomena, in the principle of association. farmer and latter Analytics, and his eight books of Topics; The third great division of the Aristotelian plhilosophy, to which may be added his work on the exposure of So- that which regards the relations of nian as a social and phisms. These form together what has been called the political animal," is comprisetl in the Politics, the (EconoOrganism of Aristotle; and seem intended as a prepara- mics, tlie Nicomachean and Euden:ian Ethics, and those tory discipline to the study of his Metaphysics. (See Arist. books entitled the Magmna Moralia. In the true spirit of an lMetaph. iv. 3.) The common opinion, which attributes to ancient Greek, Aristotle regards the science of ethics as Aristotle the discovery of the science of Logic, is, we most intimate!y connected with that of politics. tIe redoubt not, substantially correct. The flippant objection of peatedly expresses his aversion from all- speculations on Locke, that this notion would represent God as having merely ideal perfection; and his conviction that the practimade men mere adninals, and having left it to Aristotle to cable, under the existin. circumstances of humnanity, is make them rational, hardly needs a serious refutation. the true object of ethical inquiry. Among the most inNatural philosophers might with equal justice be accused fluential of these circutmstances on the conduct of an indiof asserting that Sir Isaac Newton changed the motion of vidual, is the constitution of the state to which he may 86 ARITHMETIC. ARITHMETIC.,elong; in the spirit, and according to the rm-.xims of adding the same number to itself, and division only an which he must act, if he would earn the praise 4'f a good abridged method of repeatedly subtracting one number aitizen. Not indeed that a good citizen and a Rood man from another. ire necessarily identical terms: they can only become so The numeral system of the Romans was very ill adapted n the case of one who is a dutiful member of a rightly to the purposes of arithmetical calculation; and, hence, it constituted commonwealth. The question necessarily keeping their accounts, and in all their commercial transirises, " How is this perfect form of policy to be deter- actions, they made use of the abacus. The astronomers mined?" The answer is, that form of government is the of Greece contrived an ingenious system, by means of best, which affords scope for the developement of the best which they were able to perform the most complex arithpart of our nature; in other words, which produces the metical operations. (See NOTATION.) The Indian nume Sest men. Out of this circle, Aristotle cannot be said to rals, on which the modern system of practical arithmetic is have fairly extricated himself. He has in some measure founded, were received from the Saracens of Spain, and approximated to a definite rule of morality in the doctrine, appear to have been partially introduced into the other that every virtue lies between two opposite excesses. It countries of Europe in the fourteenth century; but there is must however be confessed, that a certain degree of vague- no evidence of their having come into general use before ness prevails in his ethical speculations: a vagueness of the invention of printing. The facility afforded by the Inwhich he was himself conscious, and apparently despaired dian numerals in the performance of all numerical calculaof satisfactorily removing. Perhaps the most valuable tions has been one of the main causes of the,reat and rapid part of his moral writings, is that in which he discusses advancement of modern mathematical science. the much vexed question of the relation of happiness to The first complete treatise on practical arithmetic, in morality. Pleasure, he determines, can never be taken as which the numerals now in universal use were employer, a measure of actions, inasmuch as it is the uniform con- was written by Tartalea, and published in the year 1556. R comitant of all natural action whatsoever. (Eth. Nic. 1. x.) consists of two books, the first containing the application cf His politics comprise a most careful review of the most arithmetic to the purposes of civil life; and the second the celebrated Grecian constitutions, and a generalization of foundations of the principles of algebra. A less perfect the leading possible forms of government, with their va- treatise had been published by Tunstall in 1526, and another rious merits and defects, built on a careful induction from by Stifel or Stifelius, 1544: since that time works on the the great mass of varied facts and instances with which science have been almost infinite. the history of his country supplied him. They are conse- Arithmetic acquires several distinctive appellations, from quently invaluable, alike to the curious in Grecian history, the particular manner in which it is used, or the purpose to and to the political theorist; and traces of their effects are which it is applied: thus, sufficiently visible in the writings of perhaps all who have Binary Arithmetic. The art of expressing and combining arrived at eminence in the latter department.. numbers by pairs, and by means of two characters only. The best edition of Aristotle's complete works is that of A system of arithmetic of this sort was invented by LeibBekker, 3 vols. 4to. Berlin, 1831. Of the Ethics, that of nitz, and also by De Lagni, and traces of it have been found Michelet, with a commentary, 2 vols. 8vo. Berlin, 1835. Of in the early monuments of China. Suppose the two cha. the Treatise de Anima, with copious notes, that of Trende- racters to be 1 and 0; the zero multiplying any number aflenburg. Numerous editions of the Rhetoric have been ter which it is placed by 2, as in the denary scale, it multipublished in Oxford. Of his Ancient Commentators, the plies the preceding number by 10, the first ten numbers on best are Ammonins, Alexander Aphrodisiensis, Simplicius, the binary scale would be represented thus: 1 =one, 10and Thomas Aquinas. (Se Ritter's History of Ancient Phi- two, l= -three, 100 —fotr, 101-five, 110= six, 1ll=sevenr, losophy. vol. 3.) 1000-eight, 1001= nine, IO10ten. ARI'TItMETIC. (Gr. dptOpos, number.) The science Decimal Arithmetic, which requires a series of ten chaof numbers, or that part of mathematics which is con- racters, the progression proceeding according to the pow cerned with the properties of numbers. The elementary ers of ten. It is this which is universally employed by operations of arithmetic, being necessary in transacting the modern nations; the term, however, is generally applied Itordinary affairs of life, are perhaps as commonly known as those operations in which fractions occur, the fractions,ro the art of reading and writing, and therefore require no ex- ceeding according to the descending powers of ten; thbplanation; the principles, however, on which they depend is, the unit is considered as divided into tenths, thelewiiti are of a very general and highly refined nature. into hundredths, and so on. It is very remarkable tlmit tI e Every number, according to the definition of Newton, is, Hindoos, who have so long been acquainted with the dleisproperly speaking, only a ratio, or relation. In order to ry notation, are still ignorant of its application to fiaction?,. explain this, it may be remarked, that every magnitude The Moors, from whom it was transplanted into Europei which we compare with another magnitude is either equal, were equally unacquainted with this application. The isi )r greater, or less, and, consequently, has a certain ri-la- vention of decimal fractions, which has doubled tlie ebi tion to that with which it is compared; that is to say, it e:' her ciency of our arithmetical system, is generally ascribed W contains it or is contained in it, in a certain manner. This RegEomontanus. relation, or manner of containing or being contained, is: what Duodecimal Arithmetic, in which the n-ultiples and diviwe call number: thus the number 3 expresses the ratio sors of unity proceed according to tlhe powers of 12. Th:2 which one magnitude has to another smaller than itself. is adapted to our system of lineal an(t superficial measures. which is taken for unit, and which the greater contains in which the foot is divided into 12 inclics, tle inch into 1I three times. On the contrary, the fraction i expresses the lines, &c., and is accordingly generally used by a.rlificers. -atio of one magnitude to another greater than itself, wlhich,Sexagesimial or Sexagenary Arilnmctic. whslich dtescendtl is taken as unit, and which contains the smaller three by the powers of 60. The system of subdivision was intro tirmes. duced into the Alexandrian school by Plolemny, f(r the pur IHaving distinguished the numbers or relations of magni- poses of astronomical calculation. Ttle partition of the cirtudes, which we have conceived in our minds by particular cuniference of the circle into SCO degrees. was probably signs. arithmetic becomes the art of combining these rela- founded on the property that tIle clord of one-sixth of the tions with one another; employing for this purpose the circumference is equal to the radius. Having divided the signs themselves by which the numbers are distinguished. radius into 60 equal parts or primes, the angle of the hexaHience, the four operations of addition, subtraction, multi- gon naturally followed the same division; hence, one par, plication, and division, include the whole science: for all or prime was equivalent to the 360th part of tlie whole cirthe different combinations that can be formed of ratios are cumference. The degree was by analogy subdivided into reduced ultimately to an examination of the excess of some 60 minutes, the minute into 60 seconds, and so on. Ptole above others, or of the way in which they contain one an- my ascribes the reason of adopting this tmethod of divisior other. For the purpose, indeed, of facilitating commercial to the facility which it affords in calculation;: and his cornaccounts, astronomical calculations, &c., many other very mentator Theon adds that 60 is the most convenient of at useful rules have been invented, such as the rules of pro- numbers, inasmuch as being sufficiently smoall it has a con portion, interest, discount, alligation, position, extraction of siderable number of divisors. roots. progression, &c.; but, on attending to the operations Political Arithmetic. The application of arithmetic to prescribed by these rules, it is easy to see that they are only researches connected with civil governmroent, such as the different applications of the four principal rules. number of inhabitants of a country, the quantity of food ne. The particular operations of arithmetic depend in their cessary for their consumption, the labour they can accomletails on the system of characters by which numbers are plish, the mean duration of life, the produce of the soil, the represented. Our arithmetic, which is constructed on the frequency of fires or shipwrecks, &c. In applying arithdenary system of notation, would be entirely changed if metic to inquiries of this sort, we have three principal obmore or fewer characters than ten were employed. The jects in view; the first is to procure precise facts, the Romans used a different notation, and their rules of arith- second to deduce from the observed facts the consenietic were entirely different from ours. But all arithmetic, quences to which they lead, and the third to determine the in wl;atever manner numbers may be represented, is ulti- probability both of the facts and the consequences. (See mate.y reduced to the four operations or rules already STATISTICS.) mentioned. Strictly speaking, indeed, the fundamental Universal Arithmetic. The name given by Newton tu rules may be reduced to two, addition and subtraction; for algebra, or the calculation of magnitudes in general. Tna multiplication is only an abridged method of repeatedly operations of ordinary arithmetic are fourlea on two di& 87 -,, ARITHMETICAL COMPLEMENT. ARMOUR. tinct classes of principles; the first are independent of the near Venice, who had published a variety of useful works particular signs by which numbers are expressed, the in the language of their country. sPcond depend on those signs. The general properties of ARMI'NIANS. Those who hold the tenets of Arminius itnumbers, which are independent of any particular system a Protestant divine, born in Holland in the year 1560. They of notation, form the subject of universal arithmetic. (See are thus summed up:I.a.'rdner's Treatise on Arithmetic; De Morgan's Elements 1st. God from all eternity determined to save all who he of Arithmetic.) foresaw would persevere in the faith, and to condemn al AlRITHME'TICAL COMPLEMENT-of a number is who should continue in unbelief. what it wants of the next higher decimal denomination. 2d. Christ atoned for the sins of all mankind, but those Thus 4 is the arithmetical complement of 6, because it is )nly who believe partake of the benefit of that atonement. what 6 wants of 10. In like manner 43 is the arithmetical 3d. Man is of himself incapable of true faith; therefore complement of 57, and 432 of 568: the number and its regeneration by the Holy Spirit, given of God through Christ, cuo:plement, when added together, always producing a sum is necessary. which is expressed by 1, followed by as many ciphers as 4th. All good works are to be attribute I to the grace of there are digits in the number. It is used in logarithmic the Holy Spirit, which, however, does not force a ii a, calculation to avoid the trouble of subtraction: for exam. against his own inclination. pie, if two logarithms are given, and a third is to be sub. 5th. God gives to the truly faithful the means of contracted from their sum, the whole operation may be per- tinuing such. With respect to the possibility of a defection lormned at once, by writing the reciprocal of the logarithm from this state of grace, Arminius and his immediate iblto be subtracted, and adding the three together. lowers expressed themselves undecidedly: but it canii: Arithmetical 3Mean between two numbers is a number afterwards to be considered a part of the character of Ar. such that its excess above the first is equal to its defect minianism to affirm the possibility. from the second, or it is a number equal to half their sum: The asserters of these opinions in Holland were vehe. thus 10 is an arithmetical mean between 7 and 13. An mently attacked by the Calvinistic party, which was pro. arithmetical mean among any number of quantities is found valent at the time; and in 1610 the Arminians addressed a hy adding all the quantities together, and dividing by the petition to the States of Holland for protection, from which nu!nber. Thus, let there be six numbers, 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9; they derived the name of Remonstrants. In the yeam i mean among them is 5, for their sum is equal to 30, and 1618, nine years after the death of Arminius, the synod' of 30 divided by 6 gives 5. Dort was convened by the States General, and a hearing Arithmetical Progression. A series of three or more given to both parties. The Arminianopinions were defendnumnbers, such that each differs from that which precedes ed by Episcopius, divinity professor at Leyden; but hia ar follows it by the same number: thus, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, form side complained that they were unfairly treated, and the an arithmetical progression, in which the common differ- conditions of the discussion violated to their prejudice. ence of the terms is 2. The general expression of this pro- They were condemned by the Synod, and treated in congression is a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, &c. sequence with great severity, being forbidden to exercise Arithmetical Proportion. Four numbers are said to be in the ministry in public: many of them tied to Antwerp, arithmetical proportion, when the difference between the France, and other quarters. first and second is the same as the difference between the From this period their opinions underwent a considert'fird and fourth: for example, 2, 5, 6, 9. able change; and the articles above stated, which seem a Arithmetical Ratio. The difference between any two little different from the tenets of the Lutherans, began tIo.crms of an arithmetical progression. be so explained as almost to do away entirely with the idea A.RMA'DA. (Spanish military or naval force.) This of the necessity of succour from the Holy Spirit. From rname is peculiarly applied in English history to the fleet hence they proceeded to reject many matters of faith, a nd assembled by Philip II. in 15S8, for the conquest of Eng- to simplify materially the articles requisite for salvation. land. The Spaniards, with their usual inflation of language, They proposed to draw up such a comprehensive and liberal termed it "Invincible." It consisted of 150 ships, carry- scheme as should embrace all Christians, with the exclu ing 2650 guns, and having on board 20,000 soldiers, besides sion of the Romanists. They considered it sufficient thal volunteers, and 3000 seamen. The account of its misad- a man should receive the Holy Scriptures as the rule o{ ventures and dispersion is well known. The reader who faith, and allowed each individual to interpret them for him-.s curious to consult a new and carefulti relation of this cele- self, only adding thereunto the necessity of nmoral dutiet grated passage in history, will find it in Southey's Naval and good works. The Papists were excluded on the score!i)tory qf Great Britain, forming a part of the Cabinet of morality, as admitting the lawfulness of persecution. f(yclopawdia. The best Spanish account of the transaction There is no longer any particular sect to which the name will be found in Herrera. Arminian is exclusively applied; but the opinions above ARMADI'LLO. A Spanish epithet, applied to a genus stated are adopted in England by one branch of the Mlethoof small South American macronykous or edentate quad- dists, who follow therein the aviews of their founder Wies. rupeds, characterised by a defensive armour of small poly-!ey, and by many individuals of the church,f Englanid, gonal bony plates, which covers the head, trunk, and some- and other denominations. The articles of the Englisb times the tail. Linnaeus applied to this genus the term church have been represented by different parties as iiDasypus, by which the Greeks, with more propriety, de- lininig both to Arminianismn and Calvinismli; and Whilby, signated the hare and rabbit. and Taylor, bishop of Norwich. are amono the most fanomo s AR'MAMENT. (Lat. Armamenturnm.) A force equip- of her friendls who have maintained the Ar(miian tenets. ped for war, naval or military. In Roman antiquities, ar- A/RMISTICE. (Lat. armistitium.) In National Law.: mamenta comprehended the rigging and tackling of a ship, truce or suspension of hostilities. its sails, sailyards, oars. ropes, &c. Hence "Arma" de- A RMOUR. (Lat. arinatura.) A term applied to thise notes the sails (Virg. 2En. v. 1.55.) and the rudder (ib. vi. artificial imeans by which man is wont eitner to protiec 1. 353.) of a vessel. himself or to annoy his enemny, hence called defensive anak ARMI'LLA. (Lat. armilla, a bracelet.) In Ornithology, offensive. DcJkensire armour includes tlhose arns specithe coloured circle of the distal naked end of the tibia, ally used for the defence or protection of tlhe body, as cuiabove the tarsal joint. rasses, helmets, ci. The iiaterials used in their construcARMI'LLARY SPHERE. (Lat. armilla, a bracelet.) An tion are exceedingly n1mltitfariius. varvin: in rimany instan.ancient astronomical machine, composed of an assemblage ces according to the products of the country in wliicth they of hoops or circles, representing the different circles of the are fabricated, but depending in general on thle judgment system of the world, as the equator, the ecliptic, the co- and experience of the inhabitants. Oficsire armis, or those lures, &c. put together in their natural order, and occupy- used in attack, are of different kinds: 1. For cutting, such ing their proper relative positions. as the sabre; 2. For thrusting, such as thile straight swvord, ARMI'NIAN CHURCt. Tihe Arminians are Christians the bayonet, pike, lance, &c.; 3. For tihrowing, such as the of the Eutychian or Monophysite doctrine, which recog- mortar, rocket, howitzer, &c.; and lastly, for shooting, nises only one nature in the Saviour, viz. the Divine; and such as guns, pistols, carabines, rifles, and cannons. 1lu. the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father only. cretius traces the progress of offensive arms very nrThey hold the seven sacraments of the Romish Church, nutely: — an I the doctrine of transubstantiation: their clergy is also Arna ntiqas manu, un.ues dentesque fure, divided into secular and regular. From the wide disper- Et lapides et item sylvarnim fragmina, rami sion of the Arminians over the commercial regions of the Et fiamma, atque ignes postquam siiat cognita primur; east, their form of Christianity is also considerably diffused, Posterius ferri vis est, arisque eperta; although it appears to be strictly a national church of which Et prior crits erat quam erri cognitus usus." none but Arminians are members. Since the last war be- The history of armour is identified with that of every na tween Russia and Turkey (1829), the place where the prin- tion; and an elaborate discussion of this subject wolltJ cipal of their four patriarchs resides (Etchmiadzine), has throw great light upon questions of mythology, poetry, illbeen transferred from the latter to the former government. risprudence and civil polity, and strikingly display the ps,There is also at Constanminople, and in other parts of the gress of civilisation. Into such details, however, our linits Levant, an Arminian Roman Catholic Church, owning the necessarily preclude us from entering, and we can only re-,irpremacy of the Pope. There is a well known congre- for the reader to Meyrick's work upon this subject ( 3 vols..;tion of Arminian monks on the, island of San Lazaro, 4to. London, 1324), which the student of the politics, ar,88 ARMS. ARREST. manners. and wars ol antiquity and the middle ages, may his supporters caused great uneasiness in Rome, which consult with great benefit. was the chief scene of his proceedings. He was finally ARMS, or ARMORIAL BEARINGS. In Heraldry, the put down by an armed force, made prisoner, and burnt by name given to the devices borne on shields or coat armour. Pope Adrian IV. Certain heretical notions on the nature Farn ly coats of arms are divided by heralds into perfect of the Eucharist were charged against him; but the insur. anld imperfect. Perfect are, 1. Abstract, or warranted by rection which arose under his auspices was clearly a polit regular descent. 2. Termiinal, belonging to the brethren of ical disturbance, anid his harangues seeni to have been di the right line. 3. Collateral, borne by brethren of the heir recled rathler against the morals than the tenets of th< male. 4. Fixal. in third degree by right line of male heirs. church which he attempted to overturn. iunperfect are, 1. Granted by the kirng, with a lordship. 2. AIRNOTTO. See ANNOTTA. The gift of a king, derived by a herald. 3. The ensign of ARO'MA. Tlie characteristic odour of substances, es a Saracen won in the field. 4. Heir female of close branch. pecially the strong and peculiar odours of certain plants 6. Arm:ns of bastardy. whence the le.rm LuroImaic. A'RMY. (Fr.) Lit. men in arms. A body of men or- ARPE'GGIO and ARPEGGIA'TO. (It. arpeggiarc, t. ganised and disciplined for military service, commanded play on Ithe harp.) In Music, the striking or bowinig, if or by a chief or leader, with subordinate officers in regular an instrument of the violin species, the notes of a chord in gradation, and supported both in time of peace and war for quick and repealed succession, so as to imitate the harp. the preservation of internal quiet and defence against for- Al(EUTEBUSA'DE. (From arquebus, a handgun.) An eign aggression. An army is generally divided into a cer- aromatic spirituous lotion. applied to strains arid bruises. lain number of corps, each consisting of brigades, regi- but originally invented as an application to wounds inflicted ments, battalions, and squadrons. When in the field, it is by an arquebus. formed into lines: the first is called the vanguard,the second, A'RQUEBUSE, or HARQUEBUSE. A sort of hind the main body; the third, the rear-guard or body of reserve. gun, used by infantry before the invention of the musquet. The middle of each line is occupied by the foot; the cavalry Thie word is of uncertain derivation: the Italian archibuso forms the right and left wing of each line, and sometimes is said to come fromi arco, a bow, arid busio, or bugio, but squadrons of horse are placed in the intervals between the the meaning of this last seems unsettled. The word is bat:l.lions. It the history of armies we may distingutish used very loosely in old writers for every sort of fire-arms those of three different periods: 1. The ancient armies, used by infantry. Gunsmiths are still called arquebusiers which, fromt the time of Sesostris downwards, under- in France. In the German, Spanish, and Gascon infantry went a series of progressive improvements under the of the earlier part of the sixteenth century, the pike and Persians, Greeks, and Carthaginians, till they finally arquebuse-men were intermixed in the same ranks. The reached a high degree of perfection under the Romans. barbarous English words hackbut, hackbutteer, which we 2. Those of the middle ages, the offspring of the feudal find in military language in the reign of Elizabeth, are desystem, which, however well calculated to keep alive a rived from arquebuse, arquebusier. The arquebuse is said spirit of ferocity, opposed a formidable barrier to the revi- to occur first in the descriptions of the battle of Morat in val of the military art, frorm their contempt of discipline and 1476. Arquebusiers on horseback are mentioned in that utter lawlessness. 3. Those that have existed since the of the battle of Fornosa, 1494. invention of gunpowder and the establishment of standing ARRACA"CHA. The South American name for an urnarmies. Since the use of gunpowder there have been se- belliferous plant, the arracacia esculenta of botanists; ven principal periods in the history of the military art. whose fleshy sweet roots are cultivated in Columbia and The first extends from the early part of the fourteenth to Jamnaia, in the mountainous parts of those countries, in tiie end of the fifteenth century. The second begins with t'c same way as parsnips and carrots in Europe. The thue campaign of Charles VIII. in Italy, and extends to the loots are of large size, and in quality are when cooked commencement of the wars in the Netherlands, compri- between a sweet chesnut and a parsnip. Attempts to insing the wars of the French, Germans, and Spaniards in' troduce it into common European cultivation have \ni. Italy. The third period comprehends the great war of in: formly failed. dependence, waged by the Netherlands, in order to shake ARRA'CK. A spirituous liquor, obtained by distilling off the yoke of Spain, and extends from 1568 to the general the fermented produce of rice; but other spirituous liquors suspension of hostilities in 1609. Thie fourth period com- are called by the same name. Arrack has a very strong prises the celebrated Thirty Years' War, and extends from anrd somewhat nauseous flavour and odour, derived from 1618 to 1648. The fifth perioc comprehends the wars of a peculiar volatile oil which it contains, and which corresthe French in Italy, Germany,,nd the Netherlands, as well ponds with that which gives a sickly and disagreeable taste as the Northern and Turkish wars, and embraces the space to our corn spirit. of 90 years, viz. from 1648 to 1738. The sixth period in- ARRAI'GNMENT. In Law, the arraignment of a pri. eludes the three Silesian wars, viz. from the beginning of soneron a criminal charge consists in calling him to the the first Silesian war in 1740, to the breaking out of the bar, and (in treason and felony) making him hold up his French Revolution in 1792. During these several periods hand, or otherwise own himself to be the party charged, many iriprovements took place in the composition and reading the indictment to him in English, and demanding discipline of armies; but these were destined to be far of him his plea (guilty or not guilty), and entering it acsurpassed in the seventh and last period, which embraces cordingly. the military systems and establishments of our own times. ARRE'ST. In Law, in execution of the command of In the oruanisation of the Continental armies great unifor- some court of record or officer of justice, may take place mnity prevails; but as these are inseparably connected with either in criminal or civil cases. 1. For treason, felony, or the political iondition of the people, a consideration of their breach of the peace, any person may arrest without war. character belongs to to the history of these various nations, to rant or precept. Arrests by public officers may be made which we monust refer the reader. The British army, like either with or without process. Any constable, or event those of the Continent, is divided into cavalry, infantry, private person, who has a warrant directed to him from a and artillery, and these again into regiments and battalions; justice of the peace to that effect. nmay arrest for felony oi but in its co srposition and organisation an entirely different misdemeanor; and, if the warrant was given without suffi. principle is asdopte(l. While the Continental armies are cient ground, the justice is responsible. Every warrant recruited by conscription, and every officer must have should be under the hand and seal of a justice of peace, ansd served as a private or a cadet, or have acquired some specify the day on which it was made out: it seems to be knowledge of the military art in a preparatory establish- rather discretionary than necessary, although it is usual to ment, the ranks of the British army are supplied by volun- specify the cause of arrest in the warrant. 2. Arrest in a tary enlistment, and commissions are, with rare excep- civil cause is by process, in execution of the command of tions, only attainable. with or without purchase, as a favour some court or officer of justice. On affidavit of a cause of from the comnmander-in-lchief. In addition to the officers action to the amount of J20 (such cause of action importattached to each separate regiment, the superintendence ing a contract or liability, express or implied, and a breach of the whole atrmy in its various departments and ramifi- of such contract, and a present debt overdue, unless in cations is entrusted to a cornmander-in-chief, a secretary some rare cases, in which special orders to hold to bail are at war, a master-general of the ordnance, a paymaster-gen- given for the causes of action), the plaintiff obtains a writ of eral of the forces, an adjutant-general, and a quarternias- capias, which is the proper process for tlie arrest of one or ter-aeneral. There are, besides, a board of general officers more defendants who are at large. When a defendant is for the clothinn' of the army, an inspector of army colours, already in custody in one of the prisons of the superior comnmissioners of the military college, and commissioners courts, a writ of detainer to continue such imprisonnientat of the military asylumn. (For an account of armies in gen- the suit of the new plaintiff is the proper proceeding. The eral, vidte Enym.C. s Brit. art Army; of the British army, form and effect of the writ of capias (see CAPIAs), on which Mf'Csuloc