A TREATISE
ON THE
PREJPARATION AND  DELIVERY
OF
S  A R M 0 NS.
BY
JOHN A BROADUS, D.D., LL.D.,
PROFESSOR IN THE SOUTHERN BAPTIST THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY,
GREENVILLE, S. C.
0e4ftnd  (dition.
PHILADELPHIA:
SMITH, ENGLISH & CO.,
No. 23 NORTH SIXTH STREET.
NEW YORK: SHELDON & CO., 500 BROADWAY.
1871.
.,: 7..: 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by
JOHN A. BROADUS,
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
I AT       J. PFAG AN & SON,
STEREOTYPE FOUNDERS, 
A   PDHILADELPHIA. 
~x'S          
CAXTON PRESS OF SHERMAN & co.
.......................................................................... -  *... r  ^ *X X. X^ ^  @  w 
I.........................................................
I t 
J,-  i 4- 97
PREFACE.
r  HIS wo k is designed, on the one hand to be a text_   book fcr classes, and on the other to be read by such
ministers, younger or older, as may wish to study the subjects discussed.
As a teacher of Homiletics for ten years, the author had
felt the need of a more complete text-book, since a course
made up from parts of several different works would still
omit certain important subjects, and furnish but a meagre
treatment of others, leaving the class to a great extent
dependent entirely upon the lectures. The desire thus
arose to prepare, whenever possible, a work which should
be full in its range of topics, and should also attempt to
combine the thorough discussion of principles with an
abundance of practical rules and suggestions. When the
labor involved in teaching this and at the same time
another branch of Theology became excessive, and it was
necessary to relinquish Homiletics - though always a
favorite branch - the author determined, before the subject should fade from his mind, to undertake the work he
had contemplated.
The treatise is therefore a result of practical instruction,
but it is not simply a printed course of lectures.   The
materials existing in the form of brief notes have been
everywhere rewrought, the literature of the subject carefiully re-examined, and the place which had been occupied
by text-books, filled )y an independent discussion.
iii
T,
IG -
0 
PR,EFA CE.
Those who may think of employing the work as a textbook are requested to note, that it is divided into.independent Parts, which, while arranged in the order indicated
by the nature of the subject, may be taken up in any other
order required by the exigencies of instruction.   Some
would prefer to begin with Arrangement, in order that students may at once have the benefit of this in preparing
sermons or sketches.  Others might begin with Style, in
order to general exercises in composition; and possibly
others with Delivery. The author would himself prefer,
if using the book, to take, after the Introduction, the first
three chapters of Part I, and then Part II and perhaps
other portions before completing Part I. The cross references from one part to another will be found somewhat
numerous. In the plan of the work, a few instances occur of
departure from a strict technical distribution of the topics,
for the sake of practical convenience. Thus the matters
embraced under Illustration, Expository Preaching, or
Imagination, would strictly belong to several different
parts of the work, but it is practically better to discuss all
at the same time.
It may be necessary to explain the introduction of copious chapters on the Interpretation of a Text, and on Argument. The former subject is discussed in treatises on
Hermeneutics. But besides the fact that not a few of those
who use this book will not have previously studied Hermeneutics, those who have done so may be interested and
profited by a discussion bearing more directly on the work
of preaching; and such students will be able to read the
chapter rapidly. Much improvement has been made during
the past century in respect to pulpit interpretation, but it
is a point as to which our young ministers still need to be
very carefully guarded. The subject of Argument is
thought by some to be out of place in a treatise on Homiletics or on Rhetoric in general.  But preaching and all
I iv 
PREF LCE.
public speaking ought to be largely composed of argument,
for even the most ignorant people constantly practice it
themselves, and always feel its force when properly presented; and yet in many pulpits the place of argument is
mainly filled by mere assertion and exhortation, and the
arguments employed are often carelessly stated, or even
gravely erroneous. Treatises on Logic teach the critical
inspection, rather than the construction of argument, and
so the latter must be discussed in works on Rhetoric, if
anywhere.  The well-known chapters of Whately have
been here freely employed, but with very large additions,
and with the attempt to correct some important errors.
The examples of argument given are nearly all drawn
from religious truth. With these explanations it is left to
instructors to use or omit these portions of the work at
their pleasure.
But the great mass of young ministers, particularly in
some  denominations, never  study Homiletics  under  a
teacher, whether they have or have not enjoyed a Collegiate education. The attempt has been everywhere made
to adapt the present work to the wants of these students, as
well as the purposes of a text-book. They will choose for
themselves what portions to take up first, but such as have
had no College education may be urged not to abandon the
book without reading the discussion of Arrangement and
Style, as well as of Interpretation, Subjects of Preaching,
and Argument.  For the sake of those who have enjoyed
few advantages, occasional explanations have been introduced, which other readers would hardly  eed.
Those who have had much experience in preaching often
find it interesting and useful to examine a treatise on the
preparation and delivery of sermons. New topics and new
methods may be suggested, things forgotten or hitherto
neglected are recalled, ideas gradually formed in the course
ocf experience are made clearer and more definite, and
v
I  
PREFACE.
where the views advanced are not deemed just, re sewed
reflection on some questions need not be unprofitable.
Moreover, the desire for high excellence in preaching may
receive a fresh stimulus.  Such readers will remember that
many practical matters which to them have now become
obvious and commonplace, are precisely the points upon
which a beginner most needs counsel. And while there are
in the present treatise numerous divisions and subdivisions,
so marked as to meet the wants of students, the attempt
has been made to preserve the style from becoming broken
and unreadable.
The author's chief indebtedness for help has been to
Aristotle, Cicero and Quintilian, and to Whately and
Vinet. The two last (together with Ripley) had been his
text-books,- and copious extracts are made from them
on certain subjects. A good deal has been derived fronm
Alexander, Shedd, Day, and Hoppin, from  Coquerel and
Palmer, and a great variety of others writers, as the Index
will show. Besides quotations, there are numerous references to works in which may be found some impressive
statement of similar opinions, or further considerations
bearing on the subject in hand.   Only such references
have been given as it was thought really worth while for
the student to consult. At the close of the Introduction, there
is a list of the principal works forming the Literature of
Homiletics, with brief notices of their character and value.
It is believed that to give in a treatise sonme account of
previous works on the subject, as judged from the author's
point of view,% a thing appropriate and calculated to be
useful. Such notices, in the case of contemporary writers,
ought not to be reckoned discourteous if they frankly
express disapprobation in some respects as well as praise
in others.   Were they somewhat  more extended, these
critical  appreciations would  be  more  useful.  Besides
this general account of the literature, essays and treatises
vi 
PREFACE.
upon particular branches of Rhetoric or Homiletics are
briefly characterized in foot-notes, upon the introduction of
the respective topics. Two important and valuable works,
MecIlvaine on Elocution (New York, 1870), and Dabney's
Sacred Rhetoric (RPichmond, 1870), were received after the
Introduction was stereotyped, but are noticed in Part IV,
chapter II, and were made useful in that and the following
chapters. Two articles published by the author On the
Baptist Quarterly for January, 1869, and January, 1870.
have been incorporated into the work, with the necessary
rewriting; and some articles forming other portions of
it have appeared in the Religious Herald, and the Central Baptist. The author is grateful to his colleagues and
his pastor, for sympathy in his undertaking and for valuable suggestions. The Index has been prepared by the Rev.
John C. Long, of Virginia.
Special pains have been taken, at the proper points of
the treatise, to give practical suggestions for extemporaneous speaking.  Most works confine their instruction as
regards the preparation of sermons to the case of writing
out in full; and many treat of delivery, as if it were in all
cases to be reading or recitation. The effort has here been
to keep the different methods in view, and to mention, in
connection with matters applicable to all alike, such as
apply to one or another method in particular.
As to many of the practical questions connected with the
preparation and delivery of sermons, there is much difference of opinion; and an experienced pr her in reading
ally treatise on the subject, must find points here and there
which he would prefer to see treated othlerwise.  He would
decide whether, notwithstanding, the work is likely to be
useful.  In the present case, critic,ism, whether favorable
or adverse, would be welcomed.   Where the author is in
error, he would greatly prefer to know it.  Where  the
vii 
PREFACE.
views presented are just, they may become more useful
through discussion.
No one could prepare a work on this subject without
feeling, and sometimes deeply feeling, the responsibility he
incurred. It is a solemn thing to preach the gospel, and
therefore a very solemn thing to attempt instruction or
even suggestion as to the means of preaching well.
Julz, 1870.
NOTE.   There are several classes of persons besides ministers,
to whom portions of this work may perhaps prove acceptable and
useful.
The treatises on Rhetoric now studied, in schools and College,
are nearly all designed to prepare the student for writing, rather
than distinctively for speaking; and speakers upon whatsoever subject, may really find more of what they need in a book on preaching.
The ablest lawyers and statesmen have often studied sermons, as
specimens of eloquence; why not learn something from treatises
on the prepar'ation and delivery of sermons?  The portions which
nmight be recommended to this class are after the Introduction,
Pairt I, chapters 4-8  Part II, chapters 1 and 2; Part III; and
Part IV; and these may,he taken in any order.
Lay preachers, and persons desirous of speaking in public on
religious subjects, might be not a little helped by the first three
chapters of Part I, by Part V, and by such other portions of the
work as they may find time to read.
To Sunday-School teachers are recommended Part I, chapters
2-7, and- 8, with the close of chapter 3; and Part V.
Intelligent Christians, of both sexes, must be often grieved at the
false estimate of preaching, the wrong notions of what it is, and
wllhat it ought to bwhich are so prevalent. By reading something
practical on the':et, they would be better prepared to sustain
those who preach properly, and to improve the tone of social conversation in regard to this matter.  They might also become more
sympathizing and appreciative hearers; and good listeners are, in
proportion, quite as rare as good preachers.  To these are recomumended the Introduction; Part I, chapters 1-4, 7 and 8; Part II,
chapter 3; Part IV; and Part V.
viii 
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
PAGII
17
19
20
1. Importance of Preaching.............................................
Difficulty of preaching well.......................................
. 2. Nature of Eloquence...................................................
3. Requisites of effective preaching, viz., piety, natural gifts,
knowledge, skill....................................................
4. Origin of the Rules of Rhetoric...................................
5. Dangers of rhetorical studies.......................................
6. Relation of Homiletics to Rhetoric................................
7. Literature of Homiletics.............................................
PART I.
MATERIALS OF PREACIIING.
CHAPTER I.
THE TEXT - SELECTION.
1. Meaning of the term Text....................
Q 2. Advantages of having a Text........................................
8 3. Rules (eight) for the selection of Texts..........................
CHAPTER II.
THE TEXT - INTERPRETATION.
38
89
41
I 1. Obligation to interpret carefully and strictly.................. 51
{ 2. Chief sources of error in the interpretation of texts........  53
ix
22
25
26
30
31 
CONTENTS.
Misunderstanding the text itself................................ 
Disregarding the connection of the text.....................
Impl)roper spiritualizing........................................
Q 3 Examples (nineteen) of texts often misapplied................ 
{ 4. Rules (six) for interpreting a text................................. 
CHAPTER III.
SUBJECTS - CLASSIFIED.
1. Doctrinal  subjects......................................................  88
Evidences of Christianity.......................................... 93
Controversy with other professed Christians................. 95
# 2. Subjects of morality.................................................. 97
Political preaching.................................................. 99
Temperance, Amusements, etc.................................... 104
8 3. Historical subjects................................................ 105
Q 4. Experimental subjects.......................................... 109
5. Occasional sermons..................................................... 111
Funeral sermons..................................................... 111
Academic sermons................................................... 113
Sermons to children................................................ 114
CHAPTER IV.
GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING -ORIGINALITY
AND PLAGIARISM.
1. Materials possessed beforehand....................................  118
The Scriptures a preacher's chief study..................... 121
Systematic Theology................................................ 122
Other reading......................................................... 123
2. Materials provided at the time...................................... 126
3. Original materials.................................................... 127
Absolute and relative originality................................ 127
Why originality is so desirable.................................. 130
Obstacles to originality....................................... 132
4. Borrowed materials and Plagiarism............................... 135
Proper use of ideas derived from others...................... 136
Proper acknowledgment of having borrowed.............. 141
x
PAC,,E
53
60
65
70
78 
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Science.................................................................. 221
Hiistory, news, anecdotes......................................... 223
Literature altd art.................................................... 225
Scripture................................................................. 228
{ 3. Cautions as to the employment of Illustration................. 228
CHAPTER VIII.
APPLICATION.
Importance of the Application............................................ 230
Persuasion, and three classes of motives.............................. 232
Exciting emotion.............................................................. 234
PART II.
ARRANGEMENT OF A SERMON.
CHAPTER I.
IMPORTANCE OF ARRANGEMENT.
CHAPTER II.
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
1. The Introduction........................................................ 248
Sources of introduction............................................ 250
Qualities of a good introduction................................. 254
2. Plan and Divisions..................................................... 257
No discourse without a plan...................................... 257
Always seek the best plan........................................ 258
The Proposition...................................................... 260
Divisions............................................................... 262
Are divisions necessary?........................................... 262
Number of divisions................................................ 266
Character of the divisions........................................ 268
Order of the divisions.............................................. 27.1
Statement of the divisions........................................ 272
Shall they be announced beforehand?......................... 273
xii
241 
CONTENTS.
PAOGM
Science.................................................................. 221
HIistory, news, anecdotes.................................. 223
Literature aindart..................................................... 225
Scripture................................................................ 228
{ 3. Cautions as to the employment of Illustration................. 228
CHAPTER VIII.
APPLICATION.
Importance of the Application............................................ 230
Persuasion, and three classes of motives.............................. 282
Exciting emotion.............................................................. 284
PART II.
ARRANGEMENT OF A SERIMON.
CHAPTER I.
IMPORTANCE OF ARRANGEMENT.
CHAPTER II.
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
1. The Introduction........................................................ 248
Sources of introduction............................................ 250
Qualities of a good introduction................................. 254
2. Plan and Divisions...................................................... 257
No discour ithout a plan......................................257
Always seek the best plan........................................ 258
The Proposition..................................................... 260
Divisions............................................................... 262
Are divisions necessary?........................................... 262
Number of divisions.................................................. 266
Character of the divisions........................................ 268
Order of the divisions.............................................. 27.1
Statement of the divisions....................................... 272
9hall they be announced beforehand?......................... 273
241 
CONTENTS.
TAGE
Transitions............................................................ 274
3. Conclusion................................................................. 277
Should be carefully prepared................................... 278
Recapitulation........................................................  279
Application, of different kinds................................ 279
Concluding exhortation............................................ 284
Preparation of the conclusion.................................... 286
CHAPTER III.
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
Three species distinguished............................................... 288
Q 1. Subject-sermons......................................................... 289
Q 2. Text-sermons....................................................... 293
{ 3. Expository sermons.................................................... 299
Advantages and disadvantages.................................. 300
Suggestions as to construction and management.......... 302
List of good specimens............................................. 316
PART III.
STYLE.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE,
1. Nature and importance of style....................... 319
{ 2. Means of improving style............................................. 324
Study of language........................................... 325
Study of literatre................................,.,...329
Practice, in writing and speaking................... 334
CHAPTER 11.
PERSPICUITY OP STYLE.
Importance of perspicuity.................................................. 339
Perspicuity as depending on terms...................................... 343
2
xiii 
CONTENTS.
PAGE
On the construction of sentences and paragraphs.................. 347
On general brevity and diffuseness...................................... 352
CHAPTER III.
ENERGY OF STYLE.
Nature of energy, and requisites thereto..............................
Energy in terms..............................................................
Energy in construction....................................... 
Conciseness in order to energy............................................
Figures which promote energy..........................................
-CHAPTER IV.
ELEGANCE OF STYLE.
Elegance in different species of composition.......................... 380
"     in use of terms...................................................  386
in arrangement of words...................................... 387
"     in use of figures.................................................. 390
Simplicity conducive to elegance........................................ 391
CHAPTER V.
IMAGINATION IN ITS RELATION TO ELOQUENCE.
1. Uses of imagination to the orat     or......................3............ 95
{ 2. Means of cultivating the imagination............................. 400
PART IV.
DELIVERY OF SERMONS.
CHAPTER I.
THE THREE METHODS OF PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.
General remarks on Delivery........................................... 406
, 1. Reading sermons........................................................ 408
2. Recitation-to write and repeat from memory................ 420
xiv
357
359
363
369
372
I 
CONTENTs.
PAGE
Free speaking......................................................... 423
8 3. Extemporaneous speaking........................................... 425
Q 4. Brief History of the three methods................................ 436
# 5. General and special preparation for extemporaneous
preaching........................................................... 439,
CHAPTER II.
ON DELIVERY AS REGARDS VOICE.
1. General remarks on Delivery........................................ 444
Q 2. The voice-its distinct powers..................................... 450
Q 3. General improvement of voice...................................... 452
Q 4. Management of voice when actually preaching............... 458
Note on Minister's Sore Throat.................................. 461
CHAPTER III.
ON DELIVERY AS REGARDS ACTION.
Action as expressing thought............................................. 464
Expression of countenance................................................. 467
Posture in speaking..........................................................   468
Gesture-use of hands..................................................... 471
Rules with regard to action................................................ 475
PART V.
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
Worship proper often neglected.......................................... 476
Q 1. Reading Scripture.................................................. 478
Q 2. Reading Hymns.................................................. 484
Q 3. Public Prayer...................................492
Q 4. Length of Services..................................................... 499
@ 5. Pulpit Decorum................................................ 502
i 6. Concluding Remarks................................................... 504
xv  
THE
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY
OF SERMONS.
INTRODUCTION.
1. IMPORTANCE OF PREACHING AND DIFFICULTY OF PREACHING
WELL. ~ 2. NATURE OF ELOQUENCE. ~ 3. REQUISITES TO EF FECTIVE PREACHING.  ~ 4. ORIGIN OF TJIE RULES OF RHEITORIC.
Q 5. DANGERS OF RHETORICAL STUDIES.  ~ 6. RELATION OF HOM ILETICS TO RHETORIC.  ~ 7. LITERATURE OF HOMILETICS.
-REACHING  is characteristic of Christianity.  No
false religion has ever provided for the regular and
frequent assembling of the masses of men, to hear religious
instruction and exhortation.* Judaism had something
like it in the prophets, and afterwards in the readers and
speakers of the synagogue; but Judaism was a true religion,
designed to be developed into Christianity.
The great appointed means of spreading the good tidings
of salvation through Christ is preaching- words spoken,
whether to the individual, or to the assembly. And this,
nothing can supersede.  Printing has become a mighty
agency for good and for evil; and Christians should employ
it, with the utmost diligence and in every possible way,
* Comp. Vinet, p. 21.
2*
17 
INTRODUCTION.
for the spread of truth.  But printing can never take the
place of the living word. When a man who is apt in
teaching, whose soul is on fire with the truth which he
trusts has saved him and hopes will save others, speaks to
his fellow-men, face to face, eye to eye, and electric sympathies flash to and fro between him and his hearers, till they
lift each other up, higher and higher, into the inltensest
thought, and the most impassioned emotion -higher and
yet higher, till they are borne as on chariots of fire above
the world,- there is a power to move men, to influence character, life, destiny, such as no printed page can ever possess.
Pastoral work is of immense importance, and all preachers
should be diligent in performing it. But it cannot take the
place of preaching, nor fully compensate for lack of power
in the pulpit. The two help each other, and neither of them
is able, unless supported by the other, to achieve the largest
and most blessed results.  When he who preaches is the
sympathizing pastor, the trusted counsellor, the kindly and
honored friend of young and old, of rich and poor, then
"truths divine comei mended from his lips," and the door
to men's hearts, by the magical power of sympathy, will
fly open at his word.  But on the other hand, when he who
visits is the preacher, wh9se thorough knowledge of Scripture and elevated views of life, whose able and impassioned
discourses have carried conviction and commanded admiration, and melted into one the hearts of the multitude,
who is accustomed to stand before them as the ambassador
of God, and is associated in their minds with the authority
and the sacredness of God's Word, - when he comes to
speak with the suffering, the sorrowing, the tempted, his
visit has a meaning and a power of which otherwise it must
be destitute.  If a minister feels himself specially drawn
towards either of these departments of effort, let him also
constrain himself to diligence in the other.
Religious ceremonies may be instructive and impressive.
18 
INTRODUCTIOX.
The older dispensation made much use of these, as we
employ pictures in teaching children. Even Christianity,
which has the minimum of ceremony, illustrates its fundamental facts, and often makes deep religious impressions,
by its two simple but expressive ordinances. But these
are merely pictures to illustrate, merely helps to that great
work of teaching and convincing, of winning and holding
men, which preaching, made mighty by God's Spirit, has
to perform.
It follows that preaching must always be a necessity,
and good pre'aching a mighty power.   In every age of
Christianity, since John the Baptist drew crowds into the
desert, there has been no great religious movement, no
restoration of Scripture truth, and reanimation of genuine
piety, without new power in preaching, both as cause and
as effect.
But alas! how difficult we find it to preach well. I Howv
small a proportion of the sermons heard weekly throughout
the world are really good.  The dilettanti men of letters
who every now and then fill the periodicals with sneers at
preaching, no doubt judge most unkindly and unjustly,
for they purposely conapare ordinary examples of preaching with the finest specimens of literature, and they forget
their own utter lack, in the one case, of that sympathetic
appreciation without which all literary and artistic judgmnent is necessarily at fault; but we who love preaching
and who try to preach are better aware than they are, of
the deficiencies which mar our efforts, and the difficulties
which attend our work. A venerable and eminently useful
minister once remarked, as he rose from the couch on which
he had been resting, " Well, I must get ready to preach tonight. But I can't preach - I never did preach - 0, I
never heard anybody preach."
And yet in this work of ours, so awful and so attractive,
so diffictult and solemnly responsible and yet so blessed. we
19 
INTROD U CTI ON.
ought to aspire after the highest excellence.   If in other
varieties of public speaking, then most of.all mn this, may
we adopt Cicero's words with reference to the young orator,
"I will not only exhort, but will even beseech him, to
labor." *
~ 2. NATURE OF ELOQUENCE.
What is good preaching? Or, more generally, what is
elo quence? This is not a merely speculative inquiry, for
our fundamental views on the subject will influence, to a
greater extent than we may be aware, our practical efforts.
Without reviewing the copious discussions of the question,
the following statement may be offered: Eloquence is so
speaking as not merely to convince the judgment, kindle
the imagination, and move the feelings, but to give a powerful impulse to the will.  All of these are necessary elements of eloquence, but that which is most characteristic is
the last. There may be instruction and conviction without
eloquence. The fancy may be charmned, as by a poem or
novel, when you would not think of calling it eloquence.
The feelings may be deeply stirred, by a pathetic tale or a
harrowing description, but no corresponding action being
proposed, we do not speak of it as eloquence. On the other
hand, it is not strictly correct to say that "eloquence is so
speaking as to carry your point;" fbr there may be an
invincible prejudice, or other insuperable obstacle, as, for
example, a preacher may be truly eloquent, without actually inducing his hearers to repent. There must be a powerful impulse upon the will; the hearers must feel smitten,
stirred, moved to, or at least moved towards, some action
or determination to act. Words that by carrying conviction, kindling imagination, and arousing eniotion, produce
such an effect as this upon the will, are rightly called eloquent words. Augustine says, Veritas pateat, veritas plas
iCic. de Or. I!,;  85.
20 
INTRODUCTION.
ceat, veritas nmoveat,  "Make  the truth  plain, make  it
pleasing, make it moving."
Eloquence, then, is a practical thing. Unless it aims
at real and practical results, it is spurious. Mere holiday
eloquence does not deserve the name. And the preacher
who kindles the fancy of his hearers merely for their delectation, who stirs their passions merely to give them the
luxury of emotion, is not eloquent. There is too much
preaching of just this sort. Besides vain pretenders who
care only to please, there are good men, who, if they can
say very handsome things, and can make the people feel,
imagine that they are preaching well, without inquiring
why the people feel, and to what truly religious ends the
feeling is directed.   It is a shame to see what vapid and
worthless stuff is often called eloquence, in newspaper puffs,
and in the talk of half-educated younglings, returning from
church.
Eloquence is a serious thing. You cannot say that a
discourse, or a paragraph, is very amusing and very eloquent. The speaker who is to deserve this high name,
must have moral earnestness.  He may sometimes indulge,
where it is appropriate, in the light play of delicate humor,
or give forth sparks of wit, but these must be entirely incidental, and subordinate to a thorough seriousness and
earnestness.  Theremin, in his useful little treatise, "Eloquence a Virtue," insists that eloquence belongs to the
ethical sciences, the character and spirit of the speaker
being the main thing. The theory is an exaggeration, but
contains an important element of truth, as Quintilian
already had partly observed.*
"What is the true ground of eloquence," says Vinet, "if
* Quint. Int. XII, 1, "An orator is a good man, skilled in speaking."  This, he says, was Cato's definition.  Prof. Shedd's Introduction to Theremin gives some very good thoughts on the nature
of eloquene.
21 
INTRODUCTION.
it is not commonplace?  When eloquence is combined
with high philosophical considerations, as in many modern examples, we are at first tempted to attribute to
philosophy the impression we receive from it; but eloquence is something more popular; it is the power of
making the primitive chords of the soul (its purely
human elements) vibrate within us- it is in this, and
nothing else, that we acknowledge the orator."* It
is impossible to be eloquent on any subject, save by
associating it with such ideas as that of mother, child,
friends, home, country, heaven, and the like; all of them
familiar, and, in themselves, commonplace. The speaker's
task is, by his grouping, illustration, &c., and by his own
contagious emotion, to invest these familiar ideas with fresh
interest, so that they may reassert their power over the
hearts of his hearers. He who runs after material of discourse that shall be absolutely new, may get credit for
originality, and be amply admired, but he will not exert
the living power which belongs to eloquence. The preacher
can be really eloquent only when he speaks of those vital
gospel truths which have necessarily become familiar. A
just rhetoric, if there were no higher consideration, would
require that a preacher shall preach the gospel -shall hold
on to the old truths, and labor to clothe them with new
interest and power.
~ 3. REQUISITES TO EFFECTIVE PREACHING.
They may be stated as four, viz. piety, natural gifts,
knowledge, skill.
(1.) Piety.   Men sometimes do good by preaching who
turn out to have been destitute of piety.  It is one of the
many wonderful ways in which God brings good out of
evil. But such cases are exceptional, and as a rule, the
* Vinet, Horn. p. 176, note.
22 
INTRODUCTION.
prime requisite to efficiency in preaching is earnest piety.
This inspires the preacher himself with ardent zeal, and
keeps the flame alive amid all the icy indiflerence by
which he will so often be encompassed. This gains for
him the good-will and sympathy of his hearers, the most
ungodly of whom will feel that devout earnestness on his
part is becoming, and entitles him to respect.  And this is
authorized to hope for the blessing of God upon the labors
which it prompts. Much false theory and bad practice in
preaching is connected with a failure to apprehend the
fundamental importance of piety in the preacher. As was
said above on a kindred topic, just rhetorical principles, as
well as other and far higher considerations, imperatively
require that a preacher of the gospel shall cultivate personal piety. It is bad rhetoric to neglect it.
(2.) Natural gifts. The preacher needs the capacity for
clear thinking, with strong feelings, and a vigorous imagination; also capacity for expression, and the power of
forcible utterance. Many other gifts help his usefulness,
these are well-nigh indispensable to any high degree of
efficiency.  Each of these can be improved almost indefinitely, some of them developed in one who had not been
conscious of possessing them; but all must exist as natural
gifts.
(3.) Knowledge. There must be knowledge of religious
truth, and of such things as throw light upon it; knowledge of human nature in its relations to religious truth,
and of human life in its actual conditions around us. It
was a favorite idea of Cicero that the orator ought to know
everything. There is of course no knowledge which a
preacher might not make useful.  We  may thankfully
recognize the fact that some men do good who have very
slender attainments, and yet may insist that it should be
the- preacher's lowest standard to surpass, in respect of
knowledge, the great majority of those who hear him, and
23 
INTRODUCTION.
should be his sacred ambition to know all that he can learn
by life-long and prayerful endeavor.
Piety furnishes motive power; natural gifts, cultivated
as far as possible, furnish means; knowledge gives material;
and there remains
(4.) Skill. This does not refer merely to style and
delivery, but also to the collection, choice, and arrangement of materials. All who preach eminently well -
and the same thing is true of secular speakers -will be
found, with scarcely an exception, to have labored much to
acquire skill. Henry Clay, in an address to some law-students at Albany towards the close of his life, mentioned
that during his early life in Kentucky, he "commenced,
and continued for years, the practice of daily reading and
speaking upon the contents of some historical or scientific
book. These off-hand efforts were made sometimes in a
cornfield, at others in the forest, and not unfrequently in
some distant barn, with the horse and the ox for my auditors."
We are told that the Indian orators of the Six Nations
were known to practise their speeches beside a clear pool.
"Patrick Henry, the most illustrious example of natural
oratory, so far as there is any such, went through a course
of training in his daily studies of human nature as drawn
out by himself in his little shop, his every-day trials on his
lingering customers of the power of words, his deep and
enthusiastic investigations into history, and particularly
his patient and continued study of the harangues of Livy
and the elaborate translations he made of them, which, to
say the least, is very uncommon."* Any one whose good
fortune it has been to be intimate with some of those noble
Baptist preachers, who beginning with hardly any education have worked their way up to the highest excellence in
their calling, will have seen ample proofs, particularly in
their unrestrained private conversation, that their power
* Day's Art of Discourse, p. 18.
24' 
INTRODUCTION.
of clear and precise expression, and of forcible and attractive delivery, is the result of sharp, critical attention, of
earnest and long-continued labor. The difference between
skill and the lack of it in speaking, is almost as great as in
handling tools, those, for example, of the carpenter or the
blacksmith. And while no real skill can be acquired
without practice - according to the true saying, "The
only way to learn to preach is to preach "-yet mere
practice will never bring the highest skill; it must be
heedful, thoughtful practice, with close observation of
others and sharp watching of ourselves, and controlled by
good sense and good taste.
Now in respect of skill, preaching is an art; and while
art cannot create the requisite powers of mind or body,
nor supply their place if really absent, it can develop
and improve them, and aid in using them to the best
advantage. To gain skill, then, is the object of rhetorical
studies, skill in the construction and in the delivery of discourse.
~ 4.  ORIGIN OF THE RULES OF RIIETORIC.
(1.) The rules of Rhetoric are properly the result of
induction.  They are sometimes spoken of as if they had
been drawn up by would-be wise men, who undertook to
tell, on general principles, how one ought to speak. But
they simply result from much thoughtful observation of
the way in which men do speak, when they speak really
well. Every one will sometimes see occasion to depart
from these rules; but he ought to understand that in disregarding the "rules of Rhetoric," he is not nobly spurning
artificial fetters and barriers, but simply turning aside, for
the time, and for good reason, from the path in which it is
usually found best to walk.  And to do this will be wise
or not wise, according as there is real occasion for it, and
it is well managed.  So too, we notice, men of sense often
25 
INTRODUCTION.
exactly conform to these rules, without knowing anythiing
about them; for this is only saying, that they speak exactly
as men d  sense usually do.*
(2.) What we call rules are but the convenient expression of a principle. They put the principle into a compact
form, so as to be easily remembered and readily applied.
But the rule, however judiciously framed, can never be as
flexible as the principle it represents. There will therefore
be cases, and as regards some rules many cases, in which
one may violate the rule and yet be really coiformiig to the
principle, these being cases in which the principle would
bend, and adapt itself to peculiar conditions, while the
rule cannot bend. This consideration explains many of
the instances in which a speaker produces  a powerful
effect though utterly violating the rules of rhetoric. Other
such instances are explained by the sort of shock produced by a departure from what is usual, as the sleeping
miller will wake when the mill stops.  And in still other
cases the effect is produced by a man's power in other
respects, in spite of the particular violation of rule.
~ 5.  DANGERS OF RHETORICAL STUDIES.
(1.) Thinking more of the form than the matter. - Rhetoric has to do with the use we make of material, the choice,
adaptation, arrangement, expression. But after all, the
material itself is more important.  We hold that Demosthenes did not mean to contradict this, when he said (if he
ever (lid in fact say it), that the first thing, second thing,
third thing in speaking is delivery.  He took the other
for granted.  No man has ever surpassed Demosthenes, in
thoro-igh mastery of the subjects upon which he spoke.
But delivery had been with him a matter of peculiar difficulty, his deficiencies in that respect had defeated his early
* Comp. Whately's Rhetoric, p. 33 f.
26 
INTRODUCTION.
attempts, and his subsequent excellence had been gained
only by enormous labor; it was natural that he should lay
stress upon its importance, supposing that no man of sense
could overlook the necessity of being fully acquainted with
his subject. Now the things which ought most to be thought
of by the preacher, are piety and knowledge, and the blessing of God. Skill, however valuable, is far less important
than these; and there is danger that rhetorical studies will
cause men to forget that such is the case. It is lamentable
to see how often the remarks upon preaching made by
preachers themselves, in conversation and in newspaper
critiques, are confined to a discussion of the performance
and the performer. Unsympathizing listeners or readers
have, in such cases, too much ground for concluding, that
preachers are anxious only to display skill, and gain oratorical reputation.
(2.) Imitation.  All are aware that there is both a conscious and an unconscious imitation. That which is unconscious is of course not so blameworthy, but it cannot fail to
be injurious, and it is a subtle evil which should be guarded
against with the sharpest self-inspection.  Every one observes, too, that imitators are especially apt to imitate a
man's faults.  The reason is easily seen.  The excellencies
of a good speaker are apt to be symmetrical, while his
faults are salient, prominent.- The latter, therefore, will
most readily attract unconscious imitation. As to the conscious imitator, he is sure to be a superficial observer, who
will think that what he notices most in some admired
speaker is the secret of his power, and will go to imitating
that. Besides, it is easier to ape the single, salient fault,
than the symmetrical combination of many excellencies.
Is the danger of imitation increased by attendance upon
institutions of learning? Hardly. - He who is so susceptible on the one hand, or on the other hand so silly, as to
fall readily inio it, will find some one to imitate, wherever
27 
INTRO DUCTION.
he may be. Every country district has some favorite
preacher, whom others around may be seen to imitate.
When many of these imitators are gathered at a public
institution, the men they imitate are fewer and more generally known, and therefore the fact attracts more attention.
On the other hand, they are more likely to have pointed
out to them the danger and the evils of imitation, so as
utterly to eschew that which is conscious, and promptly
to correct the unconscious, when made aware of it. Nor
is there any greater danger. of such imitation at a theological institution than at a college or university. Still, some
men are very liable to this fault, and when about to hear
the same speaker several times a week for many months,
all ought to be on their guard against imitating his peculiarities.*
(3.) Artificiality.   There is much  artificiality which
ought not to be called by the odious name of affectation.
The speaker's motives are good; he merely errs in judgment and taste.  But a great error it is.  In all speaking,
especially in preaching, naturalness, genuineness, even
though awkward, is really more effective for all the highest ends, than the most elegant artificiality.   "But it is
the highest art to conceal art." Nay, no art cast conceal
art. We may not perceive it, but we dimly, instinctively
feel that there is something the matter, and perhaps wonder what it is; somehow, the preacher's well-meant efforts
* "Melanchthon carried one shoulder higher than the other, and
the pupils believed themselves Melanchthonls if they imitated his
posture." Hagenbach, liomiletik, s. 142.  Spurgeon's students are
constantly accused of imitating him. Those who are anxious on this
subject ought to be apprised of another danger, which they may not
have thought of. A year or two ago, a certain professor heard one
of his students preach several times at a protracted meeting, and
then preached himself. In the midst of the sermon, he caught himself distinctly imitating certain peculiar tones of his esteemed young
brother. Think of that! The professors may imitate the students!
28 
INTRODUCTION.
are fiailing to reach their aim. The danger of artificiality
in speaking is very great.   When one begins, he is apt to
feel awkward in the new and strange situation. As one
unaccustomed to riding on horseback must learn to sit
naturally, and feel at ease, in the saddle, so very many
speakers, perhaps all, have to learn to be natural. They
must not only reject all intentional artificiality, but must
carefully guard against that which is undesigned and unconscious.  To forget self, because full of living desire to
do men good, is the great means of being natural. It follows that a preacher ought never to preach merely for
practice; this will inevitably tend to encourage artificiality.  The first few efforts of a young  man- which will
often go much farther than he is at the time aware to form
his habits for life -ought to be genuine, bona fide preaching. If he ever preaches' in the presence of none but his
fellow-students and instructors, it ought to be only upon
a subject thoroughly suited to their religious wants, and
with a most earnest and prayerful effort to do them good.*
As regards all that pertains to preaching, and especially
delivery, our efforts at rhetorical improvement must be
mainly negative.  We endeavor to gain correct general
principles, and some idea of the errors and faults to which
speakers are generally liable. We then speak, aiming to
be guided by these principles, and to correct our faults as
they may arise. It is unwise to set up at the outset some
standard of excellence, and aim to conform to that.  If one
should take a fancy that cedar trees are more beautiful
than oaks, and attempt to trim his oaks into the shape,
and color them into the hue, of cedars, the result could
* It is believed that the plan of causing students to preach before
the class results, upon the whole, in more harm than good, and
that it ought to be avoided. Let them preach where it can be real
preaching, or not at all. Even the debating society proposes a present end to be gained, and awakens some living-interest.
3 8
29 
.0
IN'TRODUCTION'.
only be ridiculous. Let the young cedar grow as a cedar,
and the young oak as an oak, but straighten, prune, ilprove each of them into tl~e best possible tree of its kiid.
And so as to speaking, be always yourself, your actual,
natural self, but yourself developed, corrected, improved
into the very best you are by nature capable of becoming.
~ 6.  RELATION OF HOMILETICS TO RHETORIC.
The Greek word homilia signifies conversation, mutual
talk, and so familiar discourse. The Greek writer Photius (9th cent.) says of Chrysostom's expository sermons
on Genesis, that he finds the book bearing the name of discourses, but that they are much more like homilies (talks),
because he so often speaks as if seeing the hearers before
him, asks questions, and answers, and makes promises, &c.,
and because they have not the formal arrangement of discourses.* The Latin word sertmo (from which we get sermon,) has the same sense, of conversation, talk, discussion,
&c. It is instructive to observe that the early Christians
did not apply to their public teachings the names given to
the orations of Demosthenes and Cicero, but called them
talks, familiar discourses.   From this word  homnily has
been derived the term homiletics, as denoting the science
or art of Christian discourse, or a treatise on that subject,
embracing all that pertains to the preparation and delivery
of sermons. Homiletics may be called a branch of rhetoric, or a kindred art. Those fundamental principles,
which have their basis in human nature, are of course the
samne in both cases, and this being so, it seems clear that
we must regard homiletics as rhetoric applied to this particular kind of speaking. Still, preaching is properly very
different from secular discourse, as to the primary source
of its materials, as to the directness and simplicity of style
* See Suicer's Thesaurus, II, p. 474.
30 
I T'NTrODUCTION.
wiichl become the preacher, and the unworldly motives
by wi,)ich he ought to be irfluenced.  And while these and
other peculiarities do not render it proper to treat homiletics as entirely distinct from rhetoric,* they ought to be
constantly borne in mind by the student of homiletics and
by the working preacher.t
~ 7. LITERATURE OF HOMILETICS.
It is proposed to mention the works which are believed
to be most worthy of the student's attention.
I.  General Works on Rhetoric.
Aristotle's Rhetoric ought by all means to be studied,
in a translation (as that of Bohn's Library), if it cannot
be read in the original. Longinus on the Sublime is celebrated and interesting. The other extant works of Greek
rhetoricians are not of the highest value.~
Cicero's treatises on Oratory (de Oratore, Orator, and
Brutus) are quite unsystematic and incomplete, but are
full of striking thoughts and useful suggestions. Quintilian's "Instruction of the Orator" is a systematic treatise on grammar and rhetoric, abounding in good sense,
and more valuable than those of Cicero. Horace's Ars
Poetica is well known to contain many capital precepts
as to composition of every kind. The Dialogue on Orators, usually printed with the works of Tacitus, is not now
believed to have been written by him, but was written in
his age, and is in certain respects quite valuable.
These great Greek and Roman works are not superseded
by the modern books which have drawn from them so
* As proposed by Kidder, p. 19 if.
t Nothing would really be gained by substituting, as some German writers propose, the term keryktik, from the Greek kerux, a
herald, and in the N. T. a preacher.
31 
INTRODUCTION.
largely, and they ought to be carefully studied by all who
desire to be well acquainted with Rhetoric. It is too common to eulogize famous books, and yet never read them.
Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric contains much
thorough discussion and judicious suggestion, and is of
permanent value. Whately's Rhetoric is believed to be
the best treatise for practical use that has appeared. Especially valuable are the portions on Argument and on Style.
Theremin's Eloquence a Virtue, translated by Shedd, with
a good Introduction, is a s]nall volume which may be read
with great profit.  Quackenbos' Composition and Rhetoric
is a good school-book, and may also be used with great
advantage in self-training by those who wish to supply
deficiencies of early education. Bain's Composition and
Rhetoric (1866) treats with great filness the nature and
use of rhetorical figures, and the subject of style in general;
and appears to contemplate mainly the composition of scientific works, history, and poetry. Haven's Rhetoric (1869)
is almost entirely confined to style, including words and
figures.  Day's Art of Discourse (2d ed. 1868) gives unusual
attention to the Invention of Materials, and presents much
that is quite valuable.
Goodrich's British Eloquence is an admirable collection
of speeches, with introductions and notes enabling one to
understand them, and very useful to the student of eloquence. And after all, nothing in respect of secular oratory
is so valuable as the thorough study of Demosthenes, even
in a translation.  It should be preceded and accompanied
by Vol. XI of Grote's Greece.
II.   IVorks on IIomniletics.
Chrysostom on the Priesthood, is a charming little.work,
and contains several excellent remarks on Preaching.
(Some of these are quoted by Kidder, p. 76.) The original
may be had in a separate volume, and it has been newly
32 
INTRODUCTION.
translated into English by B. H. Cowper. Augustine was
a teacher of Rhetoric before his conversion, and in his
treatise De Doetrin?a Christiania, "On Christian Teachling,"
he devotes Book IV to instruction in the "setting forth"
of Christian truth, giving many interesting and useful
thoughts. This book is translated in the Biblical Repository, Vol. III, p. 569, and a good analysis of its contents
given by Moule, p. 169 (see below).
FRENCH WRITERs.  Fenelon's Dialogues on Eloquence
are very readable, and excellent on some points. They are
given in the good collection entitled "The Preacher and
Pastor," New York, 1849, and in many other forms.
Claude's Essay on the Composition of a Sermon is quite
valuable, and has exerted a wide influence.  The author
was a great Protestant preacher in the age of Louis XIV.
The best of the many editions in English of his brief essay,
is that of the famous Robert Robinson, with copious notes,
crammed with curious learning.  Vinet's homiletics is a
posthumous and incomplete work, but on some subjects is
the best treatise on Homiletics in existence, particularly on
the selection and interpretation of Texts, and on subjects
of Pulpit Discourse. Monod's Lecture on the Delivery of
Sermons, is singularly good. Adolphe Monod was one of
the first pulpit orators of the present century, and delivered
this lecture when Professor in the French Protestant Theological School at Montauban.  It is published as an Appendix ill Fish's Select Discourses from the French and German.
The little work of Coquerel, Observations sur la Predication
(Observations on Preaching), Paris, 1860, has not been
translated, but ought to be. It is a spirited treatise, pung,ent, suggestive, and quite useful.
GERMAN. It is proper to mention the most recent and
valuable treatises. Palmer's Homiletik is by a popular
Lutheran writer; the 5th edition (1869) is considerably
enlarged.  Hagenbacli, the celebrated writer on Church
33 
INTRODUCTION.
History, and belonging to the "Reformed," or Calvinistic
party in Germany, has a small volume, Liturgik und
Homiletik, containing much that is quite good. The Germans usually discuss Homiletics in treatises on "Practical
Theology" in general. The most recent, Otto's Evangelische Praktische Theologie (1869) is unusually full on
this subject, and on several branches of it is decidedly able.
The Praktische Theologie of Ebrard (1854) is comparatively meagre on Homiletics, but has spirited remarks and
suggestions.*
ENGLISH AND AMIERICAN.
Campbell's Lectures on Pulpit Eloquence are not unworthy of the author of the Philosophy of Rhetoric, being
judicious and useful, while quite brief. They are given in
"The Preacher and Pastor" (see above under Fenelon).
Porter's Lectures on Homiletics are very sensible and
valuable, but not a complete treatise, many important
topics being entirely omitted. The author was Professor at
Andover, and the first American who prepared a systematic work on Homiletics. It is out of print in this country,
but an English republication can still be had. Gresley's
Treatise on Preaching has been reprinted in this country.
The author was a clergyman of the Church of Ellgland,
and his volume (a series of Letters) is specially adapted
to the wants of the English clergy, but is decidedly valuable to all, and written. in an agreeable style. John Angell
James' Earnest Ministry, a widely circulated and useful
book, discusses several questions of Homiletics.
Ripley's Sacred Rhetoric, with Ware's Hints on Extemporaneous Preaching, is a useful little volume, giving many
excellent practical rules and suggestions, but limited in its
range of topics, and frequently too brief in the treatment
* That of Nitzsch is frequently commended, but the present writer
cannot speak of it from personal knowledge.
34 
INTRODUCTION.
of them.  The author is Professor at Newton, and well
known  for his  practical  commentaries.   Thoughts on
Preaching, by James W. Alexander, is a posthumous volume, consisting of Review articles, Letters, and a series of
detached observations which the author was'collecting for
a proposed treatise on Homiletics. It contains a number
of highly valuable thoughts.  Henry Rogers has an Essay
on the British Pulpit, in his volume entitled "Reason and
Faith, and other Essays," which make some excellent
points. Papers on Preaching and Public Speaking, by a
Wykehamist, (London, 1861,) is a small but excellent
work, unsystematic, but sensible and sprightly.
Of the most recent works, Wayland's Letters on the
Ministry of the Gospel, 1864, is an admirable little volume.
There are also good thoughts on Preaching in his Princi ples and Practices of the Baptists. Kidder's Homiletics,
1864, is by a Professor in the (Methodist) Biblical Insti tute at Evansville, Illinois. It is more complete in its
range of topics than any other treatise on Homiletics, is
for the most part well arranged, and contains much that is
useful; but it is very unequal in its discussions, and the
views presented of some subjects are regarded as objection able. There is an excellent Appendix on the Literature,
and many interesting and valuable extracts are given in
another Appendix, or scattered throughout the book.
Potter's Sacred Eloquence, Dublin, 1866, is a Roman
Catholic work, and contains some good remarks, with vari ous striking quotations from Catholic writers. Shedd's
Homiletics and Pastoral Duties, 1867, discusses certain
topics with the author's well-known power of analysis and
vigor of statement. It is an excellent book to be read by
those who are acquainted with the subject in general, or to
be studied in connection with some systematic treatise.
Lamps, Pitchers and Trumpets, by E. P. Hood, London,
1868, is the whimiisical title given to Lectures before the
35 
INTRODUCTION.
students of Spurgeon's College. It is not at all a complete
or systematic treatise, nor anywhere strikingly able; but it
is highly entertaining, and full of quaint extracts, from all
manner of sources. It has been republished in America.
Discussions in Theology, by Thomas H. Skinner, (New
York, 1868,) contains two papers on Preaching which are
very instructive, and unusually devotional in their tone.
The author is the translator of Vinet, and Professor in the
Union Theological Seminary, New York. Hoppin's Office
and Work of the Christian Ministry (New York, 1869) is
divided between Preaching and the Pastoral Office. The
treatise on Preaching is in its arrangement very faulty and
inconvenient; but the particular topics are discussed with
marked ability and sound judgment, and show a good
acquaintance with the literature of the subject.  The author
is Professor in the Theological Department of Yale College, and designs his work especially to be a text-book for
classes. The portion on Pastoral Duties is well arranged,
and probably the best treatise in existence on that subject.
The following works ought also to be mentioned, because
they are at present frequently met with in this country.
Russell's Pulpit Elocution is perhaps the best treatise on
its subject, but that is not saying very much. Sturtevant's
Preacher's Manual is a large volume, of but little value.
Bautain on Extemporaneous Speaking has some good suggestions. Mullois' The Clergy and the Pulpit is entertaining, but not particularly instructive.   Zincke's Duty
and Discipline of Extemporary Speaking is useful to persons who have the established habit of reading sermons,
and wish now to adopt extemporizing.
Of works on the History of Preaching, there may be
named: Moule's Christian Oratory during the First Five
Centuries, Cambridge and London, 1859, an excellent little
volume; Neale's Medieval Preachers and Preaching, London, 1856, which is less valuable; and Fish's Masterpieces
36 
INTRODUCTION.
of Pulpit Eloquence, 2 vols. 8vo, New York, 1856, (new
edition in one volume, 1869,) which contains excellent
specimens of sermons from all ages, with brief biographical
sketches of the several preachers,.and good essays on the
Pulpit of different periods and countries, and is a very
useflfi work. More complete treatises on the History of
Preaching are found in German, as those of Paniel, Lentz
and Nesselmann. *
Besides treatises on Preaching, the chief sources of in- 
struction inl. Homiletics are as follows: (1.) The Preaching that we hear, when heard with fraternal sympathy and
prayerful desire for spiritual benefit, and yet with critical
attention. (2.) Published Sermons, the value of which is
readily acknowledged.   (3.) Biographies of Preachers,
which to one having a general knowledge of/Homiletics,
are often surpassingly instructive. (4.) The criticism of
instructors or judicious hearers upon our own preaching.
(5.) Careful observation of our faults, as developed in
actual practice, with resolute and patient effort to correct
them.
*A much more copious list of works on Homiletics may be found
in Kidder's Homiletics, Appendix. The present list was designed,
as intimated at the outset, to include only those which for some
reason are thought specially worthy of notice, with brief statements
as to their value, founded on personal examination. It is believed
to onit very few works which now possess other than a mere curious interest. Various treatises and essays on particular branches
of Homiletics are mentioned below under the appropriate heads.
4
37 
PART I.
MATERIALS OF PREACHING.
CHAPTER I.
THE TEXT-SELECTION.
1. MEANING OF TERM.  ~ 2. ADVANTAGES OF HAVING A TEXT.
Q 3. RULES FOR THE SELECTION OF A TEXT.
~ 1. THE word tgxt is from the Latin textus or texturn,
something woven, thus denoting the web of discourse.*
It came to be used, as it still is, for the connected discourse
upon which commentary is written, successive portions of
this connected whole being separately taken and remarked
upon. Thus we speak of the text of Scripture, the Greek
text, the sacred text, as opposed to comments, translations,
and other modes of using it. So as to oral exposition, coinment, etc. And in any such case, the text which one treats,
ill a written or an oral exposition or discussion, might be
not necessarily the whole text of Scripture, but the text of
a particular book, paragraph, or sentence. There is always
the same contrast, between the text treated and our treatment of it.t-  The history of the word, like that of ho?tiletics, points back to the fact, which is also well known
otherwise, that preaching was originally expository.
The early Christian preachers commonly spoke upon
passages of considerable length, and occupied themselves
* Comp. texture, context, etc.
t Ifagenbach has explained the word correctly  (Hom. s. 96).
Shedd (Horn p. 159) has clearly mistaken it.
38 
THE TEXT-SELECTION.
largely with exposition.  Frequently, however, as was natural, they would filnd a brief passage so fruitful as to confine
themselves to it.  Usage tended more and more toward the
preference of short texts. In England in the 17th century,
it was not uncommon to make many sermons on some brief
passage. Thus John Howe has fourteen sermons on a part
of Rom. 8: 2at, "We are saved by hope;" seventeen on
1 John 4: 20; and eighteen on John 3: 6.  The object was
to make a conmplete discussion of some great topic, and to
bind all the discourses into a whole by connecting all with
the same text. But this practice conflicted with the natural love of variety. It is usually much better to make a
series appear such by the manifest relation of the subjects,
and to choose for each discourse a separate text, which
presents the particular subject or view there discussed.
This is at present the comnmon practice, it being a somewhat rare thing now to preach more than one sermon on
the same brief text. There is also a tendency at present
to return to the more frequent use of long texts.*
~ 2. ADVANTAGES OF HAVING A TEXT.
It is manifest that to take a text gives a certain air of
sacredness to the discourse.  But more than this is true.
The primary idea is that the discourse is a development of
the text, an explanation, illustration, application of its
teachings. Our business is to teach God's word. And
although we may often discuss subjects, and aspects of subjects, which are not presented in precisely that form by any
passage of Scripture, yet the fundamental conception should
be habitually retained, that we are about to set forth what
the text contains.  When circumstances determine the subject to be treated, and we have to look for a text, one can
almost always be found which will have some real, though
* Compare below, Part II, chapter 83,  3, on Expository Sermons.
39 
TTHE TEXT-SELECTION.
it be a general relation to the subject. If there be rare
cases in which it is otherwise, it will then be better to have
no text than one with which the subject has only a fanciful
or forced connection. There are several advantages in regularly taking a text. (1.) It constantly recalls the fact just
mentioned, that our undertaking is not to guide the people
by our own wisdom, but to impart to them the teachings
of God in his Word.  This fact enables us to speak with
confidence, and leads the people to recognize the authority
of what we say. (2.) If the text is well chosen, it awakens
interest at the outset. (3.) It often aids the hearer in
remembering the train of thought, having this effect wherever the sermon is really evolved from the text.  (4.) It
affords opportunity of explaining and impressing some
passage of Scripture.  (5.) It tends to prevent our wandering utterly away from Scriptural topics and views. (6.)
Greater variety will be gained than if the mind were left
altogether to the suggestion of circumstances, for then it
will often fall back into its old ruts; and this variety is
attained just in proportion as one restricts himself to tile
specific thought of each particular text.
Objections to the use of texts have commonly arisen from
one of two or three causes. The grievous laxity in the
interpretation of texts which has so widely prevailed, leads
some men to regard the employment of them as wrong or
useless. This is the old story -the abuse of a thing causing men to question the propriety of its use. Again,
persons who have little or no true reverence for Scripture,
or appreciation of its riches, speak of the text as a restriction upon freedom of thought and flow of eloquence.
Thus Voltaire: "It were to be wished that Bourdaloue in
banishing from the pulpit the bad taste which disgraced it,
had also banished the custom of preaching on a text.
Indeed, to speak long on a quotation of a line or two, to
exhaust one's self in subjecting a whole discourse to the con
40 
THE TEXT-SELECTION.
trol of this line, seems a trifling labor, little worthy of the
dignity of the ministry. The text becomes a sort of motto,
or rather enigma, which the discourse develops." * It
seems plain that this sneer arose partly from the torturing
interpretation so often witnessed, and chiefly from the
critic's want of reverence for the Bible, and ignorance of
the preacher's true relation to the Bible. And perhaps,
as a third ground of objection to texts, some able and
devout preachers, disliking expository and even textual
preaching, and wishing that every sermon should be a
philosophical discussion or an elaborate discourse upon a
definite topic, incline to regard the custom of always taking
a text as an inconvenient restriction. Such appears to
have been the feeling of Vinet.
It is sometimes not unsuitable to have two texts, or even
more.  Thus with Heb. 9: 22, "And without shedding of
blood is no remission," there might be united 1 John 1: 7,
"The blood of Jesus Christ his Son cleanseth us from all
sin."  Or with Isa. 6: 3, "The whole earth is full of his
glory," may be taken Psa. 72: 19, "And let the whole
earth be filled with his glory;" to angelic eyes it is sothe human mind can only pray that it may be so. (Comp.
Hab. 2: 14.)  Spurgeon has a sermon on the words, "I
have sinned," as occurring seven times in the Bible, and
gives interesting views of the different circumstances and
states of mind in which they were uttered.t
~ 3. RULES FOR THE SELECTION OF TEXTS.
The proper selection of a text is a matter of great importance.  A felicitous choice will animate the preacher
throughout the preparation and the delivery of his sermon, and will help him to gain at once the attention of his
hearers. There are few points as to which preachers differ
* Voltaire, Age of Louis XIV.  Quoted by Vinet, Ilom. p. 99
t Amer. ed. of Spurgeon's Sermons, Third Series, p. 241
4*
41 
THE TEXT-SELECTION.
more widely in talent and skill, than the selection of texts,
and few iil which diligent and systematic effort will be more
richly rewarded. The minister, or student for the ministry,
should keep a blank book for lists of texts. In reading
the Scriptures and books of Theology, in reading collections of sermons, biographies, and newspaper notices, in
casual reflection and in the preparation of other sermons,
passages will be constantly occurring upon which it strikes
one that he could make a sermoii. Let these be at once
written down in the list. Let the preacher constrain himself to do so, until it becomes a habit. And he should by
all means put down at the same time, however briefly, the
proposed outline of the discourse, or any specially valuable view or illustration of it, which he is not sure will
return to his mind whenever the text is looked at. Otherwise he will afterward find many passages in the list that it
will seem strange he should ever have noted, because the
association will have been broken, the point of view will
have disappeared. At some times the mind is in a highly
creative mood, and plans of sermons or suggestive texts or
topics will rapidly succeed one another, as the preacher
reads, reflects, or visits from house to house. These fruitful germs should be carefully husbanded, and the lines of
development indicated. And often when one is cold and
lifeless, and could at the moment produce nothing, some
good thought which was struck out in a happier mood will
fall into his mind like a spark, and presently set it all on
fire.  Many an admirable text, and many a golden thought,
given to men in their better moments, are lost forever, when
a brief record, or even some little effort to associate them
in mind with other things, might have made them a permanent possession.*
* For numerous striking specimens, not of texts but of thoughts
thus recorded, see Life of John Foster, Vol. I., p. 108-156. Compare
Alexander, Thoughts on Preaching, p. 513.
42 
THE TEXT-SELECTION.
To aid in the selection of Texts, there are offered the
following rules.
1. The text should not be obscure.  It ought, as a rule,
to exhibit its mealning readily.  Otherwise, the people will
either be repelled by what they see no sense in, or will be
apt to feel a merely idle curiosity to know what in the
world the preacher will make of that. Still, there are
important exceptions here. If the preacher is satisfied
he can explain an obscure passage, and can show that it
teaches valuable truth, he may take it.  If the passage is
one about which many are known to feel interested, and
he is really able to make its meaning clear, and bring out
useful lessons, it may be very wise to employ it. But
observe the stress that is laid on the practicability of
making the passage instructive and useful. To explain
merely for the sake of explaining, is a task for which the
preacher scarcely has time. It is his business to teach the
people lessons of real utility, either as regards doctrine or
practice.*
2. One must be careful as to employing texts "marked
by grandeur of expression. They seem to promise a great
effort." t  And if great expectations are excited at the
outset, it is of course very difficult to meet them. Yet no
one would say as a rule that such texts must be avoided.
Many of the noblest and most impressive passages of
Scripture rise into a natural grandeur of expression, and
there would be serious loss in habitually avoiding these.
Sometimes we may find a simpler text that presents the
same subject, and the grander passage can be introduced
somewhere in the course of the sermon. But when such a
passage is made the text, we may prevent any undesirable
effect by announcing it with unaffected mnodesty, and by
* See further in what is said on Expository Preaching, Part II,
chapter 3.
t Ripley.
I.
43 
THE TEXT-SELECTION.
the general tone of the introduction; perhaps even saying
-not as an apology but a quiet remark- somethiing to
the effect that of course none of us can rise to the height of
this great passage, and yet it may do us good to meditate
upon its teachings.  WVe must carefully avoid whatever
course would savor of display, but must not fastidiously
shrink from treating any passage which we may hope to
make useful.
3. It is scarcely ever proper to choose a text that will
seem odd. Whenl humor is employed in preaching it
ought to be an incidental thing, and manifestly unstudied.
It is so natural for some men to indulge in quaint, and
even in very odd sayings, they so promptly and easily ifall
back into their prevailing seriousness, that the humorous
remarks are unobjectionable, and sometimes, through the
well-known relation between humor and pathos, they
heighten the effect.  But an efort to be amusing, anything
odd that appears to have been calculated, is felt to be
incompatible with a genuine seriousness and solemnity.
Now the text has of course been deliberately chosen, and
an odd text must therefore have a bad effect. -Yet there
are sayings of Scripture that seem quaint, which an earnest
man may employ to good purpose. For example, William
Jay has a good sermon upon Hos. 7: 8, "Ephraim is a
cake not turned."
Some instances of ludicrous texts and subjects may be given, as
a matter of curious interest.  It is told in Virginia that a preacher
of a belligerent and unpopular denomination went to a village where
there were but two churches.   The P?resbyterian minister,  Mr.
Sparrow, and the Baptist, MIr. Fox, both refused him the use of
their houses of worship. So he preached in a school-room, and
took as his text, " The foxes have holes, and the birds of the air
have nests, but the Son of man hath not where to lay his head." A
good hit, no doubt, but rendering it nearly impossible that the sermon should make any true religious impression. An ignorant Methodist preacher in the same State chose as his text, "Enoch walked
44 
THE TEXT-SELECTION.
with God, and he was not," and occupied himself with vari us things
that Enoch was not-he was not a drunkard, he was not a liar, he
was not a profane swearer, etc.  The words " Let  him that is oni
the house top not come down," quoted in the form, "Top-not, come
down," antl used for a sermoni against a certain style of head-dress
called a' top-knot," would seem to be the very climax of absurdity;
and yet many a passage has been mutilated and applied in a way
fully as unwarrantable, though less ridiculous. Some one has fairly
satirized a certain style of historical sermons by proposing synch
subjects as the following: Adam the grandfather of us all, and the
duties of grandparents.  Noah  the first Sea-captain.  Nebuchadnezzar the first pure Vegetarian.   Felix the free-lover, etc. etc.
William Jay, who was sometimes inclined to carry this sort of thing
quite too far, once announced his intention to preach on the words,
"Take it by the tail," said to iMoses with reference to the serpent
(Exod. 4: 4).  Not event his ingenuity and devotedness could have
saved this from being intolerable.  Coquerel* tells of a Reformed
pastor at Amsterdatti a century ago. who was famnous for boldness
and humor, and being once at the Ilaguie, was greatly importuned
by the wits about. the court of the St,adthliolder to preach the next
Sunday.   He finally consented on condition that they should all
attend, and take no offence;  andI giving as his text the account
of Philip and the officer of Queen Candace, he announiced the following plan of discourse: "I find in this narrative four subjects
of astonishment which go on increasing the one upon the other.
1. A courtier who reads the Scriptures, which is already surprising.  2. A courtier who acknowledges his ignorance. which is more
stnIpr-ising still  3. A courtier who asks his inferior to instruct
him, which must cause a redoubled surprise.   4. And( that this
surprise may reach its climax, a courtier who is converted." Ad —
tirable wit, but hardly suitable as a sermon.   Sheddt tells of a
preacher in the reign of Charles II, who selected "Seek first the
king(lomn of God," and urged that as it is not the parlienment of God,
bun  the kingdomi, therefore kingly government is most in accordance
with th,e divine will.  Also of a sermon to a newly married couple
on Psa. 72: 7, "And abundance of peace so long as the moon endur eth."  It is said that the celebrated Wetstein, when under trial at
Baisel, had among his opponents a copper-smith, and that he preached
on 2 Tim. 4: 4, "Alexander, the copper-smithl, did me  n uch evil:
* Ohs. sur la Pred. p. 96.
45
t Hom. p. 170. 
THE TEXT-S ELECTION.
the Lord reward him according to his works." * Such stories are
more numerous than useful, and there is only added the mention
of a fashion of alphabetical preaching, which has been sometimies
practised.  Thus the word "grace" is made the text, and the letters of the word give the divisions- great grace, rich grace,
almighty, covenant, eternal grace. A venerable minister states that
he once heard an ignorant Baptist preacher treat in this fashion
the word "salvation" - 8 is safe salvation; a, almighty salvation;
and so with long, Vast, almighty (as before), and at length t,'tarnal
salvation; i, infinite salvation; "and the last two letters, to be
brief, we will take together-on,'onorable salvation."
In respect to all such cases, we must judge others leniently, and
ourselves strictly. The allowableness of oddity depends greatly
upon differences of taste and circumstances. But the man who is
tempted, in our time and country, to deal in deliberate oddities in
order to strike, would do well to recall Cowper's words,
"'T is pitiful
To court a grin when you should woo a soul."
One sees the attention that is excited, and is apt to hear of any
good done, by sermons disfigured by oddity or other improprieties;
but he seldom hears of the persons, perhaps many persons, who
were repelled, shocked, driven away from him, and in some cases
driven away from the gospel.
4. Do not avoid a text because it is familiar. What
has made some texts familiar to all, but the fact that they
are so manifestly good texts? It is a very mistaken desire
for novelty which leads a man to shrink from sllch rich and
firuitful passages as "God so loved the world," etc.; "This
is a faithful saying," etc., which Luther used to call "little
Bibles," as if including in their narrow compass the whole
Bible.t  He who will turn away from the tradition of the
pulpit as to the meaning and application of such passages,
and make personal and earnest study of them, will often
find much that is new to him and his hearers, as the skilful
* Hagenbach, Hom. s. 105.
t See Hood, Lamps, Pitchers, &c., p. 591.
46
t-.
I
i
fI 
THE TEXT-SELECTION. 
gold-hunter in California will sometimes follow in the very
track of many searchers, and gain there his richest harvest.
Besides, what we need is not absolute novelty, but simply
freshness. If we can manage, by prayerful reflection, to
obtain such views and provide such illustrations of a familiar text as will give it a fresh interest to ourselves and the
hearers, then all the riches of the passage are made available for good. Alexander * calls attention to the fact that
of the great sculptors and painters many took the same
themes; and so with the Greek tragedians. He remarks:
"Sonme, anxious to avoid hackneyed topics, omit the greatest; just as if we should describe Switzerland and omit the
Alps." In point of fact, the great preachers, all the best
preachers, do preach much upon the great texts and the
great subjects.  How is a feebler man ever to develop his
own strength, unless he grapples with great themes? One
may show skill, and add somewhat to the harvest, by cultivatinig out-of-the-way corners and unpromising ledges of
rock; but the bulk of the crop, by which the family are
fed, must come from the broad, open field.
5. Do not habitually neglect any portion of Scripture.
Some neglect the Old Testament, thus losing all its rich
unfolding of God's character and the methods of his
Providence, all its unnumbered illustrations of human life
and duty, and its many types and predictions of the
coming Saviour. Others preach on the Old Testament
almost exclusively. These are either men who take no
delight in the "doctrines of grace," in the spirituality of
the Gospel; or men devoted to fanciful allegorizing, who
do not enjoy the straightforward teaching of Christ and
his apostles, so much as their own wild "spiritualizing"
of everything in the Old Testament history, prophecies
ai d proverbs.t
* Thoughts on Preaching, p. 10- 12.
t Comp. Ha genbach, s. 102.
47 
THE TEXT —ELECTION.
Let us not neglect either of these great divisions o f God's
own Word. And so as to particular books. In the course
of a good many years a preacher ought to have taken
some texts fromnt every portion of Scripture, though  lihe
will of course choose most frequently from those books to
which attention is directed by his peculiar mental constitution and tastes, or by their comparative richness in
evangelical and practical matter.
6. Do not take spurious passages. A favorite text with
many is Acts 9: 6, "Lord, what wilt thou have me to do?"
This is unquestionably spurious, and these words should
never be quoted as Scripture; yet essentially the same
thought is expressed in Acts 22: 10, "What shall I do,
Lord?" as uttered on the occasion of Paul's conversion.
The famous passage in 1 John 5: 7, "There are three that
bear record in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the
Holy Ghost: and these three are one," is also spurious
beyond question. The passage in Acts 8: 37, "And Philip
said: If thou believest with all thy heart, thou mayest.
And he answered and said, I believe that Jesus Christ is
the Son of God," has the evidence so overwhelmingly
against its genuineness that it ought not to be used as a
text.*
7. The sayings of uninspired men, recorded in Scripture,
ought not to be used as texts unless we know from other
teachings of Scripture that they are true, or unless we
* There is no more occasion for uneasiness at the fact that errors
are found in the common text of Scripture, than in the current translations. Men who are well aware of the latter fact, and Dot disturbed by it, are sometimes shocked at the former, because it is
new to them.  But neither in text nor in translation do our common
Bibles present any such errors or uncertainties as would alter or
modify any doctrine of Scripture.   Still. that we ought not to
employ as Scripture what, is known to be spurious, is a proposition
which would seem to need no proof.
48 
THE TEXT-SELECI. ON.
propose to find instruction in the fact that those men made
the statements given. Many such sayings found in the
Bible are in themselves utterly untrue, inspiration being
responsible only for the fact that they were actually spoken.
No one would think of treating as true the vaunting speech
of Rabshakeh (2 Kings, chap. 18). The question of the
scribes (Mark 2: 7), "Who can forgive sins but God
only?" we know to be a just question, and as such we
might make it a text.  In John 7: 46, "Never man spake
like this man," we likewise recognize a truth, and at the
same time find significance in the fact that the officers sent
to apprehend him were thus impressed. The well-known
words of Gamaliel (Acts 5: 38-9) are very instructive as
his saying under the circumstances, but the principle laid
down is not true without qualification.   In the book of
Job, many of the things said by those friends are quite
erroneous, and a few of Job's own utterances are tinged
with error, as is shown in the latter part of the book.
These ought not to be treated as unqualified truth, while
as a part of the discussion they are highly interesting and
instructive. So with some particular sayings in Ecclesiastes, which are not the present affirmations of the inspired
writer, but only a record of things which he had said in
some former wrong mood, and which the argument of the
whole book serves to correct. Yet texts from both these
books are sometimes preached upon, which, regarded in
themselves, present erroneous and morbid views of life.
Let all sayings of uninspired men be scrutinized, in the light
of their connection and of Scripture in general, before
they are used as texts.*
8. In the course of pastoral labor, several considerations
should be borne in mind when selecting texts. One is, the
present condition of the congregation.   A  second,  the
* See some examples in Vinet, Horn. p. 109
49 
THE TEXT-SELECTION.
character of the texts recently discussed. We hbve to
guard against monotony, in the subjects chosen, as well as
in the mode of treating them, and to seek after such a
relation between the successive sermons as will cause them
to help each other's effect. It is sometimes well to look
forward and mark out a series of sermons in advance; but
it is always well to glance backward, at each new step,
and keep in suitable relation to what has preceded. For
this purpose, as well as on other accounts, a preacher
should from the outset keep a list of sermons preached,
including date, place, and text. A third and very important consideration is, to select that in which we can at the
time take interest, as otherwise we shall not deeply interest
others.  These three considerations will sometimes more or
less conflict;- we must endeavor to maintain the balance
among them as judiciously as possible.
50 
THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
CHAPTER II.
THE TEXT- INTERPRETATIOn.
1. OBLIGATION TO INTERPRET CAREFULLY AND STRICTLY. ~ 2. CHIEF
SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE INTERPRETATION OF A TEXT.  ~ 3. EX AMPLES OF TEXTS WHICH ARE OFTEN MISAPPLIED. ~ 4. BRIEF
RULES FOR INTERPRETING.
1. To interpret and apply his text in accordance with
its real meaning, is one of the preacher's most sacred
duties. He stands before the people for the very purpose
of teaching and exhorting them out of the Word of God.
He announces a particular passage of God's Word as his
text with the distinctly implied understanding that from
this his sermon will be drawn- if not always its various
thoughts, yet certainly its general subject. If he is not
willing to be bound by this understanding, he ought to
reject the practice which commits him to it, and preach
without any text. But using a text, and undertaking to
develop and apply its teachings, we are solemnly bound to
represent the text as meaning precisely what it does mean.
This would seem to be a truism. But it is often and
grievously violated. Not only is there much contented
ignorance as to interpretation, and much careless neglect
on the part of persons well able to interpret correctly, and
much wild spiritualizing of plain words, but, upon the
wretched principle of "accommodation," Scripture sentences or phrases are employed as signifying what it is
well known, and perhaps even declared at the time, that
the sacred writer did not mean to say, and has not at all
said.  "The original meaning of these words, as used by
the inspired writer, is- so and so; but I propose on the
present occasion to employ them in the following sense."
51 
52    THE TEXT —-IN'rERPRETATION.
That is to say -honored brother, see what you are doing
- you stand up to teach men from a passage of God's
blessed word, and coolly declare that you propose to make
the passage mean what it does not mean.   "But the words
might have that sense." They might, but as a part of the
Bible, as a text of Scripture, they do not. If we take the
passage in a sense entirely foreign to what the sacred
writer designed, as indicated by his connection, then, as
we use it, the phrase is no longer a passage of Scripture at
all. It is merely words of Scripture, used without authority
to convey a different meaning; just as truly as if we had
picked out words from a concordance, and framed them
into a sentence. "But I use the passage merely as a
motto." Well, if a preacher has the right to take no text
but only a motto - which is questionable - he certainly
has not the right to make a Scriptural motto signify what
he knows it does not signify. "But the language of Scripture is so rich, its pregnant sayings often mean so much,
that I think perhaps this expression may convey, among
other things, the sense which I propose." If it really
does, there is no objection whatever to using it so. But a
mere vague "perhaps" is a slender and tottering excuse
for a preacher, who is looked up to by the people as
authority in this matter, who is supposed to havestudied
his text and to know its meaning, and whose statements
will, for that reason, be accepted by many without question. Such a man is verily guilty before God if he does
not honestly strive to understand that which he interprets,
and give forth its real meaning and no other.
Now supposing in the preacher an earnest desire to
interpret his text correctly, he will not always find it an
easy task. Apart from the loose notions, bad examples,
and previous wrong practice, which often becloud the
mind with reference to interpretation, it has some intrieic
and serious difficulties which can be overcome only by
q 
IHE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
thoughtful effort. While, therefore, the whole great subject
of Biblical Hermeneutics or Interpretation does not belong
to a treatise on Homiletics, it seems proper and necessary
to give some account of the errors to be avoided, and the
methods to be adopted, by a preacher in interpreting his
text.
~ 2. CHIEF SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE INTERPRE                TATION OF A TEXT.
1. Erroneous interpretations often arise from misunderstanding the phraseology of the text itself  Language can
never do more than approximate to perfect precision of
expression, with freedom from the possibility of being
misunderstood; and an easy, colloquial style is especially
apt to involve a number of ellipses, broken constructions,
words of various and not well-defined meaning, and other
causes of ambiguity. If, then, a revelation was to be
given in human language, and to be expressed for the most
part in that familiar style which would make it "come
home to mnen's business and bosoms," would make it a book
for men and women, and boys and girls, for cultivated and
uncultivated people, it must be an inevitable condition of
such a revelation that questions might often arise as to the
exact meaning of its details. The general drift of a narrative, argument, or exhortation may be obvious enough,
and its practical impression upon a docile and susceptible
mind may be very distinct, and yet those who come to
criticise the details, especially if they come with prepossessions and prejudices, may find numerous expressions
capable of being variously interpreted, and perhaps some
whose exact sense is really doubtful. Far better this, it
is evident, than the idea of a revelation presented in a
uniformly didactic and rigorously scientific style, which
must at last fail of absolute precision, while it would be
thoroughly devoid of interest for the ordinary human
5 *
53 
51-  THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
mind. Let us, therefore, cheerfully accept the necessity
of exercising great care when we interpret the language
of Scripture, as we are compelled-to do with all other
language.
Moreover, there are in our task some peculiar conditions.
Many of us have to interpret a translation.  Now the best
translations are necessarily imperfect. It is rarely, if ever,
the case that two words in different languages will contain
precisely the same bulk of meaning in the same form, and
carry with them the same atmosphere of association and 
suggestion. Idiomatic differences.of construction, too, will
sometimes introduce ambiguity where the original was
precise, or make too definite what in the original was only
general. Especially frequent are the cases in which our
language fails to indicate the emphasis, which in the
Hebrew or the Greek may be distinctly marked. And
then the translation which we employ, though its general
style is so admirable, and though no other popular translation has ever equalled it in correctness, is disfigured by
not a few errors, and contains various words and phrases
which have become obsolete, or have changed their meaning.  Yet with all this, there is nothing to discourage or
to excuse the preacher from earnest efforts to ascertain the
true meaning of his text. By working himself, through
extensive, constant and devout reading of the Bible, into
thorough sympathy with its characteristic modes of thought
and forms of expression, by throwing himself upon the
current of the general connection of his text, so as to be
borne over any particular difficulties, by comparing it with
various other passages in which the same or a kindred
subject is treated, and by consultrig the works of learned
and really judicious expositors, the intelligent preacher
who uses only our English Version will have great success
in the interpretation of Scripture. Witness the sermons
and the writings of b )sts of Baptist ministers, and also of 
THE- TEXT-INTERPRETATION. 
Met'hodists and others.  Witness Andrew Fuller, who had
practically no knowledge of the original languages, and
yet m hose interpretations of Scripture are clear and safe
in a degree very rarely surpassed.*
If on the other hand one uses the original languages in
his interpretation, there is the danger of being misled by
superficial knowledge or hasty examination.  To ascertain
the exact meaning of words and phrases in those languages, a thorough acquaintance with them is obviously
necessary. It is often said that one needs a knowledge of
the Hebrew and Greek in order that he may understand
the difficult passages; it would be more nearly correct,
though p)aradoxical, to say that such knowledge will help
him to understand the easy passages, the great mass of
Scripture. As to the difficult places, an acquaintance with
the original language will enable us to judge, with greater
confidence and correctness, among the various interpretatious, though it be not likely that we shall strike out
anything, new, without a profounder knowledge than is
often attained. Such an acquaintance will also sometimes
save us from the disheartening notion that scholarship
would miake it all plain, in cases which have at last to be
decided by reference to the connection and the general
teachings of Scripture.  But as to the great bulk of Scripture, even the slightest knowledge of the originals is of
service, in helping us to enter into intellectual sympathy
with the sacred writers.
For the language of the Bible is pervaded by a Hebra
* Dr. Chalmers, in urging his favorite counsel that students and
ministers who knowv the original ought also to make regular arid
extended study of the English Version, somewhere refers to Andrew
Fuller as a stiking exanmple of the extent to which a man may
carry his knowledge of Scripture by the use of the English Version
alone. Some brief and good suggestions on exposition are given by
Fuller, Wor-ks (ed. Am. Bapt. Pub. S c.), Vol. I, p. 712
55 
56   THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
istic spirit, marked by Oriental modes of conception, which
are in many respects quite different from those of our own
people. This is most clearly seen in the Old Testament,
though the New Testament Greek shows more or less of
the same tinge. To read but a few pages of Hebrew, even
though one should never become capable of exact exegesis,
cannot fail to aid a susceptible mind in the sympathetic
comprehension of Scripture ways of thinking and peculi arities of expression; and of course a thorough study of
the Hebrew and Greek will carry this benefit still farther.
The effect is analogous to that of travelling in Palestine.
Still, if a man cannot study these languages, he must ear nestly strive to catch the tone of Scripture, and even the
peculiar tone of its several writers.  All persons among
us have unconsciously attained something of this, from
general reading of the Bible, and from the extent to which
Scriptural modes of thought and expression pervade our
preaching and our religious literature. But strenuous and
sustained effort in this direction is demanded of those who
would be good interpreters of Scripture.
"In the language of the Bible there is a certain number
of words which we may call capital, the meaning of which
exactly seized, becomes the key of the Bible. If we confine ourselves purely and simply to the usual signification
of the terms which the translator uses in rendering such
words into our language, we are in great danger of committing serious errors. Thus, as to the words flesh, soul,
heart, fear, faith, understanding, foolish, light, darkness,
just, righteousness, salvation, grace, good man, wicked.  The
translator has translated for you the words; you must
translate the ideas for yourselves." * The technical sense
in Scripture of such leading terms, we partly learn from
general observation in reading, but may more precisely
*Vinet, Horn. p. 111. 
THiE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
ascertain through a comparison, by help of the Concordance, of many passages in which they are employed.
Further, it is to be observed that the language of Scripture is, as a general thing, not philosophical but popular,
not scientific but poetic, not so much an analytical language, fond of sharp discriminations and exact statements,
as a synthetical language, abounding in concrete terms,
the representatives not of abstractions, but of facts of actual existence and experience, and which in their meaning
gradually shade into each other, without any definite line
of distinction. This character leads to some peculiar forms
of expression, which abound in the Bible, and are important for the interpretation of many texts.
"A  poetic language, a language I mean  of a poetic
people, delights alternately to diminish and augment, that
the imagination of the hearer or reader may be exercised
in adding or retrenching." E. g." Whosoever is born of
God, doth not commit sin" (1 John 3: 9).  "That which
is highly esteemed among men is abomination in the sight
of God" (Luke 16: 15).  "If any man come to me and
hate not his father and mother.......    he cannot be my
disciple" (Luke 14: 26). And, as an example of a diminished expression, "The unfruitful works of darkness"
(Eph. 5: 11).
"It delights by turns to make absolute that which is
relative, and relative that which is absolute." Examples
of the former:  "When thou makest a dinner or a supper,
call not thy friends, nor thy brethren, neither thy kinsmen, nor thy rich neighbors;.......    but call the poor,
the maimed," &c. (Luke 14:12). This is stated as an
absolute prohibition of inviting friends, kindred, rich neighbors, and a command to invite exclusively the other class.
We know very well that our Lord did not mean to be thus
understood, nor does any one ever thus interpret. Naturally
and as a matter of course, men will invite kindred, the rich,
57 
58    TiHE TEXT-INTERPRETATIOX.
&c., and for this, which is done because of mere natural
affection or social reciprocity, they will get no religious
reward.  But it is so mtuch more important, on religious
grounds and in hope of a Divine reward, to invite the
poor and suffering, that our'Lord speaks as if, compared
with this, the former must not be done at all.  In Prov.
8: 10, we have first the absolute form of statement, and
then in the parallel clause the relative form: "Receive
my instruction, and not silver; and knowledge rather than
choice gold." Here the former clause was not meant to
be understood as really making an absolute prohibition of
receiving silver; it is simply a highly emphatic way of
urging the same thought that is presented in the latter
clause.  In Gen. 45: 8, Joseph says, "So now it was not
you that sent me hither, but God." In Jer. 7: 22-3, God
declares, "I spake not unto your fathers, nor commanded
them, in the day that I brought them out of the land of
Egypt, concerning burnt offerings or sacrifices; but this
thing commanded I them, saying, Obey my voice, and I
will be your God, and ye shall be my people." It was well
known that God had spoken to their fathers very extensively concerning sacrifices; but the command to obedience is held to be so much more important, that the other
is pronounced nothing in the comparison. So with Matt.
9: 13 (Hos. 6: 6), "I desire mercy, and not sacrifice."
All this seems obvious.  But does not the same principle
apply to 1 Pet. 3: 3, "Whose adorning let it not be that
outward adorning of plaiting the hair, and of wearing of
gold, or of putting onl of apparel; but let it be the hidden
man of the heart,.... the ornament of a meek and
quiet spirit," &c.? (Comp. 1 Tim. 2: 9.) The apostle
does not mean to be understood as really prohibiting all
outward adornment, any more than the other passages
prohibit inviting kindred, receiving silver, or offering sacrifices; he means to say emphatically that the most beau
k 
THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
tiful outward adorning, such as women so highly prize, is
as nothing in comparison with that imperishable adorning
of the spirit, which in the sight of God is of great price.
It is an absolute statement, designed to be understoodrelatively, but calculated by its absolute form to be very emphatic and impressive. If this view of the passage be
correct, then thousands of well-meaning Christians, and
more than one organized body, have vainly striven to
eradicate the natural love of ornament, merely because
they did not consider that the energetic language of Scripture frequently puts absolute for relative; and at the same
time thousands of others, through the same mistake, have
failed to appreciate the urgent and vehement exhortation
to care less for outward, and more for inward adornment.
On the other hand, the following is an example of relative
for absolute: "This man went down to his house justified
rather than the other" (Luke 18: 14). We understand,
as it was intended we should, that the publican was justified, while the Pharisee, contrary to all popular expectatation, really was not justified.
"It generalizes that which is particular, and particularizes
that which is general; takes duty sometimes at its summit,
sometimes at its base. E.g.'Thou shalt not bear false
witness against thy neighbor' (Exod. 20: 16). It sometimes does not distinguish nicely the notions which are
closely related to each other, such as wicked and foolish.
It delights in synonyms and parallelisms, in advancing in
couples or pairs of ideas.  E.g.'Thy word is a lamp unto
my feet, and a light unto my path' (Psa. 119: 105). It
classifies without scientific purpose; as,'Create in me a
clean heart, and renew a right spirit within me' (Psa.
51: 12).  The Old and the New Testament abound in similar examples. We frequently find in the prophets and
apostles series of substantives or adjectives, which have
been taken very improperly as the base of divisions iD
59 
60   THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
discourses."  Thus in 1 Pet. 4: 18, "If the righteous
scarcely be saved, where shall the ungodly and the sinner
appear?" it is quite common to take the ungodly and the
sinner as representing two distinct classes, which is not
justified by the mere use of both terms, and is in fact for bidden by the construction of the Greek. So as to the
several terms in 2 Pet. 1: 5-7, distinctions are sometimes
very unwisely pressed.
"Such is the language of the Bible; and further, each
of the epochs which are represented in it, each of the authors
who contributed to it, has a peculiar style." *
2. Erroneous interpretations arise from disregarding the
connection of the text. In some cases, a sentence taken apart
from its connection would give a positively wrong sense.
E.g." Nevertheless, being crafty, I caught you with guile"
(2 Cor. 12: 16). In others, it would be hopelessly ambiguous, or utterly vague. In nearly all cases, a thorough
understanding will require that we examine the connection.
Even in those portions of Proverbs, where the several sentences appear wholly disconnected, one may sometimes
derive help from observing what seems to be the general
class of topics which the writer or collector has here in
mind. In the Psalms, even Psalm 119, there is always a
general drift by which we may be guided. In the narratives, poetical treatises, discourses, epistolary arguments,
etc., which make up almost the entire Bible, the connection
is obviously important. It might in fact seem needless to
insist on this. No man of sense, in dealing with any other
book, would think of interpreting a single sentence here or
there, in entire disregard of its connection. If an agriculturist or engineer, a physician or lawyer, should thus interpret detached sentences in the works which h~ consults for
* These extracts, with some of the passages of Scripture quoted
in illustration, are from Vinet, Hom. p. 113-4. The sentences
extracted are sometimes slightly altered. 
THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
instruction and practical guidance, he would be voted a
simpleton.
Why in the world, then, do men of sense so often neglect,
or even knowingly violate, the connection of a Scripture
text? Partly from the long-continued and wide-spread
practice of allegorizing - to be discussed below - which
is often most easily managed by cutting loose from the
context, and which has encouraged men to think that the
language of Scripture is so very different from all other
language, as to be independent of the principles which
ordinarily govern interpretation. It is a mournful fact
that Universalists, Romanists, Mormons, can find an apparent support for their heresies in Scripture, without
interpreting more loosely, without doing greater violence
to the meaning and connection of the sacred text than is
sometimes done by orthodox, devout and even intel ligent
men. A second cause is the exclusive use of short t+exts.
Men of ordinary powers cannot always find short passages
which, interpreted in the light of the connection, will
furnish them material enough for a sermon; and they are
tempted to make some additional application of the words
which the connection does not admit, or even to break a
sentence away from its connection, and give it an entirely
new application, which would make it a striking text.*
Under such pressure, and encouraged by the example of
good and honored brethren, they interpret as suits them;
and the habit thus formed is perhaps confirmed by indolence,
seeing that it is often troublesome to study the context.
And  there  is yet another cause.   Some six centuries ago there began the present division of the Bible
into chapters, and some three centuries ago the subdivision into verses. Both were made for convenience in reference, just as somewhat similar divisions and subdivision
* See uen Expository Preaching, Part II, chap. 3.
6
61 
62    THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
have from time to time been made in the text of many Greek
and Latin authors. In the classics, however, only the larger
divisions, the chapters, have been printed as separate, the
subdivisions being put together according to the sense, and
merely noted on the margin or within the text. Unfortunately, a different course has been pursued in printing the
Bible; beginning with the Genevan Version, it has become
common to print each verse as a separate paragraph.
This mode of printing was probably introduced partly
because of the peculiar structure of the Psalms, in which
the successive sentences are frequently distinct; it was
also calculated to save trouble in finding verses, and the
practice at one time existed of printing "references" not as
we do in the margin, but at the end of each verse. Whatever causes established the custom, it has long been a custom, and some persons even defend it because it makes the
Bible look different from other books. Now the division
into verses, as well as that into chapters, was very carelessly made, and often sadly disregards the connection and
obscures the sense. And even if the verses were better
divided, the separate printing of brief sentences and parts
of sentences must of necessity make it more difficult to
keep up the general connection, particularly as we are
accustomed, in all other books, to a division into paragraphs, which mark the connection clearly. The result
has been to lead both preachers and hearers to think of
every chapter and every verse as a sort of separate whole.
It is curious to observe how rarely we hear read in public
the latter part of one chapter and the earlier part of the
next, though the slightest care for the real connection of
narrative or argument would often require this; and how
awkward it would seem to take the last words of one verse
and the first words of another as a text. To dispel this
illusion, which makes every verse a paragraph, and every
lchapter almost a distinct book, is a matter of serious im 
TITE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
portance for all persons, ministers or others, who wish
really to understand the Bible.  Much advantage may be
derived from habitually reading a Paragraph Bible.*  No
other mode of printing is now tolerated in the Greek, and
in Hebrew the paragraphs marked by the early Jewish
scholars have always been retained.
It would seem plain from what has been said, that the
preacher who wishes to deal fairly with his own mind and
with God's Word, must determine that he will never interpret a text without careful regard to its connection.t
The considerations presented may explain how it is that
many devout and sometimes able brethren have been led
to do otherwise, and censure of their course is not proposed; but when a man's attention has been distinctly
called to the matter, he is solemnly bound to give heed to
it in practice. How shall one reconcile it with the responsibility of his position, to stand before men in God's name,
and say that a passage of the blessed Bible means anything else-than what he is satisfied, from the phraseology
and the connection, that it really does mean?
In one direction, however, the idea of strict interpretationl may be carried too far. It is certainly best, as a
general rule, to confine our sermon to the precise subject,
and aspect of a subject, which the text in its connection
sets forth.1 But we are not necessarily restricted to this.
Some principle may be presented by the text in one appli
* Bagster has published Paragraph Bibles, in various styles.
The Annotated Parigraph Bible of the London Religious Traet
Society is well arranged, and has also very valuable notes. The
American Baptist, Publication Society has a Bible, and a New Testament, printed in paragraphs, and sufficiently cheap.  The Revised
New Testament and other publications of the American Bible Union
have the advantage of being printed in the same way.
t See below, ~ 4, Rule 2.
I Conip. on Subject-sermons, Part II, chap. 3..
63 
64    THE TEXT-INTERPRETA TON.
cation, and we may with perfect propriety make other
applications of it. That is not violating the connection,
for the text really teaches the principle, and the new
applications are avowedly made by ourselves, guided by
the general teachings of Scripture.    The apostle Paul
quite frequently states a broad principle as bearing on
some particular question of truth or duty. E. g. Gal. 6: 7,
"Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap," is
said with special reference to the duty of contributing to
the support of religious teachers, but it is given as a general
truth, and admits of many applications. In Rom. 14: 12,
the special thought is that "every one of us will give
account of himself," and so we must not judge one another;
but there is of course involved in this the general fact that
every one will give account, and thus the passage really
presents the subject of accountability.   Many  similar
examples might be found throughout the Bible. In other
cases, we may start from the precise point given by the
text and advance to related truths.  We thus extend the
application of the text, but in a direction not foreign but
akin to the sacred writer's specific design.  Thus in Amos
4:12, "Prepare to meet thy God," the prophet gives
warning of impending temporal judgments upon the nation,
and calls upon them to prepare to meet God in these.
Now it is lawful for us, after pointing out this, to show
that if we continue in sin we must all meet God, not only
in temporal judgments but in the vengeance of the great
day, and thus call on our hearers to prepare for eternity.
This is not disregarding the connection, not misinterpreting the text, it is simply carrying the idea farther in the
same direction; carrying it farther on our own responsibility, with no assertion or implication that the sacred
Writer referred to all the topics which our discourse
includes. It thus appears that one may preach from a
text on any matter which it presents to the mind, whether 
THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
directly or indirectly, by statement, presupposition or
inference, provided that in some way it really does mean
what is claimed; and where this is something only indirectly presented, it will be best to point out, in some simple
way, that such is the case, so as not to encourage the people
in loose notions on the subject of interpretation. How
different is such a course from that of a preacher who gave
a Missionary sermon from the words of the young ruler,
"What lack I yet?" inquiring what we lack for greater
success in the missioniary enterprise. This is an extreme
case; but thousands of sermons are preached in which the
connection and real meaning of the text is just as completely, though not often so manifestly, disregarded and
violated.
The remark may be here added, that where a text in its
connection admits of more than one meaning, we shall do
well either to avoid it as too ambiguous for our purpose, or
to indicate that we take the more probable sense, and confine attention to its lessons as thus understood The plan
of taking up in succession several different senses and
making a practical application of each, cannot be approved.
We must bring to hear upon men's minds as a part of
-God's Word, only what the text really means, as best we
can ascertain it.
3. A third source of error in the interpretation of texts
is improper spiritualizing.
We have no other means of representing spiritual things
than by metaphors derived from things temporal; and our
very conceptions of the unseen world depend upon images
furnished by the world in which we now live. Swedenborg
taught, in the "doctrine of correspondences" upon which
he asserts the Scriptures to have been written, that every
object and relation in the material sphere has something
corresponding to it in the spiritual sphere. As a universal
fact, we may well ask for some better proof of this than
6*
65 
66   THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
the Swedish Baron's visions; but it is going to the opposite extreme if we imagine that the relation between things
temporal and spiritual is simply an affair of metaphors.
The Scriptures appear to teach that there really is much
of intimate connection and much of close correspondence
between these two great spheres of existence.   All the
false religions present perversions and distortions of this
conception. And the allegorical, in the broad sense of
that term, is very widely and variously employed in the
Scriptures of truth. The numerous sacrifices and purifications enjoined in the law, represented the work of Christ
and of his Spirit.  The prophets  frequently employed
objects or events near at hand to picture realities belonging
to the Messianic age. The history of Israel had a typical
relation, on the one hand to the life of Christ, on the other
to the fortunes of his Church; and Zion, the capital city
and representative of Israel, furnished a favorite prophetic
image in depicting the future of the spiritual Israel.
Individual personages of history, as Melchizedek, Moses,
Joshua, David, Cyrus, undoubtedly bore a divinelydesigned resemblance, in some respects, to the coming
Messiah. The relation between husband and wife afforded
an oft-recurring image of the relation between God and
the chosen nation, between Christ and his Church. Even
the enmity of Sarah anid Hagar pictured the opposition
between bondage under the law and liberty in the gospel.
With such a foundation in the nature of things, and with
so much support in the actual usage of the Bible, it is not
strange that there has always been on the part of some men
a tendency to spiritualize, widely and wildly, the language
of Scripture.  It is common to speak of Origen (3rd cent.)
as the father of Christian allegorizing; but it abounds
already in some writers of the 2nd cent., and Origen
learned much of it, as regards the Old Testament, from
Philo the Jew, a contemporary of our Lord, the Alexan 
THE TEXT-INTERPRETATIOX.
drian Jews having long been engaged in this sort of speculation. Origen's transcendent ability, learning, and power of
creative imagination contributed much to make fanciful
allegorizing popular among Christians. Most of the great
Fathers, who have ever since exerted so powerful an
influence, are grievously infected with this evil. At the
present day, not a few of the most learned and devout
preachers in the Church of England and among the German Lutherans run wild with their imitations of Patristic
allegorizing; while many very ignorant men, of various
denominations, following only the methods caught from
older preachers in their locality, bring out the "spiritual
sense" of the plainest narratives and precepts in a fashion
wholly unwarranted and often painfully absurd. In the
denominations not controlled by "the Fathers," better
views of interpretation have for some time prevailed.
Among Baptists, for instance, the influence of Fuller and
Hall, and the wider diffusion of ministerial education,
have wrought a gratifying change. But there is still much
ignorance to overcome, and too many able and honored
ministers continue sometimes to sanction the old-fashioned
spiritualizing by their potent example. It is so easy and
pleasant, for men of fertile fancy, to break away from
laborious study of phraseology and connection, to cease
plodding along the rough and homely paths of earth, and
sport, free and rejoicing, in the open heaven; the people
are so charmed by ingenious novelties, so carried away
with imaginative flights, so delighted to find everywhere
types of Christ and likenesses to the spiritual life; it is so
common to think that whatever kindles the imagination
and touches the heart must be good preaching, and so easy
to insist that tile doctrines of thle sermon are in themselves
true and Scriptural, though they be not actually taught in
the text,- that preachers often lose sight of their findamental and inexcusable error, of saying that Z passage of
67 
68   THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
God's Wford means what it does not mean. So independent,
too, one may feel; so original he may think himself. Commentaries, he can sneer at them all; other preachers, he
has little need of comparing views with them.  No need of
anything but the resources of his own imagination, for such
preaching is too often only building castles in the air.
The tendency to error in this direction is also increased
by the fact, that it is impossible, in respect to spiritualizing,
to draw a line of unquestionable distinction between what is
and what is not allowable. Whatever in the Old Testament
is used by New Testament writers as having a spiritual
sense, is of course beyond question.  Many insist that we
must stop at this; that nothing whatever is to be understood allegorically, save by distinct New Testament authority.  Theoretically, this appears to be too strict a
rule; for in the case of other objects or events precisely
similar to those which are used spiritually in the New
Testament, it would be unwise to deny that these also may
have such a sense. But practically as to texts, we can
never feel safe in going beyond this rule; anything not
thus used in the New Testament can only be spoken of as
possibly, or at most as probably, having an allegorical
meaning; and while possible or probable interpretations,
when distinctly stated to be such, may be properly used as
part of the argument or illustration of a sermon, the text,
which is the foundation or source of the whole sermon,
ought in the preacher's judgment really to have, beyond
peradventure, the meaning assigned to it. It should be
added, that portions of Scripture which cannot be interpreted as having a spiritual meaning, may yet be employed in various ways for teaching spiritual truth. They
may embody principles, capable of an application to spiritual things, though such an application must be made by
the preacher on his own responsibility, and received by the
people on their own judgment, not as a part of the teachings of Scripture. Or they may furnish illustrations of 
THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
spiritual truth, just as we may derive illustration from
everything in nature, history and common life.*
And observe: In the case of figurative passages, which
really have a spiritual meaning, there is danger of pressing
the figure too far, of fancying a spiritual sense in aspects
or details of the figure which are not really within the
scope of the inspired writer. When our Lord says, "Take
my yoke upon you," we have no right to hunt up all manner of details as to yokes and oxen, and run a fanciful
parallel as to each particular; the general meaning is
plain enough, and that is all. When he says, "Be ye
wise as serpents," or, "I will make you fishers of men,"
and in ten thousand passages of Scripture, the same principle holds. We must inquire what the sacred speaker
or writer designed by the figure; so much it means, but
beyond that, as a part of Scripture, it means nothing.t
Especially common are errors of this kind in the interpretation of our Lord's Parables. The stories which were told
by the Great Teacher are illustrations of unrivalled beauty
and impressiveness, but still they are illustrations. Like
the illustrative comparisons and incidents which we employ, some of them are founded upon a closer, and others
upon a more remote, resemblance or analogy; some run
parallel for a long distance to the subject compared with
them, others barely touch it at a single point. When
Christ's coming is said to be as a thief in the night, the
resemblance extends only to unexpectedness; as to the
character and objects of the parties, and almost everything
else that is involved, the illustration and the thing illustrated are utterly unlike.  And when it is said, "The
kingdom of heaven is like leaven, which a woman took,
and hid in three measures of meal, till the whole was
* Comp. Vinet, p. 120.
t There is good instruction on this subject in Fairbairn's Hermeneutical Manual, p. 157-173.
69 
70    THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
'leavened" (Matthew 13: 33), what sense is there in looking for some spiritual truth illustrated by the number
tITree, or in saying that the woman represents the Church,
when as a matter of course a woman and not a man would
be introduced in a story as making up bread? In undertaking to interpret a parable, we must learn from the connection what subject our Lord used it to illustrate- must
then notice what light the parable as a whole throws on
that subject, what aspects of the subject it brings to our
view - and finally inquire how far we may fairly regard
the several details of the story as separately significant.
In-this last respect we must avoid extremes, exercise sound
judgment, and constantly keep in mind that the parable
is an illustration, and founded on some resemblance or
analogy which is at best only partial. After thus studying
one of the parables of Christ, we are prepared to preach
upon it, with some prospect of bringing out its real meaning and legitimate applications.
~ 4. EXAMPLES OF TEXTS OFTEN MISAPPLIED.
There has been during the present century considerable improvement in various quarters as regards strict interpretation in the
pulpit. But to show how much laxity on the subject still prevails,
it is proposed to mention a few examples of passages which we
have all heard preached upon, or used by preachers in argument,
and whose meaning is beyond question very different from that
commonly attached to them. It is strange how powerful is the
tradition of the pulpit; how often able and thoughtful men will go
all their lives taking for granted that an important passage has that
meaning which in youth they heard ascribed to it, when the slightest examination would show them that it is far otherwise. The
examples here given are arranged in the order of the three sources
of error as to interpretation which have been discussed in the foregoing section, though of course these will sometimes be combined
in the same passage.
1. Misunderstanding the phraseology of the text itself. Jer. 3: 4,
"My father, thou art the guide of my youth." This is very often 
THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
used in preaching to the young, and given as a motto on the titlepage of books for the young, the idea being that young  people
should seek the guidance of our Heavenly Father. But this is to
miss the Scripture use of the phrase,  "guide of my youth," as well
as to disregard the connection of the passage.  In Prov. 2: 17 it is
plain that'guide of her youth' (more exactly, companion,  associate of her youth) denotes the husband.  Here in Jeremiah it is
the same Hebrew word.  The whole connection of chap. 2 and 3
shows that God through the prophet is reproaching the nation as
an adulterous spouse, who deserves to be utterly cast off; but still
he invites her to return to him.   "Wilt thou not, from this time cry
unto me, My father, thou art the guide of my youth?' Thou art
my early husband, the companion of my youth (comp. Jer. 2: 2;
Hos. 2: 15), and I return unto thee.  And the term'father' isjust
a respectful form of address'used by the wife to her husband, as
Naaman's servants called him'my fatheir' (2 Kings 5: 13).  Thus
the commnon application of the passage is utte'ly erroneous.
Eccl. 12: 1,  Remember now thy Creator-in the days of thyyouth."
Here the wvord'now' is often much insisted on.  But the Hebrew
is simply'and remember,' etc.  Our translators, not perceiving the
propriety of the connection indicated by'and,' and finding it entirely omitted by their favorite authorities, the Vulgate and Luther,
used, as a sort of compromise, the particle of transition'now.'
The connection is really very fine.'Rejoice, O young man, in thy
youth.... and walk in the ways of thine heart....... and know
that for all these things God will bring thee into judgment. And
remove sorrow from thy heart, and put away evil from thy flesh;
for childhood and youth are a breath. And remember thy Creator
in the days of thy youth,' etc.
Prov. 8: 17, "They that seek me early shall find me."  This does
not at all mean early in life, as it is so constantly taken. Our
translators, following the Vulgate, understood the Hebrew to signify early in the morning, there being a cognate word which denotes
morning; and the idea they intended to convey was similar to that
of Jer. 7: 13, "And I spake unto you, rising up early and speaking, but ye heard not." Their phrase thus gives substantially the
same sense with the view of recent scholars, who suppose that there
is no connection with the idea of morning, and explain the word as
signifying to seek (so the Septuagint), or to seak zealously,  earnestly  (Comp. Prov. 1: 28; Psa. 63:1; Hos. 5: 15).  Thus the
passage has no specific, much less exclusive reference to the young.
71 
72   THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
-Psa. 23: 4, "Yea,, though I walk through the valley of the shadow
of death, I will fear no evil." To many it would seem almost sacrilege to say that this passage has no direct reference to the time
when one is drawing near to death. The shadow of death, the dark
place where the dead are, is an image frequently employed in the
Old Testament to denote the densest darkness. Thus in Amos
5: 8, God is described as "He that maketh the seven stars and
Orion, and turneth the shadow of death into the morning, and
maketh the day dark with night."  Here it means the darkness of
night.  In Psa. 107: 10, "Such as sat in darkness and the shadow
of death, bound in affliction and iron," the reference is to the darkness of a dungeon.  In Jer. 2: 7, " Where is the Lord that brought
us up out of the land of Egypt, that led us through the wilderness.....through a land of drought, and of the shadow of death,
through a land that no man passed through," the darkness of a
gloomy desert is meant.  In Isa. 9: 2, "The people that walked in
darkness have seen a great light; they that dwell in the land of the
shadow of death, upon them hath the light shined," it is the darkness of destitution, ignorance and affliction. (Comp. Matt. 4: 16.)
The phrase is used in various other passages, but always meaning
dense darkness, literal or figurative, and nowhere having any reference to dying. Now in Psa. 23: 4, the image is that of a flock
led through a deep, narrow, very dark valley, such as abound in
Judea, with wild beasts lurking in the thickets on either hand,
where the timid sheep would fear hurt, unless protected by the shepherd; the Psalmist says that though walking in the darkest valley,
dark as the grave, he will fear no evil, &c. And the image will
naturally suggest any season or experience of life in which the
believer would naturally feel alarm and distress, but may be safe
in his Shepherd's presence and protection,* Such are temptation,
sickness, bereavement, and death too, not because the word death is
employed, but because the image of passing through a valley dark
as the grave naturally applies to death, and not as the single application, but as one of many.  Thus a correct understanding of the
passage does not destroy, but widens, its significance.
Rom. 12.: 1, "Present your bodies a living sacrifice."  Here
many will begin to speak of making sacrifices, in our derivative
sense of that term.  But the thought of the text is, that as men
; Bunyan in the Pilgrim's Progress uses the image correctly, making
his pilgrim pass through the valley of the shadow of death some time
before he reaches the river. 
THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
presented at the altar the bodies of beasts as sacrifices, so we must
consecrate oursel?es unto God  and this is a " reasonable service,"
a worship of the rational or spiritual nature, and not a mere bodily
worship, made lip of outward acts and offerings.
1 Tim. 2: 8, " I will that men pray everywhere," etc.  The Greek
gives' the men,' and has the peculiar word which signifies man as
opposed to woman. The apostle is giving directions for the con duct of public worship, and says that the men must pray in every
place, lifting up holy hands, without wrath and disputing.  These
phrases embody the special dangers with reference to men, when
engaging in public worship; and in the next verse he says that
women, for their part, must not dress too fine, but be adorned with
good works.
2 Tim. 2: 15, "Study to show thyself approved  unto God," etc.
This is often quoted, and sometimes made a text,, as teaching that
a minister must  study, viz. study books, especially the Bible
study natire, human nature. etc   The real meaning of our version,
as of the orignal, is endeavor, studiously endeavor to present thy self approved unto God.        -
Hieb. 7: 25,, "Wherefore he is able to save them to the uttermost
that come to God bv him," is a favorite text as showing that Christ
is able to save the worst sinners.  The real meaning of the phrase
-as the connection also might show-is, save to the utmost, to
the fill extent of saving.  As our HTigh Priest does not transmit his
offce to successors, and leave to others the work he has begun, but
ever lives to intercede for those who come toGod through him, he is
able to save them completely-not merely to begin their salvation,
but to carry it forward in life and death till in eternity it is complete.
2 Disregarding the connection.
Col. 2: 21, "Touch not, taste not, handle not."  These words
have been a thousand times blazoned on banners, and quoted by
impassioned orators, as a precept of Hioly Writ against the use of
intoxicating drinkls.  The  slightest attention to the connection
would show, that in the first place, they are not spoken with any
reference to tlhat subject, and in the second place, that they are
given by the apostle as an example of ascetic precepts to which we
oz/gnt not to con,form.  "If ye died with Christ from the rudiments of
the world, wihy. as though living in the worl(l, are ye subject to ordinainces, Ilan(lle not, taste not, touch not.... after the commandments andi teachliings of men?"  There are many pa,sagesof Scripture
whichi enjoin TemI erance, but this is certainly not one of them,
7
73 
74    THlE TEXT-INTEPPRPETATION.
Heb. 6: 1, "Let us go on unto perfection," is a favorite texts with
some of those who maintain the possibility of sinless peirfection in
this life.  But the sacred writer is speaking of knowledge, and urges
progress toward maturity of knowledge. The word in the preceding verse (5: 14) rendered' of full age' is literally'perfect;' so
that the two verses have a close verbal connection, besides the
general connection in sense.
1 Cor. 2: 9, "Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have
entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared
for them that love him," is constantly (luoted as referring to the
glory and blessedness of heaven;  but the connection  leaves no
doubt that the apostle refers to the profound wisdom of the plan
of salvation, which no human mind could have perceived or imagiied, but which "God has revealed unto us by his Spirit."
Mark 9: 8, "Jesus only."  To make these words a text, and discourse upon Jesus only as Prophet, Jesus only as Priest, Jesus only
as King, etc., is an extreme instance of disregarding the context.
At the close of the transfiguration, "suddenly, when tihey had
looked round about, they saw no man any more, save Jesus only
with themselves," Now it is very true that we must hleave Jesus
only as Prophet, Priest and King, but who  will say that this passage teaches that, or even fairly suggests it? And the mere words,
taken entirely apart from what the sacred writer meant by them,
are no more a saying of Scripture, than if' Jesus' had been taken
from Mark, and'only' from Romans; and the two combined as a
text.
Isa. 1: 5, 6, "The whole head is sick, and the whole heart faint.
From the sole of the foot even unto the head there is no soundness
in it; but wounds, and bruises, and putrefying sores," etc. This is
sometimes used as a text, and perpetually cited as a proof-text, to
show the total depravity of man. But look at the connection. The
nation of Israel had been stricken with the Divine judyments, till it
was like a man beaten with the terrible Oriental scourg,ing, from
head to foot, and with wounds and stripes unhealed; the country
was desolate, the cities burned, and Jerusalem stood a-Ion.  in a
wilderness. And the prophet asks, Why should ye be stricken atny
more? If it is done, you will revolt still more. Already you are
beaten from head to foot, but punishment makes you no better, it even
seems to make you worse.  Now this would be an excellent text for
showing how often nations, communities, individuals, refuse to be
subdued by afflictions, and go on ix their wickedness; and there is
I 
THE TIXT-INTERPRETATION.
in this respect a prcof here of the depravity of man. But the
image, the whole head is sick, etc., is clearly not at all designed to
set forth depravity, but severe chastisement.
Isa. 63: 1-3, " Who is this that cometh from Edom, with brightred garments from Bozrah?...... I that speak in righteousness,
mighty to save.  Wherefore art thou red in thine apparel?.....    I
have trodden the wine-press alone." How often this is held to
denote our Saviour as shedding his blood, and suffering alone, for
our salvation. And yet what can be plainer than that this is a conqueror, stained with his enemies' blood, and fighting alone?  In the
same sentence he says, " For I will tread them in mine anger, and
trample them in my fury; and their blood shall be sprinkled upon
my garments." (Comp. also ver. 4-6.) Here the speaker is the
conqueror of Edom, and deliverer of Israel. If understood as
applying to Messiah, it must be to him as conquering his people's
enemies, and mighty to save in this sense.  In Rev. 19: 11-16, the
same imagery is employed in describing the Word of God; yet there
too it is not a sufferer but a conqueror.
1 Kings 18: 21, " How long halt ye between two opinions?"  The
favorite use of this text is to reproach men with indecision and hesitation as to becoming Christians.  But the Israelites were not undecided as to whether they would servo Jehovah or Baal, they were
trying to serve both, to conform to the fashionable court-religion,
and yet retain the religion of their fathers. Elijah reproaches them
with this effort to do both. Serve Jehovah, or else Baal, not first
one and then the other.  (Comp. "Ye  cannot serve God  and
Mammon".)
3. Improper spiritualizing, etc.
Amos 6: 1, "Wo to them that are at ease in Zion."  Here Zion
is the Church, those at ease in Zion are the slothful, worthless menmbers of the Church, and away we go. But the prophet adds, " and
trust in the mountain of Samaria;" what is the "spiritual sense"
of that?  The chiefs of Judah trusted in the strong fortifications
of Jerusalem, and those of the northern kingdom in Samaria, and
so they were not alarmed by the prophetic warnings that enemies
would come and destroy those capitals, as other great cities had
been destroyed.  Wo to them, if quietly confiding in Jerusalem and
Saimaiia,. they did not repent of their wickedness, and trust in God.
The application of this in time of watr is manifest and important.
The principle might also be applied to any reliance upon human
instrumentalities, or outward agenc es; instead of relying on God,
75 
7G    TIIE TEXT-INTERPRETATIO)N.
The do-nothing members of a church deserve severe scourging, but
this text does not touch them.
Exod. 2: 9, "Take this child away. and nurse it for me, and I
will give thee thy wages." And some able men actually make this
a text in preaching to parents, or to Sunday School teachers. " God
says to you, Take this child," etc. But he says no such thing. He
simply tells us that the daughter of Pharaoh said this to the mother
of Moses. God does not address these words to anybody. To find
here a spiritual meaning, is so wholly unwarranted, so utterly arbitrary, as to be beyond the reach of argument. If the preacher
says that he takes the words in the sense proposed, then-they are not
Scripture at all,- not God's saying, but his saying,- and ought not
to be called a text, for that means Scripture. It would be just as
appropriate to take Prov. 23: 30, "Tarry long at the wine," as a
Divine precept, or Psa. 14: 1, " There is no God," as a declaration
of Scripture.   Whether as allegorizing or as "accommodationll,"
such an application of the text is indefensible, and when once a
man's attention has been called to the matter, it would be inexcusable.
Jonah l: 6, "What  meane# thou, 0 sleeper? "  How can a
preacher tell us that these words refer to sinners as spiritually
asleep? Jonah, worn out with his hasty and anxious journey to
Joppa, and now safe aboard, was soundly sleeping; and the shipcaptain, alarmed and impatient, shouts at him, "What are you
about, fast asleep? arise, call upon thy God," as all the rest are
doing. A minister can utter these words to sleeping sinners, but
he may not say that God addresses this question to them, or to any
one. God's Word simply narrates the fact that the ship-captain
thus spoke; hlie does not himself speak the words at all. As merely
the minister's words, they would not be a part of Scripture. As
to any properly allegorical meaning hidden in the words, it is a
sheer figment, and must be proven, not recklessly assumed.
Prov. 18: 24, "There is a friend that sticketh closer than a
brother." It is cotimnuonly held that in the 8th chapter of Proverbs
there is some allusion to Christ- which is not at all certain'-and
hence any passage in Proverbs at will is taken as referring to
Christ   But at chap. 10 there begins a manifestly distinct collection, contaiinitig-a number of detached proverbs. exceedingly instructive and useful for our practical guidance in life, but having
not the slightest appearance of a mystical character. The proverbs
which here imme liately precede and follow, and the other half of
I 
THIE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
this proverb, are about common matters.  Vei. 21, power of the
tongue; ver. 22, blessing of finding a wife; ver. 23, the poor
entreats, the rich answers roughly;'tnd as to the succeeding proverbs, ver. 1 (next chapter), the poor who walks in his integrity,
and the perverse fool, etc., etc.  Ver. 24 is rendered, "A man that
hath friends must show himself friendly: and there is a friend that
sticketh closer than a brother." The first half is in the Hebrew
obscure, but most probably means'a man of [many] associates
will ruin himself,' by misplaced confidence, or  will prove bad,'
cannot be faithful to them all. However that may be, the general
subject is plainly the common friendships of life; and there is no
hint of allusion to Christ.  And then it is added that there are
some close and permanent friendships, there is a friend (literally,
'lover') tlhat sticketh closer than a brother; not referring to any
particular individual, but meaning that such  a thing does exist.
We need not condemn the poet's use of this expression,
"One there is above all others
W ell deserves the name of friend:
His is love beyond a brother's," etc.;
but the license of poetical adaptation is a very different thing from
interpretation.  One might take this proverb as a text, and speak
of the friendships that are close and faithful, and then pass by
analogy, on his own responsibility, to speak of Christ as a friend;
but that is not saying that this passage refers to Christ.
It has seemed necessary to discuss the above passages with some
care, because the inexperienced reader might naturally be slow to
believe that so many favorite texts have been utterly misunderstood,
by himself and by many preachers around him.  The particular
interpretations here given may be rejected, if thorough examnination shows them to be incorrect. What is particularly urged is to
form the habit of carefully studying every text, even the most
falimiiliar and apparently obvious, to see if it really does mean what
the preacher has hitherto supposed. This practice will rob him
of many texts, but will enrich him with many others.  Most of
those above considered, when the common application has been
set aside, are found to have a sense that may be made interesting
and useful. And by careful examination many another passage
will develop unsuspected riches.  If strict interpretation of texts
brought unmitigated loss of -material, we ought still to practise
it, for the sake of dealing ho)nestly with cur own minds, and with
7*
77 
78    TIEE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
God's Word; but the habit of strict interpretation will give far
more than it takes away. If one knows the Hebrew or the Greek,
let'him never preach upon a text without carefully studying it and
its context in the original.   Otherwise, let him search the best
translations, and good explantttory Notes, determined that he will
never say a passage of God's holy and precious Word means so and
so, without personal, honest, patient effort to ascertain the fact.
~ 4. BRIEF RULES FOR INTERPRETING A TEXT.
Though we have discussed at length the chief sources of
error in the interpretation of texts, and illustrated them
by many examples, it seems best to give, positively, some
account of the principles upon which one must proceed if
he would interpret correctly. Good treatises on Interpretation are accessible,* and it is sufficient here to give several
brief rules.
1. Interpret grammatically. Endeavor to ascertain the
precise meaning of the words and phrases used in the text.
Inquire whether any of them have a peculiar sense in Scripture, and whether such peculiar sense holds ill this passage.
If there are key-words in the text, or words of special importance, examine, by the help of a Concordance, other
passages in which such word is employed. This is best
done in the original, because our version will often have
the same word where the Hebrew or Greek is different, and
the same Greek or Hebrew word will be used in important
passages where our version renders differently. There are
admirable Concordances of the Hebrew and the Greek, and
where these are not in possession, the Lexicons of those
languages will give many references, frequently all. In
cases of special importance, able men not acquainted with
* Such as Fairbairn's Hermeneutical Manual (for the New Testament), Davidson's Biblical Itermineneutics (particularly full on the
History of Interpretation), Angus'  Bible Hand-Book,  Barrows'
Companion to the Bible (new, cheap, and on this subject quite
good), Horne's Introduction.
i 
TiIE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
the originals have found it useful to employ the Englishmnan's Greek Concordance of the N. T., and the Englishmrl'tns HIfebrew Concordance of the 0. T.   In the New
Test., the Index to Winer's Grammar will show whether he
has explained any grammatical constructions in the text.
The best translations into our own or other languages will
often throw light on the text, or raise questions as to its
meaning which we may find it useful to pursue. Familiar
passages often assume great freshness, and suggest new
trains of thought, when looked at in a new English Version,* or a translation into Latin, French, German, etc.
Even those who can use the original languages find this
true, because one is so apt when looking at the iHebrew or
Greek to be really looking through it at the familiar English version, as if written underneath. And then by all
means examine the best accessible Commentaries, not such
as remark upon the text, and enlarge upon its teachings,
but such as carefully explain the exact meaning.
This grammatical study of the text can scarcely be made
too mini.ite or protracted.  Whately used to say, "Before
writing your sermon, look at your text with a microscope,"t
and Shejd justly renmarks: "Every particle of care in first
obtaiingi an excellent text and then getting at, and getting out, its real meaning and scope, goes to render the
actual construction and composition- of the sermon, more
easy and successful. Labor at this point saves labor at all
after ponts." ~
2. Interpret logically. The connection of thought in
* The Revised New Test. of the Amer. Bible Union, though it has
a few serious blemishes, is in the main very correct, fairly representing the l,est scholarship of the day, and though it be not recomnmended as a popular version, is certainly a valuable help for the
interpretation of texts.
t Life and Remains of Whately, p. 402.
Shed4 Horn. p. 176.
79 
80   THlE TiEXT-INTERPRETATION.
which a text stands will of course throw light upon its mean ing, and is usually indispensable to understanding it. This
logical connection will sometimes really be the entire book
to which the text belongs. There are very few sentences
in Hebrews, or in the first eleven chapters of Romans, which
can be fully understood without having in mind the entire
argument of the Epistle. Of course this is not so strik ingly true in most of the books, but each of them has its
own distinctive contents, connection and character. Few
things are to be so earnestly urged upon the student of
Scripture, as that he shall habitually study its books with
reference to their whole connection.* Then he can minutely
examine any particular text with a correct knowledge of
its general position and surroundings. But in a narrower
sense there is a context, which will embrace from a few
verses to a few chapters, before and after the text, and of
which the preacher should not only have a general knowledge, but should make special examination, when examining his text; and we must resist the common tendency to
imagine that this context begins or ends with the chapter
in which the text stands. The extent to which such study
of the context should be carried, will of course be very
different in different cases; but there are scarcely any texts
with reference to which it can with propriety be entirely
neglected. Wherever it is practicable, the context, as well
as the text, should by all means be read in the original
languages, or with such other helps as are recommended
under the foregoing rule. In a great number of cases there
is an interesting verbal connection between the text and
some sentence a little before or after it, which is obscured
by the necessary conditions of translation, or by the extreme fondness of our English Version for varying the
translation where the original has the same word. It
should be remarked that besides the importance of study.
*Compare on Expository Preaching, Part II, chap. 8.
I
k 
THE TEXT —INTERPRETATION.
ing the logical connection in order to a thorough understanding of the text, an exposition of the context often
forms a good, and sometimes a necessary, Introduction to
the sermon.
3. Interpret historically.  Apart from the logical connection of discourse in which a text is found, there is often
important aid to be derived from general historical knowledge.  In the narratives, which make up the larger pait
of Scripture, we have constant need of observing facts
of Geography, which would throw light on the text. So
as to the Manners and Customs of the Jews, and other
nations who appear in the sacred story. Thus much is
obvious, though these helps for understanding texts are
seldom used as diligently as they should be. But there is
also much to be learned by taking account of the opinions
and state of mind of the persons addressed in a text. We
need to remember the relations between the speaker or
writer and those whom he has specially in view. In order
to this, we must not merely know the previous relations of
the parties, as in the case of Paul's Epistles, but must
endeavor to ascertain what errors or evils existed among
them which the inspired teacher is here aiming to correct.
This can often be gathered from the book itself.  -No
trouble need ever have been felt as to the supposed contradiction between Paul and James with regard to justification, if attention had been paid to the theoretical and
practical errors at which they are respectively aiming. In
the case of our Lord's teachings, much may be learned
from the Gospels, and also from the Jewish writings, and
the modern works founded oni them, concerning the wrong
notions and evil practices existing among the Jews, and
to which his sayings have often a very direct and specific
reference. With respect, for example, to divorce, to oaths,
to the Sabbath, or to the duty of paying tribute, his
teachings will be imperfectly apprehended unless we
81 
82    THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
understand the practical abuses and vehement controversies
which existed among his hearers as to those subjects. On
such points the best Commentaries give some information.
Or, to take a different kind of example, the words " No
man can come to me, except the Father which hath sent
me draw him" (John 6: 44), were not spoken as a mere
general, didactic utterance, much less were they addressed
to humble and anxious inquirers, but were aimed at an
utterly unspiritual rabble, who were following him not
from any elevated motives, but from mere fanatical excitement, and in the hope of continuing to be fed without
working for it-  who  called themselves his disciples, and
talked about forcing him to set up for king. The recollection of all this does not weaken the force of what he
said, but it helps us to appreciate his specific aim at the
moment, and gives us an important example as to the
adaptation of doctrine.   The more one attends to the
subject the more he is likely to become convinced, that
almost everything in the New Testament, as well as much
in the Old, is really controversial in its specific design,
and that we must constantly inquire what errors or evil
practices are aimed at, in order to appreciate the precise
bearing given, in any text, to the principles it may contain,
and the modifications of statement which may be necessary
(mutatis niutands) in turning these principles  towar. s
new applications.
4. Interpret figuratively, where there is sufficient reason.
Wherever it is clear, from the nature of the case, from the
connection, or from precisely similar expressions in other
passages, that the literal sense is not designed, then we
must understand figuratively. In the language of Scripture, as in all other language, the presumption is in favor
of the literal sense. To explain away as figurative whatever seems to conflict with doctrinal prejudices, or with
fanciful notions and morbid feelings as to ethics or 
TIIE TEXT- INTERPRETATIO N.
:sthetics, or with hasty inferences from imperfectly established scientific facts, is to trifle with that which we
acknowledge as an authoritative revelation. Still, there
is very much in Scripture that is clearly figurative; and
very imiuch more which might so readily be thus understoo l, iii the light of other Scripture usage, that we ought
to be careful about building important theories upon its
literal sense.   This  is especially true as regards  prophecies of things yet to come, in which it is Of necessity
quite difficult to distinguish beforehand between literal and
figurative, though the fulfilment will some day make it
plain. And remember that language may be highly
figurative without being fictitious.  Only ascertain what
the figures of Scripture were designed to mean, and that
meaning is as certainly true as if stated in plain words.
Thus the "fire that cannot be quenched" may be called a
figure, if you choose; yet it assuredly means that in hell
there will be something as bad as fire, something as torturing as fire is to the earthly body -nay, the reality of hell,
as well as of heaven, does no doubt greatly transcend the
most impressive imagery that earthly things can afford.*
5. Interpret allegorically, where that is clearly proper.
We cannot take it for granted that any passage has an
allegorical, or so-called "spiritual" sense, merely because
the notion suits our fancy, or would promote our convenieince.  There must be good reason to think so.  Whatever the New Testament so uses, is certainly allegorical;
whatever else is precisely similar to matters so used in the
New Tzstament, is very probably allegorical. Farther
than thllis, we have surely no right to go. We may derive
illustration, our own illustration, of spiritual things from
perhaps everything in Scripture history, prophecies and
proverbs, as we may from profane history and from nature;
* (Comp. Barrows, Companion to the Bible, chap. 35; Lord. Laws
of Figurative Language.
83 
84   THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
but we have no more right to present the former as inter-.
pretation, than the latter. Joseph furnishes a good illus tration, in certain respects, of Christ; and so does the
Athenian, who held'up his mutilated  arm  before the
people to plead for his brother. Why then, merely because
we can draw illustration from the case of Joseph, shall we
call him a "type" of Christ?  Moreover, because some
things in the Levitical rites, the history of Joshua, David
or Cyrus, the Proverbs of Solomon, or the book of Isaiah,
have ill addition to their natural sense, an allegorical ref erence to Christ, it does not follow that everything com prised therein has such a reference. As to the whole sub ject, we must avoid extremes; and it would seem to be a
good rule as to preaching, that while probably allegorical
meanings may be adduced, as probable, in the progress of
a discourse, no allegorical meaning shall be taken as a text,
which' does not result from an interpretation having clear
warrant in Scripture usage. And two things deserve to
be carefully borne in mind.  The rage for "spiritualizing"
causes many to overlook, or practically neglect, the exceedingly varied and valuable lessons as to Divine Providence
and human duty which are afforded by passages in their
natural sense. Those who insist on making Joseph a type
of Christ, are apt never to hold up before their hearers his
interesting and impressive example, of steadfast faith in
God amid crushing adversity and sudden prosperity, of
resistance to powerful temptation because yielding would
be to "sin against God," of wise affection in dealing with
his kindred, and the like. So in a thousand instances,
and there is here one way in which compensation may be
found for the loss arising from the abandonment of wild
spiritualizing. The other consideration is, that nimany passages which can be interpreted only, so far as we have
warrant to go, in a natural sense, may yield copious instruction as to properly spiritual things, in that the principle 
THE TEXT-INTERPRETATIONT.
they contain, or the analogy they present, may be by us
applied or extended to something spiritual - this being
done on our own responsibility, yet sustained by manifest
propriety, and by other passages.
6. Interpret in accordance with, and not contrary to,
the general teachings of Scripture.* These teachings are
harmonious, and can be combined into a symmetrical
whole. If a passage may have two senses, owing to the
ambiguity of some word or construction, to the doubt
whether some expression is figurative, etc., then we must
choose one which -accords with what the Bible in general
plainly teaches, rather than one which would make the
Bible contradict itself. It is a gross abuse of this principle- though one often practised- to force upon a passage some meaning which its words and constructions do
not grammatically admit of, in order that it may givre the
sense required by our system.  But between possible grammatical meanings we are compelled to choose upon s-ome
principle, and certainly one important principle to be considered is that the teachings of Scripture must be consistenit. Where the grammatical probabilities are pretty
evenly balanced, a comparatively slight preference in the
respect mentioned must turn the scale; and even a much
less probable sense -provided it be grammatically possible, and sustained by some corresponding usage of language-may be preferred to a more probable and common sense, if the former would perfectly accord, and the
latter would grossly conflict, with the acknowledged gene
eral teachings of Scripture. In order to apply this principle with propriety and safety, it is manifestly necessary
that we should bring to bear no narrow and hasty views
*The phrase, "according to the analogy of faith," commonly
used ins this connection, was derived from a misunderstanding of
the Greek in Rom. 12: 6, and ought to be abandoned, even if there
be no technical phrase to substitute.
8
85 
86   THE TEXT-INTERPRETATION.
of Scripture teaching, but the results of a wide, thoughtful,
and devout study of Biblical Theology.
The carefill examination of Scripture "references" in
studying a text, is a matter of great importance. These
will often help in the grammatical part of interpretation,
by showing how the same words and phrases are elsewhere
employed; and in the historical, by showing how the same
subject was presented under different circumstances, or
what was the peculiar state of things in which the text
was uttered. They may also assist us, by presenting parallel or analogous Scripture usage, in determining whether
expressions of the text ought to bh taken as figurative, or
as allegorical; and there are cases in which even a few
other passages will so far set forth the general teachings
of Scripture on the subject involved in the text, as to be
of service in choosing among the possible meanings of its
language.  Moreover, the "reference" passages will very
often furnish useful material for the body of the sermon,
suggesting to us new aspects, proofs, illustrations or applications of the subject treated.  The young preacher should
make it a fixed rule to consult the references to his text;
and many men and women have become "mighty in the
Scriptures," by the diligent use of references in their daily
reading.*
* Moody's New Testament is quite convenient, as it prints the
reference passaiges in full on the same page. One can thus readily
note those which strike him as important, and then hunt them up
to examine their connection.  Many persons become discouraged
in the use of references by the fact that they have art over-copiotus
and ill-chosen collection.  The Annotated Paragraph Bible of the
London Religious Tract Society is in this respect, as in others, an
exceedingly good edition.
I 
SUBJECTS-CLASSIFIED.
CHAPTER III.
SUBJECTS - CLASSIFIED.
87
1. DOCTRINAL SUBJECTS.  ~ 2. SUBJECTS OF MORALITY.  ~ 3. HISTORICAL SUBJECTS.  ~ 4. EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS.  ~ 5. OCCA SIONAL SERMON.S.
-THETHER the subject or the text of a sermon is
first chosen, will of course depend upon circumstances. In considering the condition of the congregation, or looking back over the sermons recently preached,
one will be more likely to decide upon a subject, for which
he must then find a text. In reading the Bible, or running over his growing list of texts, he will be more apt to
light upon some text which interests him, and from which
he will proceed to evolve a subject. Each of these plans
ought to be frequently pursued; one or the other will be
more frequently adopted, according to the preacher's turn
of mind. It has been thought best to discuss the text first,
because the primary conception of preaching is to bring
forth the teachings of some passage of Scripture.  But
the points to be insisted on are these: when the subject is
first selected, then carefully look for a text which will
fairly, and if possible exactly, present that subject; if the
text comes first, then seek to work out from it some definite subject- not necessarily expressed in a single proposition, but really one subject. Even in text-sermons and
expository sermons, as we shall see below, it is important
to have uniity of subject. The subjects treated in the
pulpit may be classified into doctrinal, moral, historical, 
SUBJECTS-CLASSIFIED.
experimental, and occasional.* Any such classification is
necessarily imperfect, as the classes will in certain cases
overlap, and different persons might classify, each according to a different basis.  But the habit of referring every
subject to a class will be found useful, as contributing to
unity and consistency of treatment, and to variety of
topics; and the discussion of these classes furnishes occasion fbr practical suggestions, upon matters of no little
importance.
~ 1. DOCTRINAL SUBJECTS.
The phrase "doctrinal sermon" is constantly used by
some to denote sermons on points of denominational peculiarity or controversy. Such a limitation, implying that
these are the only doctrines, or that we cannot discuss doctrine otherwise than polemically, is a really grave error,
and should be carefully avoided and corrected.
Doctrine, i. e. teaching, is the preacher's chief business.
Truth is the life-blood of piety, without which we cannot
maintain its vitality or support its activity. And to teach
mnen truth, or to quicken what they already know into
freshness and power, is the preacher's great means of
doing good. The facts and truths which belong to the
Scripture account of Sin, Providence and Redemption,
form the staple of all Scriptural preaching.   But these
truths ought not simply to have place, after a desultory
and miscellaneous fashion, in our preaching.  The entire
body of Scripture teaching upon any particular subject,
when collected and systematically arranged, has come to
be called the doctriie of Scripture on that subject, as the
doctrine of Sin, of Atonement, of Regeneration, etc.; and
in this sense we ought to preach much on the doctrines of
the Bible. We all regard it as important that the preacher
* Comp. the classifications of Vinet, p. 75; Kidder, pl 268.
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should himself have sound views of doctrine; is it not
also important that he should lead his congregation to
have just views? Inl our restless nation and agitated- times,
in these days of somewhat bustling religious activity, there
has come to be too little of real doctrinal preaching. "The
day was when churches were much more concerned than
we, about the truths conveyed, and much less about the
garb of the truths. Doctrine, rather than speaking, was
what drew the audience." * To a certain extent it is proper
that we should conform to the tastes of the age, for they
frequently indicate its real wants, and always affect its
reception of truth; but when those tastes are manifestly
faulty, we should earnestly endeavor to correct them. The
preacher who can make doctrinal truth interesting as well
as intelligible to his congregation, and gradually bring
them to a good acquaintance with the doctrines of the
Bible, is rendering them an inestimable service.
And let us preach especially on the great doctrines.
True, they are familiar, but sermons upon them need not
be commonplace.  The sunlight is as fresh every morning
as when it shone upon our first parents in their Paradise;
young love is still as sweet, and parental grief as heartrending, as was theirs.  And so the great doctrines of the
Gospel, to him who has eyes to sue and a heart to feel
them, are forever new. Our task is, loving these truths
ourselves, to make others love them.  Many a preacher
could tell, how in the early months or years of his untutored ministry, he was sometimes driven, from sheer lack
of a novel topic, to fall back upon Repentance, Reg,eneration, or the like, and make -what he felt to be a poor sermon; and how, long afterwards, he heard of fruit from
those sermons rather than from others which he at the
* Alexander, Thoughts on Preaching, p. 50; he repeatedly and
earnestly insists on'doctrinal preachling, see p. 10-12, 42-8, 51,
284-6, 249-52
8*
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SUBJECTS-CLASSIFIED.
time considered much more striking and impressive.*  Of
course one should not make a hobby of a particular doc trine, as some men do with the doctrine of Election, or of
Baptism; and some others with Perfection, the Witness of
the Spirit, &c.
While, however, we ought to preach much upon the
great doctrines, it is not often advisable, especially for a
settled pastor, to embrace the whole of such a doctrine in
a single sermon. This would contain the mere generalities of the subject, and be very difficult to the hearer, or,
more frequently, quite commonplace. It is a common
delusion of inexperienced speakers or writers, to think
that they had best take a very broad subject, so as to be
sure of finding enough to say. But to choose some one
aspect of a great subject is usually far better, as there is
thus much better opportunity for the speaker to work out
something fresh, and much better prospect of making the
hearers take a lively interest in the subject as a whole.
Alexander, writing to a son at college, says: "The more
special the subject, the more you will find to say on it.
Boys think just the reverse.  They write of Virtue, Honor,
Liberty, &c.; it would be easier to write on the pleasures
of Virtue, the Honor of Knighthood, or the difference
between true and false Liberty - which are more special.
Take it as a general rule, the more you narrow tie subject,
the more thoughts you will have.  And for this there is a
philosophical reason, which I wish you to observe. In
acquiring knowledge, the mind proceeds from particulars
to gezerals.  Thus Newton proceeded from the falling of
an apple to the general principle of gravity. A great
many particular observations were to be made on animals,
before a naturalist could lay down the general law, that all
creatures with cleft hoofs and horns, are graminivorous
...... This process is called generalization. It is one of
* Comp. on Familiar Texts, above, chap. 1, ~ 3.
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the last to be developed. Hence it requires vast knowledge and a ma+ure mind to treat a general subject, such as
Virtue, or Honor, and it is much better to begin with particular instances." *  And  this applies not merely to the
preacher's power of treatment, but to the hearer's power
of comprehension.  When he becomes fully able to discuss large subjects in a single discourse, the great mass of
his hearers will still be unable to follow him, unless the
discourse be so long as to include copious details. And
besides all this, the settled pastor cannot often afford to
consume so much material in a single sermon. The exceptional cases, as a series of sermons on several great doctrines, the existence of special interest in some one doctrine, &c., will of course be treated as exceptions.
The specific aspects of a great doctrine may sometimes
be chosen according to the natural divisions of the subject
itself. In this matter, and in all that pertains to preaching upon doctrinal subjects, we must carefully-bear in
mind the distinction between a theological treatise or lecture and a popular sermon. The scientific analysis and
elaborate logic of the one is seldom appropriate to the
other.  The pirts of a subject which require most attention, and excite most interest, on the part of a systematic
student, mnay be least suitable to preaching, and vice versa.
The knowledge presupposed by the theological teacher,
cannot usually be taken for granted as existing in a congregation.  Young ministers often help to make doctrinal
subjects unpopular, by the fact that their sermons too
closely resemble the treatises they have been studying, or
the lectures they have heard. We must assume a different
point of view; must consider which aspects of a doctrine
will awaken interest in the popular mind, and at the same
time help to give just views of the whole. Besides the
important differences between the merely didactic and the
* Thoughts on Preaching, p. 512.
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S UBJECTS -CLASS IFI ED.
oratorical mode of treatment, there is here a previous difference as to the choice of subjects and parts of subjects
to be treated.
Or instead of selecting according to the logical divisions
of the doctrine, we may take the aspect of it presented by
some one text. Thus on Repentance, one might preach
upon its nature, its results, the obligations to it, etc., hunting up a text for each; or, he might begin by selecting
among the texts which treat of repentance. For example,
Mark 6: 12, "And they went out and preached that men
should repent," would suLggest a general view of repentance, or an inquiry into its obligation. Acts 5: 31, " Hlim
hath God exalted a Prince and a Saviour, to give repentance to Israel, and forgiveness of sins," presents repentance as a gift of Christ.  Acts 20: 21, "Testifying.....
repentance toward God, and faith toward our Lord Jesus
Christ," brings up the relation between repentance and
faith; and Matt. 3: 11, " I indeed baptize you with water
unto repentance," that between repentance and baptism.
Various distinct and impressive motives to repentance are
exhibited by Rom. 2: 4, "The goodness of God leadeth
thee to repentance;" Acts 3: 16, "Repent........      that
your sins may be blotted out;" Luke 13: 3, "Except ye
repent, ye shall all likewise perish;" Acts 17: 30, 31,
"God.... now commandeth all men everywhere to repent,
because he hath appointed a day in which he will judge
the world ill righteousness;" Luke 15: 10, "There is joy ill
the presence of the angels of God over one sinner that
repenteth."  And Matt. 3: 8, "Bring forth therefore fruits
meet for repentance," would lead one to speak of the
appropriate effects of repentance.* A person well acquainted
with the whole doctrine of Repentance could treat the
view presented by any one of these texts as a part of the
whole, so as gradually to give a complete knowledge of
* Comp. Ripley, Sac. Rhet. p. 32
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the entire subject, while each sermon would have the freshness and force belonging to a specific topic.
Besides the properly doctrinal, i. e. didactic, there are
apologetical and polemical subjects.
Apologetics,* that is, the Evidences of Christianity, and
its defence against assailants, is a class of subjects not often
requiring, in our ordinary preaching, to be formally treated.
" We suspect that this great cause has been not a little injured
by the injudicious conduct of a certain  class of preachers and
writers, who, in just despair of being able to handle a single topic
of religion to advantage, for want of having paid a devout attention
to the Scrifptures, fly like lharpies to the evidences of Christianity,
on which they are certain of mneeting with something prepared to
their hands. which they can tear, and soil, and mangle at their
pleasure...... The folly we are adverting to did not escape the
observation nor the ridicule of Swift, who remarked in his days
that the practice of mooting on every occasion the question of the
origin of Christianity was  mich more  likely to unsettle the faith
of the simple than to counteract the progress of infidelity.  It is
dangerous to flmiliatrize every promiscuous audience to look upon
religion as a thing which yet renmains to be proved, to acquaint
them with every sophism and cavil which a perverse and petulant
ingenuity has found otit, unaccompanied, as is too often the case,
with a satisfactory answver; thus leaving the poison  to operate,
without the antidote, in minds which ought to be strongly imbued
with the principles annl awed by the sanctions of the gospel.  It is
degrading to the dignity of a revelation established  throiiugh a
succession of ages by indubitable proofs, to be  advertinlg every
moment to the hypothesis of its being an imposture, and to be
inviting every insolent sophist to wrangle with us about the title,
when we should be cultivating the possession.   The practice we
are now censuring is productive of another inconvenience.  The
argument of the truth of Christianity being an argument of accuimulaition, or. in other wordls, of that, nature that the force of it
resilt-.s lest from any separate consileration than from  an alniost
inflnite variety of circumstances, conspiring towards one point, and
*The word'apology' originally signified a defence, without any
acknowledgment of wrong.
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terminating in one conclusion; this concentration of evidence is
broken to pieces when an attempt is made to present it in superficial descants; than which nothing can be cqnceived better calculated to make what is great appear little, and what is ponderous,
light." *
B3ut informally, incidentally, we may all make very frequent and profitable use of Christian Evidences.  Without
at all treating the question of the truth of Christianity as
an open one, and without undertaking any full and regular
discussion of its claims, or refutation of objections to it, we
may introduce into ordinary sermons some subordinate
division, or passing remark, that will vividly exhibit one
of the evidences, or strikingly refute some particular
objection. This course meets any rising doubts in one
mind or another, and precisely suits the mental wants and
habits of most men, and is thus the fairest way of bringing
the subject before them. Even if one sees cause for an
expressly apologetical sermon or series of sermons, he had
better select some part of the great subject, and barely
allude to, or rapidly touch, the others. Whatever matters
are distinctly brought forward, ought to be thoroughly
discussed. Let us beware how we merely mention some
striking form of error, or plausible objection to truth,
without meeting it very squarely, if not at all points.
Every one has observed, what Mr. Hall intimates, that the
error often remains in the mind, while the imperfect refutation is forgotten; and the reason for this is not far to seek.
Errors often find their chief power in the fact that they
consist of truth torn away from its connection, and held up
in an excessive prominence, or without the limitation and
modification which would be given by its related truths.
A fragment of truth thus held up may make its delusive
impression in a single moment. The apologist must carefully replace the truth, and  bring the hearers to look
* Robert Hall, Review of Gregory's Evidences, Works, II, p. 299.
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closely at all the surrounding truths, and consider their
relation to that which has been dislocated. But this is
often a world of time, requiring wider knowledge than
the audience possess or he can readily impart, and more
reflection than the heedless many  are willing to bestow.
It is ul-fair to the truth if we neglect this fact, and expect
a brief statement of some novel and seductive error to be
sufficiently met by an equally brief reply.
The internal, and experimental evidences may be very
readily preached upon with advantage. The beautiful
harmony of thie sacred books, with all their rich diversity,
the effects of Christianity upon civilization, the adaptation
of the gospel to the wants of an awakened consciein,
the believer's testimony on the ground of experience, the
blessed results of piety, and the powerful example of the
truly pious, are topics which may be widely and freely
used.
Polemics, or controversy with other professed Christians,
presents subjects which demand faithful antcareful handling. The spurious charity, now so much talked of, which
requires that we shall not assail error in our fellow-Christians, the indifference to truth so widely prevailing, which
prates of the "good in everything," and urges that a man's
belief is of little importance if he is intellectual, or amiable, or moral and devout, these make some men unwilling
to preach upon polemical topics, especially to discuss the
errors of other evangelical denominations. The natural
love of conflict, which even in preachers is sometimes so
strong, the lively interest which the ungodly will take in a
fight among Christians, the hearty support and laudation
which a man's own party will give him, often precisely in
proportion as he flatters their self-conceit and bitterly
assails their opponents, -such causes as these contribute
to make another class of men excessively fond of controversy.  And  then the two classes really stimulate  and
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encourage each other. The former being greatly disgusted
at what they reckon bad taste and a wrong spirit, are thus
all the more disposed to shrink from such topics; and the
latter, being fired by what appears to them cowardice or
worldly policy, are all the more bitter against the common
foe, and inclined to assail their friends to boot. In this
way two tendencies often arise in a denomination, each
toward a very -hurtful extreme.   Is there not a golden
mean? It would seem to be a just principle, that a
preacher should never go out of his way to find controversial matter, nor go out of his way to avoid it. He who
continually shrinks from conflict should stir himself up to
faithfulness; he who is by nature belligerent, should cultivate forbearance and courtesy.  When the text or topic
naturally leads 1ls to remark upon some matter of controversy, we should not avoid it, save in exceptional cases,
because esteemed Christians are present who differ with us
on that point.  We should of course be mainly occupied
with the advocacy of positive truth; but the idea that a
man can always "talk about what he himself believes, and
let other people's opinions alone," is impracticable, if it
were not improper. In many cases we cannot clearly
define truth, save by contrasting it with error. And since
errors held and taught by good men are only the more
likely to be hurtful to others, we are surely not less bound
to refute them in such cases than when advocated by bad
men. Paul employs terms of terrible severity, as his Master had done, in speaking of some who  taught utterly
ruinous error and from bad motives.* Paul also withstood
to the face, before all the brethren, his beloved but now
erring fellow-apostle, using against him hard arguments,
but soft words. t Afterwards, in speaking of the matter,
* Phil. 3: 2; Gdl. 6: 12; 1 Tim. 4: 1, 2; 2 Tim. 4: 14.  Comp.
Matt. 23: 33; 3 John, 10.
t Ga. 2:11-21
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he charges Peter with dissimulation, a charge justifiable
because he knew with certainty that it was true. We, who
are so liable to err in judging, ought to be very slow to
impugn the motives of those whom we believe to be lovers
of Jesus. No doubt Satan rejoices, as we know that wicked
men do, to see Christians adding abuse to argument.
While faithfully and earnestly opposing error, even  as
held by Christian brethren, let us avoid needlessly wounding the cause of our common Christianity.
It is not unfrequently the wisest policy as regards certain
forms of error, to leave them unnoticed. In the excitement about Romanism, which its boldness and boasting has
recently awakened in our country, there is reason to fear
that many will fall to preaching against the Romanists
where they are little known, and thus only help to bring
them into notice. While well assured that their grievous
errors can be refuted, we ought to remember that those
errors are subtle and to some minds seductive, and that
here, just as in the case of infidel theories and objections,
slight and hasty refutation is often worse than none. So
too, there are some minor religious denominations, whose
vital breath is controversy, and who will most surely die
when they are most severely let alone.
~ 2. SUBJECTS OF MORALITY.
We sometimes hear pious men speak with severe reprobation of "moral sermons." It has often been the case,
for example, in the Church of England during the 18th
century, and among American Unitarians at the present
time, that morality was preached with little or no reference
to the Atonement and the work of the Spirit, a mere morality taking the place of the real gospel.  This has established an association, in many mninds, between moral
discourses and oppe sition to the "doctrines of grace."  But
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our Lord's personal teachings consist mainly of morality;
and Paul and Peter, while unfolding and dwelling on the
salvation which is by grace through faith, have not merely
urged in general a holy life, but have given many precepts
with reference to particular, and sometimes minlor duties.
No one among us will question, that we ought constantly
to exhort believers to show their faith by their works, and
to be holy in all their deportment, seeing that theirs is a
holy God. But there is in many quarters a reluctance, for
the reason just mentioned, to preach much upon particular
questions of moral duty. A preacher of the gospel has
certainly no business preaching morality apart from the
gospel. He may present other than strictly evangelical
motives, but these must be manifestly subordinate to the
great motive of grateful love to Christ, and consecration
to His service. We should exhort men to keep the law of
God, for thus they may be brought to Christ; but to incite
unregenerate people to a so-called moral life, on the ground
merely of interest, of regard for the well-being of society,
and even of love for their children, etc., is for the preacher
unsuitable, save in very peculiar cases.  He must first call
men, as an ambassador for Christ, to be reconciled to God,
must insist upon the indispensable need of regeneration
through the Holy Spirit. Then, speaking to those who are
looked upon as regenerate, he must, with all his might,
urge them to true and high morality, not only on all other
grounds, but as a solemn duty to God their Saviour. The
only question is, how far he ought to go into details.  As
above intimnated, our Lord and his apostles did go into
details, very freely. And our preaching often suffers from
the fact that, while inculcating Christian morality in general, we do not bring the matter home to the hearts and
daily lives of our brethren, do not so delineate their practical experiences, and indicate their duty in practical ques   i,s as to n ake them feel stimulated and encouraged in
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the actual pursuit of holiness.* At the same time, these
questions are innumerable and often complicated and diffi-cult, and we are compelled to select.
Now certain limitations, as to the preaching of particular
morality, appear to be important. We must not make
formal discussion of very minute topics. "Represent to
yourself, for example, sermons on neatness, on politeness, etc.
Some topics of this sort, doubtless, may be approached, but
it must be done incidentally; they should never furnish
the subject of a sermon. Particular morality is not to be
excluded, but such details of it may have their place in
more general matters, or in historical subjects." t It is one
of the advantages of expository preaching, whether doctrinal or historical, that it gives occasion for many useful
incidental remarks upon minor morals, for which we might
never find a place in formal subject-sermons. A second limitation is, that the inculcation of morality must not consume
the greater part of our time, for it is our chief business to
entreat men to be reconciled to God, and the" doctrines
of grace" are the great means of making believers "careful to'maintain good works." I And it is a third limitation,
that we must not so enter into particular questions of
morality, as to make the preaching of the gospel merely
tributary to secular interests, and apparently to sink the
preacher in the partisan.
Political preaching has long been a subject of vehement
discussion in America, and presents questions of great
importance. In Europe, the almost universal connection
of Church and State has embarrassed the subject with
complications from which we are free. Government here
does not interfere with religion, to support some, or to
* There are good observations on tli s subject in Robert Ihall's
Wo-ks, II, p. 290 ff.
t Vinet, Ilor. p. 83.
1 See Titus, 3: 3-8, an important passage on this subject.
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persecute others; and we have in this respect no occasion
to discuss governmental affairs. Still, political measures
often involve, and are sometimes almost identical with,
great questions of right and wrong. The notion that
political decisions are to be regularly made on grounds of
mere expediency, is dishonoring to the religion which
many of us profess, and would ultimately ruin any nation.
That truly pious men shall carry their religion into politics, shall keep religious principle uppermost in all political questions which have a moral character, is an unquestionable and solemn duty. Of course it is right that the
preacher should urge them to do so; and should urge it
with special earnestness in times of great political excitement, when good men are often carried away. Now we have
observed above that in other matters it is well not merely
to insist upon morality in general, but to go somewhat into
details, thus illustrating general truth, and offering hints
for practical guidance.  Why then, it may be asked, shall
we not (do likewise in reference to political matters, where
it is often as difficult as it is important for a good man to
decide upon his duty? Why shall not the preacher go
somewhat into details here? The great difficulty is, that it
is almost impossible for a preacher to do this without taking sides. In a country where party feeling runs so high,
the great mass of the people, too, being still ungodly, to
take sides at all, in public discourse, will cause the preacher
to be at once swept away by the rushing tide. He ceases
to sustain an impartial relation to all the people over whom
he is shepherd, and becomes, in a matter which with many
is more important than religion, the friend of some, the
foe of others. The irreligious, and many of the brethren,
forget all about the religious aims of his preaching, in the
one absorbing inquiry how much he will help or harm
their party. Thus has many a good man, who was honestly striving to bring politics under the control of reli
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gious principle, been brought, before he knew it, into the
position of a recognized political partisan. Upon perceiving such a result, some preachers at once draw back, wiser
from their experience; but others, proud of consistency,
resolved to conquer opposition, or unable to see just what
their mistake is, and how to correct it, persevere, with
deplorable results. The association which once connected
them in the popular mind with unworldly feelings and
eternal interests, is broken. Their power of turning men's
eyes away from the things which are seen to the things
which are not seen, is seriously diminished. They become
comparatively unable to accomplish the great object which
a good man in the ministry must cherish, the object of
saving souls. Besides, the temporal benefits of Christianity
are greatest just in proportion as there is most of true
spirituality. Preachers do men most good as to this world
in proportion as they bring them to care most for the
world to come. In losing this higher power, then, one has
likewise actually lost the most effectual means of advancing those lower ends at which he was aiming.  While
striving to bring some of the motive power to bear upon
one subordinate work, he has left the boiler to burst, and
now can do neither the greater nor the less.
"To the Christian, everything becomes Christian........ Nothing except sin is profane; life is not divided; there is no point at
which Christianity stops abruptly..... This is not saying that
because everyting is regarded by a Christian in a christian manner, everything may become a subject for a sermon.  The pulpit
has not been erected to treat all things in a christian manner; it
has a special purpose, which is to introduce the christian idea into
life...'. In its principles, and in its particular applications, it is
properly Christianity which it teaches: Christianity is uppermost;
Christianity is its object; all else is but example, illustration, etc.
..... Whatever aims to advance society without doing this through
the individual, (through the individual's christian advancement,) is
external to the object of preaching......As to patriotic and
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political sermons, they are rather to be avoided, and yet in certain
grave circumstances, we may be obliged to touch upon such subjects in the pulpit. On one hand, the human character of Christianity puts it into contact with all the interests of life, gives it a
word to speak in all circumstances; on the other hand, it never
surrenders its liberty to place and time, and with extreme reserve,
mixes itself with everything that does not bear the stamp of eternity........ I believe, indeed, that we cannot wholly avoid discoursing to the public on that which preoccupies and absorbs it;
but we must discourse to it only in order to calm or moderate it.
Control worldly affairs without touching them; have to do with
them only to impress a character upon them; show them to your
hearers from the heights of heaven. See the Lord and his apostles.
...... It is remarkable that loving their nation as they did, they
should have approached political subjects with so much reserve."*
"The Christian preacher can do more towards promoting the
earthly and temporal interests of mankind, by indirection, than by
direct efforts.  That minister who linits himself, in his Sabbath
discourses, to the exhibition and enforcement of the doctrines of
sin and grace, and whose preaching results in the actual conversion of human beings, contributes far more, in the long run, to the
progress of society, literature, art, science, and civilization, than
he does, who, neglecting these themes of sin and grace, makes a
direct effort from the pulpit to' elevate society.' In respect to
the secular and temporal benefits of the Christian religion, it is
eminently true, that he that finds his life shall lose it. When the
ministry sink all other themes in the one theme of the Cross, they
are rewarded in a twofold manner: they see the soul of man born
into the kingdom of God; and then, as an inevitable consequence,
with which they had little to do directly but which is taken care of
by the providence of God, and the laws by which He administers
his government in the earth, they also see arts, sciences, trade,
commerce. and political prosperity, flowing in of themselves. They
are willing to seek first the kingdom of God and his righteousness,
and find all these minor things, - infinitely minor things; when
compared with the eternal destiny of man,- added to them by the
operation, not of the pulpit, or of the ministry, but of Divine laws
and of Divine providence. But, whenever the ministry sinks the
Cross, wholly or in part, in semi-religious themes, they are re
*Vinet, Hom. p. 71-4, and 86-T.
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warded with nothing. They see, as the fruit of their labors, neither
,he conversion of the individual nor the prosperity of society.
That unearthly sermonizing of Baxter, and Howe. so abstracted
from all the temporal and secular interests of man, so rigorously
confined to human guilt and human redemption, - that preaching
which, upon the face of it, does not seem even to recognize that
man has any relations to this little ball of earth; which takes him
off the planet entirely, and contemplates him simply as a sinner in
the presence of God,- that preaching, so destitute of all literary,
scientific economical, and political elements and allusions,- was,
nevertheless, by indirection, one of the most fertile causes of the
progress of England and America." *
Many persons insist that the minister must have nothing
to do with politics, not even to the extent of voting, or of
the formation and private expression of political opinions.
Some take this ground from false notions of the "clergyman's" position; but a Christian minister is no more a
priest than a Christian layman, and nothing is intrinsically wrong to the one which is not to the other. Some
urge as follows: "A minister may well be absolved from
preaching, or even forming opinions on politics.  He has
the common right of all citizens so to do; but his proper
work is enough for all his time and powers. The great
themes of religious truth are enough to occupy more time
than he can get."t But there is too much disposition
among scholarly and refined men to leave voting to the
masses and the demagogues. A well-informed man, in
this country, cannot avoid the formation of opinions upon
politics; and by voluntary ignorance of current affairs,
more is lost by the working pastor than gained.   The
minister ought to have his opinions, and ought to vote;
and he may state his views in private conversation, with
more or less reserve according to circumstances.   He
should in the pulpit urge and conjure his Christian hearers
* Shedd, Hiom. p. 248-9.
It Alexander, Thoughts on Preaching, p. 47. 
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to be controlled in their political action by Christian principle. To go into details, and suggest how they ought to
vote in a particular issue, is lawful, but in general highly
inexpedient; the little good done will almost certainly be
overbalanced by the harm that in various ways must
result. If a preacher ever takes such a course at all, it
should be in very peculiar and extraordinary cases, and
even then his discussion should be brief, well-considered,
and temperate, and gladly abandoned for other themes
If ever the great majority of controlling politicians shoul'
be truly pious men, it might be not inexpedient for the
preacher to offer suggestions upon current political questions - but then it would be hardly worth while.
There are other very important and difficult topics of
particular morality, such as Temperance, and the question
of Amusenments; but a few remarks upon these must suffice. The preacher should by all means avoid ultraism.
Some things not sinful in themselves, it is yet best to abstain from because they so readily and widely lead to sin.
But here there is at once seen to be room for difference of
opinion. Not everything should be avoided which is often
grossly abused; and however clear it may seem to us that
some particular thing should be, another man may perhaps judge otherwise. Even though vehement in condemnation, we must not be indiscriminate.   And if in the
natural desire to take strong ground we represent the use
of intoxicating beverages, dancing, and games of amusement, as in themselves sinful, and under all circumstances
wrong, we assume an extreme and false position, which
must eventually weaken our cause. If discriminating and
considerate views, leading to a regard for their example
and influence, and a recognition of possible danger to
themselves and their families, will not restrain men in
these respects, then extravagance and violence, even if
controlling a few, will in general but repel and provoke,
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stimulating the wrong practices in question, and driving
many away from the gospel. The world is full of great
and dreadful evils, which may well excite both grief and
indignation, and which call loudly for correction; but one
evil is not to be cured by another. Again, we must not
merely condemn the wrong, but exhort to the right. Preaching on these subjects too often consists merely in vehement
assaults. Much more may be accomplished if we also
encourage the right-minded to a proper course, and affectionately point out to them the beginnings of evil against
which they must guard. The latter course may not afford
so much occasion for impassioned and boisterous "eloquenlce," but it will hardly be on that account the less useful.  Severe censure is solmetimes necessary, but encouragement to do right is always in place, and often more potent.
"Reprove, rebuke, exhort, with all long-suffering and
teaching." *  And finally, it is usually better to treat these
subjects in the course of our ordinary preaching, than to
make set sermons upon them. These may draw a crowd,
if that is all, but the formal discussion invites criticism
and awakens opposition, and even if really convincing,
finds the persons most concerned particularly hard to convince.  Arguments and appeals from time to time, as suggested by the subject or the occasion, will make no unfavorable impression, and steady perseverance will gradually
call back and win over all whom it is possible to influence.
Only, let not the preacher make any particular vicious
practice or social usage his hobby; for then folks will but
smile at all he can say.
~ 3. HISTORICAL SUBJECTS.
It would be unnecessary to urge that history is attractive for all who read, and full of varied instruction for all
* 2 Tim. 4:2.
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who read thoughtfully. And the most instructive history
is that of the Bible. A leading writer on the philosophy
of history has declared that no such philosophy can be
constructed, save by the recognition of a providential
purpose which pervades all events and links them into
unity. In the Bible the designs of Providence are not
left to be judged of by our sagacity, but are often clearly
revealed, so as to show us the meaning of things obscure,
and the real co-working of things apparently antagonistic.
Thus the Bible histories act like the problems worked out
in a treatise of Algebra, teaching us how to approach the
other problems presented by the general history of the
world. The oft-quoted saying of an ancient writer that
"history is philosophy teaching by example," applies
nowhere so truly as to the inspired records, which are God
himself teaching by example.
Moreover, nothing so interests us all as a person. No
inanimate object, or general proposition, will make much
impression upon mankind at large, unless it is personified
or impersonated, or invested with some personal interest.
The poet, delighting in nature, instinctively feels as if
communing with a person. Even so abstract a thing as a
system of philosophy, is usually remembered in connection with a personal teacher. A benevolent enterprise
seldom takes much hold on the popular mind, unless it is
associated with some honored man, its embodiment and
representative.   A  celebrated lecturer on history onee
stated in conversation that lihe found it difficult to interest
a popular audience, if he presented merely historical events,
periods, or lessons; these must be associated with some
person. Now the Bible not only consists very largely of
history, but the greater part of its history is really biographly, the story of individual lives, exhibiting the most
various and instructive examples of character, both good
and bad, of both sexes, and of every condition in life.
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And this great historical picture groups all its figures
around one Person, to whom some look forward with longirig and others look back with love, and whose very enemies
unwillingly stand connected with him.
All this being true, it would seem that historical subjects of preaching ought to be much more frequently
employed than is actually the case. Several reasons for
the comparative neglect of them may be suggested. The
greater part of devout ministers unwisely overlook the
human elements in Scripture history. If not carried away
by the passion for finding "types of Christ," so as to care
little for the persons and events that cannot possibly be
thus regarded, they still fail to study these histories as
history. They do not trace the progress of events in the
history of Israel as in that of any other nation, allowing
for the occasional miraculous interferences, and searching
amid the mingled web of Israel's affairs for the golden
thread of Providential purpose. They do not analyze the
character and motives of inspired men, as "men of like
passions" with ourselves, men who struggled as we have to
do, with their own infirmities and the thronging temptations of life. They shrink from contemplating the genuine
but sinless humaaity of the glorious central Person, which
makes him so real and so unspeakably valuable an example
for us, at the same time that he is our Divine Redeemer.
As another reason, few ministers gain that minute and
familiar acquaintance with Scripture Geography, with the
manners and customs of the Jews and related nations, and
with the profane history which comes into connection with
Biblical events, which would enable them to realize the
scenes and reproduce them with vivid coloring, so as to
kindle the imagination of their hearers; nor do they cultivate, as all preachers should do, the power of description.*
* See on Imagination, Part III, chap. 5, and comp. on Expos.
Preaching, Part II, chap. 3.
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On the other hand some make historical subjects simply
the occasion for displaying their descriptive powers, or
exhibiting their archaeological learning, without teaching
any useful lessons, and thus establish an association in the
minilds of many hearers between historical sermons and
mere "word-painting."  And further, preachers who know
or suppose themselves to have little talent for description
are apt to forget that one of the chief benefits of historical
preaching is derived firom the analysis of character and
motive. We all find it so hard to understand our fellowmen, or ourselves, that it is a great blessing to have in
some Scripture examples the veil taken off, and the real
motives and true character of men laid bare to our inspection; and in many other cases, to have suggestive and
reliable indications to provoke and encourage enquiry.
Living instances could be mentioned of very able men,
who had rarely attempted historical subjects, because conscious of possessing little talent for description; but when
the simple suggestion was made that they could bring to
bear their analytical powers upon the character of some
Scripture personage or the motives of the actors in some
Scripture scene, they soon found themselves much interested in historical discourses, and found, too, that they
could throw in excellent touches of description by the
way.
The history of Christianity outside of the Bible, from
the earliest times to our own, furnishes much instructive
and interesting material for preaching; but to draw the
subject of a sermon from this source would be unwise.   A
sermon upon the life and character of Augustine, Calvin,
Wesley, Fuller, Hall or Judson might be really usefuil,
but the tendency would be towards one of the abuses of
Romanism; substituting paniegyrics of the saints for Biblical preaching.
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~ 4. EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS.
Historical subjects manifestly include doctrinal and
moral elements; and yet those subjects have really
a  distinct  character.   In like  manner  experimental
subjects partake of the doctrinal, the moral, and the
historical, but are so distinct, and of such importance,
as to deserve separate classification and notice.   The
actual experiences of men in receiving the gospel and
living according to it ought to be delineated; always
under the guidance of Scripture doctrine, precept, and
examples, but still delineated as we find them to be.
Such matters will enter largely into the substance of
many discourses whose subject is doctrinal, moral, or
historical; but the chief phases of religious experience
deserve to be somewhat frequently made the subject of
special and careful discussion.  Material for this purpose
is to be drawn from the Bible, from treatises bearing on
the subject, and biographies, from the preacher's own
experience, and with particular advantage from frequent
conversation with richly experienced Christians, making
allowance for their peculiarities of temperament and
theological opinion, and for their degrees of culture.  The
preacher, like the physician, ought in addition to what
is learned from books, to "study cases," as they arise in
his practical labors.
It would surely be very useful sometimes to depict the
life of an irreligious man, as it is now going forward on
week-days and Sundays, in business and in society and at
home; to do this without exaggerating in order to make a
striking picture, without ignoring the man's better impulses,
good intentions, kindly affections, etc.- to make him out,
so far as possible, just what he is.  After pondering the
matter, and asking a good many thoughtful questions of
some intelligent brethren as to their personal recollections,
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a preacher might be able, modestly and with good success,
to treat such a subject.  It is not uncommon to describe
Conviction of Sin, the various methods in which it is
wrought, and the causes by which it is often weakened and
brought to nothing. So with Conversion. Accounts of
conversion in persons differilng in temperament, religious
education, etc., carefully analyzed, so as to distinguish
the general from the peculiar, are always interesting, and
may be made exceedingly profitable. The early Baptist
preachers who travelled from New England to Georgia,
preaching depravity, atonement and regeneration to an
ignorant and gainsaying people, often made a great impression and gave most important instruction, by telling their
own experience. And then the varieties of experience in
the Christian life -what subjects they afford for preaching. The Christian's Conflicts; Backsliding and Progress;
Despondency and Assurance; Sickness and Bereavement,these are often discussed in every evangelical pulpit.*
To speak at all of our own experience is a task to be
performed with special prayer for humility and delicacy,
lest we injure our own character, and repel hearers of fastidious tastes. But most of us shrink too readily from this
duty. The apostle Paul has spoken frequently, and sometimes at great length, of his conversion, the trials, conflicts
and consolations of his subsequent life, and of his present
purposes and hopes; and the Psalms consist almost entirely
of recorded experiences.   One thing, however, is to be
specially guarded against, in all attempts at depicting
religious experience, and especially in allusions to our
own; we are so apt to imagine, or at least to speak as if
we imagined, that all experiences will be like ours. A
preacher or other Christian whose conversion was consciously sudden will almost always speak of conversion as
* See some good remarks in Wayland's Ministry of the Gospel, p.
86-96.                -
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sudden: one in whom the work was gradual  and slow,
will give a corresponding description. So with the hopeful and the desponding, the fully assured and the often
doubting, etc.   We  are prone to forget that Christian
experience, like the human countenance, will in no two
persons be precisely alike, and often presents many and
striking differences, though the great characteristic features are always the same.
~ 5. OCCASIONAL SERMONS.
It is convenient to offer at this point a few suggestions
as to sermons on particular occasions, or addressed to
particular classes.
Funeral Sermnons are demanded by so powerful a sentiment and sustained by so general usage, that the attempts
of some to abolish the custom, inevitably fail. Those who
clearly see and vehemently condemn the faults which disfigure many funeral discourses, are very apt, when themselves bereaved, to find their hearts demanding such a service, and will not unfrequently prefer the very preacher
whose course had often seemed to them most objectionable. Sorrowing and softened, we feel then a special need
of God's mercy and grace, and the preacher should gladly
seize the opportunity to recommend the gospel of consolation, and to impress the need of personal piety, that we
may be ready to live and ready to die. And not only will
some habitual hearers be then better prepared to receive
the word, but persons will be present who seldom attend
the place of worship. It is highly important, therefore,
that funeral sermons should clearly point out the way of
life, and tenderly invite to the Saviour. Moreover, in
the freshness of our grief we instinctively desire to utter,
or at least to hear, some eulogy upon the departed; and
all nations have had some method, by speech or song or
broken lament, of indulging the desire. That among us
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Christian ministers are expected to perform this function,
while it sometimes places them in a difficult position, is yet
a sign of their influence, and a means of using that influ ence to good purpose. But the preacher must remember
that he is not a mere eulogist of the dead, but only adds
this task to his work of preaching the gospel. Accord ingly, his utterances as to the departed must be only a
part of what he says, usually but a small part, and must
be scrupulously true. No promptings of his own sorrow,
nor regard for the feelings of others, must lead him to the
exaggerated praises which are so natural. When the
departed was a Christian, he should speak chiefly of that
fact, bringing out anything in the character or course of
life which he knows, and others will recognize, to be
worthy of imitation.  When  it was not a Christian, he
may sometimes lawfully speak a few soothing words as to
anything which specially endeared the deceased to his
friends. But this must be done, if done at all, without
exaggeration, and it is a solemn duty to avoid saying one
word which suggests that these good points of character
afford any ground of hope for eternity. Some preachers
will on such occasions give the lie to all their ordinary
preaching, by leaving room to suppose that without being
born again a very excellent person may perhaps see the
kingdom of God. "He did not make any profession of
religion, but he was, etc., etc., and we leave him to the
mercy of God." Or, "he had never professed to be a
Christian, but he was perfectly willing to die "- as if that
proved anything. Nay, if the deceased did not give evidence of being regenerate, a believer in Christ, let us say
nothing about his eternal future, nothing whatever. Any
such suggestions encourage the ignorant or unthinking in
false hopes, and to right-minded mourners are but a mockery of their woe. Pains should be taken not to make much
of death-bed conversions, which are proverbially uncertain,
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and the hope of which, as a last resort, is so often taken by
the living as an encouragement to delay. In general, the
preacher ought to exercise reserve in what he says of the
departed; and in the case of wicked people, it is frequently
in the best taste, and shows the most real kindness, to say
nothing. Young preachers sometimes allow themselves, in
their first sermons of this sort, to indulge in copious eulogies with no great foundation, and then afterwards seem
compelled to do likewise in cases where they feel it to be a
great trial, and know that they are liable to do serious
harm to the cause of truth. It will save much embarrassmenlt to begin right.
The services on such occasions, and especially the sermon, are often made too long.  "A  prevailing fault of
funeral discourses is the occupation of too much time with
generalities or truths that have no special application to
the existing circumstances.  It is far better to confine such
discourses to narrower limits, and to that particular range
of thought which all will recognize to be pertinent." * The
tendency to ostentatious parade in funerals, which is in
some communities a great evil, ought in every judicious
way to be discouraged.
Academnic Sermons, i.e. sermons at institutions of learning, or on occasions of literary interest, are often managed
in a very mistaken fashion.  The preacher imagines that
he must not give a regular gospel sermon, but must betake
himself to matters highly erudite or metaphysical.  It is
really desirable on such occasions to preach upon eminently evanigelical topics, the very heart of the gospel.
Science and erudition are the every-day work of these
professors and students; from you, to-day, they had much
rather hear something else. Even those who care nothing
for religion will feel, as persons of taste, that it is congru
* Kidder's Hom., p. 280, where there are other good remarks.
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ous, becoming, for a preacher to preach the gospel; while
the truly pious, yearning over their unconverted:ssociates, will long to have the preacher urge saving truth
upon them in the most practical way, and with wholesouled earnestness. Of course the sermon should have
point, force, freshness; and the associations of the occasion may sometimes suggest slight peculiarities of allusion,
illustration, and style; but it ought to be a sermon full of
Christ, full of prayerful zeal to save souls. Ah! as one
looks over those hundreds of intelligent young faces, and
his heart goes out to them in sympathy and love,- as he
thinks what a power they will be in the world for good or
for evil, and how they are all there present before God, to
hear his message, he must surely feel an unwonted emotion, a solemn sense of privilege and responsibility; and if
never before, there ought to be true of him then, those
words of Baxter,
",,I preached as never sure to preach again,
And as a dying man to dying men."
In like manner, Convention Sermons, all sermons at the
opening of any general religious assembly, are never so
acceptable to devout hearts, and never so helpful to the
objects of such an assembly, as when they are filled with
the very essence of the gospel.
Of discourses addressed to particular classes, it is proposed to mention only Sermons to Children. Suggestions
on this subject will of course also bear upon less formal
addresses, in the Sunday School, etc. Every one notices
how few persons succeed decidedly well in speaking to
children. But many preachers possess greater power in
this respect than they have ever exercised, because they
have never devoted to the subject much either of reflection, observation, or heedful practice. Examples may be
found of men who for years considered that they had no
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talent for speaking to children, and whose attenmpts were
always comparative failures, and yet who afterwards became very popular and useful in this important department of preaching. Can any help be given towards the
development of this power?
It has been frequently remarked that in the young child
imagination is predominant; in the child of ten or twelve
years, memory; and not until they are nearly grown, do
the powers of abstraction and reasoning become active.
It is to the two former classes that we commonly speak,
whatever is aimed at older people being also addressed to
the children. We see at once that it is necessary to avoid
abstract terms, and formal processes of reasoning. Many
preachers find this difficult because they are too much
accustomed, even for the wants of the ordinary adult mind,
to discourse upon gospel doctrine in an abstract and purely
argumentative way; and learning how to preach to children may make them better preachers in general. Merely
to refrain from using long words is not the thing needed.
Children understand polysyllables just as well as monosyllables, when they represent concrete, and familiar, or
easily intelligible conceptions. Besides, those of a dozen
years are not pleased at the appearance of excessive effort
to use short words to them, as if they had no sense.
Eschew, then, all abstract terms.  And instead of argumentation, give them facts and truths, confidently stated,
with the quiet air of authority to which children naturally
bow. Let these facts and truths be so stated, described,
or illustrated, as to awaken the imagination. The illustrations should generally be in the form of narrative, (as
the Great Teacher's were,) and the stories and descriptions
should be pictorial - not minutely finished pictures, for
children weary of those, but with broad outlines, prominent features, and vivid touches of suggestive detail. Thus
telling them what they will receive as interesting facts or
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important truth, and in such a way as to charm the imagination, we are able to reachl the cdiild's affections and conscience.  Only through what ap Ieals to the imagination
can this be readily done~*
The children must feel that they are learning something,
and must see that we are trying to do them good.  However
thoughtless, changeable, passionate, a child may be, its conscience is active.  Every child quickly recognizes the propriety of our seeking to win it to love and serve the Lord,
and feels that something is lacking where this is not the
case.  However great the external attractions of a Sunday
School, it will soon grow dull to the little ones if they do
not learn, especially learn the Bible, and breathe there an
atmosphere of genuine piety. The spasmodic efforts to
keep up the interest which are sometimes observed in S. S.
officers and speakers must only become more and more
vehement and extravagant, if they are neglecting religious
instruction and devotional impressiveness.
In dealing with such restless beings, variety is of course
indispensable.  If the same man speaks to them long, he
must have great variety of matter, feeling, and utterance.
Nothing pathetic, or even solemn, can long engage their
attention, save under extraordinary circumstances; and it
is therefore proper to make free use of the natural reaction
between pathos and humor.  The childish mind readily
passes "from grave to gay," and almost as readily back
again to what is grave.  Few men can succeed well in
speeches or sermons to children, unless they are able to
employ at least a few touches of humor. But if some
speakers through uniform gravity fail to maintain the interest, a still greater number at the present day indulge in
such an excess and predominance of humor, as to fail of
doing real good, and by degrees to lose the power even of
* On the province and power of Imagination, see Part III, chap. 5.
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holding the children's attention. The humor employed had
best be delicate; it may be broad and grotesque, but never
coarse or silly. It must be manifestly subordinate to a
serious purpose. Children feel that you have no business
seeking on that occasion, merely to amuse them; and the
funniest story, the oddest saying, the wittiest allusion must
by analogy or by contrast give impressiveness to something
useful and serious, or else it is out of place, and ought to
have been omitted. And a perpetual succession of merely
funny things, will soon utterly pall upon the children's
taste.  The little ones that hear much speaking, grow to
be keen critics; and it were well if some speakers could
often hear their talk at home.*
Speak then, of interesting and instructive facts and
truths, in concrete and familiar terms, without formal argument, analytical processes, or abstract ideas. Speak to the
child's imagination, heart, and conscience. Speak with a
prevailing seriousness, with an earnest desire to do them
good. And if you would learn their range of ideas and
their vocabulary, would find the door to their hear ts, talk
much with children, and allure them into talking freely to
you.
There is at present usually too broad a difference in style
and tone between sermons to children and speeches to them.
If the sermons could be a little more familiar, and the
speeches a good deal more serious, than is commonly the
*  He kept trying to make us laugh all the time, and I got mighty
tired of that."   " He told us about a little boy. and wound  up like
they always do, you know,' And children, that little hoy is here
to-day.' "    lie tried very lard to be funny, but I didn't feel like
laughing."  "0 pa, do you think anybody ought to be saying so
many foolish things, when he's talking about our S.,tvioulr?  "   0
me, I used to think that story wNas right funiy, but I've heard it so
often."  P,arents sonietitnes ha,ve  ilitficulty in correcting the evil
effects which are indicated by such sayings.
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case, then suggestions for the one could without any appearance of incongruity apply to the other.
The remark may be added, as of great importance, that
children are not to be addressed as pious, but as needing to
become so; and that they have to become Christians in
essentially the same way as adults, by repentance and faith,
through the renewing of the Holy Ghost. Great mischief
results from the fact that so many who speak to children
seem not to perceive clearly, or to keep distinctly in mind,
this unquestionable truth.
CHAPTER IV.
GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACIING- ORIGINALITY,  BORROWING,
AND PLAGIARISM.  ~ 1. MATERIALS  POSSESSED  BEFOREHAND.
Q 2. MATERIALS  PROVIDED AT TI-IE TIME OF  PREPARATION.
Q 3. ORIGINAL MATERIALS.  ~ 4. BORROWED  MATERIALS AND
PLAGIARISM.
~ 1. MATERIALS POSSESSED) BEFOREHAND.
'IHE chief materials of a sermon are in the great mass
of cases not really invented at the time of preparation;
they are the results of previous acquisition and reflection.
This is true even of much that seems to the preacher himself to have then for the first time a place in his mind;
it is in fact the revival of something forgotten, or the
development of something already known. In this respect inexperienced and comparatively uncultivated young
preachers are often greatly deceived. Their early sermons
are made with ease. Ardent, zealous, excited, they find
that thought springs spontaneous in the mind, and feeling
flows like a torrent. They imagine that it will always be
easy to find something to say which will interest themsel ves
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GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING. 119
and their hearers. But they are like men who have
inherited a fortune in cash, and who spend their principal
as if it were but income.   Rejoicing ill his facility of
speech, the young preacher is not aware that he is drawing
upon all that he has thought, felt, and seen, all that he has
read and heard, since his childhood. And not a few go on
for some months or years, consuming all their store, and
evoking all that their minds are so constituted as readily
to produce, and presently begin to wonder and lament
that they find it so much harder than formerly to make a
sermon. In like manner, preachers who are growing old
sometimes complain that people will not listen to them as
in other days, when the difficulty is that they have ceased
to maintain activity of mind and good store of fresh
thought; and unable to interest themselves, they of course
cannot interest others. These somewhat frequent and very
painful experiences only illustrate the proposition-we
draw our sermons mainly from what we have wrought out
or learned beforehand. And when the preacher speaks
from great fulness of thought, then what he says borrows
power from what is in reserve, as the head of water gives
force to that which strikes upon the wheel. It follows that,
next to the cultivation of personal piety, there is nothing
for which the preacher should so earnestly labor, from his
first call to the close of his life, as the acquisition of
abundant general materials for preaching.
"The preacher ought to acquire and cultivate a homiletical habitude. Preaching is his business. For this he has educated himself, and to this he has consecrated his whole life. It should, therefore, obtain undisputed possession of his mind and his culture. lHe
ought not [save in peculiar cases] to pursue any other intellectual
calling than that of sermonizing    He may, therefore, properly
allow this species of authorship to monopolize all his discipline
and acquisitions.  It is as fitting that the preacher should be characterized by a homiletical tendency, as that the poet should be
characterized by a poetical tendency.  If it is proper that the poet 
120 GENERAL MATERIALS OF PRPEACHING.
should transmute every thing that he touches, i",to poetry. it is
proper that the preacher should transmute every thing that he
touches, into sermon.
"This homiletical habit will appear in a disposition to skeletonize,
to construct plans, to examine and criticize discourses with respect
to their logical structure. The preacher's mind becomes habitually organific. It is inclined to build. Whenever leading thoughts
are brought into the mind, they are straightway disposed and
arranged into the unity of a plan, instead of being allowed to lie
here and there, like scattered boulders on a field of drift. This
homiletic habit will appear, again, In a disposition to render all the
argumentative, and illustrative, materials which pour in upon the
educated man, from the various fields of science, literature, and art,
subservient to the purposes of preaching. The sermonizer is, or
should be, a student, and an industrious one, a reader, and a thoughtful one. He will, consequently, in the course of his studies, meet
with a great variety of information that may be advantageously employed in sermonizing, either as proof or illustration, provided he
possesses the proper power to elaborate it, and work it up. Now,
if he has acquired this homiletic mental habit, this. tendency to sermonize, all this material, which would pass through another mind
without assimilation, will be instantaneously and constantly taken
up, and wrought into the substance and form of sermons."*
"The possession of such an intellectual habitude as this. greatly
facilitates immediate preparation for the pulpit. It is, virtually, a
primary preparation, from which the secondary and more direct
preparation derives its precision, thoroughness, rapidity, and effectiveness.  Without it, the preacher must be continually forced up
to an unwelcome and ungenial task, in the preparation of discourses,
instead of finding in this process of composition, a grateful vent
for the outflow and overflow of his resources." t
These materials will of course be drawn from every
source.  No kind of knowledge can be utterly useless to
a preacher, and reflection, upon whatever subjects, will
always leave him something which may hereafter be
: These materials will readily overflow, in the form of skeletons, metaphors, illustrations, &c., into the preacher's Commonplace Book.  (Shedd's
note.)
t Shedd, Hom. p. 108.
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GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING. 121
turned to account.  But it may be well to remark upon
the principal sources from which materials for preaching
are derived.
The Scriptures themselves should at every period of his
life be a preacher's chief study. When we meet a young
brother who has just become convinced that it is his duty
to preach, and who is inquiring about preparation for the
work, our first word ought to be, the Bible- not so much,
at the outset, the profound  study of doctrinal epistles or
prophetical books, as the familiar and accurate knowledge
of historical facts, the analysis of Biblical characters, the
memnoriziing of devotional passages and of precepts, the
acquisition of a general familiarity with the contents of
particular books and of the entire sacred collection.
Young ministers, even graduates of colleges, are often
found sadly deficient as to this general knowledge of the
Bible; while the best Sunday Schools, as well as the
most admirable family. instruction, have usually but laid
the foundation for such knowledge as the preacher should
make haste to gain. And every stage of culture and
experience, as life goes on, presents fresh occasion and
new facilities for studying the Bible.   In the originals, if
possible, in the English version at any rate; * by the rapid
reading of large portions, by the thorough study of a given
book, by the minute examination of particular passages,
and sometimes even by looking at sentences here and there
as we turn over the leaves; by reading in company with
others, for discussion or for sympathy, by reading when
alone with our beating hearts and our God; by adopting
new methods for variety, and by steadily maintaining old
methods till they become habitual;-by reading when we
enjoy it, as a pleasure, and when at the beginning we do
not enjoy it, as a duty,- every way, and continually, let
* Comp. above, chap. 2, ~ 2, 1.
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122 GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING.
us keep up, freshen, extend our acquaintance with the
precious Word of God. The study of Systematic Divinity will but prepare us better to appreciate the separate
teachings of Scripture as they stand in their own connection.  Every kind of knowledge we gain should lead to
further examination of that which is for us the centre of
all knowledge, and the various experiences of life should
be constantly bringing us back to find new meaning,
strength, and consolation in God's Word. And we must
constantly beware lest we fall into the habit of reading the
Bible only as a perfunctory matter, a professional duty.
In the spirit of personal devoutness, with a desire for
personal benefit, and with the constant prayer that God
would bless us in learning and in teaching, let us study the
Bible, that we may "both save ourselves, and them that
hear us." *
Systematic Theology is of unspeakable importance to the
preacher, indispensable if he would be in the best sense
instructive, and exert an abiding influence over his hearers.
This enables him to speak with the boldness of assured
conviction, giving him a confidence in the great system
of inspired truth which no minute criticism can shake. t
This prepares him to urge one doctrine, or to unfold
and apply one text, without the fear of offending against
another -a fault into which many ministers are grieved
to remember how often their early sermons fell. This
renders it practicable to discuss particular aspects of a
* Alexander has some admirable thoughts and suggestions on the
study of the Bible, especially for ministers of middle age, and of
considerable attainments, in Thoughts on Preaching, p. 56-60, and
p. 464-6.
t An eminent English Bishop, and leading writer on Exegesis,
states in a private letter his persuasion that the study of Systematic Theology would have prevented much of that semi-skepticism
which is now painfully common among the clecgy of the Church of
England.
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doctrine in different sermons, in such a way as by degrees
to impart a good knowledge of the doctrine as a whole.
And the manifest possession of a systematic acquaintance
with revealed truth gives him authority with the people.
They readily listen to one who has definite, positive, and
well-considered opinions; and no uninspired man, even
of the highest genius, has a right to be so authoritative
in his utterances upon moral and spiritual truth, as a
preacher of humble powers, who speaks from a thorough
and systematic study of God's Word.* Exegesis and Systematic Theology properly go hand in hand. Neither is
complete, neither is really safe, without the other. And
while a man will be apt to feel himself specially attracted
towards one of them, according to his mental constitution
and training, and will naturally work extensively at that
one, he ought also diligently, regularly, and through life,
to pursue the other. A preacher ought almost always to
have on hand some able treatise of Theology, new or old,
which he is regularly studying, or some particular topic of
Divinity, which he makes the subject of much reading and
reflection.
Of other reading, regarded as an important source; of
materials for preaching, there can be only brief mention.
Church History does not usually receive from working
ministers the attention it deserves. Especially does the
history of Doctrines assist one in understanding the truth,
and in comprehending those objections and erroneous tendencies which under different forms reproduce themselves
in every age. Every religious denomination has certain
characteristic or favorite doctrines, which its standard
works bring out with clearness and prominence; sC that
apart from the necessary provision for polemical prea( hing,
and from the common stock of Christian Theology, there
is much to )e leakied by studying the peculiar opinions of
* Comp. Shedd, Hom. p. 26 if. 
124 GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING.
different denominations.   Ethical Philosophy furnishes a
rich store of materials for those who can really master its
discussions, and adapt their results to the conditions of
practical preaching; and there are some works, such as
Butler's Analogy and McCosh on the Divine Government,
occupying a sort of border ground between Ethics and
Theology, which are unsurpassed in value. Some ministers are "too metaphysical" in their preaching, but very
many are not metaphysical enough in their studies.* The
study of Sermons is not only very useful with reference to
the art of sermonizing, but affords much valuable material, provided it be not borrowed directly, but assimilated
by reflection and made part of one's own thinking. The
careful analysis and thorough and repeated examination
of a few rich and impressive sermons, is much better, in
every respect, than the cursory reading of many.
And so as to all our reading. Young men who have
enjoyed but limited opportunities of culture, and have
never looked out with eager eyes upon the great world of
books, sometimes need to be urged to read more widely;
but in the immense majority of cases, very different advice
is required. He who would become really a man must
abandon as early as possible the childish dream of reading
everything. Except what is done for recreation- and
excessive recreation is destruction- be must have a limited field of study, and must cultivate that field with the
utmost possible thoroughness. And upon every subject
studied, he must find out the best books, and restrict himself almost entirely to those. If the men of true scholarship and real power were called on to give one counsel to
young students, in this age of multiplied books, they would
probably all unite in saying, Read only the best works of
* "Read Butler, and preach to the negroes," was the advice
given to a young preacher, twenty years ago, by a judicious senior.
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the great authors, and so read these as to make them
thoroughly and permanently your own.*
Whether it is better to make extracts, summaries, and
references in a Commonplace Book, or to rely mainly on
memory in reading, will depend on a man's turn of mind
and general habits, and on the kind of reading in question.
Even a man of extraordinary memory can hardly dispense
with memoranda in reading books of information; while
books of thought, though they may be profitably analyzed
in writing, should be thought over, thought through and
through, and then all that is cognate to our own thinking
will be retained without difficulty. As regards whatever
is not matter of pure thought, an important part of the
benefit derived from reading is this, thrat one will always
know where to look for what he wants; and this can be
best accomplished by a system of references, etc., unless
the power of local memory is found, upon fair trial, to suffice for the purpose. Whichever method one adopts, he
must strive to make the best of it, guarding carefully
against its disadvantages and dangers.
But there are other sources of materials for preaching,
besides books.t A preacher's knowledge of human nature,
and knowledge of the world, his experience of life, and
especially of the religious life, his conversation with those
around him upon religious anld upon general themes, his
perpetual reflection upon everything felt, observed, or
heard-these afford a large part of his most valuable
materials. And all his previous preaching, if rightly
managed, has but enriched the mind to meet further
demands. If one merely scrapes together thoughts around
a subject, so as to make a sermon, then every sermon consumes part of his material, and leaves him poorer. But
if lie habitually penetrates into a subject and masters it,
* Comp. Shedd, Horn. p. 121-4.
t Upon sources of Illustration, see remarks below, chap. 7.
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126 GENERAI, MATERIALS OF PREACHING.
every sermon leaves him richer; not that he can shortly
preach again upon the same topic or text, but that he is
better prepared for treating others akin to it. There is a
fertilizing production. In this sense too, "there is that
scattereth, and yet increaseth."
~ 2. MATERIALS PROVIDED AT  THE TIME.
These embrace the interpretation of the text, and the
choice of a subject, which we have already considered.
The precise mode of stating a subject can in many cases
not be fixed until after we have wrought out much of the
general materials for the treatment of it. Besides interpreting the text, in the strict sense of the phrase, much
may be derived from reflecting on it, and on its connection.
If the treatment be textual or expository, a large part of
the materials will be derived from this study of the text;
if it be a subject-sermon, still the text and its context may
furnish much that will be useful in the discussion of the
topic. Then fixing the mind upon the subject, or in succession upon the several related subjects furnished by the
textual or expository method, the preacher must attempt
the- complete analysis and copious development of the
matters involved, and the collection of all associated matters which are likely to be useful.
Kidder gives some good "practical suggestions in reference to, invention, in the form of rules:
"1. Address your mind to the invention of thoughts,
not words.  Words may be employed, but only as auxiliaries.
"2. Note down or otherwise make sure of whatever relevant thoughts your mind can call to its aid, irrespective of
order or mainly so.
"3. At first be not too scrupulous on the subject of relevancy.  Entertain whatever seemingly good thoughts come
at your call. Try them, push them out to conclusions.
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GENERAL MIATERIALS OF PREACHING. 127
Perhaps if not available themselves they will lead to others
that are.
"4. Pursue invention in every variety of circumstance,
in the study and out of it. Make it the subject of special
and protracted occupation, and also of occasional attention,
when walking or riding, when taking exercise or rest. One's
very dreams at night may often be made serviceable for
this object.
"5. Make an early selection of subjects in order to secure
the advantages of the repeated and incidental action of
the inventive powers. [He means, early in the week. This
course was pursued and recommended by Robert Hall.]
"6. Use former studies and preparations as helps to invention rather than as substitutes for it.
"Invention as thus practised will always strengthen but
never exhaust itself. It will become a most delightful
exercise, causing the mind to glow with rapture at its new
creations and combinations." *
The important part which Imagination plays in the
invention of materials will be noticed in a subsequent chapter; t and the reaction of arrangement upon invention will
attract our attention in discussing that subject.  The
question how far and in what ways we may properly
employ commentaries, sermons upon the same text, etc., in
preparing a sermon, will be examined presently. 11
~ 3. ORIGINAL MATERIALS.
Whether the materials are possessed beforehand, or provided at the time of preparation, it is obvious that they
might be original, or borrowed. Under this latter division
they will now be considered.
1. Originality may be absolute, or relative. By the for
* Kidder, Horn. p. 152.
t Part III, chap 5.
Part II, chap. 1.
I1 See i 4 of the present chapter 
128 GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING.
mer is meant bringing into existence thoughts which the
world never knew before, which had never arisen in any
human mind. Of course this must be very rare. In the
physical world, new facts are now constantly ascertained,
and new mechanical contrivances invented. But in the
world of ideas, it is very difficult to be absolutely original.*  "The ancients have stolen- all our best ideas," is
one of the sayings of the great Edinburgh Reviewer which
cannot soon be forgotten. And not in modern times alone
has this been felt. Hear Chaucer:
" For out of the old fieldes, as men saithe,
Cometh al this new corne fro yere to yere,
And out of old bookes, in good faithe,
Cometh al this new science that men lere."
And Confucius, six centuries before our era, proclaimed
himself only a student of antiquity.   Yet even in this
absolute sense, originality is possible, and we should not
despair. Progress in some directions the world's thought
does slowly make.  Among all the uncounted millions of
men, patient thinkers are far from numerous; and he who
will patiently think, why may he not light upon some
thought unknown to those who have gone before him?
But relatively, any man may be original, and to some
extent every man is so.  We produce thoughts which were
not by us derived from any other mind, though other minds,
at the time unknown to us, have also produced them. The
same phases of nature and experiences of life awaken in
us the same reflections they have awakened in many
others; and seed-thoughts attain in us the same developments. Here there is everything to encourage. Much of
the mental quickening, the conscious vigor, and buoyant
self-reliance, which result from absolute originality, may
* Shedd, Horn. p. 8, makes it impossible, but he uses the word
absolute in a differei t sense.
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GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING. 129
)
(
also be wrought in us by thoughts relatively original. Of
course the mental elation will not be so great, where we
know that others must have had the same thought. In
fact, some of the most marvellous self-conceit is to be
observed in certain very ignorant men, who mistake their
relative originality for absolute; thoughts having occurred
to them which neither they nor their ignorant neighbors
had heard of, are supposed to be equally new to all the
world.
Now the basis of preaching cannot be original, because
it must come from Scripture. But The preacher may be
original, in several ways. He may have original views of
the meaning of Scripture. It is entirely possible that any'
one of us should attain more just conceptions of the meaning of some passage, or certain aspects of a doctrine, than
have ever before been gained. And to interpret and ponder for ourselves, in the sense of relative originality, is
the privilege and the duty of all. We have no right to
take for granted that commentators and theologians are
correct in their opinions; and in fact theological discords
and conflicts, with all their evils, have this advantage,
that they compel the most trusting and the most slothful
of us somewhat to feel the necessity of thinking for ourselves.  What freshness, what power there is, in truths
which the preacher has himself wrought out from Scripture, drawing with his own bucket, as Lord Bacon says,
"immediately where it springeth." The student of physical science must observe nature for himself; and so in
Theology, we must open our own eyes to behold and contemplate the teachings of God's Word. There is no
limit to the relative originality which may in this respect
be achieved. Again, the combination of Scripture teachings with the facts and truths which we derive from
nature, providence, human nature, life, affords large room
for originality. Here in every direction the mind may 
130 GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING.
expatiate, bringing all things into relation to the Word of
God. And then in the choice of topics, the construction
of discourse, the illustration and application of truth, a
preacher may perpetually devise what shall be in some
respects fresh, and relatively to him, original.
'Originality is sometimes aimed at in unworthy ways, or
made matter of affectation. Men of a certain character
will take up with some heresy, merely to display independence, to show that they, forsooth, are not tied down to the
old opinions.  Paradox may be properly employed, as it
is by some able teachers and preachers, as it was by our
Lord himself, to awaken attention to truth; but there are
those who deal in the paradoxical as showing originality.
Oddity, in ideas, expressions, or manner, is a mere caricature of originality. To say that such and such a preacher
is "an original," is to use the term in a very degraded
sense. Young men, and even older ones, sometimes pretend not to read, lest it should impair their originality.
"We have seen the works of a painter, who would see no
Raffaelles or Van Dycks, lest he should spoil his native
manner. He has certainly succeeded in avoiding all that
one beholds in these great masters." *
2. Why is originality so desirable? We may answer,
first, that independent thinking, more than anything else,
will develop, discipline and strengthen the mind.  In the
matter of mental improvement, it must never be forgotten,
the hardest way is the easiest way, the slow way the swift
est. So far as a man's health and vigor is concerned, a
week's quiet walking is worth much more than a week's
travel on the cars, though the latter should carry him
thousands of miles. If it be possible, let us persuade ourselves to much  of independent  and. patient thinking;
otherwise we shall never be men.
Again, remember that originality renders discourse
* Alexander, Thoughts on Preaching, p. 362.
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GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING. 131
greatly more attractive and impressive. On the one hand,
an original thought interests the speaker more. It is his
offspring; it awakens in him a parental affection, and
perhaps a thrill of parental pride. It is his possession;
he is no dispenser now of other men's bounty, but gives
of his own; and in knowledge as elsewhere, "to give is
happier than to receive." But no analogies will do justice
to the feeling -the pleasure, the confidence, the hopeful  ness and earnestness, with which a man utters what is even
relatively original. On the other hand, it interests the
audience more. As simply new, it gratifies their natural
love of novelty. If they consider the thought original
with the speaker, there arises a heightened admiration of
him, and a higher regard for all that he says.  And then
they sympathize with the speaker's own feeling. Whatever
makes his mind glow will warm theirs. In general, no
man can interest others, save by that which exceedingly
interests himself. Thus the two causes combine. And no
doubt there are other causes. Analysis cannot fully reach
the secret of that delight with which we regard what comes
as a new creation, a fresh existence. But even a little
reflection should make us feel more deeply the importance
of original thinking.
It is an obvious inference that we ought to think out for
ourselves the most familiar topics, and exhibit them in our
own manner. In discoursing upon matters so common   place as the pleasures of piety, or the danger of delay,
one should strive, by long and earnest reflection, to gain
views of the subject, or a method of presenting it, which
will be his own. Happy the preacher who can thus give
to momentous but too familiar themes some heightened
interest, some new impressiveness. Yet the warning must
here be repeated: mere oddity is a very different thing
from originality, and it is better to be commonplace but
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132 GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING.
Another inference is, that even ideas which have been
borrowed, ought to be so thoroughly thought over as to
become a part of our own thinking. Otherwise they will
commonly fail to take a firm hold of ourselves or of the
hearers. As a government often takes foreign coins and
passes them through its own mint, so the thoughts derived
from others should receive the stamp of our own minds,
which will give them newness of aspect, full value, and
ready acceptance.
3. Obstacles to originality. These are numerous and
powerful, as might be taken for granted when we remember
how desirable it is, and yet how rarely it is found in any
high degree.
Erroneous views of the nature of originality prevent
many persons from attaining it. Some imagine that there
can be nothing worth the name, unless it be absolutely
original, new to the human race; and as this can of course
be very seldom achieved, they despair, and content themselves too commonly with taking ideas at second hand.
But, as we have seen, relative originfality of a very high
order may exist, where there is little or nothing of absolute addition to the stock of human knowledge, and may
greatly augment a man's power. Some refrain from reading as a means of promoting originality, and thus condemn
themselves to great mental barrenness. It would be as
wise to avoid conversation.  Who  does not know the
quickening, fructifying power of talk with an intelligent
friend upon a subject we have been studying? Though
nothing be directly borrowed; yet new thoughts are often
suggested, and we are led to see more clearly what we had
but dimly perceived. The same effect may be produced
by reading. In general, we ought vigorously and patiently
to think upon the subject before either reading or conversing upon it; otherwise, the mind is in danger of merely
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following the track which others have marked out, instead
of approaching the subject in its own manner. But after
such personal reflection, then reading and conversation
may be found highly stimulating and suggestive, leading
to much that is really our own, but which but for this contact with other minds would not have occurred to us. A
third class, by mistaking oddity or eccentricity for originality, misdirect and pervert their aspirations and powers, and
not only fail to accomplish what they might have done,
but prejudice many, who make the same mistake, against
the idea of trying to be original. And still another error is
seen in the fact that credit for originality is so often wrongly
assigned. Some men really think profoundly, and develop
views thoroughly their own, but as they state them with
great clearness and simplicity, the masses think that anybody might have said that, and that they themselves always
knew it.  Others, by holding up dim, formless phantoms
of thought, by using obscure, but high-wrought, peculiar,
and impassioned language, are regarded as wonderfully
original, when if their ideas were brought out in a clear
light they would appear to be either nothing at all, or
something very familiar. Thus it happens that aspiring
young minds, setting out in pursuit of originality, are
sometimes led to seek it in affectations of style, rather than
in genuine, clear thinking.*
It may be said that no persons capable of much originality would fall into such errors as these; but not only
do they diminish the amount of original thinking in mul
Archbishop Whately was fond of comparing this would-be
original style to the case of Dean Swift's antiquary, who had found
a Roman shield with some very curious and almost legible inscriptions, which he invited a party of friends to help him decipher;
but the cook having taken a notion to scour off the rust, it turned
out to be an old pot-lid.
12 
- 134 GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING.
titudes, but they have also much effect upon some men of
considerable powers.
A second hindrance is found in native indolence. Original thinking is difficult, laborious, and usually slow, the
hardest work that men ever attempt. Who can-wonder
that easy borrowing, or even shameless stealing, is so often
substituted?
A third obstacle, especially at the present day, is the
vast extension of literature, and the attractive forms which
new books and periodicals assume, seducing us by their
charm, or imposing on us unreal claims to our acquainitance. Reading accompanied by honest thinking, is promotive of originality; but we are tempted to waste ourselves
upon a species of reading which does not demand reflection, nor leave time for it. One who is inclined to free
indulgence in light literature, must curb himself with very
steady hand, or he will never achieve much as a thinker,
nor be in any respect worth much to the world. Even
of books upon religious subjects, very many of the most
attractive that appear, are by no means so stimulating, so
provocative of good thinking, as the older books from
which they were mainly drawn.
And the character of the age is in many respects unfavorable to profound thought. The demand is for quick
processes, and so-called "practical" results.  "Knowledge
made easy" is the rage. The inevitable result is a grievous tendency to superficiality among the people, and in
their instructors to the display of prodigiously extensive
and varied superficial attainments. Teachers are tempted
to substitute readiness, variety, boundless surface-knowledge, with brilliancy, and point and paradox, for deep
thinking, and thorough acquaintance with a few subjects.
We must constantly remind ourselves that real knowledge
has three dimensions, length; breadth and depth. Our acquiaitions in that noble domain should not be confined to the
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GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING. 135
surface of things, but should correspond to the old law as
to the tenure of land, by which possession extends up to
the sky, and down to the centre of the earth. Such knowledge is the handmaid, nay, the sister of original thought.*
Two remarks may be made here in conclusion. One is,
that the preacher should not desire to originate any part
of the fiundamental material of his preaching. He should
not only submit, but rejoice, to take this from the Word of
God.  Too many preachers are in these days seeking after
originality, and other novelty, by forsaking the Scriptures.
The other remark is, that we must not aspire after originality in the spirit of pride or selfish ambition, but as a
means of doing more to benefit men, and to glorify the
Redeemer.
~ 4. BORROWED MATERIALS AND PLAGIARISM.
A plagiary, among the Romans, was a kidnapper, one
who stole free men and made slaves of them. A late
Romnan writer, by a natural analogy, applies the odious
name to one guilty of literary theft, stealing a man's ideas;
and the languages derived from Latin'retain the word in
this sense. Plagiarism has from the earliest times been
censured and satirized, and no man defends it, any more
than other stealing would be defended.t But then what
is plagiarism, and what is lawful borrowing?  Some practise the former who design only the latter, and some,
through morbid dread of that which is disgraceful, shrink
from what is innocent and helpful. There are two ques
* Some of these obstacles are mentioned in the Christian Review
for 1842, p. 142 if.
t Chrysostom, in his beautiful treatise on the Priesthood (~ 451),
makes a slightly humorous complaint as to the charges of plagiarism
made against preachers, sometimes even for repeating something
of their own. 
136 GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING.
tions to be considered, the proper use of other men'd
thoughts, and the proper acknowledgment of such use.
1. What use is it proper to make, in preparing a sermon, of ideas derived from others? The question is in
principle the same, as regards what we have read, and
what we have heard; though many persons use with great
freedom what they have heard, in the pulpit, the lectureroom, or in conversation, who are much more strict as to
the fruits of reading. But in another respect the inquiry,
as a practical one for him who is about to prepare a sermon, divides again.
(1.) What use shall be made of that which we have
previously learned?
TNever appropriate an entire discourse, whether with or
without acknowledgment. It might be lawful, under peculiar circumstances, to read to an audience some choice sermon, avowedly as reading; as an occasional exercise, by
a good reader, and with a congregation who fancy it, this
might do good. Such was in fact the idea which Addison
recommended in the oft-quoted humorous account of Sir
Roger de Coverley's chaplain -just reading a sermon as
one might read a poem; and enjoying it in much the same
way.
"'At his first settling with me, I made him a present of all
the good sermons which have been printed in English, and only
begged of himn that every Sunday he would pronounce one of them
in the pulpit. Accordingly, he has digested them into such a series,
and they follow one,another naturally, and make a continued system
of practical divinity.'
"As Sir Roger was going on in his story, the gentleman we were
talking of came up to us; and upon the knight's asking him who
preached to-morrow (for it was Saturday night), told us, the Bishop
of St. Asa,ph in the morning, and Dr. South in the afternoon.  He
then showed us his list of preachers for thle whole year; where I
saw with- a great deal of pleasure Archbishop Tillotson, Bishop
Sanderson, Dr. Barrow, Dr. Calamy, with several living authors
t
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GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING. 137
who have published discourses of practical divinity. I no sooner
saw this venerable man in the pulpit, but I very much approved of
my friend's insisting upon the qualifications of a good aspect and a
clear voice; for I was so charmed with the gracefulness of his
figure and delivery, as well as with the discourses he pronounced,
that I think I never passed any time more to my satisfaction. A
sermon repeated after this manner, is like the composition of a poet
in the mouth of a graceful actor." *
But to preach, as preaching, a discourse which we acknowledge to have been borrowed from others, is so incongruous and unpleasing a thing, as to be very rarely done.
The real practice, with some preachers, is still worse. They
shrink from acknowledging what they do, but still allow
themselves to do it. In England, this is well known to be
very common. It is wonderful how those who boast of
being gentlemen, can practise an appropriation which is
condemned by the guilty pains they take to hide it.  And
such a usage on the part of those who profess to be Christians, could never have arisen save in connection with
radically wrong ideas as to the very nature of preaching.
Never appropriate the complete outline of a discourse.
Many persons in our country appear to think this perfectly
lawful.  Ludicrous stories are often told of sermons pursuing the same train of thought with one shortly before
preached at the same place; and sometimes the real author
incurs the blame. But one rebukes himself for being
amused at such stories, for they have a grave side, which
is humiliating. Does the evil of stealing depend on whether
one is caught at it, as the Spartans taught their boys?
Shall a Christian minister, in the very performance of his
solemn duties, deliberately do what he would be ashamed
to confess? Let any one try the experiment, if he likes, of
acknowledging that the plan of his sermon is derived from
so and so, and see to what an extent, save in very peculiar
12*
* Spectator, No. 106.
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138 GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING.
eases, it will diminish the interest.  The people do not
merely come to hear a discourse -they come to hear a liv-ing man, communicating to them his earnest thought and
feeling; and if the principal ideas of the sermon are from
another preacher, they regard themselves as only hearing a
dead man.  If then it would be bad policy to proclaim the
borrowing, how can it be honesty to conceal it? The power
of custom, including the known practice of some good men,
the seductions of sloth, and the overwork to which ministers are often subjected, have wrought in many minds a
confusion of ideas on this subject, which can alone account
for the frequent cases of unacknowledged appropriation.
The books of "Sketches and Skeletons," which are so
often published and so widely bought, are an unmitigated
evil, and a disgrace to the ministry of the gospel. If it be
said that they may be profitably studied as specimens of
sermonizing, there is the obvious answer that it would be
much more profitable to analyze for ourselves the full sermons of really great men. There is no excuse for such
books, and no minister should suffer one of them to remain
in his library.  But they are deplorably common in this
country, and still more so in Germany.* Nor is the practice of recent origin. As early as 1517, there appeared in
Paris a Latin volume of this character, entitled "The
Preacher's Gem," and styling itself "a most excellent and
divine work."  And  at Amsterdam in 1642, appeared,
"Dormi secure: vel Cynosura professorum ac studiosorum
eloquenttice," etc. (Sleep without anxiety: or, The Cynosure
of professors and students of eloquence, etc.) The idea
appears to be that one who possesses this book need not
have his sleep disturbed by anxiety about next Sunday's
* The "Homiletical" Notes in the good Commentaries of Lange,
are too much of this character, and should be used only with great
reserve and caution.
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GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHIIG. 139
sermon. Coquerel, who mentions these two works, remarks
that it may be doubted whether persons would awake from
this sleep to be eloquent; * and we may add that one who
has determined to borrow a plan from such a book should
be too much ashamed of himself to sleep at all.t
But while refusing to appropriate a discourse, or the
outline of one, we may with perfect propriety employ
among the general materials of a discourse thoughts previously read or heard, provided we use them in a proper
manner, and with suitable acknowledgment; and these
conditions will be discussed presently.
(2.) After selecting the text and subject, shall we read
about it?
If the text is not perfectly plain, in itself and the context, one certainly ought, at an early period of his preparation, to consult the best explanatory commentaries, for
help in understanding it.
Other books, such as theological treatises, sermons on
the same text or on similar topics, commentaries in the
strict sense (those which do not so much explain a text, as
enlarge upon its teachings, e.g. Matthew Henry), etc., may
be read with great profit, though we do not borrow anything from them, because they will help to fix the mind on
the subject, and often suggest thoughts, which will be truly
our own, and yet would not have occurred to us but for
the reading. I
But may we borrow? Certainly, we may, and sometimes
ought to borrow. There are two extremes. On the one
* Coquerel, Observ. sur la Predication, p. 204. On the subject of
"Skeletons," see vigorous remarks in Shedd, Hom. p. 116-122.
t It is by no means designed to cast unmerited reproach upon
some excellent ministers who have used these books from the force
of example, without ever sufficiently reflecting upon the general
impropriety of the practice.
I Comp. above, ~ 8. 
140 GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING.
hand, a mistaken desire for originality and independence,
causes some able men to abstain from reading anything on
the text or subject. Such a man deceives himself, for
many of-the thoughts which his own mind now furnishes
were originally derived from reading or hearing. True,
these are more likely to have been digested and assimilated
than what is read just at the time of preparation. But
this difference does not necessarily hold, for many thoughts
are long retained by the memory in a perfectly crude state,
and what results from reading at the time should not be
used until after thoroughly working it over in our own
mind. And besides this self-deception, he deprives himself of what would often prove valuable help in contemplating the subject on every side, and presenting it in the
most effective manner.  The other extreme is that of reading instead of thinking, just cramming the mind with a
medley of other men's thoughts, and constructing a discourse out of these.  Such a method of preparation,
though often adopted, is exceedingly objectionable. But
can we avoid the latter extreme only by rushing to the
former?
There is surely a middle course. We may both think,
and read. On most texts and subjects, think long and
laboriously before reading at all (except it be the commentaries as to the meaning of the text). Put down in writing some statement of your principal thoughts, and make
out the plan of the discourse.  Afterwards, read whatever
bears upon the subject, as far as you have time, or see
occasion, and in reading, think fbr yourself still, not only
weighing carefully what the author says, but following out
any trains of thought which he may suggest to your own
mind. On some subjects, concerning which we lack iiformation, it may be well to read widely before constructing
the plan of the sermon.  But one will not often determine
to preach upon a subject, until he has gained some general
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GENERAL MATERIALS OFP PREACHING. 141
knowledge of it. And now if we have found an idea, or
remember one formerly met with, which can be easily
wrought into our plan of discourse, and which would
make the sermon more instructive, interesting or impressive, why, let us use it- of course with proper acknowledgment. Not only may minor ideas, illustrations, etc., be
borrowed, but in rare cases even one head of the discourse,
the other heads being our own. The question is, which
will be best, on the one hand for your general improvement
as a preacher, and on the other for the effectiveness of the
present sermon, that you should use this idea, or should
omit it.
Everything thus borrowed must have been fully comprehended, and must take its place naturally as a part of the
discourse. A discourse is a structure, and extraneous matters which do not fit into it and subserve its objects, will,
however admirable in themselves, be offensive and hurtful,
as would be such additions to a dwelling-house or a steamengine.
2. In what cases, and in what ways, shall one make
acknowledgnent of having borrowed?
\hen the remark is obvious, or belongs to the common
stock of religious ideas, so that it might have occurred to
ourselves, although it happens to have been drawn from
another, then it is often unnecessary to make any acknowledgment.  When the idea is at all striking, so that hearers
would give any special credit for it as a good thing, then
we must not take a credit which is undeserved, but must
in som,e way indicate that the thought was derived from
another.
In what cases shall we mention the precise source?
When the author's name would give greater weight to the
idea, or in some way attach interest to it; e.g. Bacon or
Bunyan, Whitefield or Spurgeon. Again, when we may
hope thereby to lead some hearer to read the book men, 
142 GENERAL MATERIALS OF PREACHING.
tioned. Or generally, when to name the source would do
any good. It is well to be sure that one can pronounce the
author's name correctly, or else to omit it. Many French
and German names occur in our religious literature, and
many hearers know enough of those languages to make
the effect quite bad, if the preacher ludicrously mispronounces them.
Otherwise it is enough merely to indicate that the thought
was derived from some source.  Avoid a parade of honesty
about acknowledging. Avoid, too, an ostentatious display
of wide reading. Let the acknowledgment interrupt as
little as possible the flow of thought-detract as little as
possible from the interest which the idea is calculated to
awaken. If it would decidedly interrupt or detract, then
omit the acknowledgment,- and the thing borrowed. In
general, the method of acknowledging calls for the exercise
of judgment, and good taste. Without formality or set
phrases, and with graceful simplicity, state, indicate, or
even merely intimate, that the idea was derived from some
other person.
It is certainly important that on the whole subject of
borrowing, one should have just principles; and that he
should early in life establish such principles, and form
correct habits from the beginning. Otherwise, there will
either be a wrong practice continued through life, with
very injurious results to a man's character and influence,
or, when he comes to see more clearly, there will be much
to regret in his past course.
I
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CHAPTER V.
SPECIAL MATERIALS - EXPLANA riot.
1. EXPLANATION OF TEXTS, INCLUDING EXEGESIS, NARRATION,AND
DESCRIPTION. ~ 2. EXPLANATION OF SUBJECTS, INCLUDING DEFI NITION, DIVISION, EXEMPLIFICATION, COMPARISON.
T lHE  materials of preaching are obviously boundless.
_ To collect in general, by observation, reading and
reflection, and then to select and adapt to the design of
each particular discourse, is the preacher's great task. And
not only the character of the materials, but the method of
handling them, must vary indefinitely, according to the
design of the sermon. But certain special classes of
materials are of such importance, and their proper treatment of such difficulty, as to justify a separate discussion.
The classes here selected fbr that purpose, and treated in
successive chapters, are the materials of Explanation, of
Proof, of Illustration, and of Application. This is not
presented as a scientific classification of materials. It by
no                          means embraces all, and its departments sometimes
overlap. Thus illustration may be employed to explain,
to prove, or to impress; application may embrace explanation, proof, and persuasion; and certain processes which
are always classed under explanation, as narration and
description, are often used at the same time, and even
mainly, for other than explanatory ends. But it is thought
that a seientifie classification would here be less useful than
the practical discussion of certain leading objects accord                                                143 
EXPLANATION.
ing to which the preacher must invent and handle his
materials.*
There is in preaching very frequent need of Explanation.
Numerous passages of Scripture are not understood, or
are even misunderstood, by our hearers; and many have
become so accustomed to passing over these, as to be no
longer aware that they present any difficulty. Some of
the most important doctrines of the Bible are in general
very imperfectly understood; those who receive them need
clearer views of what they profess to believe, and those
who object to them are often in fact objecting to something
very different from the real doctrine. The plan of salvation is seldom comprehended till one is really willing to
conform to it, so that there is constantly arising new occaSiOli for answering the great question, "What must I do to
be saved?"  And a thousand questions as to what is true,
and what is right in the practical conduct of life, perplex
devout minds, and call for explanation. Preaching ought
to be not merely convincing and persuasive, but eminently
instructive. We often belabor men with arguments and
appeals, when they are much more in need of practical
and simple explanations, as-regards what to do, and how
to do it. And while some persons present may have repeatedly heard us explain certain important matters, we must
not forget that there are others, children growing up,
strangers moving in, converts entering the church, to
whom such explanations will be new, and are in the
highest degree necessary.
But just here the inexperienced minister may profit by
* A full and in general valuable discussion of Invention may be
found in Day's Art of Discourse, p. 42-207. He classifies materials
according to the four objects of explanation, confirmation, excitation,
and persuasion. His treatment of Explanation is the most elaborate
in existence (p. 57-111), and although too formal in some respects,
it will be fo-und instructive and suggestive. See also Vinet, p. 153-169o
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EXPLANATION.
several homely cautions. Do not attempt to explain what
is not assuredly true.  One sometimes finds great difficulty
in working out an explanation of a supposed fact or principle, because it is really not true. Do not undertake to
explain what you do not understand. Oh the insufferable
weariness of listening to a man who does this! And in
preaching as well as elsewhere, it happens so often as to be
ridiculous, if it were not mournful. How can the housewife cook what has never been caught? How can the
preacher explain what he does not understand?  Never
try to explain what cannot be explained. Some things
taught in the Bible are in their essence incomprehensible;
as, for example, the nature of the Trinity, or the coexistence of absolute Divine predestination with human
freedom and accountability. In such a case it is very
important to explain just what the Scriptures really do
teach, so as to remove misapprehensions; and it may
sometimes be worth while to present any remote analogies
in other spheres of existence, so as perhaps to diminish the
hearer's unwillingness to receive the doctrine; but attempts
to explain the essential difficulty must necessarily fail, and
the failure will react so as only to strengthen doubt and
opposition. Do not waste time in explaining what does not
need explanation.* A conspicuous instance is the nature
of faith. Men frequently complain that they do not understand what it really is to believe, and preachers are constantly laboring to explain.  But the complaint is in
many cases a mere excuse for rejection or delay, and the
real difficulty is in all cases a lack of disposition to believe.
Elaborate explanations do not lessen this indisposition, do
but strengthen the supposed excuse, and may even emnbarrass the anxious inquirer with the notion that there is
something very mysterious about faith, when it is in fact
* Comp. Vinet, Horn. p. 166
145
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EXP I,ANATION.
so simple as not to admit of being explained. Our main
duty is to tell the people what to believe, and why they
should believe it.
~ 1. EXPLANATION OF TEXTS.
To explain the Scriptures would seem to be among the
primary functions of the preacher.* And there will often
be occasion to explain, not merely the text of the sermon,
but various other passages of Scripture which may be introduced into the discussion. The power of making such explanations attractive as well as clear, will of course depend
largely upon the preacher's turn of mind.  But the most
gifted in respect of this important task should seek constant
improvement, and they who have great difficulty must put
forth diligent and hopeful efforts to overcome it. What
nobler work than that of "opening" the Scriptures, as
Paul did at Thessalonica? (Acts 17: 3.)
The EXEGESIS of texts, as the process by which the
preacher himself comes to understand them, has already
received our attention. t Pulpit exegesis, or exposition, is
in certain respects a different thing. We have here, save
in exceptional cases, to present results and not processes.
We must omit various matters, which have perhaps greatly
interested ourselves, because they would not interest the
people, or do not pertain to the object of the present discourse.   Preachers sometimes allow themselves, in the
introduction to the sermon or as a digression, to give long
explanations of something in a passage or its connection,
which has no bearing on their subject. and thus impairs
unity, and distracts attention. There must of course be no
parade of acquaintance with the original languages, and
there should be no morbid fear of being charged with such
*Comp. on Expos. Sermons, Part II, chap. 3.
t Ab; ve, chap. 2.
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EXPLANATION.
parade. Commentaries may be mentioned if the people
know something of them, and would thereby be more
readily satisfied, or if it is desirable to b.ing good popular
authors to their notice.  To repeat lists of strange and
high-sounding names in favor of this or that interpretation,
is always useless, and is in general a very pitiful display of
cheap erudition, wkich with the help of certain books may
all be gotten up at second hand in a few minutes. One
may very easily indicate, without any array of authorities,
that this is the view of the best writers, of some good commentators, etc. The great matter is, to take the results of
the most careful investigation in our power, select from them
such points as are appropriate, and present these clearly,
briefly, and if possible in such a way as to be interesting.
Sometimes the text, or another passage introduced, may be
amply and admirably explained by a few words; but such
words do not come of themselves- they result from close
thinking, and careful choice of expressions. Sometimes
passages may be introduced in such a connection, as without a word of explanation to give them new meaning and
preciousness. It is a fault in many able ministers, that
they comparatively neglect to bring in and explain the apposite sayings of Scripture which would both give and borrow light. And however congregations may shrink from
elaborate exegesis or bungling and tedious attempts to explain, they will always welcome the felicitous introduction,
and quick, vivid elucidation of passages from God's Word.
N'ARRATION  has  in preaching  a peculiar  character.
Recent works on Rhetoric treat of it almost exclusively as
practised in historical writing and the like.*   Ancient
writers treat of oratorical narration, and are therefore more
valuable for our purpose,t though relating chiefly to the
* Thus Day's Art of Discourse, and Bain's Rhetoric, each of
which contains a good discussion fiom that point of view.
t Particularly Arist. Rhet. III, 16, and Quintil. IV, 2, which will
lte found very sugFestive.
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narrative in judicial oratory. The preaci er of course narrates as a speaker, and deals mainly with Scripture history.
A speaker must always subordinate narration to the object
of his discourse, the conviction or persuasion which he
wishes to effect.*  He must not elaborate or enlarge upon
some narrative merely because in itself interesting, nor
follow the story step by step, according to its own laws.
"'In demonstrative speeches the narration is not continuous,
but given in scattered portions; for one must go over the
actions out of which the speech arises; for a speech is a
kind of compound, having one portion, indeed, independent
of art, and another portion originating in art." That is,
the facts are independent of the speaker, but he breaks
them up and presents them according to his object.
"Owing to this, there are times when one ought not to
narrate every fact successively; because this mode of exposition is difficult to remember. The one style of narration
is too simple; the other has the grace of variety, and is not
so void of elegance. But what you have to do is to
awaken the recollection of facts well known; on which
account many subjects will stand in no need of narration
-supposing, for instance, you would praise Achilles, because all are acquainted with his actions-but you must
simply use the actions without narration. If, on the other
hand, one wishes to praise Critias, it is necessary to narrate;
for not many are acquainted with his exploits." t
And so when we preach with reference to the minor
and less familiar personages of Scripture, it is proper
enough to narrate all the facts concerning them. But
when it is one of the great characters we must choose
between  two courses.   We  may  select the  salient or
characteristic points of his history, and so narrate these as
* Narratio est rei fact.....  utilis adper,.uadendum expositio.
Quintil. IV, 2, 31.
tArist. Rhet. III, 16, 1-3.
148,
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EXPLANATION.
to exhibit the chief lessons of that history, introducing
such details as are to the purpose, and rigorously omitting
all others. Thus the history of Joseph, of Job, of John
the Baptist, may be conveniently treated. In such a case,
every speaker will mention or enlarge upon different parts
of the history, according to his particular object; as Stephen's speech, and that of Paul at Antioch in Pisidia,
sketch very differently the history of Israel; and as Paul
in the two speeches which tell the story of his conversion,
expands in each of them certain matters which in the other
are but slightly touched, adapting the narration to the character and wants of his audience.* But it is generally better
to choose some one event of the man's history, or some one
trait of his character, and narrate only what bears upon
that. In preaching upon the meekness of Moses, there
would be occasion to state briefly those circumstances of
his training and career which were particularly unfavorable to the development of meekness, and then to narrate,
with vivid touches, the leading instances in which his meekness was exhibited, as well as those in which it temporarily
failed; and the discourse would properly close with a somewhat extended application of the whole matter to ourselves.
In this way the history of Moses would be much more impressively reproduced, than if one should attempt an outline of the whole.
Narration is usually given in the introduction to the
sermon.  In so doing special pains should be taken not to
have it too long, not to wander into parts of the story which
have no bearing upon the design of the discourse, and not
to pause, except in very rare cases, for remarks upon outside
topics which the narrative may suggest. There is especial
danger here of violating the laws of unity and proportion.
Besides the instances in which some history in the Bible
*Comp. Acts, c?lp. 7 w'th chap. 13, and chap. 22 with chap. 26.
13*
149 
EXPLANATION.
is our thene, there will be constant occasion to derive illus.
tration from Scripture history, and great demand for skill
in the brief and interesting narration of events thus ermployed. Happy the preacher who can in this way keep
ever fresh in the minds of his hearers those beautiful and
sacred stories, which are not only sweet to the heart of
childhood and full of instruction to youth, but which, when
rightly contemplated, assume new interest and meaning at
every stage of life.
It is a rather common fault in the pulpit to narrate in a
declamatory way. The preacher has become excited, and
he states a plain fact, or tells a simple story, with such
vehemence and boisterousness as to be extremely incongruous. Quintilian keenly satirizes those who think it beneath
their dignity to set forth facts in every-day language, who
do not seem to themselves eloquent, unless they have thrown
everything into agitation by boisterous vociferation, and
instead of simply narrating, imagine that they have here a
field for showing off, and "inflect the voice, set back the
neck, and fling the arnm against the side, and riot in every
variety of ideas, words, and style." *   Let us learn the
lesson.t
DESCRIPTION is usually a necessary part of narration, separate scenes of the narrative being to some extent described.
There is also frequent occasion to describe Scripture scenes
apart from their connection in the narrative, as in the introduction to a sermon, in the employment of historical illustrations from Scripture, etc. And while we speak here of narration and description only as regards the events and scenes
of the Bible history, it is obvious that the same skill may be
applied to that great variety of illustrative matter from every
other source, which must be vividly narrated or described
* Quintil. IV, 2, 37-9.
t As to narration in preaching, comp. on Historical Subjects, chap.
8, ~ 3, and on Expository Sermons, Part II, chap 8.
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EXPI,ANATION.
in order to make any impression. A leading American
preacher has said that "he who would hold the ear of the
people, must either tell stories, or paint pictures."
Power of description is of course partly a natural gift;
but many intelligent men will marvel and lament that they
cannot describe, when they have never fairly tried -never
given themselves any general training in that respect, nor
ever really studied any one scene or object which they
attempted to describe.   Such men  are aware that they
cannot work out an argument without much previous
thought, but seem not aware that corresponding effort is
necessary in order to achieve a good description.
He who would describe anything, must have seen it;
not necessarily with bodily vision, but with the mind's
eye. He must begin, then, with gaining correct information about the scene or object; and this information must
extend, if possible, to details. As regards Scripture scenes,
there is often need of a familiar acquaintance with Biblical
Geography, and with the manners and customs of the
Jews.  While gathering such information, and after doing
so, he must fasten his mind upon the scene, so that the
imagination may realize it; he must look at it as he would
at a landscape or a painting, first surveying the whole,
then inspecting the most interesting details, and afterwards
comprising all in a general view. This should be kept up,
with the point of view varied, and repeated effort to
imagine, till the whole scene stands out clear and vivid
before the eye of the mind; only then is he prepared to
describe it.
Remiember now that a speaker is not to describe as the
writer of a poem, a romance, or a book of travels might
do, but is to make the description brief, and subordinate
to the objects of his discourse; we may thus perceive, in
a general way, how the description should be managed.
The outlines of the picture should be rapidly drawn, and
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EXPLANATION.
may be rude, provided they are distinct. Then certain
prominent or characteristic points of the scene must be
presented. And with some of these there should be given
a few of the most suggestive details, which will arouse the
hearer's imagination to fill up the picture. In this lies the
great art of description, especially for speakers -to stim ulate the hearer's imagination into seeing for himself.
Sometimes there are a few details so characteristic, that
they need only the slightest indication of outline to make
a picture; as in a caricature, one or two peculiar features,
somewhat exaggerated, and a few rude lines beside, will be
more amusing than a finished picture, because more suggestive. And even where no remarkably striking details
present themselves, one may contrive slight touches here
and there, which will give life to the whole. If these are
not afforded by our knowledge of the facts, they may be
avowedly imagined, care being taken to have them suggest
only what will harmonize with the facts. Thus in that
remarkable home-scene at Bethany, after describing Mary
seated at Jesus' feet, and hearing his word, one might
imagine Martha as comiing to the door of the room, her
face heated with excitement and vexation, and after vainly
striving to catch Mary's eye and call her forth, at length
stepping straight to the Master himself, with her complaining request; and this slight glance at her before she enters
will help to realize the scene.
Avoid elaborate description. The preacher is expected
always to cherish so practical a design, and feel such
absorbing earnestness, as not to have time for painting
finished pictures. Hearers of good taste will always feel
them to be out of place. As regards the temptation to
give high-wrought descriptions, because it will show one's
talent in that respect, this must of course be resisted, like
all other temptations to display. But we cannot turn to
the best account the historical portions of Scripture, nor
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use to advantage other narrative and pictorial illustration,
without cultivating our powers of narration and description; and he who will patiently strive, under the guidance
of correct principles, first to see clearly, and then to
describe suggestively, may ere long surprise himself by
the facility and pleasure with which he can bring out, in
not many words, some story or scene from the Bible.*
~ 2. EXPLANATION OF SUBJECTS.
Here again there will be included, not merely the
general subject of a discourse, but any other ideas which
enter into the discussion.  Both the former and the latter
must often require explanation. Many matters of truth
and duty, are obscure and, without help, practically unintelligible to the popular mind; many questions are sadly
perplexing. To answer such inquiries, to clear up difficulties, and make as plain as possible the way of truth and
the path of duty, is, as well as the explanation of Scripture, an important part of the preacher's work.
One means of explaining subjects is by DEFINITION.
"Definition is defined by the etymology of the word. It
marks the limits of an idea. To define definition positively, we say that it teaches of what elements an idea, as
a whole, is composed.   It consists in bringing together
many general ideas, of which one is limited by the others.
When the idea, so to speak, is fortified, entrenched, so that
on all sides it repels ideas which would mix themselves
with it, the object is defined.  We must not confound definition and judgment.   Definition does but verify identity;
judgment expresses a relation...... Definition aims to
make  us know; judgment, to appreciate.   Very often,
however, definition appreciates, and involves judgment;
* Comp. on Expos. Preaching, Part II, chap  3, and on Elegance
of Style, Part II[, chap. 4. Some good suggestions as to Description, are found in Bain's Rhetoric, p. 153 if.
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EXPLANATION.
and judgment is equivalent to a partial definition. We
must not, however, confound with definition, those judgnients which give force to a characteristic of an object,
and are only designed to excite toward it such or such a
sentiment. Examples:
"' Rivers are roads that move  and carry us whither we
would go.'
"'Hypocrisy is a homage which vice pays to virtue.'
"'Time is the treasure of the poor.'
"'A tomb is a monument  placed on the boundary
between two worlds.'
"'Love is the fulfilling of the law.'"
"When the notion of the attribute does not exhaust that
of the subject, and one cannot be put indifferent]y for the
other, we have not a definition, we have a judgment.......
A definition is indeed a judgment, but a judgment which
contains or begets all the judgments which at any time
may be pronounced upon an object. And reciprocally, by
combining all the judgments which at any time may be
pronounced on an object, we have a definition." *
Vinet proceeds to give examples of definition, including
one which is very often called a definition, but surely without propriety: "Faith is the substance of things hoped for,
the evidence of things not seen." (Heb. 11: 1.) Other
judgments may be pronounced upon faith, besides this.
Faith is the substance of things hoped for, etc., just as
love is the fulfilling of the law. It may be said that faith
is the means of union with Christ, but that is not defining
faith. In fact, as we have before observed, it scarcely needs
definition, or admits of it.
We may sometimes most readily define an idea by connecting it with another idea, either in the way of distinction, or of comparison.t And instead of, or in addition to
* Vinet, Hom. p. 161-3.
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EXPLANATION.
definition, it is often well to employ exemplification, for
which see below.
"Definition is not only a means of perspicuity, an element of instruction, the basis of argumentation; it is often
the beginning of proof. Demonstration, at least, is firm
and sure in proportion to the exactness and clearness of
the definition." Every one has observed how important
it is in beginning a controversial discussion, public or private, that the question should be exactly defined; otherwise confusion of ideas is inevitable. Now it is equally,
though not so obviously important, in conducting a discussion alone, that one should clearly define to himself the
subject in hand.  In fact it is more important in this case,
because controversy will sooner or later force the parties
to perceive that they have not clearly understood the question, or understood it in the same way, while the solitary
thinker, or the unanswered speaker, may remain permanently involved in the confusion or error produced by his
lack of well-defined conceptions at the outset. And the
same thing applies to the definition of leading terms. But
while we must always define to ourselves, it is not always
necessary that we should define to the audience. The proposition of the subject, if felicitous, may often be sufficiently perspicuous and precise; or we may see that the
discussion itself will most effectually give clear and definite
views of the subject. In all definitions stated, we should
eschew formality, and "avoid too subtle distinctions and
classifications, which assume a great habit of abstraction,
and an exact knowledge of language on the part of the
hearer." *
A second means of explaining ideas is by DIVIsION.
But the methods of dividing a subject, and of stating
divisions, can be most conveniently examined when we
come to discuss the arrangement of discourse.
t Part II, chap. 2.
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EXPLANATION.
EXEMPLIFICATrON is often necessary, and almost always
useful, in the work of explanation. The common mind
does not readily apprehend general definitions, expressed
in abstract terms; and even to the most cultivated thinkers
an idea will become more vivid and interesting, when there
is added to a precise definition some apposite example. It
would be difficult to present to a popular audience a clear
distinction between pride and vanity, in the way of definition; but by supposing certain circumstances, and showing
how the proud man would act, and how the vain man, in
such a case, or by taking up some particular action of a
well-known character, and inquiring whether the motive
here was pride or vanity, we may speedily make the difference plain. So instead of undertaking to explain faith,
one may describe a believer; or in addition to stating in
general terms what will make a Christian happy, may give
an ideal portraiture of a Christian who was happy.* And
still more useful are examples from real life. Every preacher
turns to account in this way his observation of life, and
some do so with very great effectiveness. But besides what
we have personally observed, we have the wide fields of
history, and especially of Scripture history, from which to
derive examples.   In selecting those to  be  used, the
preacher must inquire not only what is most apposite, but
what will be most intelligible and interesting to the particular audience, and what he himself can most effectively
handle. Historical examples which would thrill one congregation, will make but little impression on another, not
being familialr to them, or not linked to them by any ties
of sympathy. In this, as in most respects, examples from
Bible history are the best.  They are more generally
familiar than most others, and if any time be consumed in
bringing the example vividly before the hearers, it is time
* Interesting and instructive examples of this kind may be found
in Jeter's "Christian Mirror."  New York, Sheldon & Co.
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well spent, because it promotes general acquaintance with
the Scriptures.*
Among the commonest and most useful means of explanation, is COMPARISON. With this may be classed Contrast, and also Analogy, which depends on a resemblance,
not in objects themselves, but in their respective relations to
certain other objects. Analogy, however, is more frequently
employed for the purpose of proof, and will be considered
in the next chapter.  Contrast needs no special remark.t
The great mass of our Lord's Parables are comparisons.
"The kingdom of heaven is like," etc.  "Unto what shall
we liken this generation?"  Some of them are thrown into
the form of narrative; but others are mere statements of
comparison, and he uses many striking comparisons which
are never called parables. The comparison of his coming
to that of a thief (Matt. 24: 43-4) is an instructive example of the fact that comparison is all the more striking
where we have one point of resemblance between objects or
events in other respects very different. Several of the parables are rather cases of Exemplification than of Comparison; as, for instance, the Rich Man preparing to take his
ease, the Pharisee and the Publican, the Good Samaritan.
Many of them are introduced for other purposes in addition
to that of explanation. But they are chiefly comparisons,
and are mainly used to explain. They thus impressively
exhibit to us the importance of explanation, and the value
of comparison as a means of effecting it. The same high
example reminds us how desirable it is to derive our comparisons from matters familiar to our hearers.1
* Comp. Vinet, p. 167, and see below on Illustration, chap. 7.
t See Day's Art of Discourse, p. 104-9.
1 See further on Illustration, chap. 7.
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CHAPTER VI.
ARGUMENT.
IMPORTANCE OF ARGUMENT IN PREACHING.  ~ 1. PRELIMINARIES TO
ARGUMENT-BURDEN OF PROOF, ETC.  ~ 2 PRINCIPAL VARIETIES
OF ARGUMENT. A. A PRIORI. B. FROM TESTIMONY. C. INDUC TION. D. FROM ANALOGY. E. DEDUCTION FROM ESTABLISHED
TRUTHS. F. CERTAIN FORMS OF ARGUMENT. ~ 3. REFUTATION.
Q 4. ORDER OF ARGUMENTS. ~ 5. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS AS TO
ARGUMENT.
A RGUMENT, in the logical, and at the same time
popular, sense of the term, forms a very large and
very important department of the materials of preaching.
There are preachers, it is true, who seem to consider that
they have no occasion for reasoning, that everything is to
be accomplished by authoritative assertion and impassioned
appeal. And this notion is not new; for we find Aristotle
complaining that previous writers on Rhetoric had concerned themselves only with the means of persuasion by
appeals to feeling and prejudice. But preachers really
have great use for argument. There are many gainsayers
and doubters to be convinced, both as regards the truth of
Christianity, and the truth of what we represent to be its
teachings. There are many who in both respects believe,
but whose religious affections and activity might be not a
little quickened by convincing and impressive proofs that
these things are so.  "Even in the cases in which reasoning seems superfluous, it may be greatly useful, since its
object is not so much to prove what is not yet believed, as
to fill the mind with the evidence, and if we may so speak,
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to multiply the brightness of truth." * And besides, there
is in Christian countries a multitude of people who say
they believe, because they do not disbelieve or question,
whose minds remain in a negative state towards the gospel,
which is often the most fatal form of unbelief. Argument,
as to the truth and value and claims of the gospel, as to
the peril and guilt of their position, is one of the means by
which we must strive to bring them, through the special
blessing of the Spirit, into some real, some operative belief.
"Argument is also often useful in arousing the feelings.
The mind becomes interested in a truth which is capable
of clear proof...... The most successful preachers, as
instruments of producing immediate conversion, the most
successful revival preachers, are often at first severely argumentative. They thus gain power to bear down upon the
conscience and heart." t
Men delight in argument-not in its forms, but in its
reality. You will see a light in the faces of unlettered
rustics, when an argument drawn from matters within their
range of thought or suited to their taste, is presented in
terms so plain, so vigorous, so interesting, that they take
hold of it with ease, and feel all its force and impressiveness. Some forms of error, which exalt the intellectual at
the expense of the spiritual, gain much acceptance, particularly with a certain class of minds, by the argumentative garb in which they appear. The teachers of these
errors come to men accustomed to a sleepy acquiescence in
truths which they have never heard vigorously discussed,
bring their powers of argument into agreeable exercise,
and they are won. Even those who maintain sound doctrine, sometimes support it by very unsound reasoning,
and thereby leave the way open for some shrewd opponent
to overthrow their arguments, and thus appear to overthrow their doctrine.
*Vinet, p. 176.   -              Hoppin, p. 166.
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ARGUMENT.
Every preacher, then, ought to develop and discipline
his powers in respect to argument. If averse to reasoning,
he should constrain himself to practise it; if by nature
strongly inclined that way, he must remember the serious}
danger of deceiving himself and others by false arguments.
One who has not carefully studied some good treatise of
Logic, should take the earliest opportunity to do so. It
will render his mind sharper to detect fallacy, in others or
in himself, and will help to establish him in the habit of
reasoning soundly. The fact that, as so often sneeringly
remarked, "preachers are never replied to," should make
it a point of honor with preachers not to mislead their
hearers by bad logic, and should render them exceedingly
solicitous to avoid those self-deceptions, which they have
no keen opponent to reveal. Well-conducted debatingsocieties, prolonged argument with a friend in private conversation, and sometimes newspaper discussions, are found
by various preachers to be a valuable discipline in this
respect. But one must constantly remind himself to argue
for truth rather than for victory, and as a rule never to
maintain a proposition which he does not really believe.
The delicate perception of truth, and the enthusiastic love
for it, will inevitably be impaired by a contrary course.
Yet in preaching we need not act as if everything had
to be proved.  Some things cannot be proved; some do not
need to be, and others have been sufficiently proved before,
and should now be taken for granted. Elaborate argument
which is not called for, will only awaken doubt, or lead to
weariness and disgust. We may usually assume the truth
of Scripture.* And as to whatever the Scriptures plainly
teach, while we must sometimes argue, it is often true, as
Spurgeon has said, that the preacher should "dogmatize."
"The accent of true authority is welcome to almost every
one. WVe are prepossessed in favor of men who, in this
* Comp. chap. 8, ~ 1, Doctrinal Subjects.
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world of uncertainty and perplexity, express themselves
on a grave subject with confidence a.nd command......
The person of preachers is nothing, their message is the
whole; and not for their person, but for their message, do
they claim respect; but they would be as culpable not to
demand this respect for the divine thought of which they
are the depositaries, as they would be foolish and ridiculous
to demand it for their own thoughts."* But the right to
speak with such authority will be acknowledged, among
Protestants, only where the preacher shows himself able to
prove, whenever it is appropriate, all that he maintains.
Argument in preaching has one peculiarity. There is a
great authority, the Word of God, whose plain utterances
upon any question must be held by the preacher as decisive
and final. This is proof without arguing in the narrow
sense. Somewhat similarly do all men prove by the direct
appeal to consciousness; "you know that so and so is true,"
will in some cases settle the question. So, too, we frequently
appeal to common sense; though it should be noticed that
men often put forward as a judgment of common sense
what is only some opinion of their own, some conclusion
reached by a process of reasoning, but so obscure as to
escape their consciousness and thus hide its fallacies from
their view. But the Scriptures furnish a standard of final
appeal having a far more frequent and extensive applica   tion. This does not at all enable us to dispense with argu   ment. We have sometimes to prove that the Scriptures are
such a standard; and to show what the various passages
of Scripture teach on a subject, often requires not merely
exposition but argument. Many truths have to be estab   lished partly by argument on other grounds, reinforced and
confirmed by indirect teachings of the Bible; and it is
gratifying to believers, and demanded by unbelievers, that
we should, wherever it is possible, exhibit the concurrence
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*Vinet, p. 228-9.
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ARGUMENT.
of reason and experience with the teachings of revelation.
Thus we have constant need of argument. But in all our
reasoning, care should be taken to treat the authority of
Scripture as paramount, and wherever its utterances are
distinct and unquestionable, as decisive.*
~ 1. PRELIMINARIES TO ARGUMENT.t
There are several questions which require to be considered, if at all, at the outset of an argument, and which
are here thrown together under the head of preliminaries.
1. Shall the proposition be stated at the beginning? It
should certainly be very clear to the speaker's own mind.
To argue about one does not exactly know what, is idle,
and in many ways hurtful. As a general thing, it should
be distinctly stated to the audience. If the subject be one
very difficult for the common mind to grasp, it may be
better to present it in parts, to give first the several arguments which will elucidate as well as establish the proposition, and then state it in conclusion. Or if there be a
known unwillingness to hear the subject discussed, or a
strong prejudice against the proposition to be established,
it may be best to withhold the enunciation of the proposition. Even here, however, it will often be better to speak
out frankly and boldly.  Men always dislike to be caught
unawares, and are especially intolerant of this on the part
of a preacher, in whom logical strategy can be so readily
* See below, ~ 2, B, E, and also ~ 4, Order of Arguments.
t In this chapter much use is made of Whately, whose discussion
of Arguments is the most valuable part of his work on Rhetoric,
and unequalled by other treatises. Some things have also been
drawn directly from Aristotle, and from a variety of writers, as
acknowledged in detail. The chapter contains a good deal which is
not found in Whately, or which differs widely from his views. The
attempt is made to arrange the subject in a simpler and more practical way than has been met with in existing works.
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stigmatized as uncandid. And the preacher must always
avoid as far as possible the appearance of being the antagonist of his hearers; his designs are friendly and he wishes
no concealment. Only therefore in case of violent repugnance or extreme prejudice, or for some other special reason, will it be judicious for a preacher to keep back the
statement of his proposition.*
In stating the proposition, or any division of it, and in
the whole conduct of an argument, great pains should
be taken to avoid ambiguous terms, or if such must be
employed, to limit their meaning by the connection, or
distinctly define them. Every one has observed how important it is, in public or private discussion between two
parties, that they shall understand the leading terms of the
question alike; every one has seen some long dispute turn
out to have been merely a dispute about words. But
though less obvious, the danger of this is just as great
where a man is to argue without reply; nay greater,
because conflict is apt to develop, sooner or later, the difference as to the meaning of terms, while the unanswered
reasoner may continue to the end confused and misled by
obscure, indefinite or ambiguous words, or utterly misapprehended by hearers who understand those words differently. The following terms, for example, frequently
occur in religious argument, and very often embarrass and
mislead by their ambiguity, viz. necessary, possible and
impossible, reason, right and righteousness, good and evil,
law, nature, person, church.t
2. Burden of proof.  On this subject, certain very
erroneous views have lately obtained currency, from a
confusion of two different senses of an ambiguous term.
* Comp. Day's Art of Discourse, p. 117; Vinet, p. 180.
t Most of these are explained in the Appendix to Whately's
Logic, though not all in a satisfactory manner.
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It is obviously very important, at the outset of any discussion, to perceive clearly, and make clear to the hearers,
on which side lies the o)us probaitdi, i.e. burdlen of proof.
Now it is a principle generally acknowledged, and evidently correct, that n?o man is under obligation to prove
a negative. The reasons for this are manifest. Any proposition which depends on proof, is true only when it is
proven, for until then it depends on nothing, has no support. WVhy require a man to knock down what has not
yet been set up? And then to prove a negative would
often require impossible knowledge. John Foster has
pointed out that tlhe atheist who not merely denies that
there is a God, but asserts that there is no God, must have
infinite knowledge in order to make sure of his assertion,
for otherwise, somewhere beyond the bounds of his knowledge might be proof that there is a God; that is to say, in
respect of knowledge he must himself be God. Something
similar would be true in most cases of the attempt to prove
a negative. It would demand more than finite knowledge,
more than human powers. To prove a negative, then, is
often impossible, and never fairly required. "He who
alleges must prove...... And the stress is to be laid on
the fact of alleging or affirming, not on the form of the
proposition itself as affirmative or negative...... If the
allegation be in the negative form, it does not shift the
burden of proof..... He who makes an allegation puts
into being a statement that did not exist before.  He is
properly called upon to account for it -prove it and thus
make it a truth." *
The burden of proving, then, rests on him who alleges;
his allegation is nothing until proven, and until some proof
be adduced by him, the opponent has nothing to do.  When
proof is adduced, the opponent examnines how far it is valid
and conclusive, still acting only on the defensive. If in
* Day, p. 158.
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addition he presents an objection, he must (unless it be perfectly evident) prove the objection to be real, anid applicable; he alleges here, and he must prove. So the principle
stands unaltered, and appears to be unalterable and universal-he who alleges must prove; no man is under obligattion to prove a negative.
But Whately and some others introduce the word presuYnption, and assert that the burden of proof always lies
on the side opposite to that which has the presumption in
its favor.* In order to maintain this to be true, presumption is defined as follows: "According to the most correct
use of the term, a'Presumption' in favor of any supposition means, not (as has been sometimes erroneously imagined) a preponderance of probability in its favor, but such
a preoccupatiot of the ground, as implies that it must stand
good till some sufficient reason is adduced against it; in
short, that the Burden of Proof lies on the side of him
who  would  dispute  it."  By  this  definition, Whately
assumes what he ought to have proven; and in every question in which we should in any setse say that the presumption is in favor of one side, he assumes that the burden of
proof rests on the other side. If presumption ever denotes
such a preoccupation of the ground, it certainly does not
always, nor commonly. A presumption in favor of any
proposition is, in the most general statement, something
which inclines us to believe it true before examining the
proof, or independently of the proof. This presumption
may be slight, or it may be strong. There may be a strong
presumption in favor of some accusation, as that Nero
burnt Rome, growing out of the known character of the
person accused; yet this does not shift the burden of proof
to him; it remains on the accuser as much as ever, though
this presumption reinforces his proof, in fact would be made
a part of his proof. The presumption may be on either
* Whately, p. 139; Day, p. 156.
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side, or on neither, without altering the burden of proof
at all. Thus it becomes clear that Whately's definition is
at least not universally correct; indeed, he himself does
not claim that it applies to the general use, but only to
"the most correct use of the term." And so it assuredly
is not true as a general proposition, that "the burden of
proof always rests on the side opposite to that in favor of
which the presumption exists." *
But there are some uses of the term presumption in which
at first sight this correlation appears to exist. "Thus, it
is a well-known principle of the Law, that every man (including a prisoner brought up for trial) is to be presulmed
innocent till his guilt is established. This does not, of
course, mean that we are to take for granted he is innocent;
for if that were the case, hlie would be entitled to immediate
liberation: nor does it mean that it is antecedently miore
likely than not that he is innocent; or, that the majority of
those brought to trial are so. It evidently means only that
the' burden of proof' lies with the accusers; -  that he is
not to be called to prove his innocence, or to be dealt with
as a criminal till he has done so." t Now it is a peculiarity
of Law, that it confines its view to things proven. The
judge and the jury may be well satisfied in their own minds
that the accused is guilty, but they cannot convict unless
the guilt be proven. They must confine themselves to the
evidence. They must approach the examination of the
evidence without prejudgment, and without being affected
by any presumption (in the ordinary sense of the term),
whether for or against the prisoner, without considering
whether his guilt or innocence is "antecedently more
likely;" accordingly, the effort is made to obtain a jury
who have not formed any opinion on the question. Since,
then, all presumption on other grounds is in law excluded, and everything but proof is to be ignored, it follows
t Whately, p. 139.
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that law admits but one presumption, viz. that the man is
innocent; and this presumption must be made in all cases,
because the man is innocent, so far as the law has to do
with him, until proof be brought of his guilt. Antecedent to
proof, or independent of proof, there can be but the one view
of the question. So the fact that in this legal usage the
presumption and the burden of proof lie on opposite sides,
does not spring from any general relation to that effect
between the two, but grows out of the restriction of legal
decisions to proof, and the consequent exclusion of every
presumption but that of innocence. And even in this very
peculiar and restricted sense, to say "that every man is to
be presumed innocent until his guilt is established," does
not "mean only," or in strictness of speech meaa? at all,
"that the burden of proof lies with the accusers;" it means
that every other presumption must be excluded, and this
one alone admitted, because nothing but proof is to be
taken into account.
A somewhat similar technical restriction has place when
we say that there is in law a "presumption" in favor of
those who hold property in possession.  This means, we are
told, "that no man is to be disturbed in his possessions till
some claim against him shall be established." * The burden of proof lies on the other claimant. Now apart from
legal provisions, possession does ill most cases afford a logical presumption, antecedent to proof; in favor of the poss,ssor's right; though not in all cases.  But the law, as a
measure of expediency, to promote order and security,
declares that the legal presumption shall always be in favor
of the possessor. This is usually in accordance with right,
and as the law must have general rules, this is the best
general rule. The logical presumption may sometimes be
in favor of the new claimant, on whom the burden of proof
lies, but the legal presumption is made to be always against
*Whately, p. 140.
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ARGUMENT.
him. Indeed the law sometimes goes farther, and provides
that possession for a certain number of years shall be held
to establish right, and cannot afterwards be disturbed; this
also being best as a general rule, though sometimes working
great injustice. In the second case, then, as well as ill the
former, the "presumption" is made to fall oil the opposite
side to that on which the "burden of proof" lies, not by
any natural and general relation between them, but by
the peculiar character and provisions of law.
Again. "There is a Presumption in favor of every existiig institution. Many of these (we will suppose, the
majority) may be susceptible of alteration for the better;but still the'Burden of Proof' lies with him who proposes
an alteration; simply on the ground that since a change is
not a good in itself, he who demands a change should show
cause for it. No one is called on (though he may find it
advisable) to defend an existing institution, till some argumeut is adduced against it; and that argument ought in
fairness to prove, not merely an actual inconvenience, but
the possibility of a change for the better." *
As in the former cases the general logical and the legal
presumption were confounded, so here there is a confusion
of logical with what might be called practical presumption.
It is practically best to retain existing institutions until
they are proven to be inconvenient, and until there is also
shown the possibility of a change for the better. But this
aversion to change, and practical preference for things as
they are, even to the extent of bearing known ills until we
see clearly how to do better, is a very different matter from
a logical presumption that existing arrangements are right
and good.
There are really two questions, if we begin to argue
about an existing institution. First, is this institution
right and good?  Here the presumption may be either
*Whately, p. 141.
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ARGUMENT.
way; the burden of proof is on him who alleges that it is
right and good. There is commonly one ground of presumf,tion in favor of any existing, and especially any
long-continued institution, namely, that men are likely to
have had good reasons for establishing and maintaining it.
But this is often greatly weakened by the well-known selfishness and folly of mankind, and sometimes is completely
destroyed, or thrown on the other side, by the obvious fact
that here men have only been submitting to what they were
hitherto unable to prevent. Various other grounds of presumption there may be, for or against the institution, but
whatever and wherever the presumption, the burden of
proof, in discussing the excellence of the institution, is on
him who affirms its excellence.  He may declare himself
content, and refuse to argue the question, submitting to
the inevitable charge that he is afraid of the light. But if
he consents to argue at all, the burden of proof is on him.
And this applies to the question of the truth of Christianity. Whately says that the burden of proof was at
first on the advocates of Christianity, but is now on its
opponents, because there is a presumption in favor of it as
an existing institution.* Such a presumption there is in
favor of Christianity, although there is in this respect an
equal, if not greater presumption in favor of several other
religions; but the moment a man consents to discuss the
truth of Christianity, the burden of proof is still on him
who alleges it to be true. The other side cannot be required to prove a negative.
The second question is, Should this existing institution
be maintained?  If the former question has been clearly
decided in the affirmative, there will still be room to inquire
whether something else would not be equally right, and
better in its results. And if the institution (for example,
a form of government, benevolent organization, or usage
* Whately, p. 143.
169
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ARGUMENT.
of society) is not altogether good, or even not certainly
right, it may still be best to retain it, at least for the present, until we see our way to something more satisfactory.
The two questions, then, are entirely distinct, and should
not be confounded. And what was called above a practical
presumption, is thus seen to be really a logical presumption, but with reference to a distinct and directly practical
question.
These considerations will explain another case. "It
should be also remarked under this head, that in any one
question the Presumption will often be found to lie on different sides, in respect of different parties.  E.g. In the
questions between a member of the Church of England,
and a Presbyterian, or member of any other Church, on
which side does the Presumption lie? Evidently, to each,
in favor of the religious community to which he at present
belongs. He is not to separate from the Church of which
he is a member, without having some sufficient reason to
allege." * According to the author's view, the burden of
proof would then be properly thrown by each upon the
other, and there could be no discussion. But two questions are confounded. In the practical question whether a
man shall leave his church, the presumption is in favor of
remaining, till sufficient reason for leaving be presented
by others, or ascertained by himself. Meantime, it is a
man's duty to examine the grounds of his opinion and
practice, in this and in other important matters, as rapidly
and thoroughly as his opportunities will permit. But in
the other question, which church is in the right, if the
two consent to argue it, the burden of proof is on each in
behalf of his own. He who in the argument alleges a
particular church to be in the right must bring proof that
it is.  If the other adduces objections t- this churcL, he
list bring proof that his objections are vell-founded, but
* Whatly, p. 145.
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this does not shift the burden of proof as regards the question.
Whately also applies his theory that there is- a presumption in favor of existing institutions (without distinguishing the questions involved), and that a presumption in
favor of one side throws the burden of proof on the other,
to Episcopacy and to Infant-baptism. The latter, for example, as an existing practice, was merely retained by the
Church of England, "considering the burden to lie on
those who denied its existence in the primitive church, to
show when it did arise."  Of course one will continue to
practise as he has done, till he sees cause to do otherwise.
If he refuses to discuss or examine the propriety of the practice, taking it for granted that all the opinions and usages
in which he has been reared are correct, unless some one
will assume the task of proving that they are not (proving
a negative), then upon that principle all mankind may
remain in all respects stationary. If he consents to argue,
or personally to examine, its propriety, then the burden of
proof is upon him who alleges that it is proper, and upon
the objector only as regards his objections. So the presumption in favor of retaining at present, differs from a
presumption that the practice is right; and the latter exists
here only so far as we may believe that men have introduced no changes of Christian usage since the apostolic
day. As to this slender presumption, those who deny the
existence of infant-baptismn in the primitive church, have
no nieed, in order to meet the presumption, to "show when
it did arise," but only, as the author says just before on a
similar question, to "point out some conceivable wsay in
which it might have arisen."  Besides, infant-baptisii does
not present itself as a human institution, which it might be
pre,,sied men had good reasons for establishing, but as a
divine institution, of which, as Whately says just after on
aI)other q(t stionI, "the fair presuomptioni is, that we shall find
171 
ARGUMENT.
all such distinctly declared in Scripture."  The absence
of such a distinct declaration of Scripture in favor of
infant-baptism, creates a presumption against it as a divine
institution. But none of the presumptions alter the burden of proof. In the question whether it is right for a man
to continue the practice to which he has been reared until
he gains more light, the presumption is in favor; in the
question whether something not distinctly taught in Scripture be a divine institution, the presumption is against; in
both questions alike, the burden of proof is on him who
alleges.  The other side is not bound to prove a negative.
The argument as to Episcopacy is very much the same.
Is it not now plain that there is no such correlation
between presumption and burden of proof as some have
imagined? A presumption in favor of one side does not
throw the burden of proof on the other. The cases supposed to establish that it does, are either cases in which the
presumption is restricted by the character and provisions
of law, or in which two questions are confounded, the burden of proof standing opposed to the presumption in one
of the questions, and being therefore assumed as doing so
in the other. The presumption as to a question may be on
either side, according to the nature of things or the circumstances of the case; there may be, on different grounds,
presumption on both sides; but the burden of proof is
always on him who alleges.*
An instructive example as to the burden of proof is
afforded by the argument with Romanists.  They say,
Christ promised to his Church continuous existence; the
*Ini this discussion some help has been derived from the able
work of Carson on Baptism, chap. 1, in which there is a review of
Whately on this subject. If it be said that Carson and the present
writer are biassed in their views of the general question by its bearings upon Episcopacy, Infant-baptism, etc., there is equal reason to
susi ect the same thing in the case of Archbishop Whately.
\
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ARGUMENT.
Church of Rome has had continuous existence; therefore
it is Christ's Church. Here the burden of proof is upon
the Romanist to show that no other Church has had continuous existence; he must prove that the Greek Church,
the Church of England, the Reformed Churches of the
continent, the Baptists, etc., have not existed continuously
from the beginning. We are not thus demanding of a
man that he shall prove a negative, but only pointing out
that the Romanist's own argument requires him to do so,
and is worthless if he does not. The others say to him,
Well, prove that we have not had continuity. But if
either of these others maintains, whether for the purpose
of a like argument or for any other purpose, that it has
had continuous existence, then on it rests the burden of
proof.
3. Indirect proof.
Instead of direct proof that the proposition is true, we
sometimes adopt the indirect method, viz. by showing
that the contrary supposition would lead to something
known to be untrue, or in itself absurd (reductio ad absurdumn). This plan is very often pursued in Geometry,
where only one or two other suppositions would be possible. But in moral reasoning this does not often happen,
and hence the reductio ad absurdum is for us chiefly important in Refutation.*
~ 2. PRINCIPAL VARIETIES OF ARGUMENT.
It is not proposed to begin with a formal analysis and
classification of arguments, but to explain the nature and
use of the leading varieties; it will afterwards be easy to
show the place which these hold in a complete classification.
A. Arguments a priori.
The phrase a priori has come to be so variously applied
* See below, ~ 2, F.
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ARGUMENT.
and loosely used, that some propose to abandon it. Yet
it is of constant occurrence, particularly in theological and
philosophical discussions, and no fit substitute has been
suggested. It seems desirable, therefore, to state distinctly
the different senses in which the phrase is employed, showing which are legitimate and which unwarrantable, and in
what cases there is special necessity for care.
To argue a priori is literally to argue from something
prior to something posterior; a movement in the opposite
direction being denoted by a posteriori.
1. It was originally used by logical writers, and is still
chiefly used, to denote an argument from cause to effect.
It is thus, of course, applicable to any case of proper physical causes, but is chiefly applied to argument from a
necessary principle, such as ex nihilo nihilfit (out of nothing
nothing is made). This species of argument was formerly
employed on a very large scale for the ascertainment of
physical phenomena and laws. Some principle was laid
down, regarded as necessary and universal, and from this
it was argued that the facts of existence must be so and so.
But modern science, founded on observation, has shown
that some of the supposed necessary principles are not
true, or not universal. E. g. Two centuries ago it was a
maxim universally admitted that "a body cannot act
where it is not." This was used in an a priori argument
against the theory of gravitation; the sun cannot possibly
act upon the earth, because it is not there. Newton himself admitted the force of this, saying in a letter, "That
one body should act on another at a distance, through a
vacuum, without the mediation of anything else by and
through which their action and force m,y be conveyed
from one to another, is to me so great an absurdity, that I
believe no man who in philosophical matters has a competent faculty of thinking, can ever fall into it." Accordingly he imagined a subtle ether filling the space between
174 
AtRGUMENT.
the sun and earth, and by its contact with both, rendering
it possible that one-should act on the other.* At the present day all this occasions no difficulty, and the language
of the great philosopher provokes a smile. Such facts
should not lead us, as some have been led, to reject all arguments from necessary principles, but should make us very
careful in using them.
The conclusion from an a priori argument (supposing it
logically conducted) will be certain, if on the one hand the
supposed cause is a real one, and on the other hand, there
is nothing to interfere with its operation; but if the reality
of the cause (or necessary principle) be subject to question,
or its operations be liable to interference, then the conclusion is only more or less probable. There is an apriori
argument for the existence of God,t which begins thus:
"Positive existence is possible, for it involves no contradiction."   Here  the "first principle" assumed is, that
whatever involves no contradiction is possible, and this is
repeatedly appealed to, in the course of the argument.
Then after pointing out that possible existence must be
either necessary or contingent, the position is taken that
some existence is necessary, for otherwise all existence
would be impossible. And then by a series of abstract
arguments, the conclusion is reached, that there is one
necessarily existent Being, the cause of all other existence
besides himself, and that he is eternal, infinite, etc. Now
supposing the successive steps of this argument to be logical, the conclusion will be certain if the principle started
from is certain. When in proving that we have a Revelation, it is first argued a priori from the character of God
and the condition of man that a revelation was  to be
expected, this is only a probable argument, for we do not,
apart from revelation, sufficiently understand the character
* See Mill's Logic, Book V, chap. 3, ~ 3.
t See Pye Smith's Theology, p. 99.
175 
ARGUMENT.
of God to infer with certainty that it would lead him to
give a revelation to creatures in such a condition.
The name a priori is inaccurately applied to some arguments which really begin with facts of observation (and
are so far a posteriori), but which afterwards pursue a
chain of abstract reasoning upon what these necessarily
involve. Such was Samuel Clarke's argument for the existence of God, which is constantly called an a priori argument because it introduces certain supposed necessary
principles, and reasons for the most part abstractly, and
yet (as Hamilton has remarked *) in fact begins with a
matter of observation, viz. "we are sure that something
does exist."t
2. The use of the phrase has been gradually extended
to include argument from what appears to us a general
principle - not asserted as a necessary principle, but one
which is believed to hold true in all cases. Unless such a
supposed general principle necessitates a certain result,
that result cannot be inferred from it as an argument a
priori. The principle is in that case only a generalized
fact, like the generalizations of Natural History, informing
us what regularly is, not in any sense causing it to be so.
But in this unwarranted direction the use of the phrase is
sometimes carried very far.  Men attempt to dignify as an
argument apriori, or, as they sometimes call it, an argument from general principles, what is really an argument
from some arbitrary preconception, prejudice, fanciful
theory, or mere opinion, of their own. And some appear
to think that any argument which looks general, or abstract, may be called an argument a priori. We must
then look out for loose applications of the phrase on the
* Hamilton, ed. of Reid, p. 762: Fleming, Vocab. of Philosophly,
p. 42.
t See the statement of the argument in Pye Smith's Theology, p.
101.
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ARGUMENT.
part of others, and carefully confine ourselves to the legitimate use.
3. The attempt has been made to give to argument a
priori another distinct sense, viz. the argument from a
substance to its attributes.* Thus, John is a man, therefore he possesses intelligence, will, conscience, a bodily
organization, etc.  But this is called an argument a priori
only by overlooking a distinction. John is a man, therefore he will act conscientiously, is an argument a priori,
because it means that there is something in the constitution of man which leads him to act conscientiously; it is
really an argument from cause to effect- with only a probable conclusion, because other causes so often interfere
with the operation of man's conscience. But to say, John
is a man, therefore he has a conscience, is only an argument from general to particular, only bringing out one of
the particulars which go to make up the general. This is
not in any sense an argument from something prior, for
being a man is not prior to having a conscience, but
includes it. The argument, John is mortal, for he is a
man,t is somewhat ambiguous. Taken strictly, it infers
the attribute mortality, and is thus simply a common
deduction of particular from general. But understand it
to mean, John will die, for he is a man, and you have an
argument a priori, which, again, is really from cause to
effect-there is that in a man which will cause him to die.
So if the term law is employed. When law denotes
"merely a general fact," as, It is the law of material
bodies that they gravitate, and we deduce any particular
fact from the general one, the deduction is by no means an
argument a priori. If it were meant that material bodies
have that in their constitution which causes them to gravitate, then you could take the case of any particular
material body, and infer, a priori, that it will gravitate.
* Day, p. 128-33
177
t Day, p. 129. 
ARGUMENT.
This confusion of law as the statement of a general fact,
with law as denoting that which causes, or somehow necessitates facts, has led to much false reasoning in recent
works, particularly in discussions of Divine Providence.*
So then, to infer the attribute from the substance is not
an a priori argument. In the cases which seem to be such
it is really an inference of the result from the constitution,
which is the effect from the cause. This is what Vinet is
evidently thinking of when he says, "Proof a priori, which
proves the fact from its cause or its nature...... I prove
a priori, that lying is offensive to God, because he is a God
of truth." t The argument is, that there is that in God's
nature, as a God of truth, which must render lying offensive to him; and this is really an argument from cause to
effect. The remark may be added, that a priori argument
from the Nature of God, must be employed with great care.
God will always act consistently with his nature, and so
conclusions might here be drawn with certainty, but for
the fact that we so imperfectly understand the Divine
Nature, and the relations thereto of particular lines of
conduct.'God is just, therefore he will give all men an
equal chance of salvation,'' God is good, therefore he will
finally save all men,' are conclusions which the angel
Gabriel would feel himself too ignorant to draw.
4. There is a peculiar use of a priori in some modern
philosophical works. Kant applied the phrase "knowledge
a priori," to denote knowledge possessed by the mind prior
to all that it derives from experience; and then knowledge
which is derived from, comes after experience, is called
knowledge a posteriori.1 A pair of antithetical phrases
* See M'Cosh on the Divine Government.
t Vinet, p. 180. The expression (perhaps due to the student
whose notes are followed),'its nature,' tends to confuse; but the
examples show what is meant.
I See Fleming, Vocabulary of Philosophy, p. 42-3, a useful book
178 
ARGUMENT.
will of course admit of being turned towards different
points of the compass, provided they are kept opposite to
each other.* Kant's use of these two phrases, which he
distinctly defined, has been followed by some subsequent
writers. Let it be understood, then, by the student, that
the expressions, a priori knowledge, a priori truths, etc.,
mnean something entirely different from a priori argument.
We may indeed argue a priori from what these writers
would call an a priori truth (e.g. every effect must have
a cause), and here there is a point of apparent contact
between the two senses of the phrase, but they are altogether different.
An argument a priori has been thus shown to be, in all
legitimate uses of the phrase, an argument from cause to
effect; whether it be from a proper physical cause, or from
something in the general nature of things which necessitates
a certain result, or from some thing in the nature of a particular object or person which tends to produce a certain
result.
With reference to the employment of arguments, whether
a priori or not, bearing upon the relations of cause and
effect, there are ambiguities in the familiar use of language,
which render necessary two distinctions. First, we must
distinguish between logical and physical sequence. E. g.
"With many of them God was not well-pleased; for they
were overthrown in the wilderness." The fact that God
was not well-pleased with them is the logical consequent of
their overthrow, being proved from it; but is, so to speak,
the physical antecedent, being the cause of it. These two
* For example, the terms analytic and synthetic are employed by
Vinet (p. 180), and Potter (Sacred Eloquence, p. 149), in diametrically opposite ways with reference to the same things; and each
use can be justified, depending on the way in which the matter is
regarded. Day (p. 122) has a third use, quite different from either,
on a kindred topic.
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ARGUMENT.
kinds of sequence are very often confounded, and very
liable to be, from the fact that we use the same terms,'for,'
'because,''therefore,'' consequently,' etc. to denote both;
yet they may coincide, or be opposed to each other, or may
exist separately.  Particularly frequens the error of presenting that as the cause of something, which is only the
proof of it.* Secondly, it is important to distinguish between
cause and occasion. The inebriate says to the liquor-seller,
or to his boon companion, "You are the cause of my getting drunk," when these were but the occasion, and the
cause was his appetite. To remove some of the occasions
for any kind of vicious indulgence, will be likely to lessen
the evil, but we must not imagine that this is removing the
cause.
B. Arguments from testimony.
It would be convenient if the words testimony and
authority could be kept entirely distinct, the former applied only to matters of fact, and the latter only to matters of judgment and opinion.t Yet common usage sometimes confounds these terms, even as men are so apt not
to distinguish facts from their own judgments concerning
them.1 In the alleged "spiritual manifestations" of which
we now hear so much, there is unquestionable testimony
that tables rise and move, without the application of any
apparent and adequate physical force, that certain peculiar
rapping sounds are heard, etc., and upon the testimony
these matters of fact should be without hesitation admitted.
But what causes these movements and sounds, whether
some unknown physical force, or some unknown spiritual
agency, is purely matter of opinion. Those who have most
irequently witnessed the phenomena, are not thereby the
best prepared to judge of their cause; while the supposed
*See more in Whately, p. 75 if.
t Day, p. 138, asserts such a distinction as if it were absolute.
I See Whately, p. 79-83.
180
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ARGUMENT.
interpretation of the rapping noises, and the correspondence
of such interpretations with facts otherwise known, are
matters which open a wide door for all manner of selfdelusions and impostures. We must accustom our'selves,
and educate the people, to distinguish more carefully than
is common between testimony as to matters of fact, and
mere judgments, opinions, and hypotheses as to their explanation.
It is not appropriate here to discuss the general subject
of testimony, as bearing upon the administration of justice.
And yet a minister does well to consider carefully the rules
of evidence in the courts of justice, endeavoring, in every
case, to find the principle involved, that he may apply it,
with the necessary adaptations, to the matters with which
he is concerned. Those parts of the subject with which
the preacher frequently has to deal, will be briefly treated.
(1.) In testimony as to matters of fact, the points to be
considered are, on the one hand, the character and number of the witnesses, and on the other, the character of the
things attested.
As to the character of the witnesses, we of course consider mainly their veracity, but also their intelligence, and
opportunities of knowing the facts. A large number of
witnesses will obviously make the evidence stronger, provided they speak each from his own knowledge, and not from
what others have told him.  When there are several such
independent witnesses, their testimony will differ as to some
points of detail. Where the details are numerous, no man
will be expected to remember and state them all; and each
will select according to what he happened to observe, what
specially commended itself to his mind, or he has had
frequent occasion since to recall, or what falls in with the
general design and drift of his statement, or is suggested,
point after point, by the natural association of ideas. If
all were to agree in the details of an extended statement,
i6
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ARGUMENT.
we should feel sure that they had in some way learned
from each other, or had all drawn from a common source.
These principles are familiar to the English and American
mind. Had the Germans been accustomed to trial by jury,
we should not have found able scholars denying the trustworthiness of the gospel narratives because of the "discrepancies" they present.  These discrepancies, nowhere
involving real contradiction, only show that the witnesses
are independent, and thus immensely strengthen their combined testimony to the substantial facts. The evidence is
also strengthened by manifestly undesigned coincidences.
A great number of such coincidences, clearly undesigned,
between minor statements in the Epistles of Paul and
in the Acts, have been exhibited by Paley, in his celebrated " Horve Pauline" (" Hours with Paul "), a work
which admirably fortifies the Christian Evidences, and
presents the most useful lessons as to the value of testimony.
And the less important in itself is the subject-matter of
such coincidences, the more certain will it be that they are
undesigned. In such a case, the lightest matters are often
the weightiest.
The unintentional testimony of adversaries is frequently
of great value. Thus the opposers of Christianity in the
early centuries, both Heathen and Jewish, in endeavoring
to account for the miracles of our Lord as wrought by
magic, have shown that they felt it impossible to deny the
reality of the occurrences.
On the other hand, there is to be considered the character of the thintgs attested.  Things in themselves improbable
will of course require more testimony in order to gain our
credence. Such is the case with miracles. Those who
take the ground that miracles are impossible, beg the questionr, and must be omniscient in order to make sure that
their position is correct. But miracles are in themselves
highly improbable. That some spiritual force should so
182 
ARGUMENT.
counteract the operation of great physical forces as for a
time to prevent their otherwise uniform results, is a thing
which we are naturally slow to believe. This improbability, however, is greatly diminished where we see important occasion for such interference, as where miracles
are wrought to authenticate a revelation.  The Christian
miracles have not only this, but another advantage. The
character and teachings of Christ are inseparably associated with miracles. He who denies the miracles denies
the supernatural origin of the character and teachings, and
must then account for these as merely human and natural,
which the ablest and most ingenious infidels, after a great
variety of attempts, have utterly failed to do. Thus the
a priori question, the question of antecedent probability, is
here reduced to this- which is more improbable, that
miracles should have been wrought, upon such occasion as
the introduction of Christianity, or that the character and
teachings of Christ should be merely human and of natural origin.
Thus the general improbability of miracles is here much
lessened by the adequate occasion, and then is more than
counterbalanced by a yet greater improbability.
Moreover, the testimony of others to our Lord's miracles
is not only strong and unquestionable in itself, but has the
unique and invincible reinforcement of our Lord's own
testimony.  Jesus professed to work miracles;  he cannot
by possibility have been deceived on the subject; and so,
either he did work miracles, or he was a bad man. Against
his character all the objections to miracles must shatter,
like surf against the rock. And this is not arguing in a
circle; not proving the miracles by Christ, and Christ by
the miracles. The concurrence of the two makes it easy
to account for both; the denial of the miracles necessitates
conclusions more improbable than the miraculous.
The testimony to our Lord's resurrection has been often
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ARG  UMbENT.
and thoroughly discussed,* and shown to be irrefragable.
It is especially strengthened by the great slowness of
belief exhibited by the disciples. "They doubted, that we
might not doubt."t
The evidence of Christian experience ought never to be
overlooked. The believer finds a change wrought ill him
which testifies to the reality and power of Christianity, and
he in turn bears witness to others that the change which
they observe in him was wrought in connection with
believing.
(2.) Matters of opinion, as distinguished from matters
of fact, might, as above remarked, be conveniently designated by the term authority. But this term is sometimes
applied to testimony as to matters of fact, especially where
it is particularly strong and convincing testimony, and is
also frequently used to denote some combination of testimoniy as to fact, and reliable judgment or opinion.
The so-called authority of the Fathers, must be differenitly regarded in different cases. As to the question which
books were of apostolic origin, they afford us testimony,though in the case of all but the earliest it is not original
but transmitted testimony,-and also the authority of their
judgment as to the weight of the entire evidence known to
them, only a part of which do they hand down to us. In
respect to such questions they are known to have been
very critical, and we may well attach great value both to
their testimony and their authority. But as to the interpretation of the sacred books, the question what Scripture
teaches, we have only their authority, their judgment.
* Mention may be made of that piquant little work, Sherlock's
,, Trial of the Witnesses," in which the evidence of the resurrection
is examined according to the forms of law.
t Some of the views here presented as to testimony, and some
others, will be found in Whately, p. 78-104.
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ARGUMENT.
Most of them were loose interpreters, and they were all
greatly influenced by philosophical opinions, prejudices of
various kinds, and especially, with rare exceptions, by an
extreme fondness for allegory. Except, then, the cases in
which familiarity with Greek, with ancient customs, and
the like, gives special weight to the opinions of a Father,
their authority as to the meaning of Scripture is not great,
and in fact not justly equal to that of some later writers.
The Scriptures themselves are an authority indeed.  All
that they testify to be fact is thereby fully proven, all that
they teach as true and right is thereby established and made
obligatory. There are some subjects on which the Bible is
our sole authority, such as the Trinity, justification by
faith, the'conditions of the future life, and the positive ordinances of Christianity, viz. baptismu and the Lord's supper.*
The Christian reasoner should seek fully to appreciate this
unparalleled authority, and should heedfully observe its
proper relation to all other means of prooft
The generally received opinions of mankind, and the
proverbs and maxims which express the collective judgment of many, have a greater or less authority according
to the nature of the case. Those, for example, which are
readily attributable to human superstitions or selfishness,
can claim but little weight. Proverbs, or what the common people call "old sayings," are very often, as it has
been remarked, but the striking expression of some half
truth, or the result of some hasty generalization, and in
many cases they can be matched by other sayings to pre cisely the opposite effect.1
In respect to the whole matter of evidence and belief
it is important to bear in mind the relation between belief
and disbelief. As regards many truths of Christianity, he
* Comp. Porter's Horn. Lect. XI.
t Comp. below, E, and also ~ 4, Order of Arguments.
I Comp. on Sources of Illustration, chap. 7, ~ 2, (5.)
16,
185 
ARGUMENT.
who disbelieves them, is thereby compelled to believe something which shall take their place. He who staggers at
the difficulties, real or alleged, which attach to the Christian evidences, must not forget the difficulties of infidelity.
We must believe something, must believe something as to
the problems of religion, and if we go away from Christ,
"to whom shall we go?" *
C. Induction.
Induction has been very simply defined as "the process
of drawing a general rule from a sufficient number of particular cases." t Finding something to be true of certain
individual objects, we conclude that the same thing is true
of the whole class to which those individuals belong, and
afterwards prove it to be true of any new object, simply
by showing that that object belongs to the same class.
Induction is, in popular usage, the commonest form of
argument, and that which oftenest involves error. Men in
general do not argue from general principles or previously
established truths, nearly so often as from examples. These
examnples they indolently observe, and without extensive
comparison or careful scrutiny, they hastily infer that what
a certain person did is right for them, that what is true of
certain individuals, or of all they happen to have noticed,
is true of all the class. When they are strongly impelled
to wish it so, as by appetite, interest, or prejudice, and thus
some powerful feeling combines with indolence, it is not
wonderful, however deplorable, that a "hasty induction"
is the result. In agriculture, or in domestic medicine, all
manner of rules are upheld and followed among the masses
of men, on the ground of imperfect observation and hasty
induction. In books of travel, universal statements are
constantly made as to the opinions, usages, and character
of a people, which are founded on a very hasty induction,
stimulated by prejudice; notable examples appearing in
* Comp. Whately, p. 102.    t Fleming, Vocab. of Phil. p. 252.
186 
ARGUMENT.
English books about America, in many of our Eastern
journals when speaking of the West, and many Northern
journals when speaking of the South; * also in the reports
of Foreign Missions made by some infidel or irreligious
travellers. From the fact that negroes have never been
highly civilized, it is confidently inferred by some that they
never can be; others observe the gratifying progress in
knowledge made in a short time by a few colored people,
and at once proclaim that they are naturally a highly
intelligent race. Certain choice specimens of what are
called "uneducated" ministers, surpass some very poor
specimens of the "educated," and this is thought to prove
that ministerial education is unnecessary; a half-educated
young preacher makes a foolish display of something he
learned at college, and this shows that education is injurious. But who could catalogue, or even broadly classify,
the instances of hasty or otherwise unwarranted induction,
which make up so sadly large a portion of human reasoning? Let us earnestly strive, as a duty to our own minds
and to our office as teachers of truth, to guard against this
fruitful source of error.
The question what is "a sufficient number of cases" to
warrant our drawing a general rule, depends upon the
nature of the subject-matter. In regard to physical facts,
a single example will sometimes suffice. "A chemist who
had ascertained, in a single specimen of gold, its capability
of combining with mercury, would not think it necessary
to try the experiment with several other specimens, but
would draw the conclusion concerning those metals univer sally and with certainty." t  But nothing like this applies
to social facts, or to moral and religious truth. The ob servation of a man's whole life, of a neighborhood through
many years, or of the entire civilized world for centuries,
has often led to false conclusions as to physical phenomena,
* And no doubt, vice versa.
187
t Whately, p. 111. 
ARGUMENT.
or as to questions of good government or social welfare. In
order to a safe induction, one must not merely aggregate a
number of instances; he must analyze and compare them,
so as to eliminate what is merely incidental, and ascertain
the "material circumstances" in each case.*  The more
clearly we can discern a causal relation, accounting for
the common element, the smaller the number of instances
necessary to establish a rule. But the cause must be a
real cause, not a mere hypothesis, not a matter having no
real connection with the result in question, nor an incidental circumstance. As an example of the last, it is frequently inferred that something found true in several cases
of conversion, will be true in all cases; but the question is,
whether this is something founded in the essential principles of human nature, or merely the result of peculiar
temperament, education, etc.
Aristotle says, "Induction, except in few instances, is not
proper to rhetoric." t As the people so commonly reason
in this way, it is natural and proper that they who speak
to the people should wish to do likewise, and especially
that sophistical or inconsiderate speakers should very often
introduce hasty inductions, which may be readily and
agreeably presented, and will be easily accepted by hearers
to whose prejudices they conform. Where a safe induction
can be briefly stated, it is eminently proper to rhetoric;
yet this will happen in comparatively "few instances."
Sometimes an induction fully and even formally stated,
will be appropriate; such occasions, however, are rare.
But in addition to proving by arguments of other kinds,
we may quite frequently present examples, cases in point,
which will not merely illustrate what we mean, but reinforce the proof by at least a probable induction. And it
is in the highest degree important that we should know
* Comp. Mill's Logic, Book V, chap. 5, ] 4.
t Ar. Rhet. II, 20, 9.
188 
ARGUMENT.
how to correct those ten thousand erroneous inductions,
whether in the arguments of other public speakers, in
newspapers and conversation, or in their own thinking, by
which the minds of our hearers are so apt to be mnisled.
D. Arguments from Analogy.
Analogy is still too often confounded with resemblance,
notwithstanding the earnest efforts of Whately and some
other writers to confine the term to its original and proper
sense. The primary meaning of the word is proportion,
and in this sense only is it employed in mathematics. It
denotes not a resemblance between objects themselves, but
a correspondence between their ratios or relations to other
objects,  The leg of a table does not much resemble the
leg of an animal, but they are analogous, because the former sustains in several respects the same relation to a table,
that the leg sustains to an animal. The foot of a mountain is analogous to that of a man, though scarcely at all
similar.  "An egg and a seed are not in themselves alike,
but bear a like relation, to the parent bird and to her future
nestling on the one hand, and to the old and young plant
on the other." * But analogous objects will frequently be
similar also, and this fact has helped to obscure to men's
minds the distinction, that being sometimes carelessly
ascribed to the resemblance which is really due to the
analogy.  Further, an analogy is often all the more striking from the fact that it exists between objects which in
some other respects are utterly unlike. First, then, failing
to see clearly the difference between analogy and resem blaniice, and observing, besides, that the former term was
often employed where there is in some respects a great dis similarity, many persons have fallen into the habit of
calling objects  analogous which  are  similar in some
respects, but have a recognized difference in others. Mill,
in his Logic, puts forward this common use( of the term as
*Whately, p. 115.
189 
A RGUM ENT.
if it were legitimate, and unfairly employs it for the purpose of throwing discredit upon all arguments from analogy.* Of course an argument from a mere partial resemnblance between objects can be worth but little. But very
different may be the case where there is a resemblance
(sometimes even an identity) in the relation which two
objects bear to a third, or to two others, respectively.
Understand analogy in this strict and proper sense, and
the argument from analogy may have great force. It is
exceedingly desirable that good usage should restrict the
term to its proper meaning. The point to be guarded is,
never to say there is an analogy between objects, unless
there is a correspondence (identity or similarity) in their
relations to something else, however like or however unlike
the objects themselves may be.   Men are the slaves of
words; and unless the thoughtful can discern, avoid and
correct such confusions in the popular use of important
terms, reasoning to a popular audience will constantly
become increasingly difficult.
It follows that we must carefully avoid the "error of
concluding the things in question to be alike, because they
are analogous;" and that it is very unjust, when a man
has argued from the analogy between two objects, to charge
him with having represented them as similar. Moreover,
the correspondence between the relations of objects which
are seen to be analogous, must not be presumed to extend
to all their relations.  Thus, because a just analogy has
been discerned between the metropolis of a country, and
the heart of the animal body, it has been sometimes contended that its increased size is a disease, -that it may
impede some of its most important functions, or even be
the cause of its dissolution.t   The question is, in what
i'espects are the relations between the objects similar? I 
* Mill's Logic, Book III, chap. 20, and Book V, chap. 5, ~ 6.
t Bishop Copleston, in Whately, p. 116, and p. 492 if.
190 
ARGUMENT.
A large proportion of the metaphors we employ, rest,
not upon resemblance, but upon analogy.  E.g. "He is
the pillar of the State;" "Paris is the heart of France."
All mental and spiritual states and operations are expressed
by terms borrowed, by analogy, from the physical; all that
we know of the future life, by terms derived from analogous
objects or relations in this life. The sense of such metaphorical expressions has been in many cases fixed and
defined by usage, so that, as commonly employed, they
will not mislead; but whenever we begin to reason upon
them, great care must be taken lest we extend the analogy
to matters which it does not really embrace. So with the
terms used to describe the attributes of God, and his relatiors to his creatures. Thus we call God a Father, and in
certain respects Christ reasons from earthly fathers to
Him. Yet if we infer from a father's forgiving his child
upon repentance, without satisfaction, that our Heavenly
Father will and must forgive us upon repentance, without
need of an Atonement, we extend the analogy more widely
than is warranted. God is a Father, but is also a King;
and his government is not a system of imperfect expedients, but must consult the requirements of absolute justice.
Has the argument from analogy any positive force? It
may certainly afford a probable proof of positive truth.
When two objects are observed to be analogous in many
important respects, it is assuredly more or less probable
that they are also analogous in some other respect not
observed. But it is very doubtful whether this can in any
case be an absolute proof. Many results of induction, as
we have seen above, are simply in a high degree probable;
and they become certain only when, besides observing that
the instances examined are all similar in a certain respect,
we can also discern some cause of that similarity, which
will operate also in the instances not examined. Now the
same thing must hold in the case of analogy.  If two
191 
ARGUMENT.
objects should correspond in all their relations to certain
other objects so far as we can examine, and if we were
able to discern some cause of the correspondence, such as
must produce a like correspondence in other relations not
examined, then we might infer with certainty that in any
of these other relations they do correspond. In many
cases of Induction, a cause, or at least an explanation, of
the common element can be found. We leave it a question whether the same can ever be done in cases of Analogy.
Still, an argument from analogy will often add its force to
that of other proofs, and will make a result more or less
probable, even where no other proof exists.
But chiefly for negative purposes, in the refuitation of
objections, is the argument from analogy of frequent and
high utility, "like those weapons, which though they cannot kill the enemy, will ward his blows."* Butler, in
his immortal work, has with great power refuted objections to natural religion by the analogy of nature, and
objections to revealed religion by the analogy of Providence. If men say it would be unjust in God to punish
them for violating his law when they did not believe, or
did not certainly know, that it was his law, we point them
to the fact that this holds of physical laws- that he who
takes poison will be killed, even though he did not know,
or did not believe, that it was poison. If they object that
God could not with propriety make salvation dependent
upon belief of the gospel, when there may be some doubt
as to whether the gospel is true, we remind them that
bodily life is often dependent upon sending for the physician, though there may be very great doubt as to whether
he will understand and remedy the disease; we have to
risk life upon a probability, or take the consequences. If
they object to the doctrine of Original Sin, as incompatible
with God's goodness, we point to inherited disease, inherited
* Campbell, Phil. of Rhet. p. 76.
192 
ARGUMENT.
proclivities to vice, inherited dishonor. And sc as to the
doctrine of Election. From the great inequalities which
exist among men as to native physical powers, intellect,
moral character, and the influences which have surrounded
their childhood as well as their age, we could not with anything more than probability infer, as a positive proposition,
that God would elect some men to be saved, and omit others.
As a positive argument it would be weakened by the fact
that we cannot be certain of a universal analogy between
God's operations in the sphere of creation and providence,
and his operations in the sphere of grace; and also by the
fact that the widest inequalities of earthly life are slight
compared with the difference between salvation and damnation. But when to the doctrine of Election as taught in
Scripture men offer the objection that it is inconsistent with
the Divine justice to make such a distinction, we refute the
objection by pointing to the immense distinctions which he
certainly does make in this life.
When examples are invented to furnish argument (and
not merely explanation, ornament, etc.), it must always be
the argument from analogy. It is only necessary that the
supposed case should be probable. Induction from unreal
examples would of course be worthless; but merely probable cases may afford an analogy to the matter in hand,
which will be in a high degree convincing.*
The analogy of real and of invented examples is sometimes employed not to prove, but merely to explain, or to
render interesting.t
Of the four great Varieties of Argument which have
now been discussed, the first, argument a priori, stands
apart as distinct from the rest. All other arguments are
iivided by Aristotle (followed by Whately, and others)
*See Whately, p. 129 if.
t As to the objectionable phrase, the analogy of Faith, see note
to chap. 2, ~ 4.
!7
193 
ARGUMENT.
into arguments from sign, and arguments from example.
The most important class of arguments from sign are those
from Testimony; and nearly all arguments from example
fall either under the head of Induction or of Analogy.
E. Deduction from established truth.
Every species of argument involves a deduction. But
there are many deductions which do not belong to any of
the varieties we have been considering- deductions not
from sign nor example, not from a cause or necessary
truth, but from a general truth, which has been in some
way established. What we then do is to show that this
truth includes some other, or by its combination with
similar established truths leads to some other; and these
processes may be repeated, so as to produce a series.
Much of our reasoning is obviously of this character. We
do not stop with the truth furnished by cause, sign, or
example, but proceed to develop its contents, or combine
it with other truths and show the result. And besides
what is common to all men, the reasoning of preachers
possesses a large element of this kind, in its constant
deductions or "inferences" from the teachings of Scripture.
Now such deductions must be made with great care.
The reply often heard in conversational discussion, "Ah,
but that is only an inference of yours," shows the common
feeling as to the danger that our inferences will be far less
certain than the truths from which we infer. There is
obviously need for great care that the deduction shall be
strictly logical.   But another thing is important.  In
Political Economy, it is found that the results deduced by
abstract reasoning from general principles must at every
step be compared with facts, or they will at length be
found to have gone astray from actual truth. And
similarly in religious reasoning.  We  can very seldom
take a general truth and make a series of deductions from
it as is done in Geometry, and feel safe as to the results,
194 
ARGUMENT.
We must constantly compare with tl e facts of existence,
and with the teachings of Scripture.   The love of purely
abstract reasoning leads many minds astray as to religious
truth. The idea of establishing some truth of religion by
"a perfect demonstration" is commonly delusive.  Human
life is not really controlled by demonstrated truth, as to
this world or the next. We must be content with those
practical certainties which the conditions of existence
allow us to attain; and while constantly drawing inferences, as it is right we should do, must be content to
compare them with fact and Scripture, to make sure that
they are correct.
"Pure reasoning handles ideas and not facts. It is a
sort of geometry of intellectual space. This geometry,
however, is less certain than the other, the import of signs
here being less invariable. Hence the necessity of not
coursing entirely through the void, and of descending often
to the earth, to set our feet on facts. Otherwise, we run the
risk of proving too much, and losing, at length, the sense
of reality. At the end of the most sound reasonings, when
the reason of the hearer seems to be overcome, something
more intimate than logic rises up within him, and protests
against your conclusions." *
F. Certain forms of Argument.
We have hitherto considered the principal varieties of
argument as to their essential nature.   But several of
the forms which arguments, whatever be their material and
character, often assume, would seem to call for mention
and explanation.
The argument afortiori (from stronger grounds), shows
that something is true in a less probable case, real or supposed, and then insists that much more certainly must it
be true in a more probable case. This form of argument
is a favorite one with orators, and is very often found in
* Vinet, p.'74-5.
..195 
ARGUMENT.
the teachirgs of our Lord and the apostles.  "If ye, then,
being evil, know how to give good things to your children,
tow much more will your Heavenly Father," etc. "If
God so clothe the grass of the field, which to-day is, and
to-morrow is cast into the oven, shall he not much more
clothe you, O ye of little faith!" "If they do these things
in the green tree, what shall be done in the dry?" (Luke
23: 31.) "He that spared not his own Son, but delivered
him up for us all, how shall he not with him also freely
give us all things?" (Rom. 8: 32.) "For if the word
spoken by angels was steadfast, and every transgression
and disobedience received a just recompense of reward;
how shall we escape, if we neglect so great salvation, which
at the first began to be spoken by the Lord (i.e. the Lord
Jesus), and was confirmed unto us," etc. (Ieb. 2: 2-4.)
"For the time is come that judgment must begin at the
house of God: and if it first begin at us, what shall the
end be of them that obey not the gospel of God! And if
the righteous scarcely be saved, where shall the ungodly
and the sinner appear?" (1 Pet. 4: 17, 18.) *  These are
but a few examples out of many. They should impress us
with the suitableness of such arguments in addressing the
popular mind.
The argument fromn Progres8sive Approach has been
pointed out and well illustrated by Whate]y. In arguing
the being of a God from the general consent of mankind,
we observe that in proportion as men have become cultivated and civilized, their ideas of the unity and moral
excellence of the Deity have risen higher; that there is a
progressive tendeney towards the most exalted Monotheism, which is hence inferred to be true. Or as regards religious tolerance: "In every age and country, as a general
rule, tolerant principles have (however imperfectly) gained
ground wherever scriptural knowledge has gained ground.
See Vinet, p. 193-6.
196 
ARGUMENT.
And a presumption is thus afforded that a still further advance of the one would lead to a corresponding advance
in the other." *
The dilemma presents two assumptions, of such a character that one or the other must be true, and yet whichever is considered true, there will follow the result proposed.
Such was Gamaliel's argument (Acts 5: 38-9): "If this
counsel or this work be of men, it will come to nought:
but if it be of God, ye cannot overthrow it." It must be
either from men or from God, and in either case the conclusion would be, "Refrain from these men, and let them
alone." t The dilemma is most commonly, but not
exclusively employed for the purpose of refutation.
In like manner, the reductio ad absurdum (reduction to
an absurdity) is most frequently, but not always used for
refutation.1 When it is argued that we ought not to send
the gospel to the heathen, because if they reject it, their
guilt and doqm will be so much aggravated, we answer that
upon that principle, the gospel ought not to be preached to
the destitute at home, nor to any one, and it is a pity there
ever was a gospel. The principle which necessarily leads
to such an absurdity, must be in itself erroneous.
The argument ex concesso, from something conceded by
the opponent, or known to be admitted by the persons
addressed, may be employed not only for refutation, but
also to establish positive truth, when we are satisfied that
the thing admitted is really true.
The argument ad hominem is legitimately employed only
in refutation, and will be explained under that head.y]
Arguments of different kinds, as to nature or form, will
often be combined in one complex argument.
*Whately, p. 104-9,
t We are not here inquiring whether Gamaliel's assumptions are
correct.
$ Comp. above, ~ 1 3.                     [t See below, ~ 3.
17 * -
197 
ARGUMENT.
Different speakers will prefer one or another species
of argument according to their mental constitution and
other circumstances, and a man will be apt to manage best
that which he prefers.  But this preference should never
become exclusive, or it will make the mind one-sided.
Besides, it is necessary to consider what species of argument will best suit the mental constitution, intelligence
and tastes of the audience. We should therefore habitually seek to draw arguments from a variety of sources, and
throw them into various forms.
~ 3. REFUTATION.
(1.) It is frequently a sufficient refutation of error to
prove the opposite truth; and this is then greatly to be
preferred. The error, without mention, just falls away,
and is thought of no more. But such a course will not
always suffice. The arguments of adversaries must often
be met, and objections to the truth must still oftener be
removed. In controversial sermons, though the preacher
may have no actual antagonist, yet there are arguments
well known to be used in favor of a different view, and
which he must refute; "that he may be able with the
sound teaching both to exhort, and to refute the gainsayers. For there are many unruly vain talkers and
deceivers.... whose mouths must be stopped." *  Right
feelings towards those who are in error will render this
necessary task a painful one. But naturally, all men take
pleasure in conflict.  "We are more inclined to refute
than to prove, to destroy than to build up. It is more
easy, more flattering to self-love, more in accordance with
our natural passions. Every one is eloquent in anger;
love and peace seldom make men eloquent." t The
audience, too, are thus readily aroused. Everybody will
t- Vinet, p. 177.
198
* Tit. 1: 9-11. 
ARGUMENT.
run to see a fight. And he who assumes the character
of a fearless defender of unpopular doctrines, a martyrspirit, readily gains from the unthinking a species of
sympathy and admiration. These things being so, we
must carefully guard against the temptation to assail
others where it is not really necessary. We must keep
uppermost in our minds the desire to establish truth, and
let refutation be strictly and manifestly subordinate.*
But apart from controversy, and where we have no real
antagonist, there will be, in preaching, very frequent occasion for refuting objections to the truth we advocate.
It is better, whenever consistent with the known facts, to
treat these as the objections, not of a caviller, but of
an honest inquirer. Instead of assailing the supposed objector and attempting to conquer him, let us approach
him kindly and seek to win him to the truth.
(2.) In moral reasoning, one cannot always, as in Geometry, give a complete refutation of all objections. Sometimes they are too weak to be refuted. Hle who does not
at once see their absurdity or nothingness, can scarcely be
made to see it at all. You pierce the phantom through
and through with your sword, but there it stands. Or you
perceive that the objection is really a pretence or a delusion on the part of men who are opposed to the truth
on grounds they do not state - perhaps the last refuge
of one determined not to yield. Alas! for the frequency
with which we are reminded that
",A man convinced against his will
Is of the same opinion still."
Besides, there are objections to everything. Whately
was fond of quoting a saying of Dr. Johnson, "There are
objections to a plenum anil objections to a vacuum; yet
one or the other must be true." The reason for believing
* Comp. on Polemical Subjects, chap. 3, ~ 2.
199 
ARG(UMENT.
any proposition in moral truth consists of the arguments
in favor of it, mrinus the objections, refuted as far as
practicable. "The objection perhaps may be unanswerable, and yet may safely be allowed, if it can be shown
that more and weightier objections lie against every other
supposition. This is a most important caution for those
who are studying the Evidences of Religion. Let the
opposer of them be called on, instead of confining himself
to detached cavils, and saying'how do you answer this?'
and'how do you explain that?' to frame some consistent
hypothesis to account for the introduction of Christianity
by human means; and then to consider whether there are
more or fewer difficulties in his hypothesis than in the
other." *
It follows that we must not waste time in the refutation
of trifling objections; nor mention objections which would
never trouble the minds of the hearers, and which furnish
no sufficient ground for doubting the truth; nor attempt
to refute objections unless we can do so satisfactorily. It
is sometimes better to say, "Well, that is an objection to
my proposition, I grant; but then the proposition must be
true, as the arguments in favor of it show." If the
objections, or the arguments for a contradictory proposition, are really convincing, it is the manifest duty of
one who loves truth, and would seem especially incumbent on a preacher, to acknowledge himself convinced, and
as far as this matter goes, to change his ground.
(3.) When  objections are  discussed, they should  be
stated in full force. This is simply just, and is also obviously good policy. "Express it precisely as you believe
it to be in the hearer's mind, so that, listening to your
exposition of it, he may say to himself,'That is exactly
my objection; that is precisely my difficulty, and I should
* Whately, p. 188. Comp. above, on Testimony, ~ 2, B.
200 
ARGUMENT.
wish very much to hear how the preacher will clear it
up."' *
(4.) Refutation, whether of an erroneous proposition, or
of an objection to the truth, will be accomplished by showing either that the terms are ambiguous, the premises false,
the reasoning unsound, or the conclusion irrelevant. Sometimes that which is presented as an objection may be very
true, but may not really conflict with the proposition under
consideration.
"In all cases in which it seems necessary, we must divide
the difficulty. Refutation ordinarily gains by a division
of the objection. It is seldom that one reply alone can
demolish directly with a single stroke, all parts of the
error..... The hearer sees you conquer many times in
succession; he perceives that there are many errors on the
other side, and many truths on yours." t 
"We must know how to take the offensive, and, if possible, turn the objection into a proof. Prolonging the
defensive, enfeebles us; and to defend ourselves to advantage, we must make the attack. Great preachers have
always observed this rule. In the error which we decompose or attack, we should find the very germs of truth." I
The lamented Addison Alexander, in his sermons and commentaries, exhibits remarkable skill in thus turning objections into proof.
(5.) Refutation of an error is sometimes strengthened
by showing how the error may have originated. Thus a9n
opposer of Infant Baptism, after disposing of such passages
from  the New Testament as may have been presented in
proof of it, breaks the force of any argument derived from
its present and long-continued existence, by pointing out
how it may have arisen in the second or third century.
(6.) It is often advantageous to have recourse to indirect
refutation. The principal species of this, reductio ad
* Potter's Sacred Eloquence, p. 179.   t Vinet, p. 179.   $ Ib.
201 
ARGUMENT.
absurdum, has been already discussed.* The argument
ad hominema,'to the man,' can scarcely ever be properly
employed to establish positive truth. An appeal to the
hearer's peculiar opinions, position, or mode of reasoning,
in order to make him believe something, is almost necessarily improper. But in refutation, in dealing with those
unreasonable objectors "whose mouths must be stopped,"
it is perfectly appropriate and may be highly effective.
Such is our Lord's argument in Matt. 12: 27, "If I by
Beelzebub cast out devils, by whom do your children cast
them out?" He is not saying that the disciples of the
Pharisees really do cast out demons, but simply shutting
their mouths by an argument ad honinem.  So likewise in
1 Cor. 15: 29, " Else what shall they do which are baptized for the dead, if the dead rise not at all? why are
they then baptized for them?" the apostle silences certain
objectors to the resurrection of the dead by pointing to
the superstitious practice encouraged by them, of baptizing
living persons in behalf of those who had died unbaptized,
-a practice known to have existed in the next century.
He does not present this as an argument to prove the doctrine of the resurrection true, but simply as an ad homines
argument to stop the mouths of unreasonable opponents.
And his own condemnation of the superstitious practice
need not be stated, for at Corinth it would be well understood. This is one of the points to be guarded in using
the form of argument in question; we must not seem to
approve the position or practice to which we appeal. We
must also take pains to use the argument fairly. "It does
not follow from a man's having been of a different opinion
formerly, that he is wrong in thinking as he now does. A
man is often reproached for making progress, when reproached with inconsistency." t
* See above, ~ 2, F.
t Tinet, p. 185. See his whole discussion, p. 183-6.
202 
ARGUMENT.
It is sometimes convenient to show that an opponent's
premise is wrong, by showing that it "proves too much,"
i.e. "that it proves, besides the conclusion drawn, another,
which is manifestly inadmissible." *
Irony, as a means of making an opponent or an error
ridiculous, is certainly allowable in serious discourse, for
we have a famous example in Elijah's address to the priests
of Baal.t It is employed with great effect against certain
modern forms of infidelity, in Rogers' Eclipse of Faith.
Though it be not true that "ridicule is the test of truth,"
it is certainly a very effective means of refuting pretentious falsehood. If a serious subject is involved, the
persons refuted by means of irony will of course complain
loudly that it is irreverent, and some good people may
think likewise; but this only makes it proper to be careful that we do not say anything which really does make a
serious subject ridiculous. It is obvious that an ironical
passage in a sermon ought, save in very peculiar cases, to
be quite brief.1
Akin to the indirect method of refutation, is a certain
sophistical method, "consisting in counter-objections urged
against something else which is taken for granted to be,
though it is not, the only alternative..... It is thus
that a man commonly replies to the censure passed on any
vice he is addicted to, by representing some other vice as
worse; e.g. if he is blamed for being a sot, he dilates on
the greater enormity of being a thief; as if there were any
need he should be either." 1I So likewise when we object to
the popular dancing, there are those who reply that it
would be greatly worse to -spend the time in talking
scandal.
(7.) Too elaborate and vehement refutation may sometimes defeat its own design. Not only because it arouses
* Whately, p. 182.
$ Comp. Whately, p.             183-7.
203
I
t 1 Kings, 18: 27.,
11 Whately, p. 188-9. 
A RGUMENT.
deep-seated prejudices, but because, by overwhelming and
utterly crushing an error, we may mnake persons unwilling
to acknowledge that an opinion they have entertained is
so preposterous, and therefore unwilling to admit that the
refutation is just.* Thus in condemning the "accommodation" of texts, if one grows indignant, and declares the
practice to be inexpressibly foolish and wicked, some of
those who have indulged in it are repelled, and refuse to
acknowledge that it is wrong at all.
(8.) A successful refutation is apt to carry the sympathies of the hearers, as men usually sympathize with the
victorious. And influenced by this feeling, they often overestimate the extent of the refutation. All the arguments
advanced in favor of a proposition may have been refuted,
and yet the proposition may be true, on grounds not mentioned. Still, if the advocates of a view are able men, it
is natural to suppose that they have not omitted the only
convincing arguments on their side, and so there is not
here any great danger of error. But in another way there
is very great danger. When the opponent readily and
overwhelmingly refutes some of the arguments presented,
and then with a lofty carelessness remarks that in like
manner all the rest could be refuted if it were worth while,
the great mass of men will believe it to be even so, and
regard him as triumphant. Hence it is of great importance
not to employ doubtful proofs, and in presenting those
which afford only a probability or a presumption to point
out distinctly that such is the case. Otherwise the sophistical adversary will refute the weak proofs, or show that
the merely probable ones establish nothing, and then if he
does not assert, will leave it to be taken for granted, that
our other proofs are of the same character.
This has often happened with reference to the doctrine
of the Divinity of Christ. Every passage which at all
* Comp. Whately, p. 193-8.
204 
ARGUMENT.
appears to teach the doctrine being adduced, the Socinian
can show that many of them are exceedingly doubtful, and
many others can be differently understood, until unthinking
persons would suppose that he had completely destroyed
the argument, or reduced it to but a few passages. Now
if one wishes a climax, he may begin by showing that a great
number of passages seem to involve the doctrine, and that
many others make it extremely probable, and then produce
some that are conclusive. But it is often better, especially
in a sermon, to present a few strong proofs, and then point
out in general that this doctrine lies everywhere on the
surface of the New Testament, so that the common reader
naturally gets the idea; nay, that it pervades the whole
warp and woof of New Testament teaching, which would be
torn to fragments in removing it.* So in all other discourses upon topics involving much controversy. Take no
ground which you cannot hold' It may look very brave
to assume an advanced position, but if you are flanked out
of it there will be a great shout of triumph. And distinguish carefully between proofs which yield a presumption
-for that purpose they are very useful -and those which
are regarded as conclusive. Even where there is no controversy, duty to one's own mind and to the mind of his
hearers, and devotion to the truth, require that no greater
stress should ever seem to be laid on any argument than it
deserves. "One false or foolish proof lays the whole discourse open to suspicion; it inspires our hearers with a
contempt for ourselves and our doctrine, and it is fre quently the only part which they retain and of which they
speak." t
In consequence of the ignorance, the slothfulness, the
* With reference to this important doctrine the suggestion may
be repeated, that the mode of discussion proper to a theological
treatise often requires great modification in a popular discourse.
t Potter, Sac. Eloq. p. 151.
18
205 
ARGUMENT.
prejudices, and the frequent deceitfulness of men, human
reasoning greatly abounds in Fallacies. We must learn to
avoid these ourselves, and to detect and expose them in
others. For this purpose it is especially important to study
systems of Logic, as training the mind to distinguish between sound and fallacious reasoning. It is painful when
one feels that there is something wrong in an argument,
but cannot see what; or when he sees it himself, but cannot
explain the fallacy to others. This explanation, it may be
remarked, is often best made by constructing a similar
argument out of matter more familiar to the common
mind.*
~ 4. ORDER OF ARGUMENTS.
The order of arguments is scarcely less important than
their individual force. The superiority of an army to a
mob is hardly greater than the advantage of a well-arranged discourse over a mere mass of scattered thoughts.
The question what arrangement is to be preferred in any
particular case, must depend upon a variety of circumstances. Here, as everywhere in Rhetoric, we can only lay
down rules as to what is generally best.t
It is obvious that the several distinct arguments should
be kept separate. But in the practice of inexperienced
reasoners it is not uncommon to see portions of two different
arguments combined, and two parts of the same argument
separated by the interposition of other matter.
The consideration which must principally determine the
order of arguments is their natural relation to each other.
"Some proofs are explained by others, which must be previously exhibited in order to the full effect of the reason
*Mill's discussion of Fallacies, Logic, Book V, contains much
that is quite valuable. He thinks that the commonest of all fallacies
is petitio principii (" begging the question ").
t The larger topic of the Arrangemen, of a Sermon will be discussed below, in Part II.
206 
ARGUMENT.
ing. Some proofs presuppose others. Some, once more,
have great weight if preceded by certain others, and are
of little moment unless preceded by them." *
Proofs which spring from the very nature of the proposition should commonly come first, because the exhibition
of these will involve a full explanation of the proposition,
and "after such an explanation the relevance and force
of every other proof will be more clearly seen." t
Arguments a priori generally precede others, as they
prepare the mind more readily to receive the a posteriori
proofs. Thus after presenting the a priori probability that
a revelation would be given to man, and further, that such
a revelation would be accompanied by miracles, we may
gain a hearing for the testimony that miracles have been
wrought, and in connection with them a revelation has
been given. Here the testimony falls in with an antecedent probability.   But if we first bring forward the
testimony that miracles have taken place, "as insulated
occurrences, without any known or conceivable purpose,"
it has to encounter a powerful antecedent probability
against miracles. I  There are cases, however, in which it
is better to present first some more tangible and popular
proof of a proposition, as from testimony or from example,
and then show that this need not surprise us when we look
at certain a priori considerations.
It is usually best, where nothing forbids, to begin with
the weakest arguments used and end with the strongest,
thus forming a climax, the power of which is well understood.
But we must sometimes depart from the order which
would be fixed by the natural dependence of the arguments
upon each other, because of the known disposition of the
hearers. If they are unfriendly to our views, it is well to
begin with one or more strong arguments, well suited to
* Day, p. 153.    t Day, p. 154.    1 See Whately, p. 169-70.
207 
ARGUMENT.
their minds, so as to command respect and secure attention.
We may next, according to the precept of the ancient
rhetoricians, throw.in the less important matter, and close
with the strongest of all, for the sake of the final impression; or, beginning with the strongest arguments, and
adding less important but confirmatory considerations, we
may at the close recapitulate in the reverse order, and thus
gain the effect of a climax.*
What position shall be occupied by arguments from
Scripture, relatively to those drawn from reason, experience, etc.? To begin, as is not unfrequently done, with
plain proofs from Scripture, and then add further proofs
from reason, history, common experience and the like,
seems derogatory to the authority of God's Word. When
a thing has been proven by that Word, then for the
preacher the question is settled; he cannot admit, he must
not seem to admit, that there is any need of further argument. So far, then, it would appear that Scripture proofs
should regularly follow others. But there will be cases in
which this is awkward; and besides, to some of the hearers
proofs from reason may be more convincing, or proofs from
experience more impressive, than the plainest declarations
of the Bible. To meet these conditions we may begin with
the Scripture teachings, and then observe that here, as in
fact everywhere, reason and experience are in harmony
with the Bible, and so proceed to the arguments from those
sources. In this way we conform to the hearer's mode of
thinking and feeling, and end with that which will make
the strongest impression on him, without abandoning our
own position as to the supremacy of Scripture -a position
which even infidels will feel that the preacher himself ought
to maintain.t To hold firmly our own ground, and yet put
ourselves as far as possible in sympathy with the persons
* Comp. Whately, p. 201.
t Comp. one of the opening paragraphs of this chapter.
208 
ARGUMENT.
we would win, is a thing often demanded in preaching, and
an achievement worthy of much thoughtful effort.
In what part of a discourse shall the refutation of
objections be placed? "When an objection lies against
the view advanced in a certain part of the sermon, it
should obviously, for the efficiency of that part, be disposed of, though as briefly as possible, before passing to
another point."* If objections lie against the general
sentiment of the sermon, and they can be refuted independently of the discussion, and briefly, it is advantageous
to clear them out of the way before entering upon our line
of argument.  Where the refutation depends upon our
argument, or would occupy much time, it must be postponed to the close; and in that case, if some of the
objections would be likely to occur at once to the hearer's
mind, and interfere, as we proceed, with the effect of our
arguments, it is well to intimate at the outset that we
propose, before concluding, to notice some objections.
"The hint may here be of some utility, that when a
controverted position is to be defended, an advantage may
be gained by stating, previously to entering on the proof,
one or two of the most weighty objections against the
opposite views. Objectors may thus become sensible of
difficulties which they had not contemplated, and many
may be induced to hear with greater candor arguments in
favor of the position; those who admit the point under
discussion may receive additional confirmation; and those
who are indifferent may be led to regard the subject as
more important than they had supposed." t
In a formal public discussion, it is a very common artifice for the person who speaks first to insist that his antagonist shall follow the order of topics which he has laid
down. In the famous contest as to the crown, 2Eschines
attempted this; and so important did Demosthenes regard
* Ripley, Sac. Rhet. p. 81.
18*
209
t Ripley, p. 82. 
ARGUMENT.
the matter, that he begins his speech with a solemn appeal
to the judges that they shall, as really required by their
oath of impartiality, allow each of the disputants to pursue
the order he may choose.*
~ 5. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS AS TO ARGUMENT.
In concluding the subject of Arguments, it is proper to
throw together a few practical hints, though some of them
are indirectly involved in statements heretofore made.t
(1.) Do not undertake to prove anything unless you are
sure it is true, and satisfied that you can prove it.
(2.) Let your argument start from something which the
persons addressed will fully acknowledge. This is obvi ously important, but is often neglected.
(3.) Use arguments intelligible to your hearers, and
likely to make an impression on their minds.  This must
be the rule, though individual hearers may have so low a
grade of intelligence that we cannot uniformly keep within
their reach, and though particular arguments not intelligible even to the majority may sometimes be used, if with
the few they would be very effective, and if they take up
but little time. But it is a not uncommon thing to see
preachers present whole trains of abstract or otherwise
unifamiliar argument, which the great mass of their hearers
cannot at all comprehend, and but very few can follow
throughout. The preacher, of all men, should study the
common mind, and seek fully to understand, not only its
forms of expression, but, what is still more important, its
ways of thinking. He should strive to put himself in the
position of his hearers, and consider how this or that argument will appear from their point of view.1 "For this is
* As to the general conduct of refutation, see above, ~ 3.
t Comp. particularly the introductory paragraphs of this chapter.
In these respects a good deal may be learned from the critical
observation of able "stump-speakers," and jury-lawyers.
210 
ARGUMENT.
the reason why uneducated men have more power of persuasion among the rabble than the educated have, just as the
poets say [Euripides has such a saying] that the uneducated are in the estimation of the rabble finer speakers.
For the one class say what is matter of common knowledge
and of a general character; but the others speak from
their own knowledge, and say the things that lie close to
their hearers." * How true it is now of many able and
learned preachers that they can speak only of generalities,
belonging to the common stock of human knowledge, and
know not how to fall in with the modes of thought which
are familiar and agreeable to the masses. That this last
can be done without the sacrifice of truly profound thought
or the violation of refined taste, has been shown by some
ministers of every age and country, and most conspicuously by that Great Teacher of whom it was said -O
exalted eulogium! - "the  common  people  heard  him
gladly."
(4.) In general, rely mainly on Scripture arguments,
and prefer those which are plain and unquestionable.
When we engage in religious controversy before a popular
audience, we shall usually do well to say but little concerning that great mass of learned matter about which the
people cannot personally judge, and rely mainly on common-sense views of the plain teachings of Scripture. But if
we are superior to the petty vanity of displaying a cheap
erudition, we often find it too hard to work out a commonsense view, and too easy to appropriate the piles of material
which the learned have left us. It is to be feared that but a
small proportion of controversial sermons are in this respect
well suited to the popular mind. And apart from contraoversy, let us use chiefly arguments from Scripture.  This
is common ground between us and our hearers. In general,
no other arguments can come so appropriately from us,
* Aristotle, Rhet. II, 22, 3.
0
211 
I
ARGUMENT.
or be so effective with the people. And in the general
principles, the many special precepts, and the immense
number of examples, good and evil, to be found in the
Bible, we have a boundless store of material for argument.*
(5.) Do not try to say everything, but select a suitable
number of the most available arguments. It is true that
sometimes the judicious combination of many compara tively slight arguments may have a great effect. "Singly
they are light," says Quintilianr, "but taken together they
do hurt, though not as by a thunderbolt, yet as by hail." t
Still, it is a very common fault to multiply arguments to
excess. With sore travail of the mind the preacher has
brought all these into existence, and surveying them with
parental affection, he thinks each of them too good to be
abandoned. But how many thousand men was it that
Gideon dismissed that he might conquer with three hundred? Where there are so many arguments, either the
discourse must be excessively long, or they must be too
hurriedly presented. "A plain hearer, who listens to a
rapid succession of various proofs, especially if they are
novel and incongruous, is much in the condition of a
rustic stranger, who is hurried through the streets of a
crowded city, where a thousand objects strike his eye, not
one of which leaves any distinct and permanent impression
on his mind."  Where it is really necessary to present
many arguments, let them be skilfully grouped, and let the
more obvious be briefly stated, in order to pause and dwell
upon those which demand special attention.
(6.) Avoid formality. Have the reality of argument,
but as little as possible of its merely technical forms and
phrases.
(7.) As to the style of Argument, the chief requisites
are of course clearness, precision, and force. But a simple
* Comp. Gresley on Preaching, Letter VIII.
t Quint. V, 12, 5.: Porter's Homn., Lect. XIII.
212 
ILLUSTRATION.
elegance is usually compatible with these. And where the
subject is exalted and inspiring, and the speaker's whole
soul is on fire, some great thunderbolt of argument may
blaze with all overpowering splendor.*
CHAPTER VII.
ILLUSTRATION.
1. VARIOUS USES OF ILLUSTRATION.  ~ 2. SOURCES OF ILLUSTRA TION, VIZ. OBSERVATION, PURE INVENTION, SCIENCE, HISTORY,
LITERATURE AND ART, SCRIPTURE.  i 3. CAUTIONS AS TO THE
EMPLOYMENT OF ILLUSTRATION.
~ 1. VARIOUS USES OF ILLUSTRATION.
r lo  illustrate, according to the etymology, is to throw
_ light (or lustre) upon a subject; and hence illustration would strictly include only explanation and ornament.
But that which explains may also contain a proof by
analogy; or that which adorns a subject may at the same
time connect with it pathetic associations. Accordingly,
what we call illustrations are used to explain, to prove, to
adorn, and to render impressive.
Strictly speaking, one would not call illustration a distinct class of the materials of discourse. As a means of
explaining, proving, or awakening emotion, it would fall
under the heads of Explanation, Argument, and Application;t as a means of adornment, it would belong to
Elegance of Style. - But as the same illustration often
* Comp. Quint. V, 14, 33.
t Discussed in chapters 5, 6 and 8; comp. at the beginning of
chap. 5.
I Part III, chap. 4.
213 
ILLUSTRATION.
subserves different ends, and as the proper handling of
illustrations is a matter of great practical importance, it
seems best to give the subject a separate discussion.
(1.) Perhaps the principal use of illustrations is to
explain. This they do either by presenting an example of
the matter in hand, a case in point (Exemplification),*
or by presenting something similar or analogous to it,
which will make the matter plain.
(2.) But illustrations are also very frequently employed
to prove. This is done in some rare cases by presenting an
example which warrants an Induction; t commonly, it is
an argument from Analogy. ~  In Romans, chap. 6 and 7,
the apostle introduces three illustrations, as showing the
absurdity of supposing that justification by faith will encourage to sin: believers are dead to sin, and risen to
another life; they have ceased to be the slaves of sin, and
become the slaves (so to speak) of holiness, of God; they
have ceased to be married to the law, and are married to
a new husband, Christ, to whom they must now bear fruit.
Each of these is not merely explanatory of the believer's
position, but involves an argument from analogy. So with
the olive-tree in chap. 11. We have heretofore seen that
arguments from analogy are most frequently and most
safely employed in refutation; and that when used to
establish positive truth, they demand very great care, lest
we deceive ourselves and others.
The fact that an illustration may furnish proof at the
same time that it serves for explanation, ornament, etc.,
calls for special attention. Some analogy may be so ornamental, so amusing, or pathetic, as to make us overlook
the fact that it has of right an argumentative force also;
and some comparison may be so beautiful an ornament as
to be allowed force in the way of proof when in reality it
* Comp. chap. 5,  2
}2.                    t Comp. chap. 6, ~ 2, C.
$ Comp. chap. 6, ~ 2, D.
1
214 
ILLUSTRATION.
is a mere simile founded on resemblance, and presents no
true analogy, and thus no argument.* We should look
closely at illustrations employed for other purposes, and
see whether they also contain an argument.
(3.) Illustrations are valuable as an ornament. Their
use for this purpose, as to kind and amount, must be
governed by the general principles which pertain to Elegance of Style.t Those who find themselves much inclined
to the use of ornamental illustration, should exercise a
rigorous self-control, and so cultivate their taste that it
will discard all but the genuinely beautiful. Those whose
style is barren of such ornament should seek after it,
not by tying on worn and faded artificial flowers, but
by encouraging the subject to blossom, if that be at all its
nature.
(4.) Finally, they frequently serve'to render a subject
impressive, by exciting some kindred or preparatory
emotion. Thus in the parable of the Prodigal Son, the
natural pathos of the story itself touches the heart, and
prepares it to be all the more impressed by the thought of
God's readiness to welcome the returning sinner. Most
preachers use illustrations very freely for this purpose.
The story or description may have some value for explanation, proof, or ornament, but their chief object in employing it is to excite the feelings. This is lawful and useful,
provided the occasion be seized to plant in the softened
soil the seeds of divine truth. But we sometimes hear
stories told, and at great length, which purport to be illustrations of sacred truth, and yet have no other effect, and
to all appearance no other design, than to excite a transient
and aimless emotion.a
The importance of illustration in preaching is beyond
expression.   In numerous cases it is our best means of
* Comp. Whately, p. 164-6.        t See part III, chap 4.
+ Comp. on Application, in the next chapter.
215 
ILLUSTRATION.
explaining religious truth, and often to the popular mind
our only means of proving it. Ornament, too, has its
legitimate place in preaching, and whatever will help us
to move the hard hearts of men is unspeakably valuable.
Besides, for whatever purpose illustration may be specially
employed, it often causes the truth to be remembered.
Sometimes, indeed, even where its force as an explanation
or proof was not at first fully apprehended, the illustration,
particularly if it be a narrative, is retained in the mind
until subsequent instruction or experience brings out the
meaning.  Such was frequently the case with  the first
hearers of our Lord's Parables. In preaching to children,
and to the great mass of adults, illustration is simply indispensable, if we would either interest, instruct or impress
them; while good illustration is always acceptable and
useful to hearers of the highest talent and culture. The
example of our Lord decides the whole question; and the
illustrations which so abound in the records of his preaching ought to be heedfully studied by every preacher, as to
theix source, their aim, their style, and their relation to
the other elements of his teaching. Among the Christian
preachers of different ages who have been most remarkable for affluence and felicity of illustration, there may be
mentioned Chrysostom, Jeremy Taylor, Christmas Evans,
Chalmers, Spurgeon and Beecher.*
* Of works discussing the subject of Illustration, see Dowling's
Power of Illustration, New York, Sheldon  & Co.  In Trumbull's
Children in the Temple, 1869, there are good remarks on the subject (p. 263-70), with the mention of Groser's Illustrative Teaching,
London S. S. Union, and Freeman's Use of Illustration in S. S.
Teaching, New York, Carlton & Porter. Good thoughts may be
found in Papers on Preaching, by a Wykehamist, London, 1861,
chap. 6 and 7. Gresley (Letter X) and Hood (Lecture VIII) present some things that are valuable.
216 
ILLUSTRATION.
~ 2. SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATION.
Illustration of religious truth may be drawn from the
whole realm of existence and of conception. It might
seem idle to make any classificationq of the sources, but
there are two reasons for doing so. The preacher may
thereby be stimulated to seek such materials in directions
which he has comparatively neglected, and the attempt at
classification will furnish the occasion for some practical
remarks in passing.
(1.) Observation. It is pre-eminently important that the
teacher of religion should be a close observer; partly that
he may know how to adapt religious instruction to the real
character of his hearers, and the actual conditions of their
life, but also that he may be able to draw from that inexhaustible store of illustration which lies everywhere open
to the man who has eyes to see and ears to hear.
Nature teems with analogies to moral truth; and we
should not merely accept those which force themselves on
our attention, but should be constantly searching for them.
Besides those analogies which are embodied in our familiar
metaphors, and those which belong to the common stock
of illustration, there are others, almost without number,
which every thoughtful observer may perceive for himself;
and here, as elsewhere, what is even relatively original
has thereby an augmented power. The writings of John
Foster are particularly rich in such analogies, and his
Memoir shows that he habitually sought for them, and
systematically recorded all that he found. Several of our
Lord's most impressive illustrations are drawn from his
own close observation of nature; as, for example, the lily,
the mustard-seed, the birds.  And  notice that although
these are all so stated as to be very beautiful, he employs
them for higher ends, for explanation or for argument.
There is here an important lesson, for preachers who derive
19
217 
ILLUSTRATION.
illustration from nature are too apt to follow the poets in
making it chiefly ornamental.*
A still richer field, if possible, is human life, with all its
social relations and varied callings and pursuits, its business usages, mechanical processes, etc., and with all its
changing experiences. Here a man's personal experience
will blend with his observation of others. And he who
really and thoughtfully observes life, spreading in its immense variety all around, and embracing, too, the world
within us, can surely never be at a loss for illustration.
Chrysostom, though somewhat ascetical in his views, and
though a diligent student, overflows with allusions to real
life.  Beecher, who has lived for years in the midst of a
continent and a nation condensed within a few square miles,
shows that he has diligently carried out the lesson which
he declares himself to have learned from Ruskin, to "keep
his eyes and ears open."  He has been watching the ships
and the sailors, has acquainted himself with the customs,
good and bad, of commercial life, has curiously inspected
a great variety of mechanical processes, has often visited
his farm and closely observed agricultural operations and
the various phases of rural life, has been constantly seeing
and hearing what occurred in his home and in other homes
he visited, has supplemented his own observation by inquiring of others as to all the manifold good and evil of
the great world that surges around him, and everywhere
and always has been asking himself, till that has become
the fixed habit of his mind, what is this like? what will
this illustrate? Hence the boundless variety, and the
sparkling freshness, of his illustrations, and these form
the chief element of his power as a preacher. Spurgeon,
though not equal to Beecher in this respect, and though
accustomed to draw much from his reading, has been a
close observer too, in many and various directions.
* Comp. on Imagination Part III, chap. 5.
218 
ILLUSTRATION.
It should not be forgotten that much of the choicest
illustration is derived from the commonest pursuits and
the most familiar experiences of life, and a man may excel
in this respect without living in New York or London.
The great mass of our Lord's illustrations are drawn from
ordinary human life. Of agricultural operations, we find
reference to sowing wheat and various circumstances which
help or hinder its growth, to harvesting, winnowing and
putting in barns, to the management of fig-trees and vineyards, and to bottling the wine. In domestic affairs, he
speaks of building houses, various duties of servants and
stewards, leavening bread, baking, and borrowing loaves
late at night, of dogs under the table, patching clothes,
and their exposure to mnoth, lighting lamps, and sweeping
the house. As to trade, etc., he mentions the purchase
of costly pearls, finding hid treasure, money intrusted to
servants as capital, lending on interest, creditors and debtors, imprisonment for debt, and tax-gatherers.  Among
social relations, he tells of feasts, weddings and bridal processions, the judge and the widow who had been wronged,
the rich man and the beggar, the good Samaritan. Of
political affairs, he alludes to kings going to war, and the
parable of the ten pounds (Luke 19: 11 ff.) corresponds in
every particular to the history of Archelaus in our Lord's
childhood. The Prodigal Son is a series of the most
beautiful pictures of real life. And who can think without emotion of Jesus standing in some market-place, and
watching children at their sports, from which he afterwards
drew a striking illustration? All these form but a part
of the illustrative material which, in our brief records of
his teaching, we find him deriving from the observation of
human life, and in nearly every case from matters familiar
to all. The lesson is obvious, but it should be pondered
long.
The observation of childrea is particularly profitable to
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ILLUSTRATION.
a religious teacher. They reveal much of human nature,
and their words and ways are usually interesting to adults.
But let us never repeat a child's striking sayings in its own
presence, nor in any wise flatter children as preachers sometimes do. The recollections of one's own childhood grow
increasingly interesting as life advances; but we must be
careful not to exaggerate and glorify those recollections in
employing them, not to fall into egotism, nor to imagine
that these perhaps trifling matters will be sure to interest
others as much as ourselves.
Narrations of actual experienice of the religious life,
whether our own or that of others known to us, are apt to
be generally interesting, and will often, as cases in point,
furnish admirable illustration. The great revival preachers
usually have a multitude of such narratives, drawn from
their observation at other places, and they often use them
with great effect. This is one secret of the power possessed
by some comparatively ignorant preachers in secluded districts. They tell their own experience freely, and do not
shrink from mentioning persons even in an adjoining neighborhood, whose case they can make instructive. And in
general, from their very ignorance, they must find all their
illustration in matters which their hearers are well acquainted with, and can fully appreciate. Spurgeon is very
fond of deriving illustration from cases met with in his
pastoral labors.*
(2.) Pure invention.  It is perfectly lawful to invent an
illustration, even in the form of a story, provided that it
possesses verisimilitude, and provided that we either show
it to be imaginary, or let nothing depend upon the idea
that it is real. It seems almost certain that some of our
Lord's Parables are in this sense fictitious. It is shown,
in one case, by the very form of the expression, " The sower
went forth to sow." When we use imagined illustration
* Comp. on Experimental Subjects, chap. 3, ~ 4.
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ILLUSTRATION.
as affording an argument, great care must be taken to make
it fair. It is very common for controversial speakers or
writers to "suppose a case," and suppose it of such a kind
as just to suit their purpose, without due regard to fairness.
"If lions were the sculptors, the lion would be uppermost."
Imagined illustrations for explanation or ornament are
frequently too formal or elaborate. "As when some giant
oak," etc. etc.  "Suppose there were a man..... and
suppose... and suppose," etc.  We  all know  how
such things are done.
(3.) Science. Besides what is derived from our own observation of nature and of human life, there is an immense
fund of illustration in Science, which, collecting the results
of a far wider observation, classifies and seeks to explain
them. With the vast growth of Physical Science in our
day, and the extensive diffusion of some knowledge of its
leading departments, it becomes increasingly appropriate
that preachers should draw illustration from that source.
In this way, too, they will most effectually counteract the
efforts of some infidel men of science, and some unwise
teachers of religion, to bring Christianity and Science into
an appearance of hostility. It is much better, both for this
purpose and for others, that a preacher should strive to be
well acquainted with one or a few departments of Physical
Science, than that he should dip lightly into many.
Two especial difficulties beset the use of scientific illustration. It has been so common to make Astronomy,
Geology, etc. the occasion for marvellous flights of would-be
eloquence, that many persons shrink from all allusion to
such subjects, as savoring of mere declamation. But one
highly objectionable extreme should not drive us to the
other. It is surely possible to use such illustrations in a
direct and quiet fashion; and if now and then they really
kindle the imagination and excite emotion, in such cases
it will be natural, and the effect will be good. But beware
19*
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of borrowing from Chalmers' Astronomical Sermons; it is
wearing Saul's armor. The other difficulty is, that much
of the finest scientific illustration demands more knowledge
of science than the great mass of hearers really possess.
Now an illustration which would be particularly acceptable
and profitable to a few, may sometimes be employed, provided we introduce it with some quiet remark, not saying
that most persons are unacquainted with this subject, but
that such persons as happen to have paid attention to such
or such a matter will remember, etc. Then no one will
complain of our alluding to a topic of which he is ignorant.
Or it may be proper to give the information necessary in
order to appreciate the illustration, provided we can do so
in few words, and without anything that looks like display.
It is certainly lawful to spend as much time upon describing a phenomenon or explaining a principle of nature
which will afford good illustration, as we should spend
upon telling an anecdote for the same purpose, if only the
description or explanation be made intelligible and interesting to all. Some sermons are but scientific lectures, with
a religious application.
Besides Astronomy and Geology, Physics and Chemistry,
other branches of science are coming to be freely used.
Whately was very fond of illustrations from Zoology, and
James Hamilton from Botany. The various departments
of Medical Science have always been thus employed.
There is an obvious and always interesting analogy between
bodily disease or healing and that of the soul; and Bacon
has noticed that the figurative language of Scripture is
drawn with especial frequency from Agriculture and Medi cine. Psychology, in its several departments, is often
itself the theme of pulpit discussion,* but is also rich in
illustration of distinctively religious themes. Social Science
will- add much to what is furnished by our own observation
*Comp. chap. 4, ~ 1.
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of life; and the science of Law is of great value, not only
from its connection with thie revealed Law, but as illustrating the doctrines of atonement and justification.
(4.) History. Preachers have always made much use
of illustration from history. The field is in itself boundless, but is in practice greatly limited by the popular lack
of extensive acquaintance with it. Here, as in the case
of Science, we may sometimes skilfully introduce what is
familiar to but a few, and may often give, briefly, without
ostentation, and in an interesting manner, the requisite
information. Great as is the value for our purposes of
Science, and the attention now bestowed upon it, we must
not forget that History, from its narrative and descriptive
character and its human interest, has a peculiar and
almost unrivalled charm. And in some respects this is
especially true of Biography, both general and religious.
Here there is the interest which always attaches to a person, to an individual human life. And biographical facts
can often be more readily stated than those of general
history. Early preachers drew nearly all their historical
and biographical illustration from ancient history. Jeremy
Taylor, for example, greatly abounds with this. In our day
more modern sources are of course chiefly in request, and
ancient writers are now comparatively a fresh field, particularly if one will take them at first hand, and not
simply borrow from other preachers, or from recent works
on ancient history. Thus Herodotus and Plutarch, even
in a translation, may be used with great advantage; and
so as to Josephus, whose works are now by most preachers
unwisely neglected. Spurgeon is very fond of illustrations
from the lives of devout men; and Richard Fuller employs
all manner of historical and biographical incident, both
secular and religious, with rare felicity and power.
All preachers derive illustration from the news of the day.
Some carry this too far, warranting the reproach that they
223 
ILLUSTRATION.
"get the text from the Bible, and the sermon from the
newspapers." But it is a grave mistake if any are thereby
repelled into avoiding a source of illustration so fresh in
its interest, and so much more generally familiar to the
audience than either science or history. By judiciously
alluding to all suitable matters of recent occurrence,
whether recorded in the newspapers, or happening in our
own community, we may render the sermon more interesting, and may at the same time have opportunity to throw
in useful practical remarks about many questions of right
and wrong.* The danger is, that we shall set the people's
minds agoing upon the matters which occupy them every
day, to the neglect of our sacred theme. This may be
avoided if on the one hand we take care not to intermingle
an excessive amount of such allusion, and on the other
hand to keep it strictly subordinate, in our own feelings
and in the method of introduction, to the religious aim of
the discourse.   If not thus subordinate, then the most
interesting allusion will be the worst illustration.
Anecdotes, literally things unpublished, originally denoted interesting matters, chiefly historical and biographical incidents, gathered from unpublished manuscripts of
ancient authors, and thrown into a miscellaneous collection.
Though now more widely used, the term is still most properly applied to stories of what one has himself observed,
or has drawn from oral sources. Understood, however, in
the wider sense, so as to include published narratives of detached incidents, anecdotes are a valuable means of illustration, which some preachers employ excessively or in bad
taste, but which others ought to employ much more largely
than they do. He who feels that his style would be degraded
by introducing an anecdote, may profitably inquire whether
his style be not too stilted, or at any rate too monotonous
in its sustained elevation, for popular discourse. Let anee
* Comp. as to preaching on Politics, chap. 3, ~ 2.
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ILLUSTRATION.
d(lotes be certainly true, if we present them as true, and let
them be told without exaggeration or "embellishment."
Let them not be ludicrous -though a slight tinge of delicate humor is sometimes lawful -not trivial, and especially
not tedious. And as illustration is in general a subordinate
thing in preaching, and that which is subordinate should
rarely be allowed to become prominent, a preacher should
avoid such a multiplication of anecdotes in the same sermon, or in successive sermons, as would attract very special attention.   A greater freedom, both as to amount and
kind, is admissible in platform-speaking, than in those
more grave discourses which are usually called sermons.*
(5.) Literature and Art. Even when science and history have been excluded, literature, ancient and modern,
in prose and in verse, covers an immense field, and offers a
vast store of illustrative material. Suggestive, pleasing, or
impressive sentiments, and striking expressions may be
quoted, and allusion made to well-known literary works and
characters, whenever it will really help to render the dis course interesting and useful. Quotations of poetry, though
made by some men in offensive excess, are employed by
very many with admirable effect; and while a few need to
check their exuberance in this respect, the great mass of
ministers should stimulate themselves to observe and re tain more largely, and to use more freely, any appropriate
poetical quotations. No one can have failed to notice how
often quotations from hymns, particularly when they are
familiar, add greatly to the interest and impressiveness of
a sermon. Spurgeon often uses these very effectively. The
Pilgrim's Progress, with its strong sense and homely sim  plicity, its poetic charm and devotional sweetness, is so
rich in the choicest illustration that every preacher ought
to make himself thoroughly familiar with it, and to refresh
* Arvine's Cyclopedia of Anecdotes is of but little value. Bible
Illustrations, New York, Sheldon & Co., 12mo, is better.
225 
ILLUSTRATION.
his knowledge again and again through life.  Fables are
so often alluded to in common conversation that we scarcely
notice it, and the occasions are very numerous in which
they might be usefully employed in preaching. An author
of distinction, and of wide attainments and experience of
life, remarked some years ago that, in his judgment, next.
to the Bible and Shakespeare, the most instructive book in
the world was Asop's Fables. Even nursery rhymes, though
not often exactly appropriate in regular sermons, have been
employed to good purpose in speaking to children.
Proverbs are a singularly valuable means of stating
truth forcibly and impressively. True, they usually represent an imperfect generalization, and are one-sided, so
that almost any proverb can be matched by an opposite
one. Yet in exhibiting particular aspects of truth, in
impressing particular points, they have great power, especially with the popular mind. "Any one who, by after
investigation, has sought to discover how much our rustic
hearers carry away, even from the sermons to which they
have attentively listened, will find that it is hardly ever
the course and tenor of the argument, supposing the discourse to have contained such; but if anything has been
uttered, as it used so often to be by the best Puritan
preachers, tersely, pointedly, epigrammatically, this will
have stayed by them, while all the rest has passed away."
"Great preachers for the people, such as have found their
way to the universal heart of their fellows, have been ever
great employers of proverbs." * Our Lord once expressly
employs a proverb, and repeatedly uses expressions which
appear to have been proverbial. This was one of the
various ways in which he sought to strike the common
mind, and impress the popular heart. The proverbs of
* Trench on the Lessons in Proverbs, quoted in Papers on Preaching, by a Wykehamist, p. 96. Compare, in this latter work, p.
94-105.
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ILLUSTRATION.
our own country and language have of course peculiar
force with us; but those of other countries will have freshness, and if readily intelligible as well as striking, they
may be very effective. All nations have numerous proverbs; and besides the peoples more nearly related to ourselves, they especially abound among the Hindoos, the
Chinese, and some African tribes. It would sometimes be
profitable to read slowly over lists of proverbs, considering
what religious truth this and this will illustrate, and collecting such, or making reference to them on the margin,
and associating them in our mind with the particular
truths to which they relate.* Proverbs are often humorous; and while the coarse or ridiculous should be avoided,
we need not be too sensitive in that respect.  "A thousand
beauties are snatched from the very verge of propriety -
while many humdrum commonplace men deserve the
rebuke of Quintilian:'His excellence was that he had nd
fault, and his fault that he had no excellence.' A sermon
had better have too much salt in it than too little."t
Besides proverbs proper, there are many sage maxims
which are often repeated in conversation, t and many
striking sayings which may be quoted from the Fathers,
the Old English divines, etc.
Illustration is also frequently drawn from works of Art,
especially from pictures. These are constantly used in
books under the name of "illustrations" of the narrative
or treatise, and never fail, when good, to interest every
class of readers; and in like manner the description of pic tures may be very effectively used in a sermon. Such a
description should of course be brief, and free from any
appearance of display.
*Bohn's "Handbook of Proverbs" and "Polyglot of Foreign
Proverbs" are excellent collections, and not costly.
t Papers on Preaching, p. 99.
t Comrp. Aristeqle's Rhet. II, 21.
227 
ILLUSTRATION.
(6.) Scripture. The Scriptures present materials of
illustration suited to every legitimate subject of preaching, and belonging to almost every one of the above-mentioned classes, especially history and biography, poetry and
proverbs, and all manner of pointed sayings. Several
causes combine to make this the best of all the sources
of illustration. The material is to some extent familiar
to all, and thus the illustration will be readily intelligible. Again, this material will be much more impressive
than any other, because of its sacredness, and its known
and felt relation to ourselves. Besides, the frequent use
of Scripture illustration serves to revive and extend the
knowledge of Scripture among the hearers.
Every preacher should most diligently draw from this
source. And to this end, besides keeping on hand some
book or other particular portion of the Bible for thorough
study, preachers should continue through life the rapid
but attentive reading of the whole Bible, that its facts and
sayings may be kept fresh in their minds, and readily present themselves for use. Among the elements of Spurgeon's power is his copious, and often very felicitous use
of Scripture illustration.
~ 3. CAUTIONS AS TO THE EMPLOYMENT OF
- ILLUSTRATION.
(1.) Do not use every illustration that occurs to you,
nor seek after them for their own sake. The question is,
whether this or that will really conduce to the objcts of
the discourse, will really explain or prove what is under
discussion, or make it more interesting and impressive.
Some men get a general notion that illustration is a good
thing, and that it is their duty to employ it, and they
laboriously bring forward so-called illustrations which
really effect nothing, and are therefore but useless lumber.
Others, who have a fertile fancy or a well-stocked memory,
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ILLUSTRATION.
while wanting in genuine culture and good taste, will excessively multiply or expand their illustrations. They forget
that command of illustration, like command of words, involves not only copious production, but judicious selection
and felicitous adaptation.
(2.) As a general rule, it is not well to talk about illustrating, but just to illustrate. If you can throw the light
vividly on your subject, it will seldom be necessary to give
notice beforehand that you are about to do so.
(3.) Carefully avoid turning attention away from the
subject illustrated to the illustration itself. This is obviously a very grave fault, but is often committed. Illustrations stated at great length, with high-wrought imagery
and polished phrase, such as Guthrie frequently employs,
will almost inevitably have this effect; though sometimes,
as in the case of Chalmers, they may be so felicitous, and
applied with such passionate earnestness, that we at last
forget everything in the subject illustrated.   So  many
hearers are caring mainly for entertainment, that it is a sad
thing if we divert their minds from some subject they
ought to consider to the curious or admiring examination
of the mere apparatus by which we throw light on it.*
From this whole discussion it will be evident that a
preacher should be constantly accumulating the materials
of Illustration.  Whether he had better jot down all that
occur to him, keep a scrap-book, etc., or rely mainly on his
memory, will depend on his mental constitution and habits;
but neither method should be employed to the total neglect
of the other.t
* This fault occurs very frequently in speaking to children.
There is a mere succession of stories or pictures, which teach
nothing, impress nothing, and, save as idle entertainment, are
nothing. Comp. Children in the Temple, p. 266-.7
t Comp. chap 4, ~ 1.
20
229 
APPLICATION.
CHAPTER VIII.
APPLICATION.
R -HE application in a sermon is not merely an append_ age to the discussion, or a subordinate part of it, but
is the main thing to be done. Spurgeon says, "Where the
application begins, there the sermon begins." We are not
to speak before the people, but to them, and must earnestly
strive to make them take what we say to themselves.
Daniel Webster once said, and repeated it with emphasis,
"When a man preaches to me, I wast him to make it a
personal matter, a personal matter, a personal matter!"
And it is our solemn duty thus to address all men, whether
they wish it or not.
The sermons of Jonathan Edwards, with all their power,
show the evil of having always a regular "application,"
formally announced or indicated. Often a brief and informal application is best. Often, too, it is better not to
reserve the application for the latter part of the discourse,
but to apply each thought as it is presented, provided they
all conspire towards a common result.
The term application is in general somewhat loosely employed in regard to preaching, for it includes two or three
distinct things. Besides the application proper, in which
we show the hearer how the truths of the sermon apply to
him, and besides the frequent practical suggestions as to
the best mode and means of performing the duty urged,
there is also commonly included all that we denote by the
terms'persuasion' and'exhortation.'  But if the ideas
conveyed are kept distinct, it is probably better to retain
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APPLICATION.
the term, with which all preachers and hearers are so
familiar.
The application proper is often effected by means of
"inferences;' or "remarks."  The former must not be theoretical or general deductions from the truths presented,
but must really give to those truths a practical bearing.
And the remarks must not diverge in various directions,
and become like the untwisted cracker of a whip, but
should have a common aim and make a combined impression. In sermons upon historical subjects, it is lawful to
bring out several distinct lessons, but these had better be
pretty closely related.* It is obvious that while some
subjects may be applied to the congregation as a whole,
others will be applicable only to particular classes, or will
have to be applied to distinct classes separately, as converted and unconverted, old and young, etc. But it is
not necessary, as some preachers seem to imagine, always
to make some kind of application to the unconverted, or
some remark to them in conclusion. A sermon addressed
throughout to pious people will often specially instruct
and impress the unconverted. What men apply to themselves, without feeling that it was aimed at them, is apt to
produce the greatest effect. It is never judicious to make
an application to any particular individual, and very rarely
to a small and well-defined class. What is popularly called
"hitting at" some person or some few persons will almnost
always do more harm than good.
To give good practical suggestions is a task often calling
for experience and the fruits of thoughtful observation,
and sometimes demanding delicate tact, but is certainly,
when well managed, a most important part of the preach er's work. When one has argued some general duty, as
that of family or private prayer, of reading the Bible, or
of relieving the needy and distressed, it is exceedingly
* Comp. Hoppini's Chr. Min, p. 181-5.
231 
APPLICATION.
useful to add hints as to the actual doing of the particular
duty, so as to make it seem a practical and a practicable
thing, so as to awaken hope of doing better, and thus stimulate effort.
But the chief part of what we commonly call application is persuasion. It is not enough to convince men of
truth, nor enough to make them see how it applies to themselves, and how it might be practicable for them to act
it out -but we must "persuade men." A distinguished
minister once said that he could never exhort; he could
explain and prove what was truth and duty, but then he
must leave people to themselves. The apostle Paul, however, could not only argue, but could say, "We pray you,
in Christ's stead, be ye reconciled to God." Do we not
well know, from observation and from experience, that a
man may see his duty and still neglect it? Have we not
often been led by persuasion to do something, good or bad,
from which we were shrinking? It is proper, then, to persuade, to exhort, even to entreat.
Persuasion is not generally best accomplished by a mere
appeal to the feelings, but by urging, in the first place,
some motive or motives for acting, or determining to act,
as we propose. This is not properly called a process of
argument. The motive presented may require previous
proof that it is something true, or right, or good, but this
proving is distinct from the act of presenting it as a
motive; and if when bringing a motive to bear we have
to prove anything concerning it, the proof ought to have
great brevity and directness, or it will delay and hinder
the designed effect.
A preacher must of course appeal to none but worthy
motives. The principal motives he is at liberty to use
may be classed under three heads, viz., happiness, holiness,
love.
We may lawfully appeal to the desire for happines&
232 
APPLICATION.
Those philosophers who insist that man ought always to
do right simply and alone because it is right, are no philosophers at all, for they are either grossly ignorant of
human nature, or else are indulging in mere fanciful speculation. No doubt some preachers err in that they treat
happiness as the almost exclusive, at any rate as the chief
motive. Certainly this should always be subordinated to
duty and affection; but when thus subordinated, it is a
legitimate and a powerful motive. The Scriptures appeal
not only to our feelings of moral obligation, but to our
hopes and fears, for time and for eternity. "It is profitable for thee," is a consideration which the Great Teacher
repeatedly employs in encouraging to self-denial. A desire
for the pleasures of piety in this life, or even for the happiness of heaven, would never, of itself alone, lead men to
become Christians, or strengthen them to live as such; but
combined with other motives, it does a great and useful
work. And there is here included not only the pleasure
to be derived from gratification of appetite and passion,
but of taste, and of ambition.
All men desire holiness, at least in one sense of the term,
though they often wish it united with sinful gratifications.
The most abandoned man sometimes wishes to be good,
nay, persuades himself that in certain respects he is good;
and the great mass of mankind fully intend, after indulg ing a little longer in sinful pleasure, to become thor oughlily good before they die. Here then is a great motive
to which the preacher may appeal. The thorough deprav ity of human nature should not make us forget that go(od ness can always touch at least a faintly responsive chord in
the human breast. We ought to hold up before men the
beauty of holiness, to educate the regenerate into doing
right for its own sake, and not merely for the sake of its
rewards. We ought to stimulate, and at the same time
control, that hatred of evil, which is the natural and
20*
233 
APPLICATION.
necessary counterpart to the love of holiness. And as
regards the future life, we should habitually point men,
not only to its happiness, but still more earnestly to its
purity, and strive by God's blessing to make them long
after its freedom from all sin and from all fear of sinning.
Such noble and ennobling aspirations it is the preacher's
high duty and privilege to cherish in his hearers, by the
very fact of appealing to them.
And the mightiest of all motives is love. In the rela tions of the present life, love is the great antagonist
of selfishness.  They who "have none  to love," by any
natural ties, must always interest their hearts in the needy
'and the afflicted, or they will grow more and more narrow
and selfish. Accordingly, we may constantly appeal to
menii's love of their fellow-men, as a motive for doing right.
Parents may be urged to seek personal piety, and higher
degrees of it, for the sake of their growing children; and
so with the husband or wife, the brother or sister or friend.
Now to this motive the gospel appeals in a very peculiar
manner.  We  ought to love God supremely, and such
supreme love would be our chief motive to do right and to
do good. But sin has alienated us from God, so that we
do not love him. And Christ presents himself, the Godman, the Redeemer, to win our love to him and thus to
God.  "Whosoever shall lose his life for my sake," are
words which reveal the new and mighty gospel motive,
love to Christ.  To  this, above all other motives, the
preacher should appeal. Far from excluding others, it intensifies while it subordinates them.*
But our task is not merely the calm exhibition of motives, that men may coolly act according to them. Many
truths of religion are eminently adapted to stir the feelings,
and to speak of such truths without feeling and awakening
* On the subject of Motives, see much profound and suggestive
remark in Vinet, page 203-22.  Comp. Arist. Rhet. I, 10, 7 if
234 
APPLICATION.
emotion, is unnatural and wrong. And so mighty is the
opposition which the gospel encounters in human nature,
so averse is the natural heart to the obedience of faith, so
powerful are the temptations of life, that we must arouse
men to intense earnestness and often to impassioned emotion, if we would bring them to surmount all obstacles, and
to conquer the world, the flesh, and the devil. Who expects
to make soldiers charge a battery or storm a fortress without excitement? Many persons shrink from the idea of
exciting the feelings. "It seems to be commonly taken for
granted, that whenever the feelings are excited, they are
over-excited." * But while ignorant people often value too
highly, or rather too exclusively, the appeal to their feel ings, cultivated people are apt to shrink from such appeals
quite too much. Our feelings as to religion are habitually
too cold-who can deny it?  And any genuine excitement
is greatly to be desired. Inspired teachers have evidently
acted on this principle. The prophets made the most im passioned appeals. Our Lord and the apostles manifestly
strove not merely to convince their hearers, but to incite
them to earnest corresponding action, and their language
is often surcharged with emotion.
Yet we should never wish to excite feeling for its own
sake, but as a means of persuasion to the corresponding
course of action. In this respect many preachers err;
some from not clearly perceiving that emotion is little worth
unless it excites to action, and others, it is to be feared,
from an excessive desire for popular applause. These last
give their hearers the luxury of idle emotion, as a pathetic
novel or a tragedy might do, and hearers and preacher
go away well pleased with themselves and each other.t
* Whately, p. 215.
t The remarks of Day on excitation (Art of Disc. p. 171), insist-'
ing that it is distinct from persuasion, and that " a considerable part
of pulpit oratory" aims at excitation alone, are to be regretted, as
tending to encourage a common error.
235 
APPLICATION.
Bishop Butler, in a celebrated passage, has pointed out
"that practical habits are formed and strengthened by re peated acts, and that passive impressions grow weaker by
being repeated upon us....... Passive impressions made
upon our minds by admonition, experience, example, though
they may have a remote efficacy, and a very great one,
towards forming active habits, yet can have this efficacy
no otherwise than by inducing us to such a course of ac tion; and it is not being affected so and so, but acting,
which forms those habits; only it must be always remembered, that real endeavors to enforce good impressions upon
ourselves are a species of virtuous action." * No wonder
some preachers find that their pathetic descriptions and
passionate appeals now make but little impression upon
persons who were once powerfully affected by them. The
emotion was treated as an end, not as a means, and was
habitually allowed to subside without any effect upon the
hearer's active habits; and a steady diminution of the emotion itself was the inevitable result. Surely that is not
good preaching,-whatever the unthinking may suppose,which excites a mere transient and unproductive emotion.
It is matter of universal observation that a speaker who
would excite deep feeling must feel deeply himself. Demosthenes sometimes spoke with such passionate earnestness
that his enemies said he was deranged. Cicero says that it
is only passion that makes the orator a king; that, though
he himself had tried every means of moving men, yet his
successes were due, not to talent or skill, but to a mighty
fire in his soul so that he could not contain himself; and
that the hearer would never be kindled, unless the speech
came to him burning.t It is said of Ignatius Loyola, the
founder of the Jesuits, that he preached "with such an
unction and emotion, that even those amongst his audience
* Butler's Analogy, Part I, chap. 5, II.
t Cic. Orator, ] 128-132.
236 
APPLICATION.
who did not understand the language in which he spoke,
were, nevertheless, moved to tears by the very tones of his
voice-the earnestness and burning zeal which appeared
in his every gesture and look." *
Alas! it is often our chief difficulty in preaching to feel
ourselves as we ought to feel. And a genuine fervor cannot be produced to order by an effort of will. We must
cultivate our religious sensibilities, must keep our souls
habitually in contact with gospel truth, and maintain, by
the union of abundant prayer and self-denying activity,
that ardent love to God and that tender love to man which
will give us, without an effort, true pathos and passion.
The famous John Henry Newman, in his "University
Preaching," speaks as follows: "Talent, logic, learning,
words, manner, voice, action, all are required for the perfection of a preacher; but'one thing is necessary,' — an
intense perception and appreciation of the end for which
he preaches, and that is, to be the minister of some definite
spiritual good to those who hear him..... I do not mean
that a preacher must aim at earnestness, but 4that he must
aim at his object, which is to do some spiritual good to his
hearers, and which will at once make him earnest." t
When the preacher does feel very deeply, his mere exhortation will have some power to move, especially where
he has personal influence as a devout man, or for any
reason has the sympathies of his audience. There is then
the inexplicable contagion of sympathy. But he must
avoid getting clear away from the hearers in his passionate feeling, for then sympathy will give place to its
opposite.
Apart from sympathy with our own emotion, we can
excite emotion in others only by indirect means, not by
urging them to feel, though we should urge with the
greatest vehemence. We mus hold up before the mind
t Quoted by Potter, p. 218.
237
* Potter, Sac. El. p. 211. 
APPLICATION.
considerations calculated to awaken emotion, and let them
do their work.* For this purpose the preacher may of
course learn from the contemplation of the leading human
passions, as to their nature, and the best means of exciting
them.t And we need not only to know human nature in
general, but in most cases also need to understand the
peculiar circumstances, prejudices, tastes, etc. of those whom
we address. This is plainly demanded in the case of a
missionary to the heathen, but is hardly less necessary at
home. One reason why unlearned preachers often have
such power with the masses is, that they understand, and
fully sympathize with, the persons whom they address,
while learned men sometimes do not.
In order to excite any of the passions by speech, we have
to operate chiefly through the imagination. "A passion is
most strongly excited by sensation.  The sight of danger,
immediate or near, instantly rouseth fear; the feeling of
an injury, and the presence of the injurer, in a moment
kindle anger. Next to the influence of sense is that of
memory, the effect of which upon passion, if the fact be
recent, and remembered distinctly and circumstantially, is
almost equal.  Next to the influence of memory is that of
imagination." t In proportion as the hearer's imagination
is kindled, he seems to see that which we present, and the
effect upon his feelings approximates to the effect of sight.~
In presenting an object so that it may awaken imagination and impress the feelings, we usually need to give wellchosen details. Without this, as we have before seen, it is
impossible to make a narration or description impressive.l11
* Comp. Whately, p. 216-19.
t Aristotle's discussion of certain passions (Rhet. II, chap. 1-17)
is not exactly what we might hope to find, but contains much that
is curious and suggestive.
$ Campbell, Phil. of Rhet. p. 103.
{ See below on Imagination, Part III, chap. 5.
11 See above, chap. 5, ~ 1.
238 
APPLICATION.
But preachers sometimes so multiply details as to weary
the hearer, offend his taste, or betray a lack of right feeling on their own part. It may be gravely doubted whether
a man can carry through a minute description of the crucifixion, who is at the time cherishing an intense faith and
love towards Christ. A few vivid details, presented very
briefly, and with genuine emotion, will usually make a far
deeper impression. And so. with elaborate descriptions of
the day of judgment, and the agonies of perdition. One
who truly realized the scene, and tenderly loved his fellowmen, could hardly endure to dwell so long on the most
harrowing details, and the preacher who does this is apt to
be for the time (though unconscious of it) mainly alive to
the artistic interest in his picture.
Comparison is often very effective in awakening emotion. Thus we make men feel more deeply how shameful
is ingratitude to God, by first presenting some affecting
case of ingratitude to a human benefactor. The emotion
excited by something as regards which men feel readily
and deeply, is transferred to the object' compared.  E.g.
"Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth
them that fear him." The effect of climax, gradually working the feelings up to the highest pitch, may also be very
great, as every one has observed.
We must not try to be highly impassioned on all subjects, on all occasions, or in all parts of a discourse. Appeals to the feelings will usually be made only at the
conclusion; sometimes, after the discussion of each suecessive topic, but then we must be sure that the interest
first excited can be renewed, and gradually increased. It
is a common fault with inexperienced preachers to make
vehement appeals in the early part, even in the very
beginning, of a sermon; in such cases there will almost
inevitably be a reaction, and a decay of interest before the
close. If several impassioned passages are to occur, those
239 
APPLICATION.
which come first should be comparatively brief, and followed by something calm or familiar. It is also important
to avoid exhausting our physical force, before reaching
that portion of the sermon which calls for the most passionate earnestness.  He who is exhausted not only cannot
speak forcibly, but cannot feel deeply. And a concluding
exhortation should never be prolonged beyond the point
at which the preacher is still in full vigor, and the hearers feel a sustained interest.
240 
PART II.
ARRANGEMENT OF A SERMON.
CHAPTER I.
IMPORTANCE OF ARRANGEMENT.
RHE  effective arrangement of the materials in a dis- course is scarcely less important than their intrinsic
interest and force. This is a distinct part of the speaker's
work, and should be contemplated and handled as something apart from invention on the one hand and from style
on the other, albeit closely connected with both. In fact,
the task calls for a specific talent. Some men exhibit from
the very outset a power of constructing discourses which
is quite out of proportion to their general abilities; and
other men find nothing so difficult to acquire or exercise as
skill in arrangement. And here, as in everything else
that demands specific talent, there is need of special training and practice.
In this respect the speaker is an architect. Out of gathered materials hlie is to build a structure, and a structure
suited to its specific design. The same, or nearly the same
materials may be made into a dwelling, a jail, a factory, a
church. But how different the plan of the building according
to its design, and how important that it be built with special
reference to the design.   In like manner, substantially the
21                                           241 
2-12  IMPORTANCE OF ARRANGEMENI1.
same materials may be wrought into a story, a dialogue,
an essay, or a speech; and several speeches on the same
subject, and embodying much the same thoughts, may
make a very different impression according to the plan.
Or the speaker's task may be compared to the organization of an army, and then the concentration of its several
divisions upon one objective point.
"We know not how to name a composition without
order. It is disposition, it is order which constitutes discourse. The difference between a common orator and an
eloquent man is often nothing but a difference in respect to
disposition. Disposition may be eloquent in itself, and on
close examination we shall often see, that invention taken
by itself, and viewed as far as it can be apart from disposition, is a comparatively feeble intellectual force.'Good
thoughts,' says Pascal,'are abundant.' The art of organizing them is not so common...... I will not go so far
as to say that a discourse without order can produce no
effect, for I cannot say that an undisciplined force is an
absolute nullity. We have known discourses very defective in this respect, to produce very great effects. But we
may affirm in general, that other things being equal, the
power of discourse is proportional to the order which
reigns in it, and that a discourse without order (order, be
it remembered, is of more than one kind) is comparatively
feeble. A discourse has all the power of which it is susceptible, only when the parts proceeding from the same
design are intimately united, exactly adjusted, when they
mutually aid and sustain one another like the stones of an
arch.......This is so true, so felt, that complete disorder
is almost impossible, even to the most negligent mind. In
proportion to the importance of the object we wish to attain, or the difficulty of attaining it, is our sense of the
necessity of order.' *
* Vinet, p. 264-5. 
IMPORTANCE OF ARRANGEMENT. 243
(1) Arrangement is of great importance to the speaker
himself. It reacts upon invention. One has not really
studied a subject when he has simply thought it over in
a desultory fashion, however long-continued and vigorous
the thinking may have been. The attempt to arrange his
thoughts upon it suggests other thoughts, and can alone
give him just views of the subject as a whole. Good arrangement assists in working out the details, whether this
be done mentally or in writing. Each particular thought,
when looked at in its proper place, develops according to
the situation, grows to its surroundings.  If one speaks
without manuscript, an orderly arrangement of the discourse greatly helps him in remembering it. One reason
why some preachers find extemporaneous speaking so difficult is, that they do not arrange their sermons well. And
not only to invention and memory, but to emotion also, is
arrangement important. Whether in preparation or in
delivery, a man's feelings will flow naturally and freely,
only when he has the stimulus, support and satisfaction
which comes from conscious order.
The speaker -who neglects arrangement will rapidly lose,
instead of improving, his power of constructing, organizing, a discourse; * and he will have to rely, for the effect
of his sermons, entirely on the impression made by striking
particular thoughts, or on the possibility that high emotional excitement may produce something of order. For
passion does sometimes strike out an order of its own. "I
know that nothing is as logical, after its own manner, as
passion; and that we may depend upon it for the direction
of a discourse of which it is the principal inspiration.
The beginning we may be sure will be good, and the begin ning will produce all the rest. It will —be repetitious, it will
retrace its steps, it will digress, but it will do everything
with the grace and felicity which always ace impany it;
* omp. Shedd, p. 214. 
244  IMPORTANCE OF ARRANGEMENT.
and it would be less true and consequently less eloque at if
it were more logical in the ordinary sense of the word.  It
naturally finds the order which suits it, and it finds this
precisely because it does not seek after it. The rapid
propagation of ideas, their concatenation by means of
thoroughly vital transitions. which themselves constitute
the movement of the discourse, suffice for the eloquence
of passion."* This sort of thing is not unifrequently
observed in the best efforts of some uncultivated but gifted
men, and many a pastor has had occasional experience of
it when forced to preach with inadequate preparation, and
unusually helped by passionate emotion. It is very proper
that a preacher should sometimes give himself up, for a
small portion of a discourse, to the suggestions of passion,
should throw himself upon the current of feeling; and in
social meetings he may sometimes speak without any
immediate preparation, and yet if he becomes deeply
stirred, and gains the sympathies of his audience, may
speak with spontaneous order, and with powerful effect.
But to rely on this habitually is surpassingly unwise.
(2.) Still more important is good arrangement as regards
the effect upon the audience. It is necessary, first, in order
to make the discourse intelligible.   "Hearers generally,
when the preacher has a poor plan, feel the difficulty,
though they may not be able to trace it to its real source;
and one of the reasons why a man of truly philosophical mind is able'to make things plain' even to illiterate
hearers, is, that he presents clear thoughts in a proper
order." t Many persons appear to think that intelligibility
is altogether an affair of style; when in fact it depends
quite as much on clear thinking and on good arrangement
as on perspicuous expression. It is melancholy to think
how large a portion of the people, even in favored coiumunities, really do not u iderstand most of the preaching they
tRipley, Sac. Rhet. p. 85.
* Vinet., p. 271. 
IMPORTANCE OF ARRANGEMENT.  245
hear.  Not a few would say, like Tennyson's "Northern
Farmer," if they spoke with equal frankness, that they
had often heard "parson a bummin' awaaiy,"
"An' I niver knaw'd whot a meian'd, but I thowt a'ad summut
to saily,
An' I thowt a said whot a owt to'a said, an' I comed awaiy."
And not merely is this true of the comparatively ignorant
and stolidly inattentive, but many sermons are not understood by the better class. "The audience keep nothing
of the discourse; they carry away, in retiring, an indistinct
mass of remarks, of assertions, of appeals, which nothing
co-ordinates in their memory, and the impressions received
are summed up in the saddest criticism that can be made
by a devout person who came to hear with attention: I do
not know exactly what the preacher preached about." *
Besides, something worse may happen than that the discourse should not be understood; it may be misunderstood,
utterly, and with deplorable results. We must strive not
merely to render it possible that the people should understand us, but impossible that they should misunderstand.t
Again, it greatly contributes to make the discourse
pleasing.  "Order is heaven's first law."  Even those
phenomena in nature which seem most irregular, and
those scenes which appear to be marked by the wildest
variety, are pervaded by a subtle order, witho)t which
they would not please. Chaos might be terrible, but could
never be beautiful. And discourses, which are pleasing but
appear to have no plan, will be found really to possess an
order of their own, however unobtrusive or peculiar. An
ill-arranged sermon may of course contain particular passages that are pleasing, but even these would appear to
still greater advantage as parts of an orderly whole, and
* Coquerel, Observ. sur la Prod. p. 160.
t Comp. on Persp,,uity of Style, Part III, chap. 2.
21* 
246  IMPORTANCE OF ARRANGEMENT.
the general effect of that whole must be incomparably
better. Let it be added that a well-arranged discourse
will much more surely keep the attention of the audience.
And this not merely because it is more intelligible and
more pleasing, but also because, being conformed to the
natural laws of human thinking, it will more readily carry
the hearer's thoughts along with it.
Further, good arrangement makes a discourse more persuasive. Both in presenting motives and in appeals to
feeling, order is of great importance.  He who wishes to
break a hard rock with his sledge, does not hammer miscellaneously over the surface, but multiplies his blows
upon a certain point or along a certain line. They who
lift up huge buildings apply their motive power systematically, at carefully chosen points. So when motives are
brought to bear upon the will.* And the hearer's feelings
will be much more powerfully and permanently excited,
when appeals are made in some natural order. "We may,
by a word or an isolated act, give a movement to the soul,
inclining it immediately to a certain object, to perform an
act of will; but this movement is only a shock. By the
same means we may repeat, multiply these shocks.....
Eloquence consists in maintaining movement by the development of a thought or proof, in perpetuating it, according
to the expression of Cicero,'What is eloquence but a colntinuous movement of the soul?'" t
And finally, it causes the discourse to be more easily
remembered.
The importance of arrangement may be further seen by
observing what are the principal elements of good arrange.
meint? They appear to be unity, order, and proportion.
It might seem quite unnecessary to urge the importance of
unity in a discourse, but it is very often neglected in prac.
* As to the order of Arguments, see above, Part I, chap. 6, i 4.
t Vinet, p. 289. 
IMIPO RTANCE OF ARRANGEMENT.  247
tice, particularly in text-sermons and expository sermons,
which are frequently made up of two or three little sermons
in succession. Whether the unity be that of a doctrinal
proposition, of an historical person, or of a practical design,
in some way there must be unity. And not only this, but
order. All that is said might be upon the same subject,
while the several thoughts by no means follow one another
according to their natural relations, or according to the
design of the discourse. But further, there must be proportion. This involves two things. The several parts of
the discourse, whether they are distinctly indicated or not,
must be so treated as to make up a symmetrical whole. Not
that they are to be all discussed at the same length, but at
a length proportioned to their relations to each other and
to the entire discourse. And besides this proportion of
natural symmetry, there is that of specific design. One
may treat substantially the same topic, in essentially the
same manner, and yet greatly vary the length of particular
parts, and the stress laid upon them, according to the
object then and there had in view; just as two animals are
often found constructed according to the same plan, and
with equal symmetry, while yet certain bones are of ex ceedingly different size, being adapted to special functions.
Coquerel says that the lack of method is the most
common fault of preaching, and the most inexcusable,
because usually the result of insufficient labor.  "A  man
cannot give himself all the qualities of the orator; but by
taking the necessary pains, he can connect his ideas, and
proceed with order in the composition of a discourse."*
WVithout specific talent for building discourse, one will not
find it an easy task, and may never become able to strike
out plans that will be remarkably felicitous; but a fair
degree of success in arrangement is certainly within the
reach of all, provided they are willing to work.
* Coquerel, p. 163. 
248 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
CHAPTER II.
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
1. INTRODUCTION.  ~ 2. PLAN AND DIVISIONS.  ~ 3. CONCLUSION.
T-HE  analysis of a discourse which some writers have
proposed is too artificial.  Some of the parts which
they distinguish are very often blended with other parts.
The exposition, for instance, will often constitute the introduction, and in many cases no formal exposition is necessary
or appropriate. The proposition of the subject scarcely
needs to be treated as a distinct part of the discourse.
The simplest and most natural analysis would seem to be
that which gives three parts, viz. the introduction, the
plan, (including divisions, when these are made,) and the
conclusion.
~ 1. THE INTRODUCTION.*
1. It can scarcely be necessary to argue at length to the
effect that sermons ought generally to have an introduction. Men have a natural aversion to abruptness, and
delight in a somewhat gradual approach. A building is
rarely pleasing in appearance, without a porch, or something corresponding to a porch. The shining light of
dawn, which shineth more and more till the perfect day,
teaches us a lesson. And so any composition or address
which has no introduction, is apt to look incomplete. An
elaborate piece of music will always have a prelude, or at
* This topic is very fully and carefully treated by Quintilian, IV,
1, and by Claude. See also Vinet and Hoppin. 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.  249
least a few introductory notes; and in poems, histories,
etc., there is usually some introduction. The same thing
is true as to very many books of the Bible.
The introduction has two chief objects, to interest our
hearers in the subject, and to prepare them for understanding it. As to the former, a preacher may usually, it is
true, count on a certain willingness to hear. Not many
come who are hostile to the truth, but very many, alas!
who are sadly careless about it. And a much more lively
attention may be secured by an interesting introduction.
"We all know how much depends in the ordinary affairs
of life upon first impressions. The success of his sermon
often depends upon the first impressions which a preacher
makes upon his hearers in his exordium. If these impressions be favorable, his audience will listen to the remaining part of his discourse with pleasure and attention; and
consequently, with profit." * Our aim should be to excite
not merely an intellectual interest, but, so far as possible
at the outset, a spiritual and practical interest- to bring
them into sympathy with our own feeling, and attune their
minds into harmony with the subject we design to present.
One may sometimes expressly request attention, as did
Moses (Deut. 4: 1), Isaiah (28: 14), Stephen (Acts 7: 2),
and our Lord (Matt. 15: 10); but such a request, if often
repeated, would lose its force, and it is usually best to aim
at saying something which will at once interest the hearer's
mind.  "What is the best way," asked a young preacher
of an older one, "to get the attention of the congregation?" "Give'erm something to attend to," was the gruff
reply.
The other object, to prepare the audience for under standing the subject, is obviously very important, and to
some extent can often be effected. But our efforts in this
respect must be carefully guarded against the danger of
* Potter, Sa-. Eloqience, p. 97. 
250 THiE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
anticipating something which properly belongs to the body
of the discourse.
The German preachers very often give an introduction
before announcing the text. This fashion appears to have
originated in the fact that most of them are required to
take their text from the pericope, or lesson appointed for
the day, so that it may be assumed as to some extent known
already, before it is announced. The habitual practice of
thus beginning with an introduction is apt to make it too
general, or pointless, or far-fetched - faults not unfrequently
seen in the German discourses; but some introductions of
this sort are exceedingly felicitous, and the practice is well
worthy of occasional adoption among ourselves.
There are cases in which it is best to dispense with introduction, and plunge at once into the discussion; for
example, when the sermon must needs be long, or when
nothing has been struck out that would make a really good
introduction. In familiar addresses, as at prayer-meetings,
Sunday School meetings, etc., this course is quite often
preferable. In all preaching, let there be a good introduction, or none at all. "Well begun is half done." And
ill begun is apt to be wholly ruined.
2. The sources from which the preacher may draw introductions are extremely numerous and various. There may,
however, be some advantage in classifying them as follows:
(1.) The text. Wherever the meaning of the text requires explanation, this explanation may of course form
the introduction.   So, too, when an explanation of the
context would throw light on the meaning of the text.*
These seem to be very natural sources; and Robert Hall,
with his severe taste, commonly began with some explanation of the text or the context, preferring this to more ambitious introductions. And if not for explanation proper,
* As to the method of pulpit exposition, see above, Part I, chap.
6, Q 1. 
TEE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 251
there may be occasion for illustration of the text, by means
of historical and geographical knowledge, such as will
make its meaning, though not more clear, yet more vivid
and interesting.   In other cases, some account of the
writer of the text, or of the condition of any particular
persons whom he addressed (as in the case of Paul), may
serve to interest hearers in the text, or to prepare them for
understanding it.
(2.) The subject to be discussed, if obvious from the
mere statement of the text, or if announced at the outset,
may then furnish an introduction in various ways. We
may remark on its relation to some other subject, e.g. "to
the genus, of which the subject is a species," or to some
opposed or similar subject, or one related to it as cause, or
consequence, or case in point. Where the sermon is designed to be explanatory or practical, an introduction on
the importance of the subject will often be appropriate;
where the sermon is to establish the truth of a proposition, or to exhibit its importance, the introduction
will frequently explain the nature of the subject in volved.  The preacher "may state the intellectualadvan tages to be derived from discussing such a theme.   The
subject may be the doctrine of moral evil, or that of
divine sovereignty; it may be stated at the beginning,
that these are the greatest problems of the human mind
meeting the philosopher as well as the theologian; that
they have called forth the strength of the best intellects
of the race; that no problems are more difficult, and there fore none more deserving of the attention of thinking
minds.  He may state the connections of the subject with
other more practical spiritual truths  He may remove the
prejudice that the doctrine has no immediate practical
bearing or utility, even as depravity, for instance, or the
doctrine of sin, lies in one sense, at the base of the whole
Chiistian system, of theatonement, regeneration, holiness, 
252 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
and the Christian life. He may make some historical allu.
sion naturally connected with the theme, which always
forms an attractive introduction." * And so in many other
ways.t
(3.) The occasion. If the sermon has reference to some
particular season of the year, or is preached at some special
religious meeting, in connection with the administration of
an ordinance, or the like, we may begin by remarking
upon the occasion. So with allusions to the character
of the times in which we live, or to recent events or existing circumstances, as showing why the particular text or
subject has been chosen, or as tending to awaken a livelier
interest in it.t  Or we may speak of doubts known to
exist as to the question involved, or hostility to the truth in
this respect, or of some common mistake, or some prevailing or growing error, or evil practice, with reference to this
subject.~ In other cases allusion is made to the religious
condition of the church or congregation, or cheering news
from some other church or section of country. Sometimes
one may refer to a subject or subjects heretofore discussed,
as furnishing occasion for presenting to-day the present
subject; and the hymn which has just been sung, or a passage of Scripture (not containing the text) which has been
read, will occasionally afford an interesting introduction.
In rare cases, the preacher may begin by speaking of himself, whether it be of his feelings as a preacher, of his
interest as a pastor, of some particular epoch in his connection with this church, or of something belonging to his
personal experience as a Christian.I  Only, let the preacher
beware of apologies. These often create the suspicion of
* loppin, p. 124.                        t Comp. Vinet, p. 802.
t E. g. Wesley's sermon on The Great Assize.
Q Comp. Otto, Prak. Theol. s. 368.
11 To this class belongs an exceedingly felicitous introduction of
Spurgeon's, First Series, Sermon I. 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 253
insincerity, where it is undeserved, because they are sometimes in fact insincere, and because the preacher who feels
at the outset oppressed by ill health or unfavorable circumstances, may, quite unexpectedly to himself, rise to the
subject, and succeed remarkably well. Let a preacher never
say he feels unusually embarrassed on the present occasion,
etc. etc., as we hear it so often. Apologies are like public
rebukes for disorder in the congregation, in that one will
very seldom regret having omitted them, however strongly
inclined at the moment to speak. When there is any real
occasion, whether in beginning or ending the sermon, for
what might be called apology, let it never proceed, or seem
to proceed, from anxiety as to the preacher's reputation;
let it be brief, quiet, and, as it were, incidental.
The question will often require to be decided whether
any of these remarks upon the occasion shall be made in
the introduction, or in the conclusion.  We must consider
whether a particular remark of this kind is better suited
to awaken interest in the discussion, or to deepen the
impression made by the application. Affecting personal
allusions, in which the preacher might be interrupted by
his emotions, are in general better reserved to the conclusion.
(4.) There is an immense variety of other sources, which
do not admit of classification, and can only be set down as
miscellaneous.   The preacher's inventive genius should
be freely and widely exercised, in seeking for every particular sermon the most thoroughly appropriate introduction.*
* The student may consult, as a few examples of very striking
introductions, Bossuet's Funeral Sermon for the Duchess of Orleans, though this has some obvious faults;-Monod's Sermon on
"God is Love;" Robert Robinson on "If ye love me, keep my
commandments;" and Richard Fuller on The Three Hebrews in
the Furnace-where some would think it better to omit the first
words.
22 
254 THIE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
3. Let us turn to consider the qualities of a good Introduction.
The introduction must present some thought closely
related to the theme of discourse, so as to lead to the theme
with naturalness and ease, and yet a thought quite distinct from the discussion.  Inexperienced preachers very
frequently err by anticipating in the introduction something which belongs to the body of the discourse; and the
danger of doing this should receive their special attention.
As a rule, the introduction should not aim to give instruction separate and apart from the lessons of the discourse. Its design is altogether preparatory. The preacher
will often find himself tempted, especially in introductions
drawn from the text or context, to remark in passing upon
interesting matters which are somehow suggested, but are
foreign to his purpose on that occasion. This temptation
should be resisted, except in very peculiar cases. You
have determined to carry the audience along a certain
line of thought, hoping to arrive at a definite and important conclusion. Do not first wander about and stray
awhile into other paths, but lead on towards the route
selected, and enter it.
The introduction should generally consist of a single
thought; we do not want a porch to a porch. But it
is frequently appropriate to present some introductory
thought, and afterwards give an exposition, which in such
cases becomes a part of the body of the discourse, or else
constitutes a sort of halt, while we clear the way for the
discussion.
It is desirable to avoid the practice of beginning with
some very broad and commonplace generality, as with
reference to human nature or life, to the universe or the
Divine Being. Of course there is sometimes real occasion
for this, but many preachers practise it as an habitual 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 255
method, and it is apt to sound like anl opening promise of
dulness- a platitude to start on.
On the other hand, the introduction must not seem to
promise too much, in its thoughts, style, or delivery. Let
it be such as to excite interest and awaken expectation,
provided the expectation can be fairly met by the body of
the discourse. It should not be highly argumentative, nor
highly impassioned. As to the latter, it must be remembered that even if the preacher is greatly excited at the
outset, the audience usually are not, and he had better
restrain himself, so as not to get beyond the range of their
sympathies. When Cicero broke out with his opening
words against Catiline, the Senate was already  much
excited; and so with Massillon at the funeral of Louis the
Great.*  Such exceptional cases must be decided as they
arise. "It is the privilege of talent and the fruit of study
and experience, to know when to venture and when to
abstain. It cannot be allowed to teaching, strictly so
called, to set aside talent or anticipate the dictates of experience." t Moreover, while earnestly seeking to make
the introduction interesting and engaging, we must shun
the sensational, and the pretentious. Whatever savors of
display is exceedingly objectionable in a preacher, and
particularly at the outset. And he should not merely
begin with personal modesty, but also with official modesty,
reserving for some later period of the sermon anything
which it may be proper to state with the authority belong ing to his office.
A good introduction would, in general, be exclusively
adapted to the particular discourse. In some cases, a cer tain general thought might with equal propriety introduce
several different subjects. Thus some account of Paul
might form the introduction to sermons on various pas
*  My brethren, God only is great," were his first words.
t Vinet, p. 105. 
256 TIIE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMfON.
sages of his writings; yet the account must in almost
every case be at least slightly varied, if it is to be ex actly adapted to the design. So with the description of
a Scripture locality; and so, to some extent, with introductions personal to the speaker. Lawyers make many
speeches on very similar subjects or occasions; and this
fact partly explains Cicero's statement that he kept some
introductions on hand, for any speech they might suitas was also done by Demosthenes.* We should beware
of set phrases and stereotyped forms of introduction; tb.he
people very soon begin to recognize them, and the effect is
then anything else than to awaken interest and excite
curiosity. Nowhere is it more important to have the
stimulus and charm of variety, and this is best attained
by habitually seeking to give the introduction a specific
and exact adaptation.
The introduction must not be too long. An eminent
preacher, much inclined to this fault, was one day accosted
by a plain old man as follows: "Well, you kept us so
long in the porch this morning that we hardly got into
the house at all." Of course it may sometimes be much
longer than would be generally proper; and the attempt
of some writers to tell how many sentences an introduction should contain, is exceedingly unwise. But "where
one sermon is faulty from being too abruptly introduced,
one hundred are faulty from a long and tiresome preface." t
The introduction, though simple and inelaborate, should
be carefully prepared. Quintilian remarks that a faulty
proem may look like a scarred face; and that he will certainly be thought a very bad helmsman who lets the ship
strike in going out of the harbor.1 The extemporaneous
speaker should know quite exactly what he is to say ill
* Comp. Vinet, p. 301.
1 Quint. IV, 1, 61.
t Shedd, p. 182, 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 257
the introduction. But it is very doubtful whether he
ought, as is frequently recommended and practised, to have
the introduction written, when the remainder of the discourse is unwritten. It is too apt to seem formal, and the
transition to the unwritten to be abrupt and precipitous,
something like stepping from a wharf into deep water, as
compared with quietly wading out from the shore. It will
sometimes happen that at an early stage of the preparation, an introduction will occur to the mind; more commonly, it has to be struck out or selected after the principal
materials have been gathered.  But as to the composition
of the sermon in detail, (whether it be written or unwritten
composition,) the introduction should be composed before
the body of the discourse. This is the natural order, and
the finished introduction will assist the preacher in composing the remainder, somewhat as it will help the hearers.
An introduction to a discourse is quite different from a
preface to a book.
The discussion of this subject may close with a useful
remark from Vinet: "Among experienced preachers we
find few examples of exordiums altogether defective; we
find few good ones among preachers at their beginning.
We hence naturally infer, that there is in this part of the
discourse something of special delicacy, but nothing which
demands peculiar faculties." *
~ 2. PLAN AND DIVISIONS.
1. The body of the discourse must be constructed on
some plan, or it is not a discourse at all. Though there
be no divisions, and no formal arrangement of any kind,
yet the thoughts must follow each other according to the
natural laws of thought. Men who rely on their powers
of absolute extemporizing, or who imagine themselves to
22*
* Vinet, p. 297. 
258 THEI  SEVIERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
possess a quasi-inspiration, usually stagger and stray in
every direction, following no definite line, and accomplish inig very little, save where passion comes in, and strikes
out an order of its own.*
The plan of a discourse in the broadest sense includes
the introduction and the conclusion, but as these are here
discussed separately, we may, for convenience, speak of
the plan apart from them.
It is not well to call the body of the discourse the proof,
as a general name, though some able writers have done so.
The treatment frequently consists of proof, in whole or in
part, but frequently also of explanation, or the impressive exhibition of a theme, without any process of proof.
In hortatory sermons there is a series of motives, but to
bring these to bear on the will is a very different thing
.from proving, though often confounded with it.t After
excluding the introduction and conclusion, the remainder is perhaps best called the treatment of the subject,
or simply the body of the discourse. But our present
concern with this is to consider the fact that it must have
a plan.
Sometimes a plan will occur to us with the subject, or
on very little reflection. In other eases we only get a
variety of separate thoughts. It is well then to jot them
down as they occur, to make the thoughts objective, so
that we may draw off and look at them, and sooner or
later a plan of treatment will present itself. This effort t6
make out an arrangement will often suggest to us new
thoughts which otherwise we should never have gained.t
One ought to seek not merely for some plan, but for the
best. "There are plans energetic and rich, which, applying the lever as deeply as possible, raise the entire mass
of the subject; there are others which escape the deepest
* Comp. chap. 1, on the importance of arrangement.
I Comp. Part I, chap. 8, on Application.: Comp. chap. 1. 
THIE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 259
divisions of the matter, and which raise, so to speak, only
one layer of the subject. Here it is, especially here, in
the conception of plans, that we distinguish those orators
who are capable of the good, from those who are capable
of the better - of that better, to say the truth, which is
the decisive evidence of talent or of labor...... Every
one should strive, as far as possible, for this better, and
not be content with the first plan which may present
itself to his thought, unless, after having fathomed it, he
finds it sufficient for his purpose, suited to exhaust his subject, to draw forth its power- unless, in a word, he can
see nothing beyond it." * The plan ought to be sinmple,
not only free from obscurity, but free from all straining
after effect, and yet ought, so far as possible, to be fresh
and striking. So many sermons follow the beaten track,
in which we can soon foresee all that is coming, as to make
it a weary task even for devout hearers to listen attentively.
One feels inclined to utter a plaintive cry, "Worthy brother, excellent brother, if you could only manage to drive
us sometimes over a different road, even if much less smooth,
even if you do not know it very well - I am so tired of
this!"  And it is only a plan that strikes, that has any
chance of being remembered. Still, we must carefully
avoid mere sensational, odd, or "smart" plans.  A sermon
might excite much interest, and be remembered long, by
reason of such qualities, without doing half as much real
good as another that was heard quietly and soon for gotten, but made, so far as it went, a salutary impression.t
We must also avoid great formality of plan.
"May I be permitted to remark, though it seem a digression,
that in the mode of conducting our public ministrations, we are,
perhaps, too formal and mechanical; that in the distribution of
the matter of our sermons we indulge too little variety, and expos
* Vinet, p. 276-7.
t Comp. as to selection of Texts, Part I, chap. 1. 
260 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
ing all our plan in all its parts, abate the edge of curiosity by
enabling the hearer to anticipate what we intend to advance. Why
should that force which surprise gives to every emotion derived
from just and affecting sentiments be banished from the pulpit,
when it is found of such moment in every other kind of public
address? I cannot but imagine the first preachers of the gospel
appeared before their audience with a more free and unfettered air
than is consistent with the narrow trammels to which, in these
latter ages, discourses from the pulpit are confined. The sublime
emotions with which they were fraught would have rendered them
imnpatient of such restrictions; nor could they suffer the impetuous
stream of argument, expostulation, and pathos to be weakened, bydiverting it into the artificial reservoirs prepared in the heads and
particulars of a modern sermon. Method, we are aware, is an
essential ingredient in every discourse designed for the instruction
of mankind, but it ought never to force itself on the attention as an
object apart; never appear to be an end, instead of an instrument;
or beget a suspicion of the sentiments being introduced for the
sake of the method, not the method for the sentiments. Let the
experiment be tried on some of the best specimens of ancient eloquence; let an oration of Cicero or Demosthenes be stretched upon
a Procrustes' bed of this sort, and, if I am not greatly mistaken, the
flame and enthusiasm which have excited admiration in all ages
will instantly evaporate; yet no man perceives a want of method
in these immortal compositions, nor can anything be conceived
more remote from incoherent rhapsody "*
As regards formality, there has been much improvement
during the present century, but many preachers are still
stiff, uniform and monotonous in their plans.t
2. The plan of a discourse will usually embrace a state
* Robert HIall, Sermon on the Discouragements and Supports of a Christian Minister, Works, Vol. I, p. 140.
t Examples of strikingly felicitous plans may be frequently met
with in the sermons of Saurin, William Jay, and Spurgeon; see
also R. Hall on the Glory of God in Concealing, and J. M. Mason
on Messiah's Throne, the latter having a considerable multiplication of divisions and subdivisions, but admirably managed. The
plans of Spurgeon incline to formality, those of Beecher are perhaps too discursive and unsymmetrical. 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 261
ment of the subject, what is technically called the Proposition. There is frequently no need of this, the subject
being obvious firom the text, or sufficiently indicated by
the introduction.   In most  cases, however, the subject
should be distinctly stated, even in many text-sermons and
expository sermons, and sometimes the proposition requires
great care.* As to its form, the proposition may be logical
or rhetorical.  "Religion produces happiness" would be a
logical, "The pleasures of piety" a rhetorical proposition.
The former conduces to unity, consecutive thinking, argumentative force; the latter to freedom and variety of treatrent, giving room for proof, impressive exhibition, application, or whatever mode of treatment may be desired. A
preacher will be likely to prefer one or the other according
to his turn of mind and training. Whichever he prefers,
he ought frequently to employ the other, for the sake of his
own improvement and of variety in his discourses. Sometimes the two forms may both be used in the same discourse; thus a man might announce as his subject, "Religion produces happiness, or the pleasures of pietv." A
variety of the logical is the interrogative form. This sometimes awakens attention by seeming to leave it an open
question, to be decided on the present occasion, whether
the proposition involved is true or false, or by stimulating
curiosity as to the precise answer to the question which the
preacher will give.   In some cases it is more consistent
with modesty to propose an inquiry than a process of
proof.   And where the subject requires to be discussed
both negatively and affirmatively, the interrogative form
of proposition is particularly convenient.   "Should thb
preacher's subject be, for instance, Evidences of personal
piety, it would be more congruous, instead of exposing
under this statement, in several items, insufficient or false
* As to the propriety of withholding the proposition through
policy, see Part I, chap 6, i 1. 
262 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
evidences, and then mentioning in the same series the satisfactory evidences, to raise the inquiry, What are genuine
evidences of piety? In answering this inquiry, he might
either in a didactic manner deny the sufficiency of certain
supposed evidences, or propose various questions, such as
Is such a quality, or course of conduct, a genuine evidence? Is such another? etc.,.... and then exhibit the
true evidences." *
The proposition, or statement of the subject, should be
complete (i.e. including all that it is proposed to treat),
simple and clear, brief and attractive.t It may sometimes
be repeated, whether in different forms, or in other but
equivalent terms; and occasionally the hearers are gradually brought up to it by, a series of statements, the last of
which is definite and precise, seeming to strike the very
heart of the matter.
3. It is a question of much practical importance whether
the plan of a discourse ought to include DIVISIONS, and if
so, what should be their number, character, order, and
general management.s
(1.) Two things are obviously necessary to an effective
discourse; that there shall be a plan, as we have seen, and
that there shall be movement, progress. These requisites
must be harmonized. The movement must not be wild
and irregular, like undisciplined cavalry, and the orderly
plan must not involve such interruptions and pauses as
would retard movement.  Furthermore, as a work of art,
a discourse ought not to have its joints obtrusively prominient, nor its several members attracting too much of separate attention, but all should stand forth as one symmetrical
* Ripley, p. 54. Comp. p. 52-4.
t Comp. Otto, Prak. Theol. s. 332.
1 The term' heads' is practically synonymous with' divisions.'
The distinction between division and partition is too refined for our
present purpose. 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 263
whole. The Greek and Roman orators, greatly concerned
to make the speech a finished work of art, and often anxious to hide the labor bestowed upon the preparation, made
no clearly marked divisions. Yet in all cases they followed
a definite plan, and advanced in an orderly manner, even
as Horace says,* speaking of poetry, that the power and
the beauty of order consists in saying just now what just
now ought to be said, and postponing for the present all
the rest. In much the same manier the Christian Fathers
preached. But the great Schoolmen of the middle ages,
applying the most minute logical analysis to all subjects of
philosophy and religion, established a fashion which was
soon followed in preaching also. The young preachers,
being trained by the books they read and by the oral
teaching at the Universities to nothing else than this
minute analytical discussion, made the mistake so often
made still, of carrying lecture-room methods into the
pulpit.   Analysis became the rage.   Scarcely anything
was thought of but clear division and logical concatenation, and to this was to a great extent sacrificed all oratorical movement and artistic harmony. Too much of the
preaching of all the modern centuries has been marred by
this fault. Analytical exposition of topics, and elaborate
argumentation, have been the great concern, to the comparative neglect of simplicity and naturalness, of animated
movement and practical power. Preachers, especially the
educated, have too often regarded instruction and conviction as the aim of their labors, when they are but means
of leading men to the corresponding feeling, determination,
and action. And the custom being thus established, it has
been followed, simply because it was the custom, by many
practical and deeply earnest preachers, who limited and
overcame the evils of the method as best they could.
Two centuries ago, when the excessive multiplication
* Ars Poetica, 42. 
264 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
of formal divisions and equally formal subdivisions was
almost universal in France as well as in England, Fenelon
inveighed vehemently against the whole fashion, urging a.
return to the methods of the ancient orators,* and on this
question almost all subsequent writers have taken sides.
Yet a certain formality of division and of general order has
continued to be common in France and Germany, and for
the most part in England and America. Dr. Arnold of
Rugby set the example, and urged it upon others, of avoiding divisions, and making the sermon a very informal
address, and since his time many preachers in the Church
of England, such as Trench and Kingsley, have followed
that course.t But it is worthy of special notice that the
two ablest and most generally admired preachers the
Church of England has recently produced, Robertson and
Liddon, both regularly make divisions, and commonly
indicate them in passing, while the former frequently
states his divisions beforehand, and also marks numerous
subdivisions.
From these principles and facts, what are we to conclude?  Distinctly marked divisions are not necessary, and
need not be made where the plan of the discourse can be
easily followed without them; only the preacher must
remember in judging on this point, that the plan is of
course familiar to him, and his hearers. may not note
transitions which are obvious to his eye, unless attention
be somehow called to them. But while not necessary,
distinctly marked divisions will usually be of service, not
only in making the train of thought plain to the hearers,
but also of service to the preacher himself, both as compelling to logical correctness and completeness of preparation, and as helping him to remember, in extemporaneous
* Fenelon, Dialogues on Eloq., Dial. II.
t There is said to be of late a similar movement on the part of
some preachers in Germany. 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 265
delivery. In every particular sermon or class of sermons,
we must decide the case upon its own merits; but it will
commonly be best to make divisions. Whether they shall
be slightly or broadly marked, and how carefully the
entrance upon a new division should be indicated, must
also be decided according to the merits of the case. Where
the subject specially requires explanation and argument,
it will commonly be advantageous to have clearly stated
divisions, and frequently subdivisions also; but these must
not be so multiplied, nor so stated, as to prevent the discourse from standing out as a living whole, or to interrupt its progressive movement towards the practical end
in view.
Alexander says * that "as much as a discourse gains in
method and articulation by composing it according to a
logical analysis or programme, so much it loses in rapidity, richness and animation;" and so he inclines to favor
Fenelon's view. But it is to be observed that Alexander
formed this judgment from his experience in middle age,
with a thoroughly disciplined mind, accustomed to compose in logical order. In such circumstances a man is apt
to grow weary of all regulated methods, so as to feel relief
in disregarding them, and he may often allow himself to
do so, because his mind may be relied on to achieve a spontaneous order. But for most men, especially the young,
the case is otherwise, and such remarks were probably
never designed for them.
It is frequently said that secular orators at the present
day make no formal divisions. But they often do, particularly in elaborate addresses to a great popular audience, sometimes even announcing beforehand the series of
topics they mean to discuss. In most of the speeches made
by lawyers and statesmen, the history of the case or the
nature of the question determines the order of discussion,
* 7houghts on Preaching, p. 52. Comp. p. 32.
23 
266 THEi SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
and leaves no occasion for dividing the subject on any
other principle.
(2.) As to the number of divisions, we must consult
simplicity, and at the same time vividness and variety. It
is of course more simple to have but few, and in many
cases two divisions will be most natural and pleasing.
Vinet says of Bossuet that "he delights, like Fenelon, in
dichotomy; and in my judgment, divisions into two parts
are ordinarily the most tasteful." * But as a uniform
method, the twofold arrangement scarcely presents the
requisite variety. It is also highly desirable that the
divisions, as stated, should be interesting, having the vividness which belongs to concrete or specific thoughts, and
this can often be attained only by having several divisions,
since the reduction to a smaller number would render them
abstract or general. "Take the topic, In what consists
the glory of gospelpreaching?  In that it 1) is appointed
by the Son of God; 2) makes known the will of God; 3)
promises the grace of God; 4) is performed in the strength
of God; 5) is attended by the blessing of God, and 6)
leads souls to the presence of God. The division might
be simplified: 1) in its establishment; 2) in its subject;
3) in its operation and effects. But the former is to be
preferred because more striking." t Yet when the heads
become as many as five or six, they must follow each other
in a very natural order, or the average hearer will not
easily retain them in mind. Accordingly, judicious and
skilful preachers seldom have more than four heads.
We are thus prepared to understand why it is that sermons oftener have three divisions than any other number.
This is a fact long observed, and made the subject of small
wit- "three heads, like a sermon." I  No doubt many
* Vinet, p. 334.                   t Otto, Prak. Theol. s. 355.
J Coquerel, p. 149, quotes ridicule o' it by La Bruyere, in the
reign of Louis XIV. 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 267
preachers have tried to make out three divisions, even where
nothing called for it, simply from habit, or from blindly
following a custom. But the custom itself must have had
some natural origin. Now a principal reason for it is seen
from the considerations stated above; three divisions will
give a goodly variety, without distracting attention, or
burdening the memory. And in many directions we meet
with similar or analogous facts. Thus one of the commonest schemes of discourse will naturally be, What?,
Why? What  then? i. e. explain, prove, apply.  A  sylL
logism, when fully stated, furnishes three propositions.
There cannot be a climax without at least three steps.
Three gives the idea of completeness - beginning, middle,
end.  When men start in a race, the signal is always, "One,
two, three," neither more nor less. The Scriptures often use
a threefold repetition as the most emphatic and impressive;
Holy, holy, holy, Ask, seek, knock, etc. Often logical
and rhetorical reasons combine to fix three as the number.
Thus, The resurrection of the body is 1) possible, 2) probable, 3) certain.   To carry religion into daily life is
1) possible, 2) desirable, 3) obligatory. Piety is for every
young man 1) a thing to be respected, 2) a thing to be
desired, 3) a thing to be sought.* These considerations
go to show that it is not accidental, and not strange, that
elaborate discourses so often have three divisions. The
fact that this is the commonest number may incline us to
avoid it, unless required by the natural arrangement of
the subject; but when it is so required, as must very frequently be the case, let us employ it without hesitation.
In general, then, one should make the most natural division, considering the subject and the practical design of
the discourse, but not often allowing the number of heads
* So Cicero, in the oration for the Manilian Law, argues, "You
must choose a general; you must choose an able general; you must
choose Cneius Pompeius."  Hoppin, p. 155. 
268 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
to exceed four. That in so doing the number most frequently occurring will be three, and next to that two, is
what he may expect.
(3.) The character of the divisions must be determined
by their relation to the subject proposed and to each other.
As to the former, it is obvious that no one division should
be coextensive with the subject; and yet inexperienced
sermonizers sometimes unconsciously have it so. More
important is the inquiry, whether the divisions should
exhaust the subject. This depends upon what we mean by
the subject.  The general subject treated will very seldom
be exhaustively divided in a sermon; but the view of it
proposed in the discourse ought to be exhausted by the
divisions. That is to say, they ought to exhaust the proposition, or we might say, the subject proposed.  Yet even
in this narrower sense, the oratorical division and subdivision of a subject will not commonly exhaust it as a
logical analysis would do. The latter must rigorously set
forth "all and singular" the contents of the proposition.
The former requires that its divisions shall with a certain
general completeness cover the whole ground of the proposition, so as to make the discourse a structure, but does
not always demand scientific accuracy in that respect; and
as to subdivisions, it is very easy to carry analysis farther
than conduces to practical effect in speaking.  Barrow,
whose sermons are remarkable specimens of completeness
in treating the subject proposed, whom Charles II called
"an unfair preacher, because he exhausted every subject,
and left nothing for others to say after him," has sometimes carried his analytical discussion so far as to make it
wearisome to any ordinary congregation. The complete
iog,ical analysis of a subject, dividing and subdividing,
will sometimes be useful as a part of the preparation for
preaching on it; but the oi itorical division is distinct 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 269
from this, and often very different, especially as to subdivisions.*
As regards the relation of the divisions to each other,
they must be distinct and symnmetrical. It is not uncommon for unpractised speakers to have one division that
really includes another,t and very common to see one that
includes some part of what also comes under another. We
are sometimes greatly tempted, in treating one branch of a
subject, to go on with some closely related matter which
yet properly belongs to another branch. The incongruity
is not always obvious, and requires attention. Sometimes,
in fact, it is difficult to decide where such or such an idea
more properly belongs; but it must be confined to one
head, or fairly divided between the two, so that, in whatever way, the heads shall be kept distinct.  Furthermore,
ideas are frequently set forth as distinct divisions which
are not sufficiently distinct to be divided at all; and ideas
which are distinct, will be so stated as to glide into each
other, without any clear line of demarkation. "Words the
most different, do not always convey essentially different
ideas, as in this division:'It is characteristic of Christian
faith, that it excites, guides, supports.' To prove successively
that a thing is contrary to good sense and contrary to our
own interests, is to condemn ourselves to be in presence of
nothing after finishing the first part." I Besides being distinct, the divisions should boe symmetrical. It is little to
* TI'he author once received, as a homiletical exercise. the sketch
of a sermon containing four divisions, but with subdivisions and
divisions of these again and agailn, till the whole numbered more
than a hundred and twenty. The analysis was almost faultless,
but it would have made an intolerable sermon.
t Thus Cicero (De Inventione, I, 23) points out how improper it
would be to undertake to show that from the opposite party's
cupidity, and audacity, and avarice, many ills had befallen the
state; because avarice is really one kind of cupidity.
Vinet, p. 282.
23* 
270 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
say that they must not be incongruous, though preachers
of some ability do at times throw together matters which
have as little congruity as the human head, a horse's neck.
a body composed of parts brought from all directions and
covered with many kinds of feathers, and the whole ending
in a fish's tail - according to the well-known warning of
Horace.*  But the important precept is, that the divisions
must all sustain the same kind of relation to the subject
proposed. Nothing is more common, among the faults of
inexperienced preachers, than to see three divisions, one
of which is not co-ordinate with the other two, but only
with some other proposition of which those two are really
subdivisions; some of the divisions are branches of the
tree, and others are but branches of branches. This fault
should be carefully guarded against. In some respects, the
idea of symmetry is often pushed too far. Of course the
subdivisions of any one division should all sustain to it
the same relation. But pains are often taken to give each
division the same number of subdivisions, in order to make
the plan symmetrical. Even when this is natural, it is
very apt to appear artificial, particularly if the number of
divisions and subdivisions be considerable; and when it is
really artificial, the effect is not good. Pascal compares
such matters inserted merely for the sake of symmetry to
false windows in a building, a poor attempt to hide internal lack of symmetry, and which offend as soon as we
know what they are. Another mistaken notion of symmetry requires that each division and sometimes even each
subdivision should be discussed at about the same length.
When natural, this is pleasing. But it will not often be
natural. A mere external symmetry is far less important
than proportion to the internal relation of the topics, and
to the specific design of the discourse.t
* Ars Poetica, 1.
I Comp. above, at the close of chap 1. The peculiarities, as to 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 271
The different principles on which subjects may be divided
are very numerous, and no brief discussion or enumeration
of them would be of much utility.* One may learn much,
as to the practical management of division, from the careful analysis of published sermons.   The inexperienced
preacher will find great advantage in having his plans
critically examined by an instructor, or by some judicious
friend. In this matter a man will soon learn more from
having pointed out to him the faults which he himself has
committed, than it is possible to teach in general terms.
The study of Logic, in any really good treatise, will also
be of great service, in this as in many other respects.
(4.) The order of the divisions will be controlled not
merely by logical, but also by practical considerations.
Even where instruction and conviction are especially aimed
at, there is always in preaching a practical effect proposed;
and usually, instruction and conviction are quite subordinate to the object of impressing the feelings and determining the will. As to instruction, it is obviously proper that
those divisions should precede, which will help to under stand the succeeding ones; and it is commonly convenient
that negative considerations should precede the positive.
So far as conviction is concerned, a sermon should arrange
arguments according to the general principles which regu late the order of arguments, and which apply here not less
than in the essay or treatise.t And in respect to practical
effect, we must endeavor clearly to discern the particular
end proposed, and then must consider what selection and
arrangement of topics will be most likely, by kindling
the imagination and warming the passions, to induce the
divisions, of subject-sermons, text-sermons, and expository sermons,will be discussed below in chap. 3.
* Some good remarks may be found in Hoppin, p. 151; Kidder,
p. 201.  Comp. below on sutbject-sermons, chap. 8,. 1.
t See on order of arguments, Part I, chap. 6, ~ 4. 
272 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMION.
hearers to resolve and to act as we desire. For this pur pose the abstract must precede the concrete, the general
precede the specific or particular, and in general, instruc tion and conviction must precede appeal. The appeal,
however, may either come in mass after the whole body of
instruction and argument, or it may immediately follow
each leading thought as presented. This last course, to
apply as we go, has sometimes considerable advantages.
The successive waves of emotion may thus rise higher and
higher to the end. And besides, while thought produces
emotion, it is also true that emotion reacts upon  and
quickens thought, so that the impressive application of one
division may secure for the next a closer attention.  Yet
the interest must steadily grow as we advance, or the effect
will be bad; and where we cannot feel sure that it will
thus grow, point by point, then application had better be
postponed till towards the close.*
The young preacher who repeats a sermon ought to consider whether he cannot advantageously rearrange it, or at
any rate improve the plan.
(5.) The statenient of the divisions and subdivisions, like
that of the proposition, ought to be exact, concise, and as
far as possible, suggestive, and attractive. Without straining after effect, one may often state a division in terms so
brief and striking, that the hearer's attention will be at
once awakened.  It is well that the several divisions (and
so with the several subdivisions of each) should be stated
in similar -forms of expression, where this can be done
without artificiality.  Such similarity of statement brings
out the symmetry of the divisions, rendering them clearer
and also more pleasing. Some German preachers occasionally throw their divisions into metre and rhyme, or
adopt for the purpose some couplet or stanza from a familiar hymn.
, * Comp. on Application, Part I, chap. 8 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 273
(6.) Shall the divisions be announced beforehand?  This
was once almost universal, and is still the regular practice
of many preachers. At one time in some parts of Germany, the platn of the sermon was printed, and either published in the newspaper of the previous week, or handed
in slips to the congregation as they entered the church.*
To make a minute announcement of divisions and subdivisions, and repeatedly recall them in passing, is very
appropriate when lecturing to a class on some difficult
subject, where the object is not persuasion, but only
instruction and conviction. But in preaching, rightly
regarded, these are commonly subordinate to persuasion.
Now three cases may be noted, in which it is desirable to
announce the divisions at the outset. (a) When the train
of thought is difficult, and the announcement may aid in
following it: Sometimes this would but increase the difficulty, the hearer finding it easier to comprehend each
division by itself, as it is presented. But in other cases
the divisions when placed side by side will throw light on
each other. (b) When it is particularly desirable that
not merely the practical impression should be permanent,
but that the successive steps in the exposition or argument
should be remembered. (c) When we judge that the an nouncement would awaken interest and attention, rather
than abate them; and here every case must be decided
upon its own merits. Unless one of these three condi tions exist, no previous announcement should be made.
It must be remembered that there are many different
methods of announcing, beginning with the formal state  ment of numbered divisions (and sometimes of subdivi  sions also), and extending through numerous gradations to
the perfectly informal, and perhaps very slight mention
of the divisions as the points iL is proposed to consider.
Between these limits there may be devised a great variety
* Hagenbach, Horn. s. 123. 
274 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
of methods, by the exercise of power of invention, and of
judgment and good taste. Shedd thinks * that, as a gene ral thing, recapitulation is better than pre-announcement,
as being more intelligible, more impressive, and more easily
remembered. In many eases, this is true. In many others,
the pre-announcemeit is best. Sometimes, it' is even well
to employ both.
To announce at the outset the subdivisions also, would
be desirable only in very peculiar cases, where the train
of thought was in itself very important. It is, however,
more frequently proper, after stating a particular division,
then to announce its subdivisions, or rather to mention
them in an easy and informal way.
4. The transitions from one part of a discourse to the
next are most felicitous when least noticeable. The ideal
of excellence would be that the parts should fit perfectly
together, "like well-cut stones, needing no cement," to use
Cicero's image, or that each should grow out of the preceding, by a process of natural development. This ideal
can seldom be realized; but in all cases transition will be
easy in proportion as the subject proposed has been thoroughly studied, and the thoughts to be presented have been
well arranged. No good transition can be made between
topics that have not a real and natural relation, such as
to make it appropriate that they should stand in immediate
succession.  When therefore we find the transition difficult,
it is well to inquire whether the arrangement is not defective. Often, indeed, the difficulty arises from the fact that
we are attempting to work in some idea or passage which
has no natural place in the train of thought. Buffon has
remarked, "Those who fear to lose isolated thoughts, and
who write detached passages at different times, never combinie them without forced transitions." t And the difficulty
*Hom. p. 195.
t Quoted by Vinet, p. 285. See also Skinner, Discussions in
Theo]., p. 168. 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 275
is even greater with scraps gathered from reading. These
should be introduced only when they can be thoroughly
incorporated into the discourse. Otherwise, no matter how
sensible, striking or pleasing, they had better be omitted;
if really so good, they will soon find their place somewhere
else. A discourse is not a mere conglomeration or accretion
of foreign matters. From whatever source its materials
may have been derived, they must be made to unite and
grow together. Like sap in the plant or blood in the body,
the vital current of thought must flow through the whole
discourse, giving it animation, flexibility, strength.
Still, it will frequently happen that the practical design
of a sermon, or the exigencies of preparation, will require
us to bring together thoughts between which there is not a
perfect fit, or a spontaneous vital connection. It may then
be necessary to interpose some third idea, related to both,
and forming an easy transition.* Such an idea must not
have any separate prominence, nor in fact attract to itself
any attention from the persons addressed, though a critical
observer would perceive that it is appropriate and properly
introduced. In most cases the transition can be effected
by a single brief sentence. To manage this with simplicity,
grace and variety, is a task of some delicacy, but due
attention and practice will enable any one to perform it
with tolerable success. One of the most distinguished
preachers of America is known to have remarked, that
the transitions, the articulations, of a discourse, give the
highest proof-of oratorical skill.  If under articulation
we comprise the adjustment of successive thoughts to each
other, this would naturally include arrangement, and taken
with this breadth of meaning, the remark is unquestionably correct.
But whether the transition be in itself mediate or immediate, it is often desirable to employ some form of expres
* Comp. Vinet, p. 317. 
276 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
sion which, in conjunction with the natural change of tone
and manner, shall cause the hearer to observe that we are
here passing to another thought. This is sometimes done
by numbering the divisions and subdivisions, and then
introducing each by a mention of the number, which
besides the formal statement, can be made in a variety of
informal ways. And without numbering, or without stat ing the numbers, we may use any of those numerous ex pressions which indicate progress from point to point.
Among the most common are aygain, int addition, besides,
furthermore, still further, moreover, another point, in the
next place, and not only this, but etc., on the other hand,
once more, finally, etc. etc.* But let not the inexperienced preacher imagine that there are any set phrases
which propriety requires him to adopt. Let him notice
what relation exists between the foregoing and following
thoughts, and indicate the transition by any appropriate
and simple expression, without hunting after novelty, and
without neglecting variety.
If the sermon is unusually long, the transition to one of
its later divisions may in some simple and quiet way
acknowledge the fact, perhaps slightly apologize for it; if
any particular portion, from its difficulty or its importance,
requires special attention, this also may be indicated in
the transition; and in rare cases a word may be thrown
in to arouse flagging attention.t The propriety of all
such passing remarks, and the method of making them,
must be determined by good sense and good taste. If not
Swell managed, they are much worse than nothing.
As to this whole matter of the plan of discourse, we
may rejoice that in the present age, and especially in our
country, there is no established and dominant custom, but
a good degree of freedom. The preacher, particularly in
* Comp. Ripley, Sac. Rhet. p. 102.
t Comp. Ripley, p. 103. 
0
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 277
his youth, had better not make haste to conclude that he
is superior to general experience, but should study and
practise different methods, following mainly those which
he finds best suited to his powers, but frequently exercising
himself in others, so as to let no one method become a
necessity to him, so as to broaden and vary his cultivation,
and to adapt himself to differences of taste among his
hearers. On the other hand he need not be always following the fashions of his time, but, taking due account of
the nature and design of pulpit discourse, should give free
scope to his individuality, and sometimes strike out methods
of his own, observing how they affect him and his hearers.
He should be neither solicitous to appear independent and
original, nor afraid to try experiments, under the control
of good taste and devout feeling.*
~ 3. CONCLUSION.
Preachers seldom neglect to prepare some introduction
to a sermon, but very often neglect the conclusion; and
yet the latter is even more important than the former.
John Bright, one of the foremost political orators of the
present age, has stated that however little preparation he
may make for the rest of a speech, he always carefully
prepares the conclusion. Lord Brougham said that the
conclusion to his celebrated speech before the House of
Lords in defence of Queen Caroline was composed twenty
times over, at least. The great orators of Greece and Rome
paid much attention to their perorations, seeming to feel
that this was the final struggle which must decide the conflict, and gathering up all their powers for one supreme
effort. But how often we find it otherwise, especially on
* Upon the different methods of constructing subject-sermons,
text-sermoils, and expository sermons, see below, chap. 3.
24 
278 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
the part of preachers who extemporize. The beginning
and earlier progress of the sermon show good preparation,
and do well. But towards the close the preacher no longer
knows the way; here he wanders with a bewildered look,
there he struggles and flounders. Another, feeling excited
at the close, launches into general exhortation, and proceeding till body and mind are exhausted, ends with what is
scattering, feeble, flat. The conclusion ought to have moved
like a river, growing in volume and power, but instead of
that, the discourse loses itself in some great marsh, or ends
like the emptying of a pitcher, with a few poor drops and
dregs.
Let us lay down the rule, then, that the conclusion
should be carefully prepared.   If it is to comprise any
impassioned personal appeal, we shall often find occasion
to modify it in delivery, according to the state of feeling
which has then been reached by ourselves and the hearers.
But one can usually determine, when preparing, precisely
the thoughts with which the sermon ought to conclude,
though he may leave the mode of stating them to be controlled by the feelings of the moment. He ought in every
case to have ready, and well prepared, something that will
make an appropriate and effective conclusion, even though
leaving himself free, if the moment should so prompt, to
strike in a different direction, or rise to a higher level.
Where the subject will naturally lead to passionate exhortation, we can almost always foresee a certain range within
which such exhortation must be restricted, if it is to be
kept in relation to the subject, and can commonly fix some
point beyond, towards which this emotional expatiation
shall tend, and where we may close with some comprehensive statement or final appeal. The difficulty thus encountered as to the conclusion is only a higher degree of that
which everywhere presents itself in the best forms of speaking, and which we must learn to overcome, viz. how
46 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 279
shall we combine the most thorough possible preparation
with the largest liberty in delivery.*
One element in the conclusion of a sermon will often be
recapitulation.  If the discourse has consisted chiefly of
careful explanation or labored argument, and if it is important that its several divisions should be remembered,
and doubtful whether they will be, then the divisions, and
occasionally even certain subdivisions, may be distinctly
re-stated. But this must be so managed, to use a phrase
of Cicero's, "that the recollection may be revived, not the
speech repeated." Though perhaps anxious at the moment
to enlarge anew upon some favorite point, we must confine
recapitulation to its proper office. In most sermons, however, we do not care to reproduce the several thoughts and
fix them separately in the hearer's mind, but rather to
gather them all together, and concentrate their force upon
one final effort of conviction or persuasion. In such cases
it is not well to make any formal recapitulation, but in a
freer way to recall the train of thought, or the principal
points of it, sometimes using very different forms of statement. This appears to be what Vinet would call resume,
as distinct from recapitulation.t For properly oratorical
purposes, it is commonly much to be preferred. The recapitulation, or the resumSt, especially the latter, may sometimes form the entire conclusion; but in most cases it only
leads to the conclusion proper. It is often better, particularly where the discourse includes many points, to give
some recapitulation before reaching the conclusion, usually
when passing to the last division.
The conclusion will, for the most part, consist of applicatioin. This term, as we have already seen, is popularly
* Comp. on the different methods of preparation and delivery,
Part IV, chap. 1.
t Vinet, p. 323. 
280 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
used to embrace a variety of materials,* including application proper, suggestions for practical guidance, and persuasive appeal.
(1.) Application, in the strict sense, is that in which we
show how the subject applies to the persons addressed,
what practical instructions it offers them, what practical
demands it makes upon them. Sometimes this is effected
by means of what are called remarks, meaning certain
noticeable matters belonging to or connected with the subject, to which attention is now especially directed. Remarks in concluding a sermon, ought always to be of a
very practical character. Whatever truth a sermon may
present to the mind, it should not end without aiming to
bring about some practical result, some corresponding
determination of the will, state of the affections, or course
of action. If this be true, many of the remarks we hear
in the conclusion of sermons are inappropriate, or at least
scarcely desirable, for they often consist of certain thoughts
loosely connected with the subject discussed, for which no
place was found in the (jiscussion. Such conclusions would
seem to be among the most unfortunate that can be contrived, for they scatter where there ought to be concentration, and they lead the hearer carelessly to survey the subject
from a distance, when he ought to be drawn into close personal
contact with it.t If such disjointed observations are really
* See above, Part I, chap. 8. As application is often made elsewhere than in the conclusion, sometimes, indeed, forming a large
portion of the sermon, and as some of the topics usually embraced
under it demanded considerable explanation, the subject was considered under the head of Materials, and that chapter should be
here compared.
t Kidder appears to justify this sort of thing, when he says
(Hom. p. 223), "Another design of a conclusion is to express
thoughts which do not belong to any other part of the discourse.
In the elaboration of a plan, disposition usually distributes to the
conclusion pertinent and important matter that has no place in
either the exordium or the argument." 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 281
imnporta:i, and yet the plan of the discourse was not fortu
nate enough to embrace them, it would be better to throa
them in just at the close of the discussion, and give afterwards an appropriate conclusion. When, however, remarks
are of a practical character, and have a sufficiently close
relation to the subject and to each other, they constitute a
good conclusion to the sermon.
This application more frequently takes the form of inferences. In England two centuries ago, from the passion
for logical analysis in preaching,* it was common to make
a great number of inferences in concluding, "sometimes
twelve, sometimes twenty, and sometimes fifty. These
were called uses, (1) of information- (2) of instruction(3) of examination - (4) of reproof- (5) of encouragement- (6) of comfort -  (7) of exhortation, and so on."t
This was of course ruinous to all properly oratorical effect.
But even at the present day, the same tendency to think
more of instruction in preaching than of practical impression, which leads many still to employ much formal division and subdivision, likewise leads, in some quarters, to a
great fondness for closing with "inferences."  This form
of making application of the subject ought to be in two
directions carefully limited. Nothing should be presented
as an inference which does not logically and directly follow
from the subject discussed. The former practice of greatly
multiplying so-called inferences has led to a certain looseness in the homiletical application of the term, which
ought to be avoided.1  The other limit is, that no infer ences should be drawn in concluding a sermon which are
not of practical importance. It is not the preacher's business to exhibit all the matters which may be inferred from
his discussion, as if he were attempting an exercise in logic,
* Comp. above, ~ 2.         t Robinson's ed. of Claude, II, 457.
I Comp. al'ove, Part I, chap. 6, ~ 2, On deduction from established
truths.
24 * 
282 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
but to draw out such as are of real importance. And
observe that this should be a practical importance. The
body of the discourse has furnished the intellect with
instruction and argument; what we want in concluding
is, as remarked above, something which appeals to the
affections and the will.* In the body of the discourse
there may, of course, be inference of truths not in this
sense practical, but forming a part of the argument.
The conclusion, except in rare cases, ought to deal only
in truths having a directly practical bearing. Shedd
points out that inferences forming a conclusion ought to
be honmogeneous and cunulative. The several inferences,
that is to say, ought to sustain a similar relation to the
subject, so as to,blend into one effect; and the successive
inferences ought to increase in weight, heat, and life,
so as to make the greatest impression at the close. They
should generally be brief. Yet sometimes it is proper to
make a short statement of some doctrinal principle or
abstract truth, and then occupy the discourse mainly with
practical inferences from it; but in such cases they belong
to the body of the discourse, which ends either with the
last inference, or with some separate conclusion.
Again, this application is often best presented in the
form of lessons.  This term implies that the practical
teachings of the subject are more thoroughly brought out
and more fully applied than would be indicated by mere
"remarks," while it does not restrict the application to
those teachings which appear as logical  "inferences"
from the propositions established. It would thus seem to
have considerable advantages over the other forms. Such
"lessons" must, of course, be thoroughly practical, and
must not be too formal, nor have a magisterial air. The
preacher is not a dignitary, speaking ex cathedra to his
x* Comp. Shedd, p. 198-204, a very instructive discussion. 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 283
inferiors.   He  had better speak, in general, of iessons
which we may learn.
Of course there are applications which it would not be
proper to designate by any one of these terms, remarks,
inferences, or lessons. And of course it is by no means
necessary, and frequently not advisable, to use these somewhat formal phrases, even where they are appropriate.
The preacher must, in the mode of presenting applications,
study naturalness, simplicity, and variety.
(2.) Another subdivision of what is popularly called application, consists of suggestions as to the best means and
methods of practically performing some duty which the
body of the discourse has enjoined.   After urging the
obligation to such duties as family or secret prayer, or
reading the Scriptures, private efforts for the conversion of
individuals, kindness to the poor, etc., it is extremely appropriate to end with practical suggestions as to the way
in which the work may be actually done, by people having
nothing extraordinary in their character or circumstances
-done regularly, habitually, and with good results. Many
a Christian duty seems to most people impracticable for
them; and the most effective application in such cases is to
show that it is practicable. Usually this should not be
done in the way of objurgation, as if wishing simply to
take away their excuses for neglect, but with a sympathizing recognition of real difficulties which are "common
to man." Here again we see that explanations and suggestions, which are to form a conclusion, must be comparatively brief. If it is deemed proper to make them copious,
they ought commonly to be thrown into the body of the
discourse.
(3.) Application includes not merely a statement of the
practical bearings of the discourse upon the hearers, and
instruction as to the actual performance of duties enjoined,
but it also includes, and often especially denotes, persuasive 
284 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
appeal. The nature and means of persuasion and hortatory
appeal we have perhaps sufficiently considered in a previous
chapter.* It is very natural that conclusions should often
consist of persuasion and entreaty. Unless the whole discourse is of this character, such matter must, if given anywhere, be most commonly put at the close. And such is
human nature, that in treating the great majority of subjects we find it desirable, not merely to enlighten and convince, but also to urge and beseech.
But it is quite wrong to suppose, as some preachers appear to do, that every sermon must end with a very pathetic
or overwhelming appeal. It is not unfrequently best to end
quietly, yet still so as to impress. And whatever the subject might require, let a man not speak in an emotional
manner unless he really feels it. An effort to work oneself
up into feeling, because it is desirable at this point, will
usually fail; and if it succeeds as to the preacher himself,
will be apt to make anything else than a good impression
on the hearers.   If an impassioned conclusion was prepared, and the speaker now finds that his own feelings
and those of the audience have slowly subsided till there
is no good prospect of exciting them, let him omit the
prepared conclusion, or modify its tone so as to attempt
nothing but what can be achieved. Few things are so
painful or so injurious as the reaction produced by passionate words which are not felt by the hearers, nor even
by the speaker. And let it never be forgotten that we
must not aim to excite emotion merely for its own sake, as
if that were the end in view, but to make it a means of
determining the will and stimulating to corresponding
action. Even love to God will not subsist as a mere
feeling.
A concluding exhortation ought, as a rule, to be specific,
keeping itself in relation to the subject which has been
* Part I, chap 8. 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 285
treated. There is great danger that a fluent and fervid
speaker will wander into mere general appeals, equally
appropriate to almost ally other subject or occasion. This
may be sometimes allowable, but a more specific exhortation would almost always be more effective. It was once
very common, among Baptists, Methodists, and some others,
for a sermon to be followed by an exhortation from some
other minister, or from some private Christian. The practice is now generally disused, except in "protracted meetings," but if properly managed, may be, upon occasion,
quite appropriate and really useful. It would be an excellent thing to startle some of our congregations out of
their decorous dulness, by an unexpected and rousing
exhortation. But such addresses should not break away
from the sermon, nor lose themselves in vague generalities.
They should in general carry the subject, or some branch
of it, farther in the same direction. If no train of thought
presents itself which would be of this character, then let
the speaker take some thought which, though not included
in the sermon, will harmonize with it in general effect
so that the whole service may impel the hearers in the
same direction. One who undertakes such exhortation
ought not merely to feel moved to speak, but by all means
to have something definite in his mind which he wishes
to say, and ought especially to beware of wearying the
audience.
When the sermon has been one of warning or of invita tion, it is sometimes natural and impressive to conclude
with something of the opposite tendency. The preacher
must judge in every case, whether this combination will
deepen the general impression, or whether the two will
neutralize each other in the hearer's mind, and leave him
unaffected by either. It may be added that warnings, and
all that is alarming in gospel truth, should he uttered not
as if we delighted in denunciation, but with especial ten 
286 THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON.
d(lerness, showing that we speak in the faithfulness of
love.
The length of the conclusion, like that of the introduc tion, is dependent on circumstances, and no rule can be
laid down. But there is great danger of making it too
long, especially in hortatory appeals. The feeling of the
speaker inclines him to continue, but the feelings of the
hearers cannot be long kept up to a high point. If the
sermon has been long, the conclusion should certainly be
brief, save in very peculiar cases. Sometimes the close of
the last division really brings the whole train of thought
to an end, and gives it a practical turn; any separate conclusion is then unnecessary, and commonly undesirable.
Sometimes an abrupt conclusion is very effective, when
well managed, with good taste and unaffected solemnity.
"Excessive length is a common fault of the conclusion
of extemporaneous preachers and writers; in fact, of all
who do not govern themselves both in the preparation and
delivery of sermons by well-defined plans. New thoughts
occur to them, and they are hitched on to what has gone
before. What is worse, sometimes the preacher becomes
conscious that he has failed to accomplish the object of his
discourse, or to awaken the degree of interest he ought to
have excited, and he struggles on in the vain endeavor to
compensate the fault, until at last he is forced to terminate
further from his object than when his conclusion began."*
Most of all is it unwise to give indication that one is about
to conclude, and then start again, or keep dragging on.
The general character of the conclusion ought to be determlined before the detailed composition (whether written
or unwritten) of the discourse is begun. Then the developmnent of the details may be suitably limited and directed
by the use which it is proposed to make of the whole in
concluding. If the other materials have been provided
* Kidder, p. 229-30. 
THE SEVERAL PARTS OF A SERMON. 287
and arranged, and no conclusion has yet suggested itselfa thing which will not often happen -we may look again
over the train of thought drawn out, asking ourselves distinctly the question what will be the most suitable conclusion to all this. Or perhaps a renewed examination of the
text, or of its connection, or of parallel passages, will furnish something suitable. The problem is not to find some
conclusion, but that which will be most appropriate and
effective. It is plain that the conclusion cannot be composed in detail, till we reach it in composing the discourse.
In fact, some better conclusion than was originally contemplated may have presented itself in the course of composition, which it is proper to substitute. And the same thing
may happen in the course of delivery. The great requisite
is, that the body of the discourse and the conclusion shall
each be adapted to the other; and this may be accomplished by fixing the general contents and design of the
conclusion when laying out the plan of the discourse;
and then allowing the style and tone of the conclusion to
be modified, or its very character changed, in any way that
may have been suggested in the progress of composition,
or of delivery.
The fintal words of the conclusion may sometimes consist
of a comprehensive and impressive restatement of the subject which has been discussed. "It is very effective when,
in our final appeal, we can strongly and vividly reproduce
the leading idea of the whole discourse. It has a very
great effect upon our'hearers, after so many solid proofs
and so many skilful strokes of oratory have been devoted
to it, to see the great leading truth, the parent idea, appear
once more at this crowning moment in all the force of its
beautiful simplicity, in all the strength of its unity." * Or
the text itself may be the last words. When the discourse
has been developed out of the text, and has exhibited al
* Potter, p. 228. 
288  DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
its wealth of meaning, then the emphatic repetition of the
text in closing will impressively sum up all that has been
said. Or we may end with another passage of Scripture,
or with part of a hymn, or with an invocation of the divine blessing. This last is sometimes natural and impressive, but should never become a regular form. Very often,
however, the general contents or design of the conclusion
will require that we close with some particular thought.
The last sentence, of whatever it may consist, ought to be
appropriate and impressive, but its style ought not to be
elaborate and ambitious. It is a very solemn moment.
Do not be thinking of your reputation, good brother, but
of your responsibility, and of your hearers' salvation.*
CHAPTER III.
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
1. SUBJECT-SERMONS.   ~ 2. TExT-SERMONS.   ~ 3. EXPOSITORY
SERMONS.
R-HERE has already been frequent occasion to mention
subject-sermons, text-sermons, and expository sermons.
It is convenient to give at this point an account of their
respective peculiarities, with practical suggestions as to
their management.
The distinction between subject-sermons and text-sermons
has to do simply with the plan of the discourse, especially
with the source of its divisions. It is only in this respect
that they constitute different species, and yet the difference
* Besides Shedd, already referred to, the Conclusion is treated at
unusual length and in an instructive manner by Hloppin, p. 178-190. 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS. 289
is one of considerable practical importance. The phrases
in question - for which some substitute topical and textual
sermons, or topical and textual division of sermons- have
not been generally employed with great precision or uniformity. A very obvious application of them, and one
which can be consistently carried through, would be as
follows: Subject-sermons are those in which the divisions
are derived from the subject, independently of the text;
while in text-sermons, the divisions are taken from the
text. In the latter case as well as in the former, there
may be a definite subject, distinctly and even formally
stated; but this subject is not divided according to its own
nature, but only such divisions are made as are presented
by the text. Sometimes the two plans may coincide. Beginning with a subject, one may find so appropriate a text,
that the logical divisions of the subject will all be contained
in the text; or beginning with a text, he may state its
subject in so felicitous a form of proposition, that the
several divisions presented in the text will also constitute
a complete logical division of the proposition. But they
will not often thus coincide, and the fact that they sometimes do, will not make them less distinct in principle.
~ 1. SUBJECT-SERMONS.
In subject-sermons, then, we draw from the text a certain
subject, usually stating it distinctly in the form of a proposition,* and then the text has no further part in the sermon, but the subject is divided and treated according to its
own nature, just as it would be if not derived from a text.
This form of treatment has important advantages. It
better insures unity, which is indispensable to the best
effects of discourse.  It trains the preacher's mind to logical
analysis, and few kinds of power are so valuable to him,
* Comp. above, chap. 2, ~ 2.
25 
290 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
It is more convincing and pleasing to a certain order of
minds in the'audience, especially among cultivated people;
such a treatment having a more logical character, and also
a more manifest completeness. Besides, there will often
be practical occasion for thus thoroughly discussing a
subject.  The wants of the congregation will make the
preacher wish to present a full view of some doctrine, or
some topic of general or particular morality, and not
merely the special aspects of it which one text or another
may exhibit. The Scriptures do not present truth in a
succession of logical propositions, any more than the objects
of nature are found grouped according to scientific classification. This suits the design of the Bible, as a book
to be read, and also leads to a rich variety in textual
preaching. But it is frequently instructive and satisfactory to discuss some collective subject.
It is usually better that the subject should be not general, but specific.  This, as we have heretofore seen,* not
only promotes variety in successive sermons, but really
makes each subject more fruitful. And if in addition to
being a theme specific in its logical character, it be the
specific theme of the text from which it is drawn, this
removes, in part, one of the objections to subject-sermons,
viz. that in them the text does not perform so important
a part as it ought to do in preaching. Too often the text
is only a starting-point, with which the sermon afterwards
maintains, not only no formal, but no vital connection.
Sometimes, indeed, it is made simply a motto, a practice
of extremely doubtful propriety. Of course a text which
presents a specific aspect of some subject may be lawfully
used as suggesting the general subject, or we may draw
from a general text its general subject, and then avowedly
confine ourselves to one department of it.  But as a rule,
it is greatly better that the subject should be precisely
* Part I, chap. 3,? 1. 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS. 291
that which the text most naturally presents, and which
most thoroughly exhausts its meaning. A good example
of such specific subjects is found in Robert Hall's three
sermons, Reasons for a judgment to come, Character of
the judgment to come, Remembrance in youth of judgment to come.* And a text is in each case taken which
is supposed to present the specific topic. The first is
Acts 24: 25, "As  Paul reasoned of righteousness, temperance, and judgment to come," though this is probably an
unwarranted interpretation, as the word properly signifies
'discoursed;' the second is Heb. 6: 2, "Eternal judgment;" and the third, Eccl. 11  9, "Rejoice, O young
man, in thy youth..... but know thou that for all these
things God will bring thee into judgment." Mr. Hall's
biographer states that he was fond of thus confining himself to one aspect of a subject. In like manner, South
has a number of distinct sermons on Deliverance from
Temptation.
The subject will be divided according to its own nature,
and to our practical design in treating it.t This design
will usually lead us either to explanation (whether by
analysis or by comparison), to proof, or to application of
the subject, and in many cases will require some combination of these.'The practically different methods of
dividing are extremely numerous and various, and here
the analytical and imaginative powers of the preacher
may be freely exercised.  The formal and cumbrous methods given in the "Topics" of ancient writers, and applied
to preaching by Claude, are now generally disregarded.
Indeed, Cicero himself; who abridged Aristotle's treatise
on Topics, has elsewhere,l after giving a few practical
*Works, IV, 304.
t The character, number, order, etc. of divisions have been dis.
cussed above, chap. 2, i 2, 3.
$ De Inven". I, 23. 
292 DIFF.RENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
hints as to the divisions of a discourse, spoken as f llows:
"There are also other precepts for division, which are of
but little use in oratory; they are employed in philosophy,
and I have transferred such of them as seemned to be suitable." This distinction between logical analysis and oratorical division cannot be too earnestly insisted on. Little
can be taught with respect to dividing a subject save by
examples, and these can be most profitably studied by a
critical analysis of published sermons, and a repeated
and careful inspection of the plans we have ourselves
d(evised.*
Sometimes no complete discussion of the subject is
* For this purpose, the best of the old English divines are Barrow
and South. Tillotson's plans appear more simple, and thus preferable, but they are often quite defective. Of the great French
preachers, Saurin is better in this respect than even Massillon.
Subject-sermons in a strict sense are especially frequent among
Presbyterian preachers; and probably no sermons in existence
present a larger number of excellent models of this kind, than
those of Samnuel Davies. If the study of one of these older preachers should be tending to make one too formal for the taste of the
present age, he can correct the tendency by reading Liddon's University Sermons, or R. Fuller's Sermons, where he will find plans,
both topical and textual, which. are distinct and clear without being
obtrusive or minute. But let it not be imnagined that the greatest
preachers are faultless in their pains, or even uniformly good.
They often prepared hastily, or their minds became possessed by
a certain scheme of thought so that they did not perceive its
faults, or could not see how to correct them.  Andrew Fuller
usually divides naturally and well.  But his famous sermon on
Walking by Faith (Works, Vol. I), though the leading division is
simple enough - the nature and the importance of walking by faith
-is in its details grievously loose-jointed and awkward. In fact,
it was suggested by an incident during his ride to the place of
preaching. A rush of good thoughts may come suddenly, as in that
case, but very seldom in a good arrangement. It has been already
remarked that Spurgeon often gives excellent plans; and he has
Lmany subject-sermons, especially in his earlier volumes. 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS. 293
attempted, but we have only a series of remarks upon it.
Of course this is not often to be commendedi.*
~ 2. TEXT-SERMONS.
These ought to be governed by the same general principles as subject-sermons. They must always have a plan,
and commonly divisions; and the principles laid down as
to divisions in the foregoing chapter apply, in general, to
text-sermons as well as others. Text-sermons include two
distinct varieties, those which present a single subject, and
those which discuss several subjects.
1. A single subject is drawn from the text, and stated,
whether formally or informally, and then is discussed
under such divisions as the text furnishes. We have seen
that this may sometimes coincide with a complete logical
division of the subject itself, but in those rare cases it
would still be called a text-sermon, if the divisions were
actually derived from a contemplation of the text. In
general, such plans are quite different from those which a
logical analysis of the subject would suggest. Tex:t-sermons of this sort are by some writers quite confounded
with subject-sermons, because in both cases there is a
definite subject.  Others call them textual-topical.
The divisions thus drawn from the text, while not commonly forming a complete analysis of the subject in itself
considered, must yet be so related to the subject and to
each other, that they together form a structure, a symmetrical whole.  Otherwise the discourse is felt to be
incomplete and fragmentary.
* It is not deemed necessary to say more upon subject-sermons,
because all that is said in chap. 2 of divisions applies directly to
them. A preacher who shrinks from preaching sermons of this
sort should constrain himself to make them, at least somIewhat fre quently, for the sake of his mentl discipline, and of d,e variety.
25* 
294  DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
A well-constructed text-sermon of this klid has mostof the advantages possessed by subject-sermons, and thi
great additional advantage that it is much more intimately in contact with the text, drawing from it not only
the subject treated but all the leading thoughts of the
treatment.   This method, accordingly, is very largely
adopted.  It gives ample opportunity for variety, freshness, originality.  "A tact is needed in the preacher, to
discover the hidden skeleton. This tact will be acquired
gradually and surely, by every one who carefully cultivates himself in all homiletic respects. Like all nice
discernment, it comes imperceptibly in the course of training and discipline, and therefore no single and particular
rule for its acquisition can be laid down. It must be
acquired, however, or the fundamental talent for textual
sermonizing will be wanting. Moreover, this tact should
be judicious. It is possible to find more meaning in a
text than it really contains........  This talent for detecting the significance of Scripture, must be confined to
the gist of it to the evident and complete substance of
it."*' The German preachers, who have to preach many
times in successive years upon the same passage, often
show great ingenuity in striking out new plans for the
same text, plans which shall make a complete section of
the whole passage, but in a new direction. "Take, for
example, the history of Peter's denial.   I can set out
either from the fact of the denial itself, considering it as
to its causes, its consequences, etc.; or from the danger
into which one gets who warms himself with the world;
or from the thought that in this world everything helps
when a disciple is to be brought to fall; or from the
repentance of Peter, which presupposes as well love, as
weakness of love; or I can set forth the power of the love
of Jesus in his look at Peter, a) how it humbles him, bet
* Shedd, p. 152. 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS. 295
ter than law and penalty could do, b) how it makes a new
man of him. In all five sermons the whole of the text
would have place, but every time in a different light." *
"One of our Lord's miracles of healing may be considered either from the point of view of the Divine grace
glorifying itself in this history, in which case Christ's
mode of action is made to illustrate that of God (for
example, he delays, indeed, with his help, but at last he
does help); or the history may be chiefly considered from
the ethical stand-point, and then Christ is the example
according to which we are to act in similar cases; or
finally, we consider the conduct of the persons themselves on whom the healing is performed, who are set
before us as an example of faith (for example, the centurion of Capernaum)." t Among English preachers, Melvill is famous for the ingenuity with which he develops a
rich meaning from passages which to most persons would
suggest nothing.
Here, as in the case of subject-sermons, we hear some times merely a series of "observations" or "remarks"
upon the subject, which could hardly be called divisions
of it. The following example is from Beddome: Acts 9: 4,
"Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me?" 1. It is the
general character of unconverted men to be of a perse cuting spirit.  2. Christ has his eye upon persecutors
3. The injury done to Christ's people, Christ considers as
done to himself. 4. The calls of Christ are particular.$
The fourth might be omitted. Such remarks suggested
by the text would seem a more satisfactory treatment
* Palmer, Hom. s. 378.
t Ilagenbach, s. 120. Comp. the plans of Krummacher, in his
David, and the sermons on the Temptation of Christ by Krummacher and by Monod, in Fish's  " Select Discourses from the
French and German."
$ Quoted by Shedd, p. 150. 
296  DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
thani topical remarks, but one should not very often allow
himself to construct sermons in so loose a fashion.
The preacher must exercise his judgment with reference
to every particular discourse, as to whether it is better to
make a textual division of the subject, or to treat the sub ject independently, according to its own nature.*
2. In other text-sermons, there is not one definite and
coml,-) hensive subject, but several topics presented by the
text are successively treated. These, though they do not
admit of being combined into one, ought to have such a
mutual relation as to give the discourse unity. The same
sentence of Scripture might suggest several entirely distinct topics, and a sermon upon these would be really
several sermons in succession. A discourse that has not
unity, both offends taste and lacks power -in fact, is not
a discourse at all. The unity, however, may be that of
subject or of person or of place, provided in the latter
cases there be also some internal connection, so that all
may blend in the general effect of the discourse. Thus
topics apparently so diverse as suicide, ingratitude, avarice
and remorse, might all be treated in a sermon upon Judas,
because they not only pertain to the one person, but were
in his case intimately connected, as will be apparent from
stating them in a different order, avarice, ingratitude, remorse, suicide. After pointing out that in him they were
thus connected, one might even treat of them in some other
order, if oratorically more convenient, and the topics,
though separate, would at least seem tied together into a
kind of unity. Such an example shows that it is allowable to go quite far in this direction; but as a rule, we
ought to have as close an internal relation among the
* Some preachers, for example South, are very fond of sermons
which draw some divisions directly from the text, but others from
the nature of the subject. This might seem an incongruous mixture, but is often well-managed and effective. 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMuNS. 297
topics of the discourse as possible. It is the great fault
of this variety of text-sermons that they are apt to be
desultory and rambling, to resemble the scattering fire of
irregular soldiers, rather than the systematic and concentrated discharge of a disciplined body. We avoid this
fault by refusing to include in the sermon any topic suggested by the text which will not take its place in a connected series, though the topic in itself might be interesting and instructive.
In both these varieties, especially in the second, the
divisions may sometimes be stated in the very words of
the text.  Thus, The young convert commended to God,
JUDE 24. 1. That is able to keep you from falling; 2.
And to present you, (1) faultless, (2) before the presence
of his glory, (3) with exceeding joy. GAL. 5: 6, What it
is that in Christ Jesus avails.  1. Neither circumcision nor
uncircumcision. 2. But (1) faith, (2) which worketh, (3)
by love. The order of the clauses may be varied, if
deemed oratorically more suitable. LUKE 24: 43. 1. Thou
shalt be in Paradise.  2. Thou shalt be with me in Paradise. 3. To-day thou shalt be with me in Paradise.*
When one thus takes up the successive words or
clauses of a text, and "enlarges" upon them, the process
closely resembles musical "variations" upon a familiar
tune, possessing similar advantages, and being liable to the
same faults. It is often so managed as to be wearisome,
what Schleiermacher called spelling the text; sometimes it is
offensive, as when a passage is so dissected as to destroy the
very life of it. But when the text is happily chosen, and
the treatment, while natural, is fresh, instructive and animated, with a manifest connection in the topics, and a sus
* The plan often pursued with the words, "Why will ye die?"
viz. to emphasize each word in succession, is forbidden by the fact
that in the original neither'  will' nor'ye' is separately expressed,
so that they cannot be taken as in any sense emphatic. 
298 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
tained oratorical progress to the end, such a sermon may be
highly effective. The people love to have their minds kept
in close contact with the text, if it is done in an interesting
and impressive way. 
Or the divisions may be stated in different terms, though
following the order of the text; or both in different terms
and in a different order, if this would give a more oratorical arrangement. The statement must commonly be thus
varied, in text-sermons upon a single definite subject; and
much will depend upon the skill with which the divisions
are drawn from the text and enunciated. EZFK. 11: 19, 20,
"And I will give them one heart," etc. Genuine Religion,
developed in four particulars. I. Its author. II. The
disposition it produces. III. The obedience it demands.
IV. The blessedness it insures.* PSALM 73: 24, 26. God
is the pious man's all in all. I. His guide through life.
II. His support in death.  III. His portion forever. Sometimes very little departure from the words of the text is
necessary.  ROM. 5: 1, 2.  The believer's happy state.  I.
He has peace with God.  II. He stands (i.e. stands fast)
in the grace of God. III. He exults in hope of the glory
of God.
It often happens that the thoughts of a text can be very
thoroughly and neatly drawn out by a series of questions,
the answers to these forming the divisions of the sermon.
Examples of this are familiar.
In treating the details of a text-sermon, it is not necessary to confine ourselves strictly to views presented by the
text. Any one of the topics may be developed and applied according to its own nature, or according to the specific design of the sermon. Yet it is always pleasing,
when effected without artificiality, to see all the lines of
development kept within the limits of the text.
Jay, quoted by Kidder, p. 206.  Jay is particularly fond of this
species of sermons, and often felicitous in his plans. 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.  299
~ 3. EXPOSITORY SERMONS.
The name of this species of sermons is derived from a
peculiarity in their materials, viz. the fact that they are
mainly occupied with exposition. But their homiletical
peculiarities belong to the matter of construction, to that
oratorical arrangement and adaptation which should distinguish an expository sermon from a commentary or an
exegetical essay. The present, therefore, seems to be the
appropriate place for discussing this important variety of
sermons.*
Almost every preacher one meets, if asked whether he
often makes expository discourses, will answer, "No; I
have long believed there ought to be more preaching of
that kind, but the attempts I formerly made in that
direction were quite unsuccessful, and it seems I have no
talent for it." But how few have ever fairly tried to
develop such a talent. Men labor for years to acquire the
power of producing a good topical sermon. All their
rhetorical training, and all their practice, is directed to
that end.   Then they try the experiment of expository
preaching, which requires a different kind of practice, and
perhaps even a different method of studying the Scriptures,
and wonder that their first attempts prove a comparative
failure. This is as unreasonable as the course of those who,
after training themselves to read sermons, make a timid
and ill-prepared effort to preach without writing, and infer
* This discussion is in the main identical with an article in the
Baptist Quarterly for Jan. 1869. It may be allowable to embrace
the opportunity for remarking, that every minister ought to take
at least one religious Quarterly, and if but one, of course that of
his own denomination. To read regularly for several years the
fresh, vigorous and instructive articles of such a Review as that
mentioned, will greatly aid the minister in getting into the current
of contemporary thought, and in the meantime will supply not a
little of good material for preaching. 
300 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERIMONX.
from the almost inevitable failure that they have no talent
for extemporizing.
1. It is not thought necessary to discuss at any length
the advantages and disadvantages of expository preaching.
The former are to some extent obvious  and generally
recognized, and they have been admirably presented by
Alexander, in his Thoughts on Preaching.* As stated by
him, they are as follows:
(1.) This method better corresponds with the very idea
and design of preaching. (2.) It is the primitive and an
cient method. (3.) It insures a better knowledge of the
Scriptures, on the part of preacher and hearers- and
of the Scriptures in their connection. (4.) It causes sermons to contain more of pure Scripture truths, and scriptural modes of viewing things. (5.) It gives occasion for
remarking on many passages of the Bible which otherwise
might never enter into one's sermons; and for giving important practical hints and admonitions which might seem
to some hearers offensively personal if introduced into a
topical discussion, but which are here naturally suggested
by the passage in hand. (6.) And it greatly diminishes
the temptation to misinterpret texts by excessive allegorizing, by "accommodation," etc.; for men are often driven
into such misinterpretation by the difficulty of finding for
every sermon a short passage which will legitimately afford
the requisite amount of material.t
It might be more desirable to discuss the objections to
this method, for these often appear more serious than they
really are. There is, in many quarters, a popular prejudice
against expository preaching, arising from the fact that it
is so often badly managed, and from the notion that it is a
labor-saving contrivance. On rainy Sundays, or on week
* Page 272-313.
t On the advantages of expository preaching, compare Wayland,
Ministry of the Gospel, p. 83-6. 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS. 301
nights, the preacher who has no sermon prepared, or wishes
to save his elaborate preparation for a more auspicious
occasion, will frequently undertake to "read a passage of
Scripture, and make a few remarks;" feeling that this
enterprise is attended by no risk, because, as some quaint
old preacher expressed it, if he is "persecuted in one verse,
he can flee to another." Hence the people rather naturally conclude that whenever one takes a long text, it is
an expedient to dispense with labor. Besides this prejudice against the method, which a judicious and laborious
preacher can soon overcome, it has inherent disadvantages.
Our people, it is to be regretted, seldom follow that excellent Scottish fashion, of keeping a Bible in hand during
the sermon; and so they find it hard to remember the
general drift and connection of the long text, as they are
accustomed to do with a short one. This difficulty one
must bear in mind, seeking to overcome it as far as possible.  Some persons, too, in our extremely restless age,
object to continitous exposition on the ground that it lacks
variety; they grow tired of hearing the preacher, Sunday
after Sunday, announce the same book and perhaps the
same chapter. Others really care so little about the Bible
that they take no interest in explanations of it; they wish
the preacher to make his text merely a point of departure,
and to give them "something fresh." Others object that
the expository sermon cannot present those connected
arguments in which the human mind so greatly delights;
but it may trace and unfold the argument of an inspired
writer, which ought to be more interesting than one colnstructed by the preacher himself. If it be still further
objected that a discourse which is mainly or largely occupied with explanation of the text, can leave but little room
for application, we may answer that the impressiveness of
an application depends very largely upon the interest which
the hearers have been previously brought to feel in the
26 
-302 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
subject applied; and that a brief, and even unexpected
application or appeal is often more impressive than one
which gives notice, and throws men on the defensive.
Shedd takes the ground * that "there is somewhat less
call for expository preaching than there was before the
establishment of Sabbath schools and Bible classes." He
adds, however, that "it is the duty of the preacher, occasionally, to lay out his best strength in the production of
an elaborate expository serrnon, which shall not only do
the ordinary work of a serrmon, which shall not only
instruct, awaken, and move, but which shall also serve as
a sort of guide and model for the teacher of the Sabbath
school and the Bible class." But it is worthy of inquiry
whether the Suniday-school teaching does not actually prepare people to receive expository preaching with higher
appreciation and profit. The great difficulty in the way
of making it effective is not knowledge of Scripture but
ignorance of it. One sometimes fancies he could point
out, after preaching to a congregation of strangers, those
who are engaged in the regular study of the Bible, from
the greater interest with which they listened to any explanations of Scripture that may have occurred in the sermon. Robert Hall found his regular Sunday morning
expository sermon very acceptable at Cambridge; but at
Leicester he lamented to a friend that the congregation,
being generally less intelligent, could not be brought to
like this method, and he was annoyed at having to change
his habit, and hunt up two separate texts for every Sunday.
2. But the thing here specially proposed is to offer
practical suggestions as to the proper management of expository preaching. It is in several respects a peculiar variety of discourse, requiring peculiar treatment; and yet
the treatises of Homiletics, while never failing to urge that
this muethlod has great advantages, seldom furnish the stu
* Homn. p. 157. 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS. 303
dent with any directions for his guidance in attempting it.
The hints which follow are derived from some experience
and observation, from conversation with other ministers,
and from the study of the best specimens within reach.
An expository discourse may be defined as one which
is occupied mainly, or at any rate very largely, with the
exposition of Scripture. It by no means excludes argument and exhortation as to the doctrines or lessons which
this exposition develops. It may be devoted to a long
passage, or to a very short one, even a part of a sentence.
It may be one of a series, or may stand by itself. We at
once perceive that there is no broad line of division between expository preaching and the common methods, but
that one may pass by almost insensible gradations from
textual to expository sermons.* We see, too, that men
often preach expository sermons which they would not
call by that name. Moreover, it is common to apply the
term only to discourses upon the doctrinal, preceptive, and
devotional portions of the Bible, and not to those which
treat of the narrative portions. Now the methods of exposition appropriate to Scripture history are of course quite
different from those applied to the other portions. But
whenever the discourse is not merely a discussion of certain
thoughts suggested by a Scripture story or scene, but in
the first place spends much time in bringing out clearly
and vividly the scene or story itself, that is really historical exposition. And this is surely a highly important
class of expository discourses.  A very large portion of
the Bible consists of narrative, and in this as in other
respects the Bible is adapted to its purpose; for narrative
possesses an unfailing interest, for old and young, cultivated and ignorant, converted and unconverted. But ser
*Nearly all that has been said above, ~ 2, upon text-sermons,
applies directly to expository preaching. See also ~ 1, 2, plan of
discourse. 
304 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
mons on historical passages are very apt to err, in one of
two directions. In the one case the preacher makes haste
to deduce from the narrative before him a subject, or cer tain doctrines or lessons, and proceeds to discuss these
precisely as if he had drawn them  from  some verse in
Romans or the Psalms; thus sinking the narrative, with
all its charmn, completely out of sight. In the other case,
he indulges in a vast amount of the often ridiculous thing
called "word-painting," overlaying the simple and beau tiful Scripture story with his elaborate descriptions, aud
showing no desire, or having no time, to give us any
glimpse of the lessons which the narrative teaches.  There
is certainly a middle course. Without consuming our time
in exhibiting overwrought pictures of his own, the preacher
may seek to throw light on the Bible picture, so as to make
us see it plainly and vividly, and may either indicate the
lessons as he advances from point to point or group them
in the latter part of his discourse. What we insist on is,
that there ought to be such a method of preaching upon
the narrative portions of Scripture as should be distinctively appropriate to narrative, while yet it is preaching.*
(1.) What now is the prime requisite to the effectiveness
of an expository sermon? Our answer must be, unity.
Unity in a discourse is necessary to instruction, to conviction, and to persuasion. Without it, the taste of enlightened hearers cannot be satisfied, and even the uncultivated,
though they may not know why, will be far less deeply
impressed. But unity in an expository discourse is by
many preachers never aimed at.  They conceive of it as
a mere series of disjointed remarks upon the successive
verses.  It was to this kind of "homilies" that Schleiermacher referred, when he said that they are composed of
* Comp. on historical subjects, Part I, chap. 3, ~ 3, and on description, Part I, chap. 5, ~ 1. 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS. 305
little sermons of the common form tacked together.* But
it is not at all necessary that an expository sermon should
exhibit this fault.  "The difficulty as to unity, presented
by this kind of discourse, never amounts to impossibility.
We do not at random cut from the general text of the
sacred book, the particular text of a homily. The selection is not arbitrary. The limit of the text is predetermined by reference to unity, which, therefore, we shall be
at no loss to discover in it." t In making a single, detached
expository discourse, one can easily see to it that the passage selected shall have unity. In continuous exposition
of the same book, it may sometimes be necessary to take
a passage in which this is not the case; but even then, we
may gather from it such thoughts as can be framed into
one plan, and pass over the remainder, or notice them very
briefly. Let there be unity at whatever cost. And not
only this, but structure. Thanks to the influence of the
schoolmen, the modern mind greatly delights in analysis,
and in the regular construction of the materials which
analysis has furnished, and hence the great preference of
many for topical discourses. The homilies left us by the
fathers are frequently quite deficient in respect of orderly
structure, and sometimes even destitute of unity. And some
persons appear to imagine that we can have no "homilies"
except upon the model of the fathers, and with a total
disregard of modern taste and modes of thought. But a
discourse upon an extended passage of Scripture well
chosen and well handled, may have a definite topic, and a
distinct and orderly plan, and yet not fail to be an expository discourse, dealing largely in explanation of the text.
Let us carefully observe, then, that an expository sermon
may liave, and must have, both unity and an orderly structure; for the frequent practical neglect of these requisites
,,6 *
*Palmer, Hom. s. 380.
t Vinet, p. 148; comp. Shedd, p. 153. 
306 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
is one principal cause of those failures to which allusion
was made at the outset.
(2.) When an inexperienced preacher begins to think
of attempting expository preaching, his mind is very apt
to turn at once toward the idea of continuous exposition.
He must get up a series.* But why should not the preacher
first discipline himself in this kind of preaching, and
accustom his congregation to it, by the exposition, every
now and then, of detached passages?  It will be time
enough for a series when he has gained a little more practice, yea, and has made repeated and very mature study
of the book to be handled. And let it be urged that first
attempts shall not be made upon a Psalm, as is very generally the case; for with occasional exceptions, the Psalms
are comparatively lacking in manifest unity, and in distinct connection and regular progress, so that it requires
practice to handle them successfully. It will also sometimes be well to take an extended passage and merely
make a text-sermon on a long text, gathering several
thoughts from it and handling them as in the ordinary
text-sermon upon a short text. Or a brief text may be
announced, and the sermon be occupied with a discussion
of the entire paragraph in which it stands. This indeed
is often done by men who have no thought that they are
preaching expository sermons. By such means the people
cease to imagine that expository preaching is entirely different from other methods, and become accustomed and
attached to all alike. Then, whenever a series is attempted,
there will be little feeling of strangeness about it, and
much less difficulty in sustaining the interest.
(3.) We turn now to the case of continuous exposition.
* The author has recollections, more vivid than pleasing, of a
first attempt, which consisted in a series upon Colossians, and
which was declared by a preacher's best adviser to have been on
the whole a decided failure. 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS. 307
Here, as has been intimated, the first thing to be done is
to make a careful study beforehand of the entire book, or
other portion of Scripture to which the series is to be
devoted. To view every book as a whole, to grasp its
entire contents, and then trace in detail the progress of its
narrative or argument, is a method of Scripture study far
too little practised. It is one of the benefits of expository
preaching that it compels the preacher to study in this
way. We may say in general, that no man will succeed
in expository preaching unless he delights in exegetical
study of the Bible, unless he loves to search out the exact
meaning of its sentences, phrases, words.   In order to
this, a knowledge of the original languages of Scripture
is of course exceedingly desirable, but it is by no means
indispensable. Andrew Fuller, who dealt largely and successfully in this method of preaching, had substantially
no knowledge of Hebrew and Greek, and his writings were
devoted not to commentary, but to didactic and polemic
theology. Yet he loved to study the very words of Scripture. In all his works it is manifest that he did not content himself with gathering the general meaning of a
passage, but was exceedingly anxious to know its exact
meaning. One of the most eloquent Baptist ministers of
America, who died twenty years ago, was never so happy,
so charming, as in expository sermons. He too was unacquainted with Greek and Hebrew, and was not liberally
supplied with commentaries; but he loved, above all things,
to ponder and to talk about the meaning of God's word.
There appears to have been a change in this respect which
is to be lamented.  We  have a great multiplication of
commentaries, and an immense amount of more or less
real study of the Scriptures in Sunday Schools, we have
many more ministers than formerly who know something
of the original languages, but there is reason to fear that
the close, thoughtful, lovingly patient study of the Bible 
308 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
is less common among the ministry now than it once was.
As to conversation about the meaning of this or that
passage, such as once abounded when  preachers were
thrown together, it has gone out of fashion. A man who
should raise such a question now among a group of ministers, sojourning together during the session of some association or convention, would be almost stared at. It will
not do to say that we manage these questions better at
home among our books. Ile who most zealously uses his
books, at the same time thinking for himself as every man
that is a man will do, finds the largest number of points
arising, upon which the books utterly disagree or are unsatisfactory, and concerning which he would like to compare views with intelligent brethren. But not to dwell
further upon this opinion, it is proper earnestly to insist
that one great reason why many ministers find expository
preaching difficult is, that they have not been sufficiently
accustomed to study the Bible. Our rapid general reading
is very useful, our devotional reading of brief portions is
indispensable to personal piety, but the downright study
of Scripture is too often confined to the texts for next
Sunday, and their immediate context. The first thing to
do, then, after determining to give a series of expository
sermons upon a book, or other portion of Scripture, is to
study it all over in advance, with some of the best explanatory commentaries, and with especial attention to the
general contents and connection. To commit the book to
memory would be no bad idea, but at any rate one should
get the whole train of thought or series of facts, from
beginning to end, firmly fixed in his mind.
Next, it would be well to mark out a scheme of sermons
covering the whole ground. Previous experience in the
exposition of detached passages will enable one to do this
without any great difficulty, and of course there can be
alterations, if occasion for them should arise in the prog 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS. 309
ress of the series. The great advantage of making out the
scheme in advance is, that we can thus distribute most
judiciously the several topics of the book. In Romans,
for example, various subjects are alluded to in the first
three chapters, which are afterwards treated at some length.
It would be awkward if one should go into any general
discussion of these topics at the point of their first occurrence. They ought to be briefly handled there, and reserved for more extensive remark where they are introduced again. It would very rarely be advisable, however,
to promise at the outset a definite number of discourses.
Indeed, it is not always best to announce a series at all. It
may be added that one must beware of going too slowly.
Let there be manifest progress, such as the restless spirit
of our generation requires. But we may pause upon any
specially interesting sentence or phrase, even to the extent,
in some cases, of devoting a whole sermon to it. Thus
there will be variety as well as progress; and hearers will
be gratified to perceive that the preachlier marks out passages, not according to their mere external dimensions, but
according to the richness of their available contents.
(4.) But now the particular discourse is to be constructed.
The passage before us has unity, and we note the heads which
it presents, as we should do in a textual sermon.  Thus we
shall have a structure, a discourse, and not a scattering talk.
But one of the principal difficulties in the entire task now
presents itself, the proper handling of the details. If we
simply take the topic and the heads which the passage
affords, and proceed to discuss them in our own way, that
is not an expository sermon, but a text-sermon. The
exposition of some passages, particularly in the hands of
some menl, will constantly tend towards this form, and
often with advantage.  But what we are supposed to be
ainling at, is a strictly expository sermon, in which not
only the leading ideas of the passage are brought out, but 
310  DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
its details are suitably explained, and made to furnish the
chief material of the discourse. In order to manage this,
we need to study the details thoroughly, so as to master
them, instead of being oppressed by them. We thus, too,
enter more fully into the spirit of the passage, as the
musician must who makes variations on a theme. Then
we  must  select  and  group.   Here  the inexperienced
preacher often errs. Having minutely studied the details
of the passage, and become interested in them, he desires
to remark upon a greater number of points than the limits
of his discourse will allow. Thus it becomes so crowded
that the hearer follows with annoying difficulty, and none
of the numerous points presented have time to impress
themselves upon his mind. It is indispensable to select.
Of course one will aim to choose such details as especially
require explanation, and such as will at the same time
yield important or interesting matter. Often points of no
great intrinsic importance, slight traits in the narrative, or
minor links in the argument, will add greatly to the vivacity and vigor of the discourse.  Every one knows that in
oratorical description we must seek the kind of excellence
which is seen in certain descriptions by Demosthenes and
Tacitus, or in Retzsch's Outlines -a few lines and touches,
but those few eminently suggestive and stimulating to the
imagination.  Is there not something similar in the oratorical exposition of an argument? Must we not labor,
besides exhibiting the outlines, the prominent thoughts of
our passage, to choose out those details which will cause
the whole argument to stand forth in its completeness?
Remember, we are not preparing a commentary, nor a
dogmatic treatise, but an expository sermon, and the whole
treatment must be, in the good sense of that word, oratorical. In this respect, as in everything else pertaining to
the art of discourse, practical effort, controlled by just
principles, will not fail to bring skill. 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS. 311
A mistake sometimes made consists in the unduly multiplied and extended quotation of parallel passages. Thus
the details of the text, too numerous themselves perhaps
for oratorical purposes, are each surrounded by a mass of
other passages, and the discourse is so loaded down as to
be past endurance. The Lectures of M'Ghee on Ephesians,
which are in some respects good, err in this direction very
sadly.  It is a fault sometimes observed in other than
expository sermons, though in these the temptation to it is
particularly great. It is so easy for a preacher to persuade
himself that he is putting honor upon Scripture, by
quoting thus largely, when sometimes he is only putting
honor upon his own indolence.*   Of course, judicious
quotation from other parts of Scripture is highly appropriate and often exceedingly valuable, and we need not
sympathize with the fastidiousness of Foster, any more
than with the opposite extreme.
There is also danger of error as to the treatment of difficult passages occurring in the text. The preacher will,
of course, study these with great care, for he cannot afford,
as regards his personal habits, to slide over difficulties.
But having thus become much interested in this difficult
portion of his text, having become familiar with the different views which have been suggested, and the arguments
for one view and against another, he very naturally feels
disposed to use the matter so laboriously wrought out, to
discuss the question which appears so interesting. In this
way many an expository sermon has been ruined. True,
wherever the preacher is really able to clear up the difficulty, and to do this by a comparatively brief and evidently satisfactory explanation, people will be glad to hear
it.  If he can show that the passage, as thus explained.
presents some interesting and valuable truth, they will be
delighted.  If it is a passage which has been made promi.
- Tlhe practice is well satirized by Coqierel, p. 69. 
312 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
nent in religious controversies, or has on any account
attracted extraordinary attention, they might even-like to
hear something of the process by which this satisfactory
explanation has been reached. But such cases are comparatively rare; and in general, men grow Weary of a long
discussion of some quacestio vexatissima or locus difficillimus.
If the preacher, by long study and a brief statement of
the results, can throw any light on such a passage, very
well; but the long study is his affair, not theirs. This is
only one of many directions in which preachers are apt to
err, in thinking the people will be interested by everything
that interests them. And then, where the result of his
researches is not satisfactory, where he does not feel that
he can make the matter plain, let the preacher merely
notice that there is a difficulty here, and pass on to speak
of truths which the passage certainly does teach, to handle
what he is confident he understands.* It is a complaint
often made against the commentaries, that they say much
about the easy places, and little about the hard ones. Now
where the book is designed, not so much for explanation as
for comment, in the strict sense of that term -and this is the
case with most of the older works-it is obviously proper
for the writer to spend his time in developing and applying
the teachings of those passages which he understands. He
has no right to develop and apply what he is not confident
is the true meaning. Quite similar is the case of the
expository preacher. To state at great length several different views as to the meaning of a passage, without being
able to show cause why any one of them should be accepted
* A celebrated Professor of Greek in one of our American Univcesi.ies had a youthful assistant, who was one day unexpectedly
called on to rcneet a class, without having read over the lesson.
When asked afterwards how he had got through, he said, "I just
talked about what I understood, and let alone what I did n't."
" Pretty good plan," said the old gentleman; " I suspect you had
better continue to do that as long as you live." 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS. 313
or preferred, and then leave the matter in that unsatis factory position, is tiresome in a book, and in a sermon
intolerable.
In the progress of an expository discourse, it is often
desirable to keep the connection of the text before the minds
of the audience, by somewhat frequently glancing back,
as we proceed, upon the ground already traversed. Chrys ostom sets us the example of managing this with skill.
He also frequently throws in some lively question as to
what comes next, calculated to arouse the hearers, and
make them notice it when stated. Our audiences, like
his, do n6t commonly have the sacred text before them,
and we must strive to supply the deficiency. By making
the leading thoughts of the text quite distinct, by skilfully
selecting and grouping the details, and by glancing backward and pointing forward  as we proceed, this serious
practical difficulty can be to a great extent overcome.
Much pains should be taken to point out and apply the
lessons which the text may afford. The people need, and
desire, to have these distinctly stated, unless the application is exceedingly obvious. It will somewhat frequently
be more convenient, particularly in historical exposition,
to apply each division of the discourse as it is presented.
But in many cases we can do as is common in other sermons, reserve the chief practical lessons for the conclusion.
Of course such lessons must, in general, be briefly indicated, as so much time is needed for exposition. But where
there is a subject of special practical importance, it may
be discussed and urged at length, even if some portions of
the text have to be left unexplained. And if current
events, or the religious condition of the congregation,
should make it particularly desirable to discuss some practical topic which the text does not naturally suggest, it
may be introduced in the way of remark, or of remote
application of some general truth or duty. Here again,
27 
314 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
Chrysostom presents us an example. Much as he delighted
in explaining Scripture, he yet felt that, in preaching, the
practical interest is paramount; and he not only points
out many lessons by the way, but is almost sure to find
some practical subject for the conclusion, and this is not
unfrequently treated at great length. Nor does he trouble
himself much as to the association of ideas by which he
shall reach any such important practical matter, but often
uses a freedom which critics with strict notions of what we
call "sermonizing" would be likely to condemn.  In his
sermon on the Transfiguration, for example, he wants to
bear down on the money-lenders there at Antioch, and
reaches them as follows: The three disciples were happy
in seeing Christ's glory on the mount- we may hope to
behold him in a more splendid glory- but if we wish to
do so we must take heed what manner of lives we are leading -we must not do this and that, must not oppress the
poor - and so he comes to the matter of charging enormous interest, which is then discussed for some time, with
vehement denunciation and entreaty. By a still more
roundabout process he passes from the feeding of the five
thousand to an earnest attack upon the elaborately embroidered and curiously fashioned sandals which were then
the rage.  And he can frequently return to the same subject, if it seems to require renewed censure or exhortation,
managing to bring it in somehow. In one long series of
discourses he rarely fails to inveigh against profanity; and
his favorite topic of alms-giving may be expected to recur
almost anywhere, upon the slightest provocation. Now in
all this his example is not faultless, certainly, but it is
extremely instructive. We have seen that there is to be
desired a much greater unity, and much more of orderly
structure and regular progress than is exhibited in Chrysostom's homilies. Bu t the strictest notions in this direction must not prevent us from frequently and freely intro 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ~1RMONS.  315
ducing matters of practical interest.  In this way  the
people will be led to listen much more attentively to our
explanations, being constantly on the lookout for some
practical application to themselves; and they will also be
constantly reminded of what men are so prone to forget.
the intimate relation between Scripture truth and daily
life.* Pastors sometimes shrink from undertaking a series
of expository discourses, from the fear that they will not
be able to adapt themselves to the precise condition and
wants, week after week, of their people; but if the suggestions just made be acted upon, there will in this respect
be no difficulty. Besides, where one preaches twice every
Sunday, according to the common if not commendable
fashion of the present day, he may of course have one
sermon free for as much variety of specific adaptation as
he pleases.
*, Expository preaching should aimn at direct moral effect. A cold
and formal delineation of the course of thought in a portion of the
sacred writings, a heartless dissection of its words and phrases without the glow, and feeling, and high religious sensibility of the
inspired penman, without ardent love for the souls of men and an
earnest desire to bring them to a knowledge of the truth, can answer none of the purposes of expository preaching. It is holding
up a cold and mangled corpse instead of the warm and living body.
Expository preaching should be regulated by a knowledge of the
depths of human nature and should touch the secret springs of the
human soul. The Bible itself is remarkable for these characteristics, and it is the greatest of mistakes to imagine that the Bible
can be interpreted by a knowledge of words alone. No book has
ever gone so deeply into all the windings and corners of the soul
and touched so many of the vibrating chords of the heart. To
think of spreading out the hidden glories of inspiration by the
mere study of languages without the study of man, is like attempting to bring music from the organ by blowing the bellows without
touching the keys, It is the lamentable mistake so frequently made
on this point, that has often brought expository preaching into disrepute and disuse."  Prof. C. E. Stowe, Art. in Biblical Repos.
Vol. V, p. 388. 
316 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
(5.) One who wishes to cultivate himself as an expository preacher,
will of course be disposed to search the literature of the pulpit for
good examples of that species of sermons. It may therefore be
worth while to mention some specimens which it would be instructive to study, selecting such as are easily accessible.
First, a few good expository sermons on detached passages.
Monod on the "Woman of Canaan" (Fish's "Select Discourses
from the French and German"), is good. Dr. J. Addison Alexander on Titus ii. 11-15 (Sermons, vol. I), is an admirable specimen
of doctrinal and practical exposition. Dr. R. Fuller's discourses
on the'Walk to Emmaus," and on the,Three Hebrews in the
Furnace" (Sermons), are very fine.  Dr. Wayland's " Day in the
Life of Jesus of Nazareth," and "Fall of Peter" (Sermons   on Salvation by Christ), are of remarkable excellence. Spurgeon on the
"Blind Beggar" (Sermons, vol. VI), is more distinctly expository
than is common in his sermons.
Passing,to specimens of continuous or connected exposition, we
mention the following as chiefly historical.  Krummacher's "Elijah
the Tishbite" is hardly equalled by any of his later volumes, except his "David."  The "Friends of Christ," by Dr. N. Adams, is
a capital volume.  Blunt's "Lectures on the History of our Saviour"
form a good example for most of us, because they are interesting
and profitable. while not exhibiting remarkable abilities.  Monod's
"Five Sermons on the Apostle Paul" ought by all means to be
studied. More distinctly expository than these, and among the most
instructive and charming specimens of their class in our recent
literature, are Hanna's six small volumes of Lectures on the Life
of Christ, republished in this country.
And the following are chiefly doctrinal or preceptive.  Chalmers on
Romans is eminently worthy of study, and is most instructive to
those who are best acquainted with his other sermons, and his
peculiar cast of mind. Leighton on 1-Peter is famous, and of a
beautiful spirit.  Luther on Galatians is highly interesting and
instructive, and is perhaps the best specimen remaining of those
powerful expository sermons by which he wrought so great a
work.   Cumming's volumes, as on Revelation, on Daniel, on the
Parables, etc., are, whatever one may think of his peculiar opinions, excellent models of easy, agreeable and attractive popular
exposition.   Some of the sermons of F. W. Robertson, as well
as his volume on Corinthians, are admirable specimens of a certain
kind of exposition; though one cannot be oo careful, in reading 
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS. 317
any of his works, to guard against his grievous errors as to inspiration and atonement.   Ryle's "Expository Thoughts on the
Gospels" (several volumes), contain only the substance of sermons, not written out in full, but they are very useful for our
purpose. The most instructive example, however, of expository
discourse, both doctrinal and historical, is the Homilies of
Chrysostom.  While no man of sense would think of making discourses now precisely on the model of his, it is remarkable how
much may be learned from them as to the skilful, spirited and
effective management of expository preaching. Those who have
not access to, or cannot read his works in the original, would find
it desirable to procure a translation, such as is contained in the
Oxford Library of the Fathers.  Profound students of his works
consider the best of his Homilies to be those on the Psalms and on
Matthew. In the former there is necessarily much erroneous interpretation, since he knew no Hebrew, and had to rely on the Septuagint, which in the Psalms is full of errors. The volumes on
Matthew are therefore probably the most valuable for our purpose,
and these can be obtained at no great cost. One who knows how
much interest Andrew Fuller and Robert Hall took in expository
preaching. would expect to find profitable examples in their works.
But he would be disappointed. Fuller's published expositions on
Genesis and on Revelation contain the substance of sermons, and
comprise much judicious interpretation and sound thinking; but
they give us very little information as to the form of his discourses,
and none at all as to his management of details. Still less to the
purpose is the report of Hall's sermons on Philippians. The copious "Homiletical and Practical" notes in Lange's Commentaries
may be found profitable in expository preaching by those who take
pains to use them wisely.
Some of the works in this brief list might not be regarded as
expository sermons, according to the common use of that phrase.
But we are here claiming for it a wider range than is common, and
have insisted that this method of preaching often approximates
closely to the other methods.
If the suggestions which have been offered are wellfounded, it will be obvious that expository preaching is a
difficult task. It requires much close study of Scripture
in general, and mum'h special study of the particular pas 
318 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SERMONS.
sage to be treated. To make a discourse which shall be
explanatory and yet truly oratorical, bearing a rich mass
of details but not burdened with them, full of Scripture
and abounding in practical applications, to bring even
dull, uninformed and unspiritual minds into interested
and profitable contact with an extended portion of the
Bible of course this must be difficult. One cannot say
then, as is often said, try expository preaching first on
week-nights, till you and the people become accustomed
to it. Nay, try it now and then for your principal sermon
on Sunday, without mentioning that you are about to do
any thing unusual, and lay out your best strength upon an
earnest effort to make it at once instructive, interesting,
and impressive. Then you and the people will gradually
become accustomed to expository preaching as it should
be. After repeating, more or less frequently, such occasional efforts, you will know how to prepare for an expository series. He who begins it as an easy thing, will find
expository preaching surpassingly difficult; but he who
manfully takes hold of it as difficult, will find it grow
easier and more pleasant, with every year of his experience. Not every man will find the expository method
best suited to his mental endowments. But every one
ought to acquire the power of employing it with skill and
success.  Then, though it be better for this or that man to
preach for the most part in other ways, lhe may continue to
introduce expository sermons now and then, and may also
infuse a larger expository element into many of his textual
and topical sermons.  And it may be confidently asserted
that many a one who now thinks this method of preaching
unsuited to him, needs nothing but diligent study and
practice, upon some such principles as have been indicated, to make his expository sermons very profitable to,
his hearers, and singularly delightful to himself. 
PART III.
STYLE.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE.*
IMPORTANCE OF STYLE.  ~ 2. MEANS OF
IMPROVING STYLE.
~ 1. NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF STYLE.
WE frequently say of a writer, that he wields a ready,
an elegant, or a caustic pen.  Ill like manner the
stylus, the pointed iron instrument with which the Romans
wrote upon their tablets covered with wax, is often employed by Cicero to denote the manner of writing, the
manner of expressing one's thoughts in writing, and at a
later period was very naturally extended to speaking. In
modern times the use has been still further extended,
by analogy, to the fine arts, to dress, and a great variety
of matters. A man's style, then, is his characteristic man
*Besides the general treatises on Rhetoric and Homiletics, on
Composition, on Grammar, and on the science of Language, the
student will find valuable observations in the Essays on Style by
De Quincey, Bulwer (Caxtoniana), and Herbert Spencer (Essays,
New York, Appleton), and in Henry Rogers on Sacred Eloquence
(" Reason and Faith, and other Essays;" originally in Edinburgh
Review, October, 1840).
319
l. NATURE AND 
320 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STY LE.
ner of expressing his thoughts, whether in writing or in
speech.
Every one has his own handwriting, if he writes at all
easily and well. Any early imitation of a "copy" will
soon be merged in his own individual style of writing,as in this sense also we still call it. And so in the higher
sense, every one has his own style. The most slavish imitation could not be perfect; the man's own character will
sometimes, in spite of him, modify his style. No writer on
the subject fails to quote the saying of Buffon, "The style
is the man."  This saying Buffon himself curiously illustrated, for his style is marked by a stately and elaborate
elegance, and it is stated that he could not write well unless
he was in full dress.   To  the same effect Landor said,
"Language is a part of a man's character;" * and Lessing, "Every man should have his own style as he has his
own nose." t But here, as everywhere else, that which is
most characteristic in a man may be disciplined and indefinitely improved, without losing individuality.
It is not surprising that the term style, as figuratively
denoting one's manner of expressing his thoughts, should
be used in different cases with a very different extent of
meaning. It is sometimes taken to include arrangement,
even that of an entire treatise or discourse; and there can
certainly he no absolute distinction made between the
arrangement of sentences and paragraphs, and that of the
discourse. Commonly, however, the general arrangement
is not included in the term. On the other hand, style is
sometimes distinguished from diction, the latter then denoting one's vocabulary, the character of the words and particular phrases which he employs, while the former would
include everything else belonging to his mode of expressing thought. But it is best, according to the usual practice, to include diction as a part of style.
t Hiaven's Rhet. p. 241.
* Hoppin, p. 230. 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE. 321
Thus understood, style is obviously a matter of very
great importance. A man's style cannot be separated from
his modes of thought, from his whole mental character.
The natural and common image by which we call it the
dress of thought, is very apt to mislead; for style, as
Wordsworth forcibly says, is not the mere dress, it is the
incarnation of thought. We know another's thoughts,
only as thus revealed, thus incarnate.* Aristotle, it is
true, speaks slightingly of style, as a subject recently
introduced into treatises of rhetoric, which it is to some
little extent necessary to consider in every system of
instruction, though the proof is the main thing.t His
practice accords with this opinion, for his own style is not
only careless and harsh, but often vexatiously obscure.
And yet there were already in his language many noble
specimens of style, in poetry, history, oratory, which have
never been surpassed; so true is it in Rhetoric that just
theory.follows excellent practice.r It is only a few men
whose matter is so surpassingly valuable as to be highly
prized, like Aristotle's, notwithstanding great faults of
style. The speakers and writers who have been widely and
permanently influential, have usually accomplished it by
good thoughts, well expressed. Often, indeed, excellence
of style has given works a wide and lasting popularity
which had little other merit. Goldsmith's Histories still
hold their place in many schools, because so charmingly
written, though they are not only behind the age, but very
poorly represented the historical attainments of their own
age.   The wide-spread, though short-lived popularity
gained by Renan's fanciful Life of Jesus, was due not
merely to the sensational character of its contents, but
* See also Day, p. 213.          -            Arist. Rhet. III, 1.
I Cicero says (Orator, 16) that " when one has found out what to
say and in what order, there still remains by far the greatest thing,
viz. how to Ray it;" but in this he includes style and delivery. 
322 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE.
Very largely also to the extreme beauty of the style, par ticularly in the original French. When a student at a
Jesuit College, Renan paid great attention to the cultiva tion of his style, and he has devoted himself mainly to the
study of language and literature. In like manner science
has in many cases gained a just appreciation only when
recommended by a pleasing style. This was what Buffon
did for Natural History. The popularity of Geology was
immensely increased among the English-speaking peoples
by Hugh Miller, through his marvellous powers of descrip tion and the general freshness and animation of his style.
And so now with Agassiz.  Such facts go to show that
style is not a thing of mere ornament. Style is the glitter
and polish of the warrior's sword, but is also its keen edge.
It can render mediocrity acceptable and even attractive,
can make power more powerful still. It can make error
seductive, and truth may lie unnoticed for want of its aid.
Shall religious teachers neglect so powerful a means of
usefulness? True, Paul says, "My speech and my preaching were not with persuasive words of man's wisdom." *
He refused to deal in the would-be philosophy and the sensational and meretricious rhetoric which were so popular
in that rapidly growing commercial city; but his style is a
model of passionate energy, and rises, upon occasion, into
an inartificial and exquisite beauty.t
Yet style is in this country much neglected. The French
surpass all other modern nations, in respect of perspicuity,
elegance, and animation, if not energy. The cultivated
English come next to them in finish of style, and surpass
them in power. The English University training, with all
its defects, has in this respect produced noble results, as
may be seen not only in the great Parliamentary orators
and the admirable newspaper writing which England
*1 Cor. 2: 4.
t Witness in this same Epistle, chap. 13 and chap. 15. 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE. 323
boasts, but also in preachers.  The famous Oxford Tracts
would not have been so influential but for their admirable
style.  The sermons of J. H. Newman, Robertson, Liddon,
and Bishop Wilberforce are in this respect greatly to be
admired. And the England of this century has credit for
Robert Hall. The style of German prose, with a few
grand exceptions,* has generally been very bad, particularly among religious writers. They have apparently
recognized no obligation to compel the hearer or reader to
understand them, or even to help him in doing so, but have
aimed merely to express the thought in a form intelligible
to themselves, without considering how it would be with
othlers.t That is to say, they have sought subjective
excellence of style, and not objective. But there seems to
be at present a rapidly increasing number of German
speakers and writers whose style is marked by perspicuity
and grace, without sacrificing Teutonic profundity and
strength. In America we have some writers and speakers,
both secular and religious, who canl be held up as models.
But in general we fall seriously below the English.'An
extreme negligence and looseness of style very generally
prevails. And the great American fault, in speaking and
writing, is an excessive vehemence, a constant effort to be
striking. Our style, as well as our delivery, too often lacks
the calmness of conscious strength, the repose of simple
sincerity, the quiet earnestness which only now and then
becomes impassioned. "He will be an eloquent man who
shall be able to speak of small matters in lowly phrase, of
ordinary topics temperately, of great subjects with passion
and power." ~
One cause of this neglect of style among us, and to some
extent in England also, is the failure to understand its
inseparable connection with the thought conveyed. De
* Goethe's prose style is scarcely surpassed in any language.
t Comp. Quintilian, VIII, 2, 19.       I Cicero, Orator, 29. 
324 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE.
Quincey says, "Here our quarrel is coextensive with that
general principle ill England, which tends in all things to
set the matter above the manner, the substance above the
external show; a principle noble in itself, but inevitably
wrong wherever the manner blends inseparably with the
substance." *  The best style attracts least attention to
itself, and none but the critical observer is apt to appreciate its excellence, most men giving credit solely to the
matter, and having no idea how much the manner has contributed to attract and impress them. The thought is certainly the main thing; but the style also is important.
"The experience of all times, and the testimony of all
teachers, present to us as inseparable, these two propositions: 1. That we must not flatter ourselves that we shall
have a good style, without an interesting fund of ideas.
2. That even with an interesting and substantial supply of
ideas, we must not flatter ourselves that style will come of
itself." t
It follows from all this that every writer and speaker
should pay great attention to the improvement of his style.
High excellence in style is necessarily rare; for a discourse,
a paragraph, even a sentence, is really a work of art, fashioned by constructive imagination - and artist gifts of
every kind are rare. But any man who will try, long
enough and hard enough, can learn to say what he means,
to say forcibly what he deeply feels, and to clothe his
thoughts in a garb at least of homely neatness. Some of
the best writers and speakers have had peculiar difficulty
in acquiring a good style, e. g. John Foster; and their
success affords encouragement to us all.
~ 2. MEANS OF IMPROVING STYLE.
Oratorical style is but one out of many species of style,
and one variety of the oratorical style is that of the pulpit.
I
*On St,yle, p. 66.
t Vinet, p. 353. 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE. 325
Yet a man's characteristic style will be essentially the same,
in all kinds of writing and speaking; and mental cultivation should never be confined to the sphere of one's chief
mental activity. We are therefore to consider the means
of improvement, not merely as regards that which is peculiar to oratory, but as regards style in general.
1. The study of language, particularly of our own language, is in this respect exceedingly profitable. The science
of language, which in the last forty years has accomplished
so much, and which is now making such rapid progress,
cannot be considered inferior, in point of interest and
instructiveness, to any other of the sciences.   But the
study of the science as such, has only an indirect bearing
on style; it is the practical acquisition of languages that
is here the great source of benefit. This, when pursued
with system, and on sound principles, compels close attention to the nature of language in general, to the history,
changes and capacities of words, and the relation of syntactical construction to the different forms and processes
of thought. It also attracts to the peculiarities of our own
language a keener and more intelligent notice, than most
persons would otherwise bestow. These benefits are more
or less derived from the study of any language whatsoever.
There is peculiar advantage in choosing French or German,
because they correspond to the two great elements of which
our own language is chiefly composed.   But the timehonored study of Latin and Greek is more advantageous
still. In their inflections, their syntax, their prose rhythm,
these languages exhibit the full and instructive development of excellencies which English, French, German possess only in part. We have recourse to them as geologists
explain outlying rocks or scattered fossils, by comparing
them with beds in which similar specimens lie side by side
with others to which they are related. This careful study
of other languages is not only useful as a part of the
28 
326 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE.
speaker's early training, but ought, so far as possible, to
be kept up through life. It has been thus kept up by a
very large proportion of those who have attained great
excellence of style.
But whether acquainted or not with other languages, a
man must earnestly study his own. It is very encouraging
to observe the now rapidly increasing attention to the
English Language in our best high-schools, Colleges and
Universities. Apart from its incomparable practical importance to us, the English is in itself a worthy study, a
most noble tongue. Foreigners naturally complain much
of those irregularities in spelling and pronunciation, which
have been almost necessarily produced by the union of two
diverse languages into one. Critics at home can easily
point out its weakness, and compare it unfavorably, in this
or that respect, with some other idiom. But set against all
this the words of a great German scholar, the foremost
among all students of the Gothic family of languages.
"The English language, which by no mere accident has
produced and upborne the greatest and most predominant
poet of modern times, may with all right be called a worldlanguage; and like the English people, appears destined
hereafter to prevail with a sway more extensive even than
its present over all portions of the globe. For in wealth,
good sense, and closeness of structure, no other of the languages at this day spoken deserves to be compared with it
- not even our German, which is torn, even as we are torn,
and must first rid itself of many defects, before it can enter
boldly into the lists, as a competitor with the English." *
It,s not like Italian for music, nor like French for conversation, nor like German as to facility in forming new compounds, but taken all in all, for history, poetry, philosophy,
oratory, for society and for business, it is at present unequalled   A  popular writer has recently called it "the
* Jacob Grimm, quoted by Trench and Angus. 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE. 327
grammarless tongue"; but English has a grammar, a very
regular syntax, and one that is often and flagrantly violated,
even by able and cultivated men. De Quincey declares:
"It makes us blush to add, that even grammar is so little
of a perfect attainment amongst us, that with two or three
exceptions, (one being Shakspeare, whom some affect to
consider as belonging to a semi-barbarous age,) we have
never seen the writer, through a circuit of prodigious reading, who has not sometimes violated the accidence or the
syntax of English Grammar." *
The most scientific works on English Grammar have to
be sought in German- a reproach to the English-speaking people which ought to cease.t Persons who have been
carefully drilled in Greek and Latin, especially by written
translations from English into those languages and from
them into English, usually feel that they have no use for
the common treatises on English Grammar. Yet we have
many books which even scholars may examine with profit,
and which students in general would find very useful.1  It
* De Quincey on Style, p. 105.
t' Professor in one of our leading American Universities,
though a man of vast acquirements, had never studied German.   In
history, in general literature, even in metaphysical philosophy, he
was content with what could be found in Greek and Latin, in French
and English.  But at length determining to make a thorough study
of Engjlish Grammnar, he was compelled to learn German.
For example, Angus' Hand-Book of the English Tongue is excellent.  Add to it Trench on the Study of Words, and his "English, Past and Present." And by all means read Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, Book II, chap. 1-4, and Book III, chap. 4-5,
in which he treats of grammar. Every student ought to keep cnstantly within reach, and very freely to consult, the latest edition
of Webster's Dictionary, unabridged, the definitions in which are
exceedingly instructive, while the orthography is less objectionable
than in former editions. One who wishes to get some knowledge
of the modern science of language in its bearings on English,
should read Whitney's "Language, and the Study of Language," and 
328 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE.
is true that books on grammar are not everything in acquiring command of the language, nor the main thing. There
are men among us who have studied no such hooks, nor any
other language, and yet who speak and write English with
correctness and-even with force and beauty. The great
works of Greek poetry and history were written before any
treatises on grammar existed. These facts remind us that
we must find elsewhere the principal means of improvement
in style, but they by no means prove that grammars are
useless. We have to learn the usage of the language, and
grammars undertake to present this usage in a systematic
and convenient form. They show us our faults, and warn
us where there is danger; they set us to observing language,
and reflecting upon it.  The rules of grammar have most
effectually done their work when conformity to them has
become habitual, and we need the rules no longer yea,
when we have so fully entered into the principles involved,
that upon occasion we may even violate a rule.* Correct
habits may be formed, and right principles comprehended,
without books of grammar, but more rapidly and surely
with them, provided we use them only as helps, and aim to
go deeper than they can carry us. As to this whole matter
of studying English Grammar, two practical errors widely
prevail, and greatly need to be corrected. Men who have
been to College are apt to think they have no need to study
their own language at all, and especially no need of consulting books on the subject -the latter part of this opin
Max Muiller's two volumes on the Science of Language, and then
take Marsh's Lectures on the English Language. Alford's "The
Queen's English," and the other books and numerous Magazine
articles to which it has given rise, are usually entertaining and
suggestive, but tend to hyper-criticism, often magnifying trifles
and dogmatizing about doubtful questions, to the neglect of broad
views and fixed principles.
* Comp. as to the rules of Rhetoric, above, Introduction, ~ 4. 
GENERAL OBSERYATIONS ON STYLE. 329
ion being a mistake, and the former a very great mistake.
On the other hand, men who have had fewer educational
advantages are ill danger of supposing that without systematic instruction they can do nothing to improve their
style, or else that after studying a book or two on English
Grammar, they have nothing more to do.*
It may be remarked in general that a preacher ought to
employ pure English, according to current use; not quickly
catching up the novelties of the street or the daily paper,
and not introducing those archaisms with which he is
familiar from commerce with old books, but which his
hearers would not readily understand.  He should speak
the English of general use, not employing local peculiarities
of phrase except for special reason; but he should retain
genuine English idiom, even where superficial critics attempt
to displace it.  The preacher must never invent words.
Madame de Stael says, "There is in general no surer
symptom of barrenness of ideas, than the invention of
words," - a remark which may at least be set over against
the notion that such invention is a symptom of originality.
And he should not, save in very peculiar cases, employ
words or phrases from foreign languages. It was once very
common, and thought to be very appropriate, for a minister
to quote much Latin and Greek in his sermons. Even
Wesley's sermons abound in such quotations, though he
preached mainly to the common people. It is a sign of
improved taste that this is no longer the practice. A
speaker must now use his knowledge of other languages
only as giving him increased power over his own language.
Even where one refers to the original Scriptures, it is very
rarely proper to mention the Greek or Hebrew word.
2. The study of literature perhaps contributes still more
to the improvement of style, than the direct study of language. From reading we gain much in the knowledge of
* On the importance of studying Anglo-Saxon, see below, chap. 2.
28*
I
I 
330 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE.
language, especially as to richness of vocabulary, fulness of
expression.* But more. It is chiefly by reading that we
form our literary taste -a matter of unspeakable  importanice. Cicero makes one of his characters say, referring to
Greek literature: "As, when I walk in the sun, even
though I walk for another reason, my complexion is yet
colored; so, when I have read these books, I feel that my
style of speaking is as it were colored by their influence." t
And what Shakspeare mournfully says, is true in this better
sense also,
"My nature is subdued
To what it works in, like the dyer's hand."
To bathe our minds in choice literature till they become
imbued with correct principles of style, to nourish them
with good l].earning fill our taste grows healthy, so as to discern quickly and surely between good and bad, is a process surpassingly profitable in its results, and in itself delightful.
And not only do we need to cultivate good literature for
its positive benefits, but also to counteract certain evil influences of great power. Few among us have learned from
childhood to speak graceful and forcible English, few indeed to speak it with bare correctness. Mother-tongue is
often to a great extent nurse's tongue; and in this country
that usually means the broken and rude English of the
negroes, or the brogue of the most ignorant Irish. From
our childish associates we seldom gained much in the way
of grammatical correctness or good taste.  And as men
grow up and go on in life, so large a part of what they
read in newspapers, and of what they hear in conversation
ard even in public speaking, is in a vicious style, that they
* Kossuth derived his wonderful knowledge of English from the
study of Shakspeare, while in prison.
f De Orat. II, 15, 16. 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE. 331
inevitably feel the effect. Besides the more obvious errors,
as to pronunciation and syntax, which are too often committed by cultivated speakers, there results from these influences a more subtle and more serious injury to taste,
which only a continued application to the best literature
can remedy and prevent. De Quincey points out that the
immense multiplication of newspapers has injured our style
of conversation. Everybody reads them constantly, and
their writers too often use the most bookish and inflated
language in treating of common things. One who wishes to
form a good style would do well to select his newspapers,
secular and religious, with reference to this, as well as to
other considerations. The style of preaching will always
naturally, and to a great extent properly, share the pecu
liarities which mark the literature of the day. When this
exhibits bad taste, as is so often true now of newspaperwriting and public speaking, we must correct the evil by
intimacy with the truly great authors, of our own and of
former times.
It is delightful to think how many good authors there
are, in English and in other languages. Our religious literature, both sermons and other works, presents noble specimens of style, in which one may at the same time nourish
the intellect, warm the heart, and refine the taste, and
among which he may select such as will exert the kind of
influence he particularly needs. The great French preachers, from Bossuet to MIonod, with such Americans as J. M.
Mason and R. Fuller, form admirable examples of passion
combined with elegance. Baxter is remarkable for directness and pungency, Bunyan for homely and charming
simplicity. If one's style is dry and barren, he may read
Chrysostom, Jeremy Taylor, Chalmers, or Melville. For a
grand model of style, which, like some young Grecian
athlete, stands glorious in disciplined strength and manly
beauty, we must go to Robert Hall, his writings as well as 
332 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE.
his sermons. And if the influence of Hiall should tend to
produce monotonous elevation, never coming down to common phrases, nor coming close with personal applications,
the exact remedy is to be found in familiarity with Spurgeon. But any such indication of specimens must be
unjust, if not misleading, as regards the many that are
omitted. The important matter is, that one should not
read at hap-hazard; that taking account of his mental
constitution, his previous training and present stage of
development, the particular tendencies as to thinking and
style of which he is now conscious, he should select,
according to the best accessible information, such works as
will best meet his actual wants.
Preachers ought to derive very great benefit in point of
style, from their constant reading and minute study of the
English Bible. The Scriptures embrace almost every
species of style, and each with many varieties. And the
current English translation, though some of its phrases
have become nearly obsolete, presents the English language
in its most admirable form. It dates from the golden age
of English literature, and deserves, in an eminent degree,
the eulogy which Spenser passed upon Chaucer, as a "well
of English undefyled."
Besides the common ground of general literature, which
no one, of whatever special calling, can afford to neglect,
preachers may learn much from the great secular orators,
even as lawyers and statesmen often diligently study the
great preachers. And this is true, not merely for the
beginner, but even more for the practised speaker. To see
the same principles carried out ill material and for purposes
quite different from his own, will illustrate those principles
afresh, and will prevent his becoming formal in arrangement and monotonous in style.  In oratory and in general
literature, the Greek language and our own English are
-rich beyond rivalry. To these let the preacher mainly 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE. 33A
address himself, in youth and in age, and literature will
shed on his intellectual and aesthetical culture its "selectest influence." But let not the young student submit himself to the authority of any writer as a perfect
standard, nor be repelled from some of the greatest by
their manifest blemishes. "There is no writer who has not
some faults, and faults of taste are perhaps those the most
common to the highest aind the lowest order of writers.
The taste of Shakspeare and Milton is not always unimpeachable. But it is to the greatest writers that Adam
Smith's exclamation applies -' How many great qualities
must that writer possess who can thus render his very faults
agreeable!'  If we desire to find a writer without fault, we
must not look for him among the greatest writers." *
Augustine had been in his youth a teacher of rhetoric. He
knew the folly of that artificial instruction in style and
delivery which there have always been teachers to recommend, and he knew that even a just rhetorical system is
but a help to something higher.   He says: "Moreover, I
enjoin it upon him who would combine eloquence with
wisdom, by which he will certainly become more effective,
to read and listen to the eloquent, and imitate them in
exercises, rather than apply to the teachers of the rhetorical
art; provided those whom he hears and reads were, or are
now, justly celebrated, not merely for their eloquence, but
also for their wisdom." t
It should be added that conversation, especially — that of
intelligent women, may also furnish admirable and influential examples of clear, sprightly, varied, and every way
attractive style.  So too with Letters.  "Would you desire
at this day to read our noble language in its native beauty,
picturesque from idiomatic propriety, racy in its phrase ology, delicate yet sinewy in its composition - steal the
* Bulwer, On Style, Caxtoniana, I, 131.
t De Doct. Christ. IV. 
334 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS O.N STYLE.
mail-bags, and break open all the letters in female handwriting." * Cicero's Epistles are for most men far better
examples of style than Cicero's Orations. And if to an
acquaintance with Bacon, Milton's prose, Barrow and
Burke, one should add a familiarity with some of the finest
Letters, he would see the English language in all its most
prodigal strength and splendor, and in all its most flexible
grace and delicate beauty.t
3. But the chief means of improvement in style is careful practice, in writing and speaking. Not mere practice
without care, for this will develop and confirm what is
faulty as well as what is good.
In written composition, it is very unwise, although very
common, to neglect details. If a man spells badly, he
should set himself vigorously to correct the fault, which
usually requires nothing but a little system and perseverance.1 To take some pains in this direction is worth while,
not only for the sake of removing a literary blemish, but
because accuracy in detail is apt to react profitably upon
our mental habits, and also to increase our love for the
* De Quincey on Style, p. 77.
t Holcombe's Literature in Letters (New York, Appleton) is a
delightful volume, containing a choice collection of English and
American Letters, classified and with all necessary annotation.
Let him have whatever he writes examined by some accurate
speller, and make lists of the words corrected, putting them down
as they ought to be, and frequently running over the growing list,
with the resolve, at every step, that this error, and this, shall occur
no more; further, let him habitually consult a dictionary when
doubtful as to the spelling of a word; and moreover, he must begin
to notice spelling in the books and periodicals he reads, and to take
interest in disputed questions. We often find it harder to correct
confirmed habits about trifles than about more important matters,
because the former do not awaken an interested and watchful attention.  The plan proposed will meet this difficulty. 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE.  335
work of composition. Some one has said that there never
was a great sculptor who did not love to chip the marble.
And if spelling be worth attention, so is punctuation, though
this is still more commonly neglected. Punctuation indicates the relation of the parts of a sentence to each other.
The only real difficulty in punctuating properly is the difficulty in determining the true relation of clauses, and he
who does not mark the points is apt to neglect, more than
he is aware, the structure of his sentences. Aristotle urges
that we should write in a style easy to point,* and it is
certainly very desirable to make the sense unmistakable,
apart from punctuation. But the inferior flexibility of
construction, and the comparative lack of particles, makes
this much more difficult in English than in Greek and
many other languages; so that with us punctuation is particularly important. It will be evident, too, that every
man's punctuation must be to some extent his own, as it
indicates his mode of constructing sentences. Of this,
Chalmers is a good example, in his infrequent use of the
comma.  The dash, which has of late become so common,
is convenient to indicate a break in the sentence, whether
an interruption, so as to insert something akin to a parenthesis, or an abrupt transition to something related to what
precedes, but not joined to it by strict grammatical connection. It is thus an affectation to abjure the dash altogether,
as some propose to do, but it should be used only for a distinct and positive reason.  Many good writers now use it
to save the trouble of deciding what more definite pointing
is appropriate, -certainly a very slothful fashion; and
some of the best writers, as Brougham and Bulwer, introduce the dash so often as to break many of their sentences
into disjointed fragments. In practical attention to punctuation, we must endeavor to masllcr the principles involved,
the fundamental significance which usage has assigned to
* Rhet. III, 5, 6. 
336 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STY'LE.
the several points, and then use them according to our own
meaning, and not according to the stiff and unbending
rules which are so often laid down. And it should be
noticed that although forbidden by many of the books,
punctuation may be sometimes employed, apart from grammnatical relations, to indicate the rhythmical movement of
the successive parts of a sentence.*
And so as to all the details of grammar.  Campbell tells
of a preacher who was consulted by a friend that had a
mind to publish, " whether he tho,-ight it befitting a writer
on religion to attend to such little matters as grammatical
correctness," and who answered, "By all means.  It is
much better to write so as to make a critic turn Christian,
than so as to make a Christian turn critic." t
There can be no question that grammatical accuracy is
an object worthy of earnest pursuit. The young preacher
who finds himself particularly deficient in this respect,
ought, besides such study of treatises on grammar as we
have already urged, to go through some good work on
Composition, laboriously writing the exercises. If nothing
else were gained, it is much to be relieved from all fear of
committing blunders that would be ridiculed.
But while attentive to the details of composition, one
must be chiefly occupied with the thought; and in order
to this, composition as a mere exercise must more and more
give place to writing with a real interest, with some practical
aim. In all such writing, one should become possessed
with the subject, and then write as rapidly as is consistent
with perspicuous and forcible expression, leaving minute
* A good practical discussion of punctuation may be found in
Angus' Hand-Book of the English Tongue, and also, with copious
exercises, in Quackenbos' Comrposition and Rhetoric. Let no man
think it beneath his dignity to use good school-books for such a
purpose.
t On Pulpit Eloq., Lect. III. 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE. 337
corrections to be made afterward. But he must be sure to
make the corrections. Thought once cast into a mould is
apt to harden very soon, and any considerable alteration
is then a difficult and laborious task. Sometimes a whole
paragraph must be thrown back into the furnace of the
mind, and fused anew, in order to remove a single flaw in
one sentence. Think of John Foster, toiling over a sentence for two hours, determined to have it right.
A  most valuable means of improvement in command of
language and style in general, is written translation into
English from other languages. This tests and develops,
in a peculiar manner, our knowledge of English. When
attempting to express our own thoughts, we have the idea
at first only in a dim, shifting, nebulous form; and ill struggling to find the exact expression, we may unconsciously
change the idea into something else for which fit expression
presents itself. But in translating,- not merely putting
word for word, like a school-boy, but getting the exact idea
conveyed by a sentence, and then seeking the exact
expression for that idea in English, -no such substitution
or shifting can take place. The thought stands fixed in the
other language, with the peculiar shape and color which
that language gives it, and we must find English to express
it, or must know that our effort to do so has failed. Thus
careful translation is in one respect a better exercise than
original composition.  It is obvious that a similar benefit
will be derived, though in a less degree, from oral translation.  It is well known that William Pitt was carefully
trained by his father to off-hand translation from Greek
and other languages, and that he believed himself to have
derived immense advantage firom it.
In addition to writing, one must studiously practise
speakinig, in order to form his speaking style.  A  man
skilled in both, may closely imitate in writing the style of
speaking, but the two are really distinct, and in some
29-?( 
338 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE.
respects quite different. Let one speak much that has
been carefully prepared, though not written; and speak
sometimes, as in social meetings, upon the strong impulse
of the moment. Let him always have a practical purpose,
and throw himself into an effort, not to make a discourse,
but to accomplish his object. Let him closely observe his
hearers, and learn to perceive when they understand and
are impressed. He will thus become able to judge when to
be diffuse, and when rapid, and will acquire the directness
of address, the power of constant movement towards a
fixed point, the passionate energy and unstudied grace, the
flexibility and variety which characterize the speaking
style.* And he who aims at skill in extemporaneous
speaking, must give special attention to his style in conversation, so that the difference between his more elevated
and his more familiar style may be a difference in degree
and not in kind.
It may be added that every writer or speaker should
cultivate variety of style. A model of excellence in this
respect may be seen in the correspondence and the sermons
of J. Addison Alexander.
After all that has been said or that can be said as to
style, no one should imagine that he need only seek to
acquire power of expression, and may give little attention
to thought. Some young men fall into this error, and it is
simply fatal. "Let there be care about words," says Quintilian, " )ut solicitude about things."
* Comp. Dn the style of extemporaneous speaking, Part IV, chap.
1,  3, 2. 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
CHAPTER II.
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.*
r qHA  most important property of style is perspicuity.
Style is excellent when, like the atmosphere, it shows
the thought, but itself is not seen. Yet this comparison,
and the term perspicuity which was derived from it, are
both inadequate, for good style is like stereoscopic glasses,
which, transparent themselves, give form and body and
distinct outline to that which they exhibit.t
A certain grand-looking obscurity is often pleasing to
some hearers and readers, who suppose that it shows vast
learning, or great originality,l or immense profundity.
To treat subjects in this fashion is no new thing. Quintilian says it was not new in his day, for that he found
mention in Livy of a teacher who used to direct his pupils
to darken the idea. He adds a witticism of some one
whose hearers complained that they did not understand,
and who replied, "So much the better; I did not even
understand it myself," 11 and elsewhere speaks of men who
* The best classification of the leading properties of style is that
adopted from Campbell by Whately and others, viz. perspicuity,
energy, and elegance.   Shedd substitutes plainness, force, and
beauty, and Day uses clearness, energy, and beauty; but in both
cases more is lost by the change than is gained. Blair (following
Quintilian) treats only of perspicuity and ornament, and his own
style is clear and neat, but nerveless.
On perspicuity, consult especially Campbell, and Herbert Spencer's Essay on Style.
t Comp. Shedd, p. 59.
Comp. on original ty, Part I, chap. 4, ~ 3.
Quint. VIII, 2, 18
339 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
think  themselves  talented  because  it requires talent  to
understand them.  M. Huc says that in the Lama Convents,
where the Buddhist professors lecture to their pupils, the
more obscure and unintelligible their sayings, the more
sublime they are reckoned. Alas! that preachers of the
gospel are not always proof against this pitiful temptation.
A preacher is more solemnly bound than any other
person, to make his language perspicuous. This is very
important in wording a law, in writing a title-deed, or a
'physician's prescription, but still more important in proclaiming the Word of God, words of eternal life.
", The thoughts which the religious teacher presents to the common
mind should go straight to the understanding. Everything that
covers up and envelops the truth should be stripped off from it, so
that the bare reality may be seen. There is prodigious power in
this plainness of presentation.  It is the power of actual contact.
A plain writer, or speaker, makes the truth and the mind impinge
upon each other. When the style is plain, the mind of the hearer
experiences the sensation of being touched; and this sensation is
always impressive, for a man starts when he is touched..... The
preacher should toil after this property of style, as he would toil
after virtue itself. He should constantly strive, first of all, to exhibit his thoughts plainly. Whether he shall add force to plainness, and beauty to force, are matters to be considered afterwards.
.... The public is, at the present time, too eager after striking
externals, for its own good. It demands brilliancy before plainness, without sufficient regard for that basis of strong sense which
must ever support this quality, in order that it may have true value.
The preacher is consequently tempted to yield to this false taste of
the ill-educated, and to become like the public..... In the midst
of all this clamor for fine writing and florid style, he should be a
resolute man, and dare to be a plain writer..... The preacher
whose head is right, and whose conscience is right, will soon come
to possess a love for this plainness." *
It is also true that a preacher has greater difficulty than
any other class of speakers in making his style perspicuous
to elI his hearers, for no others speak to so heterogeneous
* Shedd, Hom. p. 63-9.
340 
PERSP CUITY OF STYLE.
an audience, including persons of both sexes, of every age
from early childhood, and of every grade of intellect and
culture. But this difficulty, when most deeply felt, should
but stimulate to diligent and pains - taking effort.  For
what is the use of preaching, unless we may hope to do
good? And what good can be done, save in proportion as
we are understood? Pretentious obscurity may excite a
poor admiration, unmeaning prettiness may give a certain
pleasure, mere vociferation, - like Bottom's part, "nothing
but roaring,"- may affect some people's nerves, but only
truth, and truth that is understood, can bring real benefit.
Moreover, something worse may happen than the failure
to do good; we may do harm. Some hearers are repelled
and disgusted by obscurity. Others are misled. It is a
mournful thing to think of, but one of not infrequent
occurrence, that men should so misunderstand us, as to
take what we meant for medicine and convert it into poison.
As we love men's souls we must strive to prevent so dreadful a result. One cannot expect, as Quintilian already
remarks, "that the hearer will be so intent upon understanding as to cast upon the darkness of the speech a light
from his own intelligence.  What we say must be made so
clear that it will pour into his mind as the sun pours into
the eyes, even when they are not directed toward it. We
must take care, not that it shall be possible for him to
understand, but that it shall be utterly impossible for him
not to understand."* The German philosopher Fichte
wrote a treatise with this title; "An account clear as the
sun, of the real nature of my philosophy; an attempt to
compel the reader to understand." t None but a very selfconfident man would put forth such a title; but it indicates
what every teacher of men ought to aim at, not arrogantly,
but resolutely, -to compel the reader or hearer to under.
stand.
t Quoted by Shedd, p. 72.
* Quint. VIII, 2, 23.
29*
341 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
Two general remarks as to perspicuity may  be here
made. The style may be not lacking in perspicuity, and
yet the discourse may seem hard to comprehend, because
the subject is difficult, or what is taught about it is unac ceptable. It is very common to speak of the Epistle to
the Romans as obscure; how far is this opinion due to a
desire to understand more upon some subjects than it teaches,
or a reluctance to receive as true what it does teach? The
more plainly a discourse presents its truths, the more
obscure it will seem when we are striving to make it mean
something else. The other remark is, that perspicuity of
style is closely allied to perspicuity of thought. It is true,
as Whately says,* that men sometimes speak obscurely on
a subject for the simple reason that they are familiar with
it, and forget that others are not so;-a practical mistake
which preachers are in no small danger of making. If any
one should assert that clear ideas of a subject will always
lead to clear statements, this common experience would set
aside the assertion. The statement of clear ideas will be
subjectively clear, but is by no means sure to be objectively
clear; it will be plain to him who makes it, but may be
very obscure to other people. But all this has nothing to
do with that other proposition, that there can be no clearness of expression without clear thinking. The effort to
gain a clear conception and to work out a perspicuous expression of it, will usually go on together; and the habit
of perspicuous expression reacts powerfully on habits of
thought.t
Perspicuity of style depends mainly on three things, viz.
the choice of terms, the construction of sentences and paragraphs, and the proper management of brevity and diffusenesso
* Rhetoric, p. 307.
t As to the effect of arranyement on perspicuity, see Part II, chap.
1, (2).
342 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
1. So far as perspicuity depends on the terms employed,
it requires the combination of two elements.
(1.) We must use, as far as possible, words and phrases
that will be intelligible to our audience. Where the audience comprises many who are comparatively illiterate,and that is generally the case,   we must strive to make
the terms intelligible to them.  "Speak," said a sensible
farmer to his brother who was a preacher, " speak so that
the women and children can understand you, and the men
will be sure to." * Dean Swift, in his famous Letter to a
Young Clergyman, puts the matter as follows: "I have been
curious enough to take a list of several hundred words in
a sermon of a new beginner, which not one of his hearers
among a hundred could possibly understand; neither can
I easily call to mind any clergyman of my own acquaintance, who is wholly exempt from this error, although many
of them agree with me in the dislike of the thing. But I
am apt to put myself in the place of the vulgar, and think
many words difficult or obscure, which the preacher will
not allow to be so, because these words are obvious to
scholars."
Whether the preacher be what is called a linguist or not,
he ought to know at least two languages, the language of
books and the language of common life. When one learns
a thing in Latin or German, and undertakes to state it to
his people, he must of course translate.  And so, what we
study in learned works, using, as is there convenient and
necessary, the technical language of science, we must in
preaching translate into popular language, the language
of common life. Many a young graduate, from College or
Theological Seminary, errs not merely in treating subjects
little suited to the popular mind, but in using many terms
* In some places the women are better educated than the men;
and they are usually quicker and more attentive; but that does not
affect the principle of the farmer's saying.
343 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
which have grown faminiliar to him, but which the people
in general cannot at all understand. MIost persons after wards learn to correct this, at least in some measure; but
occasionally we see a man of mature years and of great
ability, who seems wholly unacquainted with popular modes
of thought and forms of expression, and wholly unaware
that such is the case. The few who understand and sym pathize with him speak with delight of his sermons, but
for the many they might as well be delivered in German.*
Even those technical terms in theology with which the
people are very familiar, do not always represent to them
any distinct conception.  Yet such terms as regeneration,
depravity, etc., etc., it is necessary to use in preaching, or
much time will be lost in tedious circumlocutions. Besides
taking frequent occasion distinctly to explain these terms,
we may often prefix or add to them some words of a more
popular character, or may introduce them in such connections as will throw light on them.t That even the comnionest words of Scripture may be employed in an utterly
unscriptlural sense, is shown by the frequent use of them on
the part of modern Pantheistic infidels.
It is often remarked that Anglo-Saxon words are generally more perspicuous to the people at large, than words
of Latin origin. The latter are frequently more precise,
being restricted in usage to a certain specific sense, while
the Anglo-Saxon word is the general term.   Thus the
phrase, perspicuity of style, is a more precise expression
than plainness  or clearness of style, and is therefore
preferable in a treatise, or in conversation with a cultivated person.  But in speaking to a general audience it
would he better to use the term plainness, notwithstanding
its ambiguity, because the people so much more readily
* See a striking passage in Vinet, p. 373-4.
t As to Foster's objection to the use of such terms, compare
below on Elegance, chap. 4.
344 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
and vividly see its meaning. And if there should be
danger of their confusing the two senses, of plainness as
opposed to obscurity, and plainness as opposed to ornament, we may guard against this by adding some other
simple phrase which will show what is meant. In general,
the Anglo-Saxon element of our language deserves great
attention, for its terms are not only perspicuous to all, but
are apt to be singularly suggestive, throu,gh life-long association of ideas; besides the bulk of meaning contained,
they carry with them an atmosphere of suggestion, often
surpassingly attractive and stimulating. Those who have
studied Latin and French ought to study Anglo-Saxon
also; and whether a student of language or not, every
preacher should practically master the homely, "household
words" of our own English.   Let it not be taken for
granted that we know these already; for the discriminating
use of them is by no means universal, even among educated
men.*
(2.) We must use words and phrases that exactly ex.press
our thought. Terms may be intelligible to the audience,
and yet not certainly represent to them our meaning. They
may be ambiguous, so that while the hearer understands
both senses, he does not readily see which is here intended.
Even the sacred writers, employing an easy, colloquial
style, have sometines left us ambiguous expressions.  Fao
example, the love of God, in Greek as in English, may
denote our love to God, or his love to us. Which it means
in any case must be determined from the connection, or
perhaps from the usage of the writer. John uses it in both
* On the general subject of studying English, see above, chap. 1,
Q 2. Of course it would be great folly to prefer an Anglo - Saxon
word merely because it is such, when a word of Latin or other
origin would be equally intelligible, or much more appropriate.
But the effort to use the most perspicuous and expressive terms will
be promoted by habitual attention to the Anglo-Saxon part of our
language.
345 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
senses, Paul almost invariably in the latter. A style absolutely free from such ambiguities would not be natural,
and yet they ought of course to be avoided as far as possible. Or, terms may be used in different senses in the same
connection, and thus, although not in themselves ambigu
ous, may leave the meaning doubtful. Or they may be
general terms, and fail to indicate what specific idea was
meant. Or they may be indefinite, and leave it uncertain
what extent of meaning was designed. In general, the
terms ought to be precise, as it were cut down to fit the
meaning, so that the expression and the idea exactly correspond, neither of them containing anything which the
other does not contain.* Such terms may almost always
be found, and we should habitually constrain ourselves to
seek for them. Besides the advantage of perspicuity to
others, this habit will greatly benefit our own minds, for
our thoughts attain a definite form and distinct outlines
only in proportion as we find the precise terms to express
them. It will also give freshness. No two men think
exactly alike, even as all countenances are different; and
he who thinks at all upon a subject, and then says just
what he thinks, cannot fail of being to some extent original.
One important means of securing precision, is accurate
discrimination between so- called synonymnes. Even the
English language, which in so many cases retains both an
Anglo-Saxon and a Latin word of much the same original
meaning, has, strictly speaking, no synonymes.  Our usage
has assigned to the words different departments of the field
once common to both, or at least a different extent of application. The more cultivated a language becomes, as De
* It should be remarked that Vinet's discussion of precision, and
of what he calls propriety, is apt to confuse the student, because
those terms do not mean precisely the same thing in French as in
English. This difficulty also exists with reference to some other
portions of his valuable work.
346 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
Quincey has remarked, the more it distinguishes between
apparent synonymres. To take a familiar example, the
Greek word sympathy, the Latin comnpassion, and the compound of Anglo-Saxon, fellow-feeling, are in origin substantially the same; but how distinct they now are as
English words. Yet there are very many cases in which
different words will coincide, to a greater or less extent, so
that the careless observer would regard them as in all
respects equivalent, and between these it is highly important to discriminate. Our own language, for the reason
just indicated, greatly abounds in these synonymes, and
the preacher cannot be too earnestly urged to give them
his constant and pains-taking attention.*
Skill in the choice of terms comes to no man as a matter
of course. All who succeed in'this respect, however gifted
or however unlettered, have attained it by observation, reflection, practice. He who thinks words unimportant, will
never be perspicuous in expression, nor clear in thinking.t
2. Perspicuity also depends on the construction of sentences and paragraphs. This important subject will not
* Whately's Synonymes is our best book, so far as it goes. The
latest editions of Webster's and Worcester's Dictionaries (unabridged), treat all the more important Synonymes, and many of
them in a very instructive manner. Roget's Thesaurus of English
Words is also useful, for this and kindred purposes. Crabb's Synonymes, which became famous because we had nothing else, is deficient in clearness, and often inaccurate.
t A talented and highly educated young man who was made Professor of Natural Sciences in an American University, rarely met a
particular friend of his without speaking of words. "What do you'
think is the difference between this word and this? It is so hard to
find the precise word for describing physical forces and phenomena."
A few years later a gentleman who had heard the Professor lecture
said to the same friend, " He is thoroughly master of the subject,
and he has an extraordinary readiness and felicity in the use of
words. What a wonderful gift! He wants a word, and there it
is." Fluency is a gift, but precision is the fruit of labor.
347 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
here be discussed at length, because it requires to be illus.
trated by numerous examples, and can be thoroughly mas tered only by means of written exercises.
It is obvious that a short sentence will be more perspicuous than a long one. Yet a succession of very short
sentences must not only be deficient in respect of harmony, and of the energy which belongs to climax, but is
really unfavorable to perspicuity. Sentences aggregate
the thoughts which are to be comprehended and retained;
and if these bundles, so to speak, are of considerable dimensions, the whole mass of thought will be more readily
grasped and more easily borne with us. In order to variety,
there should be a combination of short and long sentences.
Even one that is very long may be quite perspicuous, provided the sense be not suspended till the close, as is done in
periodic sentences.* In general it is better that the qualifying clauses of a sentence should precede those qualified;
in order that when we do reach a concrete conception, it
may be the complete conception proposed, needing no subsequent addition or correction.  But, "as carrying forward
each qualifying clause costs some mental effort, it follows
that when the number of them and the time they are carried
becomes great, we reach a limit beyond which more is lost
than is gained." t This limit is much sooner reached in
what is to be heard than in what is to be read. And the
difficulty is greater for uneducated minds than cultivated
people can well imagine. "Aim at a certain simplicity in
the structure of your sentences, avoiding long, intricate
and complex periods. Remember always that the bulk of
the people are unused to reading and study. They lose
sight of the connection in very long sentences, and they
are quite bewildered when, for the sake of rounding a
period, and suspending the sense till the concluding clause,
you transgress the customary arrangement of the words
*  Herbert Spencer, on Style, p. 24.
348
* See below, chap. 3. 
P'ERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
The nearer therefore your diction comes to the language
of conversation, the more familiar will it be to them, and
so the more easily apprehended. In this the style of Scripture is an excellent model." * It may be added that sentences should be so framed as to leave no obscurity or ambiguity in respect to the relation of different clauses. Special
care in this respect is needed in our language, because our
pronouns present very imperfect means of distinction as to
gender, number and case. It is grievously common to find
difficulty in perceiving, to which of two preceding nouns
some it or that, some they or those, is designed to refer.t
However great may be the practical difficulty of learning
to construct sentences well, every one can see that this is
important. Inexperienced writers and speakers are seldom
equally impressed with the importance of the paragraph.
It is not uncommon to find a man of considerable ability
writing an extended discourse or essay without any indication of paragraphs at all; though there will have been, in
spite of his inattention, some natural connection of the
thoughts, and a critic or compositor may succeed in breaking up the whole into rude blocks. Others do still worse,
for they indicate paragraphs at hap-hazard, often separating
matters which should be united. Now in some respects the
proper construction of paragraphs is more important than
that of sentences. If a sentence is badly arranged, the
reader or hearer will at any rate have the matter of it
before his mind, and can usually perceive, with more or
less effort, what relation of ideas was meant to be expressed.
But when paragraphs are neglected, it requires a very
broad view of the whole connection of discourse to supply
the defect. In reading, there may be opportunity, if it is
thought worth while, to look back, and carefully scan the
* Campbell on Pulpit Eloq., Lect. III.
t See this matter well discussed in Campbell's Phil. of Rhet. p.
253-65.
30
349 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
whole, so as to perceive the grouping of thoughts; and
besides, in reading print, the compositor has helped us.
But in hearing, we have no help, and no time to study Pamt
the connection.. It is thus plain, that, especially in discourse which has to be heard, the proper management of
paragraphs is indispensable to perspicuity.
The prime requisite in a paragraph is unity. There must
be some one thought, or group of related thoughts, occupying the whole. Digressions, when made at all, must
constitute separate paragraphs.   This one thought may
commonly be presented in the opening sentence; or it may
so present the first of a series or group of thoughts, as to
indicate the character and purpose common to them all.
Sometimes, however, the opening sentence will be manifestly preparatory, perhaps repeating what has preceded,
in order to facilitate the transition. Another requisite is,
that the successive sentences should so grow out of each
other, or be so joined together by particles, as to make the
paragraph a whole.   As  to the length of paragraphs,
there is of course no rule, and the main thing to be sought
is an easy and natural variety.*
In the formation of paragraphs, and also of sentences,
careful attention should be given to the conjunctions, and
other connectives. What grammarians call the particles, or
little parts of speech, are not less important than the
greater parts, for they establish a relation between these,
converting crude matter into a structure, an operative
organization -like the joints in a body. The felicitous
choice of a preposition or conjunction, or the proper handling of a relative pronoun, will often contribute immensely
to the perspicuity of a sentence or a paragraph.
* The subject of paragraphs is treated at length, and with some
good examples, by Bain, p. 142-52. Most treatises neglect it.
t See, on the connectives, Campbell's Phil. of Rhet., Part III,
chap. 4 and 5. See also Bain, as above.
350 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
In unwritten composition, or what is called extemporaneous speaking, it is practically better, though amounting
to the same thing, to fix the mind on points, rather than on
paragraphs. Do not be thinking how you would distribute
this on pages if you were writing, but arrange a succession
of points to be treated. Then taking up each of these in
order, remember the homely saying, and "stick to your
point." One may thus gain the unity and consecutiveness
which belong to a written paragraph. Yet there is probably no one particular in which a speaker so much needs
the discipline of written composition, as in respect to this
matter of consecutiveness in developing a single thought.
A man who never writes anything may sometimes learn to
frame sentences well, and to arrange discourses well.  He
may have distinct points, corresponding to paragraphs,
and each constituting a  unit.   But to develop  these
points in an orderly manner, so that each sentence may
grow out of the preceding, or have a well-indicated connection with it, so that the developed unit may become
a structure, anharmonious organization, this is what few
men learn to achieve without practice in writing paragraphs. Nor does the hurried writing so common among
those who read sermons, at all mend the matter.  What
De Quincey says on a kindred subject is here emphatically true.  "Every man who has had any experience in
writing, knows how natural it is for hurry and fulness of
matter to discharge itself by vast sentences, involving
clause within clause ad infinitum -how difficult it is, and
how much a work of time, to break up this huge fasciculus of cycle and epicycle into a graceful succession of
sentences, long intermingled with short, each modifying
the other, and arising musically by links of spontaneous
connection. Now the plethoric form of period, this monster model of sentence, bloated with decomplex intercalations.... is the prevailing model in newspaper eloquence.
351 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
Crude undigested masses of suggestion, furnishing rather
raw materials for composition and jottings for the memory,
than any formal developments of the ideas, describe the
quality of writing which rnust prevail in journalism: not
from defect of talents.... but from the necessities of
hurry and of instant compliance with an instant emergency,
granting no possibility for revision, or opening for amended
thought." * Nay, it requires careful writing, not hurried,
even though sometimes rapid, and not put forth without
critical revision, to give the kind of training which is here
needed. Such careful writing, though not of what he is
about to speak, an extemporaneous preacher ought frequently to practise.t
3. Perspicuity depends not only on the choice of terms,
and the proper construction of sentences and paragraphs,
but also on the general brevity or diffuseness of the style.
It is a mistake to suppose that the briefest statement of
an idea is sure to be the clearest. If it be really made
clear to the person addressed, then of course the briefer the
better. But "extreme conciseness is ill-suited to hearers
or readers whose intellectual powers and cultivation are
but small..... It is remarked by anatomists, that the
nutritive quality is not the only requisite in food; - that a
certain degree of distention of the stomach is required, to
enable it to act with its full powers; - and that it is for
this reason hay or straw must be given to horses, as well as
corn, in order to supply the necessary bulk. Something
analogous to this takes place with respect to the genierality of minds; which are incapable of thoroughly digesting and assimilating what is presented to them, however s
clearly, in a very small comnpass..... It is necessary that
the attention should be detained for a certain time on
the subject: and persons of unphilosophical mind, though
they can attend to what they read or hear, are unapt to
dwell upon it in the way of subsequent meditation."
* On Style, p. 82.        t Comp. below, Part IV, chap 1.
352 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
"The usual expedient, however, of employing a prolix
style by way of accommodation to such minds, is seldom
successful. Most of those who could have comprehended
the meaning, if more briefly expressed, and many of those
who could not do so, are likely to be bewildered by tedious
expansion; and being unable to maintain a steady attention to what is said, they forget part of what they have
heard, before the whole is completed. Add to which, that
the feebleness produced by excessive dilution, (if such an
expression may be allowed,) will occasion the attention to
languish; and what is imperfectly attended to, however
clear in itself, will usually be but imperfectly understood.
Let not an author, therefore, satisfy himself by finding that
he has expressed his meaning so that if attended to, he
cannot fail to be understood; he must consider also what
attention is likely to be paid to it. If on the one hand
much matter is expressed in very few words to an unreflecting audience, or if, on the other hand, there is a wearisome prolixity, the requisite attention may very probably
not be bestowed." *
Prolixity, then, is worse than extreme conciseness. The
latter, though imperfectly understood, may stimulate attenion and reflection, and lead to subsequent examination of
the subject. The former does but weary and disgust. It
must be granted that prolixity is very common in the
pulpit. Preachers often have to prepare and preach when
their minds are not in a creative mood. It seems their
duty to say something, and custom requires that, however
unfruitful the subject and however unfavorable their own
state of mind, they shall continue for at least a certain
number of minutes.t Under such circumstances a man's
ideas are not clear, and in the feeble struggle to express
them, he inevitably becomes prolix.
There are several means by which we may avoid too
* Whatlely, p. 301-2.       t Comp. Whately, p. 315.
30*
353 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
great conciseness without falling into prolixity. One of
these is repetition. In some cases it is well to repeat the
statement, in the same words. More commonly, we may
"repeat the same sentiment and argument in many different
forms of expression; each in itself brief, but all together
affording such an expansion of the sense to be conveyed,
and so detaining the mind upon it, as the sense may require." This repetition must of course not be a mere tautology. The thought must be presented in some other view
or some new relation. "What has been expressed in appropriate terms may be repeated in metaphorical; the antecedent and consequent of an argument, or the parts of an
antithesis may be transposed; or several different points
that have been enumerated, presented in a varied order,
&c." * Another means is by varied illustration?. After
stating the thought as clearly as can be done within a moderate compass, we may present various illustrations of it,
or of its different aspects. These interest the hearer, and
detain his attention on the matter in hand, until he becomes
perfectly familiar with it, and yet not weary of it. There
is no more remarkable example of this than Chalmers.
His sermons often consist of a single idea, which is held up
in different lights, turned over and over, and round and
round, until we have seen every facet it possesses; and yet
each of these aspects is made so bright with fresh illustration, so brilliant with hues of fancy, that we cannot grow
weary.t In this, as in some other respects, Chalmers is
one of the worst models to be imitated, but one of the most
profitable examples to be studied. And a third means of
gaining the requisite expansion without prolixity, is division. The matter presented, however minute, may often be
divided into several points, just as we divide larger topics;
* Whately, p. 302-3.
t Robert Hall said of his sermons that their movement was on
hinges, not on wheels.
3b4 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
and these points being successively stated, the whole is
clearly seen.
And here let us dwell upon the fact, which the preacher
cannot too carefully consider, that as in several other respects, so particularly in respect to expansion, the proper
style of public speaking is widely different from that appropriate to an essay, or to anything designed to be deliberately
read. This has been often stated, and in the strongest
terms.
"That is good rhetoric for the hustings which is bad for a book.
Even for the highest forms of popular eloquence, the laws of style
vary much from the general standard. In the senate, and for the
same reason in a newspaper, it is a virtue to reiterate your meaning:.... variation of the words, with a substantial identity of the
sense and dilution of the truth, is oftentimes a necessity..... It
is the advantage of a book, that you can return to the past page
if anything in the present depends upon it. But return being impossible in the case of a spoken harangue, where each sentence
perishes as it is born, both the speaker and the hearer become
aware of a mutual interest in a much looser style. It is for the
benefit of both, that the weightier propositions should be detained
before the eye a good deal longer than the chastity of taste or the
austerity of logic would tolerate in a book." *
"Another predominant cause of the different impression which a
speech produces in the closet from what it does when heard is found
in the nature of the oratorical style. When Dr. Johnson furnished
Boswell with the materials for an address to a committee of the
Hlouse of Commons on an election petition, he added,'This you
must enlarge on. You must not argue there, as if you were arguing in the schools. You must say the same thing over and over
again, in different words. If you say it but once, they miss it in a
moment of inattention.' The masters of eloquence have enforced
the rule. Fox advised Sir Samuel Romilly, when about to sum up
the evidence ill Lord Melville's trial,'not to be afraid of repeating
observations which were material, since it were better that some of
the audience should observe it than that any should not understand.'
Though he himself was censured for the practice, he declared it to
* De Quincey on Style, p. 69.
355 
PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.
be his conviction, from long experience, that the system was right.
Pitt urged a similar defence for the amplification which was thought
by some to be a defect in his style.' Every person,' he said,'who
addressed a public assembly, and was anxious to make an impression upon particular points, must either be copious upon those
points or repeat them, and that he preferred copiousness to repetition.'  Lord Brougham gives his testimony on the same side.  The
orator, he remarks, often feels that he could add strength to his
composition by compression, but his hearers would then be unable
to keep pace with him, and he is compelled to sacrifice conciseness
to clearness. Cicero objects to the Greeks that they sometimes
carried brevity to the point of obscurity. The expansion which is
a merit at the moment of delivery is turned to a defect when a speech
is printed. What before was impressive seems now to be verbose,
and-the effect is diminished in much the same proportion that it was
originally increased. It was for some such reason that Fox asserted
that if a speech read well it was not a good speech." *
Aristotle has distinctly declared the same thing.
"And when they are compared, the speeches of the writers appear
compressed and cramped if delivered in debate; but those of the
orators, after being spoken with success, are commonplace when
read in private; and the reason is, that in debate these things are
appropriate. Wherefore also compositions prepared to be delivered,
when the delivery is wanting, do not produce their effect, and appear ridiculous. Thus the omission of connectives, and frequent
repetitions, are in the written style rightly rejected; but in the style
of debate even the orators use them; for they are adapted to delivery. Yet it is necessary in repeating the same thing to vary the
expression; which indeed opens a way, as it were, to the delivery:
' This is he who robbed you; this is he who cheated you; this is he
who at last endeavored to betray you.' "t
In conclusion, let us remember that efforts to be perspicuous may be carried too far. It is wretchedly tiresome
to hear a man carefully explaining what every one present
* Lond. Quart. Rev., 1858, p. 272. The late Earl of Derby was remarkably diffuse.
t Rhet. III, 12.
356 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
understands beforehand, or continuing to repeat and open
and illustrate what he has already made sufficiently plain.
And the oratorical diffuseness just spoken of, is a very different thing from that torrent of useless words which we are
so often compelled to endure.
CHAPTER III.
ENERGY OF STYLE.
rT HE term energy, as applied to style, includes all that
- we mean by such separate terms as animation, force,
and passion. Antmation, or liveliness,* serves to stimulate
attention; it is not enough for a speaker to say what the
hearer may understand if he attends; the point is to arouse
him, to put life into him, to make attention easy and-pleasant, and inattention difficult. For this the freshness of the
thought, and the magnetic power of delivery are the chief
agents; but much may also be accomplished by animation
of style.t The term force is used especially with reference
to arguments, and the kindred word power is applied both
to arguments and to motives. Passion - which in its
milder and more tender forms we call pathos, and in its
highest form the sublime - has its effect upon the feelings,
often by means of the imagination; and both force and passion aim at last to influence the will. It is thus plain, according to the view we have taken of eloquence,l that the
* Campbell's term, "vivacity," is now restricted to conversation,
and the lighter kinds of writing.
t There is a homely story of a preacher who suggested to a sleepy
hearer that snuff might keep him awake, and was asked in return,
"Could n't you put a, little more snuff into your sermons."
I See Introduction, i 2.
357 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
characteristic property of an  eloquent style is energy.
Perspicuity it needs in common with the philosophical or
didactic style; elegance it may possess in common with the
poetic style; but energy, i.e. animation, force or passion, is
its characteristic.
The chief requisite to an energetic style is an energetic
nature. There must be vigorous thinking, earnest if not
passionate feeling, and the determined purpose to accomplish some object, or the man's style will have no true, exalted energy. It is in this sense emphatically true that an
orator is born, not made. Without these qualities one may
give valuable instruction; without them one might preach
what silly admirers call "beautiful" sermons; but if a
man has not force of character, a passionate soul, he will
never be really eloquent. There are, however, timid and
sensitive men who, when practice has given them confidence and occasion calls out their powers, exhibit far more
of this masterful nature than they had ever imagined themselves to possess.
The next requisite is something to say, and something
regarded as exceedingly important. The mind must be
full of thought, if there is to be forcible expression. That
which is said must be what the speaker heartily believes to
be true, deeply feels to be important, and earnestly desires
to impress upon others. The preacher has peculiar advantages in respect of materials conducive to energy, if he has
a familiar, profound, and ever-freshened acquaintance with
the Bible.   No temporal interests are so momentous  as
those of eternity. No other topics can impart to the mind
such vigor and authority as truths which we personally
know to be taught in God's Word.   "A truly mighty sacred orator is' mighty in the Scriptures.'" *
Energy of style must be considered under four heads;
*Shedd, p. 78. Comp. p. 73-82. On the propriety of appealing to the passions, compare above, Part I, chap. 8.
358 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
the choice of terms, the construction of sentences, conciseness, and the use of Figures.*
1. As to the choice of terms, one point is, that so far as
the subject may admit we should prefer concrete to abstract
terms, and particular or specific to general terms. In philosophical discussion, or in comprehensive statements, there
is of course need for abstract or for general terms, but these
are very unfavorable to energy of style. "The more general the terms are, the picture is the fainter; the more special they are, it is the brighter. The same sentiments may
be expressed with equal justness, and even perspicuity, in
the former way as in the latter; but as the coloring will in
that case be more languid, it cannot give equal pleasure to
the fancy, and by consequence will not contribute so much
either to fix the attention or to impress the memory."
Campbell proceeds to illustrate this by striking examples
from Scripture.
" In the song of Moses, occasioned by the miraculous passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea, the inspired
poet, speaking of the Egyptians, says,'They sank as lead
in the mighty waters.' Make but a small alteration on
the expression, and say,'They fell as metal in the mighty
waters,' and the difference in the effect will be quite astonishing. Yet the sentiment will be equally just, and in either
way the meaning of the author can hardly be mistaken."
And the difference is wholly due to the change from specific
to general terms.  "'Consider the lilies how they grow;
they toil not, they spin not; and yet I say unto you that
*Some figures, as metaphor and synecdoche, would of course fall
under the head of choice of terms, but many others would not. The
division made by Campbell (followed by Whately), viz. choice of
words, number of words, and arrangement of words, is simple and
pleasing, but does not cover the ground. The divisions here suggested have the fault of not being mutually exclusive, but are yet
practically convenient.
359 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these.
If, then, God so clothe the grass which to-day is in the field
and to-morrow is cast into the oven, how much more will
he clothe you.' Let us here adopt a little of the tasteless
manner of modern paraphrasts, by the substitution of more
general terms,.... and observe the effect produced by this
change.'Consider the flowers how they gradually increase
in their size; they do no manner of work, and yet I declare
to you that no king whatever, in his most splendid habit, is
dressed up like them. If, then, God in his providence doth
so adorn the vegetable productions which continue but a
little time on the land, and are afterward put into the fire,
how much more will he provide clothing for you?'  How
spiritless is the same sentiment rendered by these small
variations! " *
In order to give animation and passion to style, there
must be an appeal to the imagination. Now we can form
images only of individual objects, and the image of some
individual belonging to a species, as a lily, will be far more
easily formed and far more vivid than that of an individual
belonging to a genus, as a flower.t
Whately points out that we are seldom shut up by the
nature of the subject, but can usually choose between generic
*Campbell, Phil. of Rhet., p. 307-8. Comp. p. 309-15. See below in this chapter, under the head of Syneedoche.
]Peculiar point is often given to personal application by the use
of'thou' instead of'you.'  In the Sermon on the Mount, there are
numerous and striking instances of the transition from general to
particular by this means.  Let ohe compare Matt. 5: 21 and 23;
27 and 29; 33 and 36; 38 and 39; 6: 1 and 2; 5 (correct text)
and 6; 16 and 17; 19 and 22; 7: 1 and 3.  The lesson is first
stated in a general form, and then pointed at an individual hearer.
But observe that this is not kept up throughout the discourse. That
would look formal, and become wearisome. There are preachers
who, frequently employ'thou' in a dainty, sentimental fashion,
which is a very different thing.
360 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
and specific terms. Thus the terms can be made more
general than the subject requires, and this is appropriate
"when we wish to avoid giving a vivid impression,- when
our object is to soften what is offensive, disgusting, or shocking; as when we speak of an'execution,' for the infliction
of the sentence of death on a criminal..... Many, especially
unpractised writers, fall into a feeble style by resorting unnecessarily to this substitution of the general for the specific,
or of the specific for the singular; either because they
imagine there is more appearance of refinement or of profundity, in the employment of such terms as are in less
common use among the vulgar, or, in some cases, with a
view to give greater comprehensiveness to their reasonings,
and to increase the utility of what they say, by enlarging
the field of its application.  Inexperienced preachers frequently err in this way, by dwelling on Virtue and Vice, -
Piety and Irreligion,- in the abstract, without particularizing; forgetting that while they include much, they impress
little or nothing." *
Epithets will seldom contribute to energy. An epithet
is an adjective added to a noun, or an adverb added to a
verb, which does not add anything to the sense conveyed
by the noun or verb, but simply brings into prominence
something contained in it.  Now as commonly managed by
third-rate novelists, essayists and orators, epithets never
render the expression forcible.  Even when really ornamental, they are appropriate only to poetry and poetical
prose.  If you cut a bough from an apple-tree in spring to
please your friends with its beauty, you would retain the
twigs and leaves and blossoms  but if you wish to knock
down a man with it, all these must be trimmed away.    -et
when properly introduced, epithets may  add force.  For
instance, they may bring to notice properties of an object
*Whately, p. 221 -2.  Comp. above, Part I, chap. 3, ~ 2, as to
general and particular morality.
31
361 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
which would otherwise have escaped attenti ti, or cause the
mind to dwell on the characteristic thus brought out, until
it gets the full impression. Or they may be "so many
abridged arguments, the force of which is sufficiently conveyed by a mere hint; e.g. if any one says,'we ought to
take warning from the bloody revolution of France,' the
Epithet suggests one of the reasons for our being warned;
and that not less clearly, and more forcibly, than if the
argument had been stated at length." * It is, however, a
matter with reference to which the young writer or speaker,
particularly if he is highly imaginative, has more need to
restrain than to encourage himself.
Words in which the sound resembles the sense (onomatopoeia) will sometimes promote energy, but in oratory they
must come unsought, if used at all.
Unusual words and phrases may also be energetic, because they contrast with the common and homely, so as to
awaken peculiar interest, like a visitor or a foreigner.t
Yet if the visitor be a reserved stranger, or the foreigner
be ridiculous, the effect is not good; and so the uncommion
expressions must not be unintelligible, nor grotesque.
Anglo-Saxon words are often more forcible than the corresponding words of Latin origin.  In some cases they are
more specific, the Latin having furnished the general term.
In other cases they have the power of association, having
been connected in our minds from childhood with real
objects and actions, while the Latin term represents only
ideas. Others are more forcible because shorter, so as to
strike a quicker blow, while on the contrary some long
Latin words are energetic, because so ponderous and sonorous.1
*Whately, p. 332 if.
t Comp. Aristotle, Rhet. III, 2.
Comp. Herb:.t Spencer on Style, p. 12-14.  His theory is ipadequate, but the facts are well stated.
362 
EINERGY OF STYIL.
2. Much depends, as to energy, upon the construction of
sentences.*
The periodic structure of sentences requires special attention.  The word "period" signifies a going round, a circuit,
revolution, etc., and strictly speaking, a sentence would be
called a period when it returns at the close to the matter
with which it began.  It was very common in Greek and
Latin, particularly the latter, to begin with a noun in the
nominative case, then make a long sentence, consisting first
of adjuncts to the noun and afterwards of adjuncts to the
verb, and as the closing word to give the verb. This would
be strictly a period; the sentence circles round, and the last
word is in close grammatical connection with the first. In
English we seldom give precisely this form to long sentences, except in the inverted style of blank verse.
" The blest in heaven, above the starry sphere,
Their happy hours in joy and hymning spend."
But more generally, any sentence is called a period, when
the sense is so suspended as to be nowhere complete till we
reach the last clause. Campbell gives an excellent example: "At last, after much fatigue, through deep roads, and
bad weather, we came, with no small difficulty, to our
journey's end." Contrast this with what is called the loose
arrangement: "We came to our journey's end at last, with
no small difficulty, after much fatigue, through deep roads,
and bad weather."t Here the sense would be complete,
and the sentence might end, at any one of the five points indicated by italicized words. If, on the other hand, the first
form were made more purely periodic, by putting the verb
nearer the end, the effect would not be so good. Thus:
"At last, with no small difficulty, after much fatigue,
through deep roads, and bad weather, we came to our
* Comp. above, chap. 2, 2.
t Phil. of Rhet. p. 389.
363 
ENERGY OF STYI2E.
journey's end." HIere so many particular adjuncts are
strung together before we reach the verb, as to become
wearisome, if not confusing. The first form is better. And
in fact, yet a fourth form would make it in this respect
better still. Thus: "At last, with no small difficulty, and
after much fatigue, we came, through deep roads and bad
weather, to our journey's end." * This, however, differs from
the first form as to the adjuncts which are first stated, and
thereby made most prominent; and this difference must
slightly affect the resulting sense.
"Periods, or sentences nearly approaching to periods,
have certainly, when other things are equal, the advantage
in point of Energy.  An unexpected continuation of a sentence which the reader had supposed to be concluded, especially if, in reading aloud, he had, under that supposition,
dropped his voice, is apt to produce a sensation in the mind
of being disagreeably balked: analogous to the unpleasant
jar which is felt, when in ascending or descending stairs,
we meet with a step more than we had expected: and if
this be often repeated, as in a very loose sentence, a kind
of weary impatience results from the uncertainty when the
sentence is to close." t
In speaking, "the periodic style is much less necessary,
and therefore much ]ess suitable, than in compositions designed for the closet. The speaker may, in most instances,
by the skilful suspension of his voice, give to a loose sentence the effect of a Period: and though, in both species of
composition the display of art is to be guarded against, a
more unstudied air is looked for in such as are spoken." $
In fact, very long periodic sentences are, in speaking, to be
avoided. The hearer must retain the whole period in mind,
and cannot fully understand any part of it until he reaches
the end; and undisciplined minds will find this very diffi
* HIlerbert Spencer, On Style, p 26-7.
t Whatelj  p. 365.               1 lb. p. 371.
364 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
cult.* A period concentrates its whole force into one blow;
but we must not gain this energy by the sacrifice either of
perspicuity or of naturalness and ease. It is sometimes
advantageous to make a long sentence partly loose and
partly periodical.
The emphatic arrangemnent of sentences, is confined to
much narrower limits in English that in many other languages.  In the familia sentence, "Will you ride to town
to-day?" the sense will \ e different according as the emphasis is laid on'will,' or on'you,' or on'ride,' etc.  Now
in Greek or Latin, where the order of words in a sentence
can be very freely varied, the emphatic word in each of
these cases might be indicated by its position. But English idiom does not permit this; and the emphasis has to be
determined from the connection, or must be marked by
italic letters. So far as our idiom does allow inversion, we
ought to employ it, and dispense with italics. In speaking,
one will indicate the emphasis by the manner of utterance;
but much is gained if it can at the same time be indicated
by the position of the words.
The most prominent position in a sentence is the beginning, and next to this, the end.  If now a word which,
according to the common grammatical order, would come
elsewhere, be placed at the beginning or the end, it will
attract special attention; it will become one of the important, the emphatic words of the sentence. And in
general, to put a word out of its ordinary place, will cause
it to be specially noticed. Such inversions of order, by
giving particular prominence to the most important word
or clause, will often render a sentence far more energetic.
Compare "Great is Diana of the Ephesians," and "Diana
of the Ephesians is great."t In the saying of Peter,
* Comp. above, on Perspicuity, chap. 2, 2.
t The French cannot here invert, as the Greek and English do;
and Campbell has very well remarked: "How weak in comparison
31*
365 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
"Silver and gold have I none, but such as I have, give r
thee," take the common grammatical order, "I have no
gold and silver," etc., and how feeble! Observe too, that
here our version increases the energy by separating the
adjective none from its substantives, and putting it at the
end of the clause, the other most emphatic position.* And
not only may the predicate thus come first, for emphasis,
but many other inversions are possible.  "Not every one
that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven." "Now is the accepted time."
Sometimes an emphatic word or phrase is put first,
though it must afterwards be represented in its proper
grammatical place by a pronoun. "Your fathers, where
are they? and the prophets, do they live forever?"  How
cold and languid, compared with this, would be, "Where
are your fathers? and do the prophets live forever?"t
So also, "To be or not to be, that is the question." In
other cases, an emphatic word which could not stand at
the head of a sentence, is introduced by some pronominal
phrase. We could not say, "Came forth two bears out of
the wood," but we can say, "There came forth," etc.1
"The word'it' is frequently very serviceable in enabling
us to alter the arrangement: thus, the sentence,'Cicero
praised Caesar,' which admits of at leasttwo modifications
of sense, may be altered so as to express either of them by
thus varying the order:'It was Cicero that praised Caesar,'
or,'It was Coesar that Cicero praised.'" 1 There are also
numerous cases in which a convenient inversion may be
is the French version of Le Clerc, La Diane des Ephgsiens est une
grande deesse!  How deficient that of Beausobre, La grande Diane
des Fphasiens!  How ridiculous that of Saci, Vive la grande Diane
des  phesiens!"
* Campbell, p. 378.
t Most of these examples are from Campbell, p. 381-3.
$ 2 Kings 2  24.                          1[ Whately, p. 364.
366 
367
ENERGY OF STYLE.
effected by changing from the active to the passive construction. Thus: "There is a yet more signal instance of
ingratitude.  One of his chosen twelve disciples denied
Jesus Christ, and another betrayed him."  Here "Jesus
Christ "' is most emphatic; and ought to come first.  This
could be managed, but with some awkwardness, as follows:
"Jesus Christ, one of his chosen twelve disciples denied,
and another betrayed."  All becomes easy as well as forciI,le by making it passive: "There is a yet more signal
instance of ingratitude. Jesus Christ was denied by one
of his chosen twelve disciples, and by another he was
betrayed."
No sentence ought to end in a large number of unaccented syllables, as "comparable," "exquisitely," "agreeableness."  It is best to end with a word which accents the
last syllable, or at any rate to have the accent only one
syllable from the end.  Ill like manner, we must not close
the sentence with a large number of unemphatic words.
Thus: "I will give my own attention to the matter," is
much feebler than "I will give the matter my own
attention."
Antithesis often adds greatly to energy.  E. g. "The
Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath."
"Thou art anxious and troubled about many things: but
one thing is needful." " The memory of the just is blessed:
but the name of the wicked shall rot." Such antithetical
expressions abound in the Proverbs of Solomon, as they
do in the uninspired proverbs of all nations, their terseness
and force contributing to give them popularity. How
vigorous is the saying quoted by Quintilian: "I do not
live to eat, I eat to live." In all such cases, each of the
two contrasted clauses throws light upon the other, so that
without losing perspicuity the expressions may be made
very brief, and thus more pointed and forcible; while at
the same time the contrast makes the whole statement more 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
striking. So much does antithesis contribute to energy
and brilliancy of style, that many writers and speakers
employ it in great excess. This disfigures the style of
Macaulay, which is in many respects so admirable. In
preaching, a manlifest, and especially a frequent effort to
strike, is particularly unbecoming. And besides the violation of taste in the excessive use of antithesis, there is
danger, in any single case, of violating truth. In order
strikingly to contrast two tlhings, we may unconsciously
exaggerate the difference. Thus Lord Bacon, who was
very fond of antitheses, and has left a remarkable collectionl of them,* says in the Essay on Adversity, that "prosperity is the blessing of the Old Testament, adversity is the
blessing of the New."   But the real difference in this
respect between the two Testaments is relative, and not
ah,solute.  The Old Testament repeatedly teaches the blessing (,f adversity, the New several times promises temporal
prosperity.  The former speaks mainly of prosperity, the
litter mainly of adversity.  But this difference in degree,
Bacon con verts, for the sake of his antithesis, into a differeice in kind.  The danger of such exaggeration is very
great, and it is a sad thing to gain force at the expense of
truth.
One who speaks under the influence of strong feeling is
very apt sometimes to use broken constructions. Hie will be
so absorbed as not to notice the syntax, or after beginning
the sentence in one way, a sudden impulse will cause him
to break off, and end it in a different way.  The most impassioned speakers and writers naturally employ such expressiolns most frequently; for example, they are very
common in the writings of the Apostle Paul. Whenever
actually prompted by real feeling, broken constructions are
admissible, and forcible. But they must never be used
*De Augm. Scient. Lib. VI.  Whately has extracted a number
of these, in the Appendix [A] to his Rhetoric.
368 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
from calculation, and must not be allowed, even when perfectly natural, to recur too often.
Akin to this is what grammarians call aposiopesis, where
part of a sentence is suppressed through emotion. E. g.
Luke 19: 42, "If even thou hadst known.... the things
that belong to thy peace!"  How much better would have
been her destiny, it is left for silence to suggest. Luke
22  42, "Father, if thou art willing to remove this cup
from me!"  He does not go on to ask that it be removed;
but, after a pause, he adds, "Yet, not my will but thine be
done." Acts 23: 9, "We find no evil in this man; but if
a spirit spoke to him, or an angel -? " How expressive
was this silence, from a Pharisee speaking in the Sanhedrim, in presence of the Sadducees. The words, "let us
not fight against God," were added by some critic or copyist, who understood grammar better than rhetoric.
As regards the whole matter of energy in the construction of sentences, one may find great benefit in the exercise
of recasting sentences. This would also conduce, it is obvious, to perspicuity and to elegance, but it is still more
important as to energy.*
3. Energy is greatly promoted by Conciseness.  "It may
be established as a maxim that admits no exception, that
the fewer the words are, provided neither propriety nor
perspicuity be violated, the expression is always the more
vivid.'Brevity,' says Shakspeare,'is the soul of wit.'
Thus much is certain, that of whatever kind the sentiment
be, witty, humorous, grave, animated, or sublime, the more
briefly it is expressed, the energy is the greater, or the sentimnent is the more enlivened..... As when the rays of the
sun are collected into the focus of a burning-glass, the
* Practical exercises of this kind may be found in Blair's Rhetoric, Lect. XX-XXIV; also in Day's Art of Discourse, and in all
the best works on composition, such as Quackenbos, Day, and Bain
Care should be taken not to become fastidious about trifles.
369
I 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
smaller the spot is which receives them, compared with the
surface of the glass, the greater is the splendor;.... so,
in exhibiting our sentiments by speech, the narrower the
compass of words is wherein the thought is expressed, tlihe
more energetic is the expression..... The very same sentimnent, expressed diffusely, will be admitted barely to be
just; expressed concisely, it will be admired as spirited." *
There is no more remarkable example of energetic conciseness than the famous saying of Cesar, Veni, vidi, vici,
'I came, saw, conquered.' The studied brevity of Lacedremonian speech has given us the word laconic. The
orators among the American Indians have often been re- 
markable for brief pithy, pointed sayings. All men, cultivated and uncultivated, appreciate brevity.
Opposed to conciseness are tautology, pleonasm, and
verbosity. Sheer tautology is perhaps not a very common
fault. Pleonasm, the use of words or phrases which add
nothing to the sense, is quife common, and often greatly
detracts from energy. And verbosity, tke introduction of
expressions which add something, but nothing of any real
importance, is surpassingly frequent and hurtful.t
A certain high-sounding verbosity is apt to be greatly
admired by vely ignorant or half-educated people.  But
this admiration does not argue any real benefit to them,
nor any real power in the speaker. "It is not uncommon
to hear a writer or speaker of this class mentioned as having'a very fine command of language,' when perhaps it
might be said with more correctness that'his language has
a command of him;' that is, that he follows a train of
words rather than of thought, and strings together all the
striking expressions that occur to him on the subject, instead of first forming a clear notion of the sense he wishes
to convey, and then seeking for the most appropriate
* Campbell, Phil. of Rhet., p. 353.
. t These faults are very fully treated by Campbell, p. 3858-72.
370 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
vehicle in which to convey it. He has but the same'commnand of language' that the rider has of a horse which
runs away with him." *
The Hebrew narrative style is peculiarly diffuse and
circumstantial; and the parallelism of Hebrew poetry leads
to much repetition. As used in the Bible, these are not
blemishes, but positive excellences; but in our own speaking and writing we must remember that in these respects
modern taste demands a different style, and that in such
matters the taste of our hearers ought to be consulted.
Tautology and pleonasm may be corrected by merely
striking out the superfluous words; and this should be carefully and vigorously done. To correct verbosity it is often
necessary to recast sentences, and substitute other terms.
It is to be remembered that in seeking conciseness we
must not sacrifice perspicuity. Sometimes a terse, pointed
phrase that would not be readily intelligible to all, may
yet be employed by prefixing some more diffuse statement.
"The hearers will be struck by the forcibleness of the
sentence which they will have been prepared to comprehend; they will understand the longer expression, and remvember the shorter." t  Interesting examples of this may
be seen in our Lord's teaching, and in the Epistle of James.1
In other cases a brief statement may be of such a nature as
to suggest more than is expressed; either the intellect is
set to pursuing a train of thought, or the imagination is
stimulated to fill up an outline. Such exercise of the intel lect and imagination, if not made too difficult, is highly
agreeable to all; and the mind being thus aroused to grasp
the subject actively, will hold it much more firmly than it
it had been passively received. It is the highest type of
style to be terse, and suggestive.1
* Whately, p. 347.                        t Id. p. 351
E. g. Matt. 19: 30 and 20: 16; 22: 14; 23: 12. James:12,
17,27; 2: 13,26; 3: 18; 4:17; 5: 6.
it Comp. Whately, p. 356.
371 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
The great majority of young speakers and writers need
with especial care to cultivate conciseness. Most of those
wvhio feel moved to write or speak are naturally fluent. They
find volubility and verbosity to be easy to themselves, and
acceptable to many of their hearers. An excessive luxu riance of style is much more promising than extreme barren ness; but, as Cicero remarked, it needs, like an overgrowth
of grain in spring, to be pastured down with the pen.* The
task often requires rigorous self-control. The lad who is
thinning corn longs to leave threestalks yonder in one hill,
because they all seem so large and fine. But he must remember. Three will make no more than two; nay, will
make less. Some persons, on the other hand, should stimu
late themselves to greater fertility in respect to style, which
may be effected by improving the imagination, by familiarity with good writers whose style tends to luxuriance, and
by endeavoring to speak and write under the influence of a
more stirring passion, or a more tender sentiment.
And it must not be forgotten, that while diffuseness is
unfavorable to energy, there may be a profutseniess, as in
Cicero, Chalmers, De Quincey, Gladstone, which is highly
energetic. The former spreads sluggishly over a wide ex.
panse, the latter pours onward in a rushing torrent. Lon.
ginus compares the impassioned style of Demosthenes to a
storm, or a thunderbolt, that of Cicero to a conflagration,
wide-spreading, all-devouring, long-continuing.   Even repetition, which is often necessary in order to perspicuity,
and which many preachers make distressingly feeble and
tedious, may be so managed by a man deeply in earnest as
to be but strong blows in quick succession.
4. Perhaps the chief element of energy in style is the use
of figures of speech.t  Passionate feeling, whether anger,
*De Or. lI, 21, 23.
_ t This topic may be found copiously treated in any of the familiar
works on Rhetoric, particularly in some recent works, as those of
372 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
fear, love, or the emotion of the sublime, naturally expresses
itself by means of bold imagery, -bold, though never elaborate or far-fetched.
Figures are sometimes to be considered rather as belonging to the materials of discourse than to the style. Thus,
apart from the expression of an idea, some comparison may
be introduced by way of proof or elucidation.  Usually,
however, figures are employed as a means of expressing the
thought, although they may add something to the expression, and are thus properly regarded as a part of style.
METAPHOR is more conducive to energy than comparison.
The latter is useful in order to perspicuity or to elegance,
but is apt to be avoided in impassioned or otherwise energetic discourse.  It has been often remarked that in Demosthenes' great oration on the Crown, where he had so much
at stake, and speaks with such directness and force and
vehemence, there is but a single comparison, and that
couched in two words. Yet comparisons may sometimes,
from the nature of the subject-matter, be exceedingly impressive. "His eyes were as a flame of fire, and his voice
as the sound of many waters."  "As the lightning cometh
out of the east, and shineth even unto the west, so shall the
conming of the Son of man be."  "The ungodly.... are
like the chaff which the wind driveth away."
The metaphor assumes or implies a resemblance or an
analogy, without stating it as in the comparison, and is thus
more condensed and terse. Where a metaphor would not
be readily intelligible, it may be combined with a comparison, or made plain by some additional term. A great multitude of metaphors have become so familiar, that they no
Day, Bain, Haven, and Hart.  Lord on Figurative Language has an
excellent collection of examples from Scripture, some of which are
cited below. Usage has not made a well-established distinction between the termsfigure and trope, but the latter is commonly applied only
to certain figures, particularly metaphor, metonomy, and synecdoche.
,82
373
I 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
longer possess any special force; but in the many that never
wear out, and in the unlimited range of new invention and
combination, metaphors present to the orator an inexhaustible source of energetic expression. It is imagination that
must produce them, and good taste that must regulate their
use. Inexperienced speakers often employ metaphors that
are incongruous in themselves, or carried out into ridiculous or wearisome detail. But much will depend on subject, occasion and feeling. Even Shakspeare's often condemned example of a mixed metaphor, "To take arms
against a sea of troubles," is allowable and natural in
Hamlet, when frenzied and meditating suicide, and speaking to himself alone.*
The SYNECDOCHE is also favorable to energy. When
a part of a thing is taken for the whole, or the species for
the genus, the expression is apt to be more animated and
suggestive; just as we have already seen that particular
or specific terms are more energetic than general terms.
"They shall beat their swords into ploughshares, and their
spears into pruning-hooks," is immensely more forcible than
to say in general that they will convert their weapons of
war into implements of agriculture.
HYPERBOLE, or saying more than is meant, is very
natural to a person so absorbed in the contemplation of a
particular object or subject as to exaggerate its comparative
importance, or to one so intensely excited that all ordinary
expression seems to him tame. It is also allowable in any
case where-one knows that the exaggerated language need
not be misunderstood, and desires to make a deep impression as to an important fact. "And there are also many
other things which Jesus did, the which, if they should be
written every one, I suppose that even the world itself could
not contain the books that should be written." (John
21  25.)  Such expressions are particularly natural to
*Comp. Haven's Rhet., p. 111.
374 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
the fervid Oriental mind, and they have great power with
the masses of men.  The Apostle Paul is remarkable for
hyperboles, and for strong language of every kind. His
impassioned expression, "I could wish that myself were
accursed from Christ for my brethren" (Rom. 9: 3), is
best understood as an instance of hyperbolical language,
and can be appreciated only in proportion as we sympathize with his patriotic and pious ardor and devotion.
Our Lord's teaching has a singular and very striking
peculiarity in the use of extreme cases to set forth a principle. "Whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek,
turn to him the other also." When he himself was smnitten on the cheek, we do not read that he turned the other.
It was an extreme, hyperbolical way of stating the injunction not to strike back; and though sometimes misunderstood and misrepresented, the statement is one which no
man ever forgets. Compare the expressions, "Let not thy
left hand know what thy right hand doeth," "If any man
come to me, and hate not his father and mother," etc.
(Matt. 6: 3; Luke 14: 26.)  As a teacher of men, our
Lord used a great variety of expedients for stimulating
their languid attention, for compelling them to remember
and reflect. Many a phrase of his fails to be understood
unless we bear this in mind, and his example shows that
such efforts may be made in a spirit and tone wholly unlike
that of "sensation" preachers.*
PERSONIFICATION, representing or addressing an inanimate object as if it had life, sometimes imparts to discourse
great animation and beauty, and even passionate energy.
Examples of it abound in the Scriptures, as well as in all
poetry and oratory. The personification of Wisdom in the
Proverbs of Solomon is very striking, and has been generally supposed to contain an allusion to a real person, the
* As to the danger of our falling into extravagance, see near the
end of this chapter.
375, 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
Word of God. Personifications of the Church are often
carried further in preaching than is wise. Our language
presents unusual facilities for this figure, from its unique
peculiarity of treating all names of things as of the
neuter gender, so that to call an inanimate object "he" or
"she" will at once make a personification.  We must be
careful not to abuse this advantage.  All high-wrought
imagery must be sparingly employed.*
APOSTROPHE  consists in "turning away"  from  our
audience and addressing some person or thing, usually
one of which we had been speaking. If it be a thing that
is thus addressed, there is also a personification.' "It cannot be that a prophet perish out of Jerusalem. O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, which killest the prophets," etc. (Luke
13: 33.)  But there may be apostrophe to a real person,
and there is often personification when we only speak of
the object personified, without addressing it. Apostrophe
properly belongs to the language of passion, and even
as such, it must not occur too frequent]y, nor be too long
continued. A preacher standing with upturned eyes, and
addressing some Scripture character, departed friend, or
personified virtue, cannot go on through many sentences.
EXCLAMATION is sometimes akin to apostrophe, but
properly distinct. Impassioned preachers are somewhat
apt to use it too freely. Some say oh! ah! or alas! so
often that it loses all power. On the other hand, we must
not be fastidious in avoiding exclamation, where it is
naturally prompted by actual feeling.
INTERROGATION is with all orators a frequent means of
giving animation to discourse. Not only may an antagonist, real or imaginary, be questioned, in such a manner as
to awaken lively interest on the part of the hearers, but
questions are constantly addressed to the hearers themselves. Their minds are thus aroused somewhat as if
*Comp. Whately, p. 328-30; Haven, p. 14g5.
376 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
called on actually to answer. It should be observed that
one is liable sometimes to fall as it were into an inlterrogative mood, and throw so much of his discourse into the
form of questions, as to produce the most disagreeable
species of monotony. It is important to be on our guard
against this, and when upon any occasion conscious of it,
to break away by a resolute effort.
DRAMATISMI gives to discourse a life and vigor and charm
that can in scarcely any other way be equalled. To personate some character and speak his sentiments, to introduce
an objector stating his objections, and answer them point
by point, to sustain a dialogue between two supposed persons, to reproduce some scene by dramatic description, are
methods which all effective speakers more or less employ,
and examples of which abound in Demosthenes, Chrysostom, Spurgeon.  In the pulpit, dramatism must usually be
kept within somewhat narrow limits, and must always be
regulated by good taste and sobriety of feeling. Especially
do imitations of action and tone require to be carefully
guarded, lest they become ridiculous, or at any rate unsuitable to devout discourse.*
As to the whole matter of energy of style, grave mistakes
are often committed. Some speakers imagine that they
must be energetic in style and manner even when it does
not suit the subject, or does not accord with their actual
feelings. Now it is only strong feeling that prompts impassioned or in any wise energetic expression. To gain the
latter we must cultivate our sensibilities, and must keep the
mind in contact with the subject to be treated until the
corresponding emotions are excited.t  If little or no emotion really exists, the language of passion produces no
effect, or even a contrary effect to that desired. It is one
of the most important lessons a preacher can learn, not to
* Comp. Vinet, p. 459-65.
t Comp. above on Application, Part I, chap. 8.
82;
377 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
assume earnestness of style or delivery, when he has not
earnestness of feeling.
Another serious and very common mistake is in the
effort to maintain uniform energy throughout a discourse.
"An author should guard against the vain ambition of
expressing everything in an equally high-wrought, brilliant,
and forcible style. The neglect of this caution often occasions the imitation of the best models to prove detrimental.
When the admiration of some fine and animated passages
leads a young writer to take these passages for his general
model, and to endeavor to make every sentence he composes equally fine, he will, on the contrary, give a flatness
to the whole, and destroy the effect of those portions which
would have been forcible if they had been allowed to stand
prominent. To brighten the dark parts of a picture, produces much the same result as if one had darkened the
bright parts; in either case there is a want of relief and
contrast; and Composition, as well as Painting, has its
lights and shades, which must be distributed with no less
skill, if we would produce the desired effect." *
In highly passionate speaking there must be variety,
alternation. In any intense physical exertion, one needs
frequent change of posture, so as to bring different muscles
into play, and let them relieve each other. The same
thing is true as to mental excitement.t  Neither the
hearers, nor even the speaker himself, can keep up a very
high excitement for more than a brief period, certainly
not in a natural and healthy way. Now the most complete
alternation here would be from path.os  r passion to humor.
The humorous writers and speakers almost always introduce pathetic passages merely for relief, and vice versa the
principle applies equally well. But the preacher cannot
relieve the minds of his hearers by any but rare and delicate touches of humor. He may, however, again and
t Comp. Spencer on Style, p. 36.
378
I
* Whately, p. 334. 
ENERGY OF STYLE.
again descend from the impassioned to the quiet and easy,
may cause passion to swell by successive waves, receding
in order to advance farther; and he must in other ways
vary the emotions excited, just so far as will be compatible
with his specific design.
And great mistakes are also made as to what constitutes
energy of style. There is a jerky, convulsive energy, like
that of Carlyle, which is by no means worthy of imitation.
There is an over-wrought, exaggerated energy, which Longinus describes as "not sublime, but sky-scraping," and a
turgid, inflated, would-be energy, which is nothing but
bombast.  And in this stirring age, especially among our
American people, there is a tendency to be prodigiously
excited upon small occasion, to use superlatives, exaggerated epithets, and impassioned imagery, where they are
unnecessary, and therefore inappropriate.*
* Comp. above, Part III, chap. 1, ~ 1.  In the Dialogue de Oratoribus (printed with the works of Tacitus), chap. 20, 22, there
may be found a remarkable account of the false taste prevailing about
A. D. 75, which was constantly essaying to strike or to dazzle, and
which reckoned Cicero tame and dull.
3"9
1 
ELEGANCE OF STYLE.
CHAPTER IV.
ELEGANCE OF STYLE.
LEGANCE of style is the product of imagination,
- alone or in combination with passion, and operating
under the control of good taste. Any exercise of taste comprises anll emotion and a judgment. The emotion excited
by beauty or by its opposite, is involuntary; but the judgment that a certain object, idea, or expression is beautiful
or the contrary, can be controlled anid corrected, and the
internal standard by which we judge, admits of indefinite
improvement. He who would attain elegance of style, then,
must on the one hand cultivate imagination and sensibility,
and on the other must seek, by thoughtful contemplation of
the truly beautiful, to improve his taste.*
Elegance, in speaking, is less important than perspicuity
or energy, but it greatly contributes to the objects of even
the most serious discourse. Real elegance will of course be
widely modified by subject, occasion and design; and thus
modified, it is free from all just objection, and worthy of
very earnest pursuit.
Aristotle remarks:  "The first style of rhetoric  was
formed on that of poetry, witness the style of Gorgias; and
even at the present time the majority of ignorant people
fancy that such orators speak most delightfully; this however is not the case, but the style of poetry and that of
prose is distinct." t The principal object of the poet is to
give pleasure; that of the orator is to convince, impress,
* Comp above, Part III, chap. 1, ~ 2, 2, on Improvement in Style.
tRhet. III, 1.
380 
ELEGANCE OF STYLE.
persuade. For the former, beauty is the most important
element of style; for the latter, it is thoroughly subordinate
to perspicuity and force. There is a similar, though not
equal difference between a history and a romance. In holiday speeches, and all set orations, to please becomes a more
prominent object, and here the style of poetry is more
nearly approached.
This important difference between oratory and poetry
is strikingly illustrated by Adam Smith, who contrasts
dancing with walking, and singing with speaking.
"Were Ito attempt to discriminate between Dancing and any
other kind of movement, I should observe, that though in performing any ordinary action, - in walking, for example, across the room,
a person may manifest both grace and agility, yet if he betrays the
least intention of showing either, he is sure of offending more or less,
and we never fail to accuse him of some degree of vanity and affectation. In the performance of any such ordinary action, every one
wishes to appear to be solely occupied about the proper purpose of
the action; if he means to show either grace or agility, he is careful to conceal that meaning; and in proportion as he betrays it,
which he almost always does, hlie offends. In Dancing, on the contrary, every one professes and avows, as it were, the intention of
displaying some degree either of grace or of agility, or of both. The
display of one or other, or both of these qualities, is, in reality, the
proper purpose of the action; and there can never be ainy disagreeable vanity or affectation in following out the proper purpose of any
action. When we say of any particular person, that he gives himself many affected airs and graces in Dancing, we mean either that
he exhibits airs and graces unsuitable to the nature of the Dance,
or that he exaggerates those which are suitable. Every Dance is, in
reality, a succession of airs and graces of some kind or other, which,
if I may say so, profess themselves to be such. The steps, gestures,
and motions which, as it were, avow the intention of exhibiting a
succession of such airs and graces, are the steps, gestures, and motions which are peculiar to Dancing..... The distinction between
the sounds or tones of Singing, and those of Speakirng. seems to be
of the same kind with that between the steps, &c., of Dancing, and
those of any other ordinary action. Though in Speaking a person may
381 
ELEGANCE OF STYLE.
show a very agreeable tone of voice, yet if he seems to intend to show
it, - if he appears to listen to the sound of his own voice, and as it
were to tune it into a pleasing modulation, he never fails to offend,
as guilty of a most disagreeable affectation. In Speaking, as in
every other ordinary action, we expect and require that the speaker
should attend only to the proper purpose of the action, -the clear
and distinct expression of what he has to say. In Singing, on the
contrary, every one professes the intention to please by the tone
and cadence of his voice; and he not only appears to be guilty of
no disagreeable affectation in doing so, but we expect and require
that he should do so. To please by the Choice and Arrangement
of agreeable sounds, is the proper purpose of all music, vocal as well
as instrumental; and we always expect that every one should attend to the proper purpose of whatever action he is performing. A
person may appear to sing, as well as to dance, affectedly; he may
endeavor to please by sounds and tones which are unsuitable to the
nature of the song, or he may dwell too much on those which are
suitable to it. The disagreeable affectation appears to consist always, not in attempting to please by a proper, but by some improper
modulation of the voice." *
So in poetry the "proper purpose" is to give pleasure;
and we simply require that it be skilfully adapted to that
purpose. If poetry also instructs, or moves to action, that
is something incidental, or subordinate to its main design.
The same thing is true of novels, and all other prose writings belonging to what is called "light literature." But
in oratory, as we have seen, the proper purpose is very different, and entertainment, the gratification of taste, has
place only as subsidiary to conviction and persuasion. Especially is this true of the preacher, who is supposed to have
everywhere a practical and thoroughly serious, if not a
uniformly solemn purpose.   And to preaching, beyond
almost every other variety of public speaking, applies the
following instructive and convincing passage from Henry
Rogers:
"If a speaker is in earnest, he never employs his imagination as
*Adam Smith, quoted by Whately, p. 386.
382 
ELEGAICE OF STYLE.
the poet does, merely to delight us, nor indeed to delight us at all -
except as appropriate imagery, though used for another object,
necessarily imparts pleasure. For this reason, illustrations are
selected always with reference to their force rather than their beauty;
and are very generally marked more by their homely propriety than
by their grace and elegance..... Everything marks the man intent
upon serious business, whose sole anxiety is to convey his meaning
with as much precision and energy as possible to the minds of his
auditors. But with the poet, whose very object is to delight us, or
even with the prose writer, in those species of prose which have the
same object, the case is widely different. He may employ two or
more images, if they are but appropriate and elegant,where the orator
would employ but one, and that perhaps the simplest and homeliest;
he may throw in an epithet merely to suggest some picturesque
circumstance, or to give greater minuteness and vivacity to description; he may sometimes indulge in a more flowing and graceful
expression than the orator would venture upon; that is, whenever
harmony will better answer his object than energy. What does it
matter to him who is walking for walking's sake, how long he lingers amidst the beautiful, or how often he pauses to drink in at
leisure the melody and the fragrance of nature? But the man who
is pressing on to his journey's end cannot afford time for such luxurious loitering. The utmost he can do is to snatch here and there
a homely floweret from the dusty hedge-row, and eagerly pursue
his way. So delicate is the perception attained by a highly cultivated taste of the proprieties of all grave and earnest composition,
that it not only feels at enmity with the meretricious or viciously
ornate, but immediately perceives that the greatest beauties of certain species of prose composition would become little better than
downright bombast, if transplanted into any composition the object
of which was serious. We may illustrate this by referring to a
passage of acknowledged ieauty, - the description, in the'Antiquary,' of the sunset preceding the storm there so grandly delineated.' The sun was now resting his huge disc upon the edge of
the level ocean, and gilded the accumulation of towering clouds
through which he had travelled the livelong day, and which now
assembled on all sides, like misfortunes and disasters around a
sinking empire and falling monarch.   Still, however, his dying
splendor gave a sombre magnificence to the massive congregation
of vapors, forming out of their unsubstantial gloom the show of
pyramids and towers, some touched with gold, some with purple,
383 
ELEGANCE OF STYLE.
some with a hue of deep and dark red.  The distant sea, stretched
beneath this varied and gorgeous canopy, lay almost portentously
still, reflecting back the dazzling and level beams of the descending
luminary, and the splendid coloring of the clouds amidst which he
was setting.' No one in reading this passage can help admiring its
graphic beauty: the numerous epithets, considering the purpose
for which they are employed, - that of detaining the mind upon
every picturesque circumstance, and giving vividness and fidelity to
the whole picture, -appear no more frequent than they ought to
be. But suppose some naval historian, who has occasion to narrate
the movements of two hostile fleets (separated on the eve of battle
by a storm), should suddenly pause to introduce a similar description;-would not the effect be so ridiculous, that no one could read
to the end of the passage without bursting into laughter? " *
We can now easily understand why some preachers care
too much for embellishment. They take a wrong view of
their office, or at any rate are influenced by a wrong
motive. They aim too much at entertaining, at gratifying
the audience. They do not feel the seriousness of their
work, the solemnity of their position. While perhaps
really desiring to do good, they dwell too much on the
necessity of pleasing the people in order to profit them.
And aware that many hearers care only, or chiefly, to be
entertained, aware that they talk in going home not of the
truth, but of the performance and the performer, such
preachers too readily yield to this apparent demand, and
set it before their minds as a distinct if not a principal
object to please. But if-the earnest desire to do men good
quite swallows up the wish to please them, if the sense of
responsibility to God rises superior to concern for men's criticism then the preacher's style will have only such modest
beauty as is easily kept in its proper place. And when he
is tempted to yield to the false taste of many, it may help
him to remember that the desire to please is very apt to
* Henry Rogers on Sacred Eloquence, in " Reason and Faith, and other
Essays," p. 213.
384
I 
ELEGANCE OF STYLE.
defeat itself. His elaborate prettinesses will not only grieve
the devout and disgust the really intelligent, bat will soon
pall upon the taste of those he sought to win, who. will have
all the while in their hearts a vague feeling that this sort
of thing is unworthy of him, and will presently begin to
find it rather tiresome to themselves.*
On the other hand, some preachers very unwisely take
pains to avoid the beautiful. There are thoughts which
naturally incline to blossom into beauty; why sternly
repress them? There are grand conceptions which spontaneously clothe themselves in robes of majesty, and march
forth in a stately but native dignity. And besides subjects
that naturally shine and blaze, there are many very commonplace topics which the preacher must be constantly
bringing to view, and which will gain a much more interested attention, from even the most devout hearers, if delicately touched with some hues of fancy. It is a noble thing
thus to take important truths which have grown dull by
use, and give them new brightness. This must not go so
far that the attention of the speaker, and so that of the
hearers, is drawn to the beauteous garb rather than to the
truth itself. Far better leave the truth unadorned, to win
such notice as it can.t   But this excess will be readily
avoided, if one has good taste and a serious purpose. Vinet
has well said that the really beautiful excludes the pretty.
They who are so afraid of elegance, forget that a native
beauty, and even some ornament of style, is not of necessity unfavorable to perspiculity.1 They forget that the
beautiful and the useful are in nature often closely con-,
nected; that the blossoms of the apple-tree, and the silks
of the corn, are remarkable for their rich and varied, but
delicate beauty. The fanciful style of some preachers is
13
* Comnp. Vinet, p. 349.
t Comp. as to Illustrations, Part I, chap. 7, ~ 3.
+ Comp. W-lhat(ey, p. 305.
385 
ELEGANCE OF STYLE.
as little appropriate as if one called to build the family a
home, should build a garden bower; but a faimily mansion
may be thoroughly suited to convenience and comfort, and
yet have a pleasing form, and even a certain moderate
ornamentation.
True energy of style is often at the same time elegant.
Impassioned feeling often cannot express itself otherwise
than by bold images, and these, though chosen for their
strength, may also have an unstudied beauty. A painted
cheek is an abomination; but let there be high health, and
animated feeling, and without an effort or a thought the
cheek takes to itself a color most bright and fair. The
Creator meant that it should be so; are you wiser than the
Creator?
It should be added that quotations, whether of verse or
prose, which are made merely or even chiefly for their
beauty, can never be appropriate in preaching. The flowers
suitable in serious discourse are never artificial flowers.
Especially unbecoming is the introduction of ornamental
passages from poets well known to be grossly irreligious.
Some preachers make themselves worse than ridiculous by
"spouting" Byron.
Elegance of style depends especially upon terms, arrangement, and imagery; and there is much true elegance in that
simplicity of style which is, on every account, so much to be
desired.
1. The most energetic terms are often at the same time the
most elegant; so that we gain the latter excellence while
seeking the former.*   But this is not always the case.
Some highly forcible expressions have to be avoided because
they are indecent or vulgar. And if ever slang phrases are
employed by a preacher, it ought to be under very peculiar
circumstances.  Ideas which are too painful must not be
expressed in the most forcible terms, but softened. The use
* Comp. the discussion of energetic terms in theforegoing chapter
386 
ELEGANCE  F STYLE.
of words too grand forthe subject, is a very common offence
against elegance. Whether an energetic expression shall
be rejected because inelegant is a question on which no
general rule can be given; each case must be decided on
its own merits. But words which really weaken the expression or do not at all strengthen it, must scarcely ever
be employed because of their supposed elegance.
John Foster, in one of his celebrated Essays, urges very
earnestly that one reason for the aversion of men of taste
to evangelical religion, is the too frequent employment in
preaching of the technical terms of theology, and the language of Scripture. He himself took great pains to avoid
both. No doubt there is sometimes an excessive multiplication of such terms, giving the sermon a dialect quite differeint from the language of ordinary life, and this error
good taste must correct. But the aversion of men of taste
to evangelical religion is much more largely the cause than
the effect of this dislike to theological and scriptural terms.
They wish us to tone down and refine away the characteristic ideas of Scripture.*
2. As to the arrangementt of words,t we must of course
avoid harsh or disagreeable combinations, unless they are
necessary in order to energy.   The English language  is
specially liable to the frequent recurrence of hissing sounds,
s, z, sh, ch, etc.1 Thus the phrase, "in Jesus's name," has
an unpleasant sound.
It is also of some importance to avoid the too frequent
repetition of a word in the same sentence or paragraph.
Modern taste is more fastidious about this than was that of
COn the advantages of a "Scriptural tone" in sermons, see
Vinet, p. 420.
t The nunmber is here a matter of subordinate importance; there
may be an elegant conciseness or an elegant diffuseness, though the
former is best for energy and often best for perspicuity.
I Foreigners sometimes call it the " snake language."
387 
ELEGANCE OF SITYLE.
the ancients. We must not, through mere desire for variety,
sacrifice anything important to the sense, a fault into which
our common English version has very often fallen. Thus
in Romans, chap. 4, the word'reckon' occurs very often,
being the leading term of the argument, and our version
renders by three different words,'count,''reckon,' and
'impute,' thus seriously obscuring the verbal connection,
with no gain but that of variety. Where, however, the
connection of our discourse does not really require the
repetition of the same word, it should be suitably varied.
There is in English special danger that certain pronouns,
particularly it, that, and which, and the preposition of, will
be too often repeated in quick succession.
Antithesis will frequently contribute to elegance, as well
as to energy; * but if used too freely, it tends to stiffness,
or to monotony.
Alliteration was a leading peculiarity of Anglo-Saxon
poetry, and is still somewhat frequently employed in poetry
and even in prose.  Chalmers was very fond of it.  In
prose, especially in preaching, it should be used but rarely,
and in an easy, unstudied fashion.
Sentences are of course most elegant when smooth and
flowing.  But better harsh strength than smooth weakness.
"You may break grainmar, if you break hearts."  And
a constant succession of smooth and graceful sentences will
inevitably become monotonous. Gibbon wearies by his
uniform stateliness. Even Prescott's style would be improved by the occasional introduction of sentences quite
different in pattern.
The parts of a sentence are often so proportioned as to
give it a rhythmical movement. Excited feeling naturally
tends to rhythmical expression, as is sometimes seen even
in voice and gesture. The metre of p( etry is one species
of rhythm.  The perfectly regular recurrence of the same 
* Comp  in the preceding chapter.
388 
ELEGANCE OF STYLE.
movements is, however, too labored and deliberate a thing
to be natural in speaking. Accordingly, as Aristotle remarks, the rhythm of oratory must never become metre.
The only exception, if there be one, is in funeral orations
and the like, where there is high-wrought but somewhat
artificial feeling, and where, as in poetry, the principal
object is to please.*  It is not proper, in order to rhythm
in prose, to throw in clauses simply for that purpose, as is
often done by Johnson and his imitators; t but the expressions,nay be so chosen and so coordinated as to give the
whole a rhythmical movement. This had best be spontaneous, but need by no means be unconscious; one may lawfully give, even in extemporaneous speech, a certain occasional and subordinate attention to the proportion of clauses,
the harmonious flow of the sentence. It is obvious that
the cadence, or concluding strain of a sentence, is in this
respect most important.  Here, as was seen with regard to
energy, we must avoid ending with a number of unemphatic
words or unaccented syllables. This requires special care in
English. We have not only a great number of such terminations as -osity, -ility, etc., but many words like occupancy, profitableness, in which, according to the Gothic
tendency, the accent remains on the first or leading syllable, no matter how many syllables may be added, and
which are exceedingly ill -suited to close a sentence.
Moreover, it does not sound well if a sentence containing
one or inore long clauses, should end with a short one.
Many points of this sort might be noted; but after all,
rhythm in prose scarcely requires particular rules, being
sufficiently regulated by the ear, if once a man has
learned to give it some attention, in his own speaking
* I  some pathetic passages of Dickens, a whole paragraph might
be cut up into blank verse, without changing a word. But this
would be intolerable in an appeal to a jury, or in a sermon.
t Comp. Whately, p. 353-5.
33*
389 
ELEGANCE OF STYLE,
and writing, and in the books he most carefully reads. It
is highly important that the rhythm of successive sentences
should frequently vary, as is eminently the case in Burke.
Milton's prose has great majesty of movement, but with
hardly sufficient variety, and with some sacrifice of practical
directness. Robert Hall's style is in this as in most respects
very admirable; yet even he would have more power with
a miscellaneous audience if now and then a sentence were
in its ending more abrupt -some quick, sharp saying that
would crack like a whip. The sermons of Addison Alexander have in some impassioned passages a magnificent
rhythm.*
3. Most of the figures which give energy to style, will
also impart elegance.  Those which especially conduce to
elegance are simile, metaphor, and personification. A comparison, or simile, which has any considerable value in the
way of elucidation or proof, becomes much more valuable
if also beautiful, because then it gains a pleased and sympathizing attention. That which does not contribute to
perspicuity or force, must never be introduced merely as
an ornament, for this, as we have seen, belongs to poetry,
but not to practical and serious discourse. Every one is
familiar with the use of comparisons and metaphors to
elevate or to degrade. No better example can be found
than that often quoted from Aristotle.t The poet Simonides
was requested by the victor in a mule-race to write a triumphal ode; and offended at the small present offered, said
he would not write about half-asses, which was the common
* The subject of melody and harmony of style is discussed at
length by Day, p. 218-46. See also Iloppin, p. 293-7. The ancients
were much more attentive to this matter than the moderns. Besides
Aristotle (Rhet. VIII, 3), Cicero treats of rhythm at great length,
and boasts that no one has ever before discussed it so thoroughly
(Orator, cap. 50-71). Quintilian is more brief (IX, 4, 45-120), and
cautions against overdoing the thing. With this caution, Cicero's
observations will be found quite instructive.
Rhet. III, 2.
390 
ELEGANCE OF STYLE.
Greek name for mules.  But a larger present being offered;
he addressed them in an ode as "daughters of storm-footed
steeds." It is much to know which side of a subject to
select.*
4. No quality of style is more frequently urged as an
object of pursuit than Simplicity.  Every one feels that
simplicity is a great excellence.  But when we attempt to
analyze simplicity, and show how it may be attained, w
are apt to find unexpected difficulty. The opposite of a
simple style would seem to be one that is involved, or that
is too elaborate, or that is overloaded with ornamnent.  In
the first case we might say that a simple style does not roll
up an idea in manifold clauses and sentences, which we
:ust painfully unroll in order to perceive it, but spreads
Diit the idea at once to our view; that it is direct, and easy
to understand. Then usage extends the term to denote a
style that is not excessively labored, or in any respect artificial, that does not appear to be produced with great effort.
And in a particular variety of this use -we mean by it a
style that has no elaborate ornamentation.
A simple style, then, as it unfolds the thought at once,
will be perspicuous, though there may be a certain kind
of perspicuity where, strictly speaking, there is not sim plicity.  You may make an idea plain by repeated and
varied statement and illustration; a simple style makes it
plain at once. In this respect simnplicity demands both the
conditions of perspicuity we have heretofore noticed; the
language must be such as the liearers will easily under stand, and it must exactly express the idea. A man is not
certainly "simplifying" a thought when he is hanmmering
it by prolonged and tedious explanation. He must find
the least complicated, the most direct and readily intelligi ble expression, which at the same time exactly hits Ais
* Compare what is said of figures  above in chap, 4; also on
Illustration, above, Part I, chap. 7.
391 
ELEGANCE OF STYLE.
meaning.  Men often use familiar words, but do not so
choose and connect them as to make their style simple.
In the other case a simple style means a style which is
not labored or artificial, which flows freely, and seems to
be natural. If it is at the same time really perspicuous,
this easy, inelaborate style is always the result of careful
self-discipline, and the expression of ideas patiently re flected on and clearly conceived. There are peculiarities
of natural tendency in this as in all respects, but it is a
great mistake to regard true simplicity of style as a mere
gift of nature. One must habitually think his thoughts
into clearness, and must acquire wide and easy command
of the best resources of language, if he would be able to
speak simply, and yet really say something.
And when by simplicity we mean the absence of excessive ornamentation, let us beware of going to the opposite
extreme.  South has sharply satirized his great contemporary Jeremy Taylor, by extracting from his writings some
specimens of over-wrought, fanciful ornament.  "'I speak
the words of soberness,' said St. Paul, and I preach the
Gospel not with the'enticing words of man's wisdom.'
This was the way of the Apostle's discoursing of things
sacred.  Nothing here of'the fringes of the north star;'
nothing of'nature's becoming unnatural;' nothing of'the
down of angels' wings, or the beautiful locks of cherubims:' no starched similitudes introduced with a'Thus
have I seen a cloud rolling in its airy mansion,' and the
like.  No,    these were sublimities above the rise of the
Apostolic spirit.  For the Apostles, poor mortals, were
content to take lowsr+ steps, and to tell the world in plain
terms that he who believed should be saved, and that he who
believed not should be damned. And this was the dialect
which pierced the conscience, and made the hearers cry
out, Men and brethren, what shall we do?.... In a word,
the Apostles' preaching was therefore mighty and successful, because plain, natural and familiar, and by no means
392 
ELEGANCE OF STYLE.
above the capacity of their hearers: nothing being more
preposterous, than for those who were professedly aiming
at men's hearts, to miss the mark by shooting over their
heads." * The expressions quoted by South are, at least as
they here stand, supremely ridiculous for a sermon; and
unfortunately they are sometimes paralleled in our own
day.  But simplicity by no means excludes all ornament
in all cases.  Many a thought, no doubt, is "when  unadorned, adorned the most," because, like a statue without
drapery, its own form is beautiful. But, as we have heretofore observed, there are thoughts which naturally so
stimulate the imagination that of its own accord it clothes
them in a garb of beauty. And there is many a truth
whlich must have some touches of fancy, or it is not fairlv
presented. The maiden on a summer evening, arrayed in
simplest white, yet knows how, by the bit of ribbon skilfully placed, or.the rose-bud in her hair, to give the whole
a modest charm. Shall the simple garb of truth be denied
a like advantage?  Wherever simplicity is to have its full
attractiveness, and to exert its true power, it must not be
bald simplicity; there is sure to be now and then some
little quaintness of phrase or delicate tinge of fancy, some
slight felicity of expression, which lifts it above the vulgar
or the commonplace. In using colloquial phrases, those
homely English idioms which have such power, it is curious to observe how Bunyan, or Spurgeon, will divest them
of vulgarity and give them an air almost of refinement, by
this light play of fancy.
Two things ought to be here borne in mind. The worst
of all affectations in style is the affectation of simplicity.
It is like affected modesty in an immodest woman. And a
style may have real beauty and real power that is not
simple. The processional pomp of Milton's grand sen tences, the revolving splendors of Chalmers, the lightnings
and auroras of Chrysostom and Jeremy Taylor, may re.
* Quoted by Henry Rogers, p. 219.
393 
ELEGANCE OF STYLE.
mind us that simplicity is not everything.  These men,
however, are often simple; they have too much good taste
and natural feeling to employ inflated diction when speak ing of common  things.   And  so those who seek to be
habitually simple must let their style vary according to
subject and feeling. While usually confining themselves
to those medium tones which suit the common thought and
experience of mankind, let them be willing, and be able,
to range the whole gamut of expression, to rise and fall as
occasion demands or passion prompts.
"The constant employment of one species of phraseology,
which all have now to strive against, implies an undeveloped faculty of language. To have a specific style is to be
poor in speech..... As in a fine nature, the play of the
features, the toniles of the voice and its cadences, vary in
harmony with every thought uttered; so, in one possessed
of a fully-developed power of speech, the mould in which
each combination of words is cast will simply vary with,
and be appropriate to the sentiment.           The perfect
writer will express himself as Junius, when in the Junius
frame of mind; when he feels as Lamb felt, will use a like
familiar speech; and will fall into the ruggedness of Carlyle
when in a Carlylean mood. Now he will be rhythmical
and now irregular; here his language will be plain and
there ornate; sometimes his sentences will be balanced and
at other times unsymmetrical; for a while there will be
considerable sameness, and then again great variety." *
Fromn all this it will appear that true simplicity of style,
which is at once intelligible, which has an easy movement,
a natural beauty and a natural variety, requires patient
thought, disciplined imagination, and thorough mastery of
language.t
*Spencer, Essay on Style, p. 46.
t In the way of caution against mistakes as to simplicity, see a
good discussion in Moore's Thoughts on Preaching (London, 1869),
chap. 6.
394 
IMAGINATION.
CHAPTER V.
IMAGINATION, IN ITS RELATION TO ELOQUENCE.
I-MAGINATION, as we have already seen, is among the
_ leading characteristics of eloquence.* It plays a highly
important part in the construction of discourse, and style,
and it has much to do even with the invention of materials.
Though repeatedly referred to, under these several heads,
it is thought to require at this point some more particular
discussion, as to its office in oratory, and the means of its
cultivation.
~ 1. USES OF IMAGINATION TO THE ORATOR.
The popular conception of imagination still is, that it
assists the orator only in the way of producing high-wrought
imagery, in letting off such fire-works of fancy as sophomores affect, and half-educated people admire. But modern
psychology tends more and more to assign imagination a
high position and a wide and varied domain. It is coming
to be recognized as giving indispensable aid in scientific
research and philosophical abstraction, in the formation of
geometrical and ethical, as well as of artistic ideals, in the
varied tasks of practical invention, and even in the comprehension and conduct of practical life.  When entering
some strange country, or when brought by great social convulsions into a new state of things, most men are unable,
through deficiency of imagination, fully to realize the new
situation, and promptly to seize upon the central and con
*Comp. Introduction, ~ 2.
395 
IMAGINATION, IN ITS
trolling forces. Accordingly Napoleon said, "The men of
imagination rule the world."
This noble faculty is possessed in a high degree by every
true orator. Without it, a man may be instructive and
convincing, may influence others by his practical energy,
his resolution and determination, but he can never exert the
peculiar power of eloquence. A preacher, without imagination, may be respected for his sound sense, may be loved
for his homely goodness, but he will not move a congregation, he will not be a power in the community. If on the
other hand he have a perverted or an undisciplined imagination, it may ruin his usefulness. It is a matter on which
preachers seldom bestow any thoughtful attention; and yet
few things are so important to their real success, as the
possession, the culture, the control, of imagination.
The terms imagination and fancy were once practically equivalent. The latter, as shown by the old spelling
phantsy, is a corruption of the Greek term phantasy, which
was afterwards reintroduced in its longer form, and assigned
by usage to special senses. (Compare palsy and paralysis,
and several other cases.) Addison said that he used the
words imagination and fancy indiscriminately.* At the
present time some writers, particularly Ruskin, are disposed
to claim that there are two distinct faculties of the mind,
which they would denote by these two terms. The more
common, and apparently the more correct opinion is, that
what we call imagination and fancy are but different forms
and modes of exercise of the same faculty. We call it fancy
when playing on the iaere surface of things, imagination
when penetrating to the heart, the essence; fancy when
sportive or cold, imagination when passionate, or at least
serious. Imagination "cannot be but serious; she sees too
far, too darkly, too solemnly, too earnestly, ever to smile.
There is something in the heart of everything, if we can reach
* Fleming, Vocab. of Phil., p. 194.
396 
RELATION TO ELOQUENCE.
it, that we shall not be inclined to laugh at. The' innumerable laughter' of the sea is on its surface, not in the deep."*
1. Imagination is employed by the orator in the construction of discourse. To give familiar materials any fresh
interest, they must be brought into new combinations; and
to form a discourse at all, the materials must be made into
a complete and symmetrical structure. Piles of bricks and
lumber and sand are as much a house, as the mere piling
up of thoughts will constitute a discourse. The builder, of
palace or of cabin, works by constructive imagination; and
it is the same faculty that builds a speech. In fact imagination, the -wonder-worker, does much more than this. It is
only a lower imagination that takes fragments of material,
and builds them, each fragment preserving its individuality, into a new structure; high, intense imagination fuses
the materials, reduces them to their natural elemei-ts, and
forms of them a structure possessing complete unity.  The
one process is a new composition of fragments; the other a
new organization of elements. The one cements the materials together, or at best welds them together; the other
makes them grow together, by furnishing a principle of
vitality which takes up the analyzed material and organizes
Ruskin, Modern Painters, Vol. II, p.166.  On imagination in
general, see especially Hamilton's Metaphysics, and, still better as
to this subject, Porter on the Human  Intellect.  Ruskin, as just
quoted. has an extended discussion, of great value to public speakers.
See also Wordsworth's preface to his Poems. A good lecture by
McCosh, on the Imagination, its Use and Abuse, has been republished
as a tract by the Amer. Tr. Soc.  The practical uses of imagination
are pleasantly discussed in the Contemporary Review, Sept., 1869.
Very little is known to have been written on the relations of imagination to eloquence.  There is an address by Haven on "theProvince
of Imagination in Sacred Oratory," in Bibl. Sacra, Jan. 1867, or in
his Studies in Philosophy and Theology, 1869.  The subject would
reward thorough study, and admits of much interesting and suggestive illustration.
34
397 
IMAGINATION, IN ITS
it according to new laws. Imagination does not create
thought; but it organizes thought into forms as new as the
equestrian statue of bronze is unlike the metallic ores when
they lay in the mine. This constructing, fashioning, organ izing function of the imagination is exercised in forming
a poem, or a story, but still more in forming a discourse,
where there is far greater need of unity, symmetry, and
adaptation to a specific design.
And not only is it needed in constructing discourses, but
every paragraph, yea every sentence, is properly a work of
imagination, a work of art. The painter, sculptor, architect,
does not fashion merely the general'outline of his work, and
leave the details to chance. The whole is but the parts
taken together. Each part must have a certain completeness in itself, and yet must be in itself incomplete, being
but a fragment of one whole. So must it be in the construction of discourse.
2. If, as Porter says, "to invent or discover, is always to
recombine, to adjust in new positions objects or parts of
objects which have never been so connected before," *
then imagination has no little to do with the invention of
thought. What are its precise functions in this respect,
students of psychology have not yet settled. There can be
no doubt that it does somehow aid us in penetrating to the
heart of a subject, and developing it from within; that
it thus assists the work of original analysis, as well as that
of exposition; though Ruskin's theory of "the penetrative
imagination" is, as he virtually confesses, uncertain and
obscure.
3. The orator uses imagination in the production of
images.  Often the idea he wishes to present can itself be
converted into an image. Imagination thus gives the
masses of thought a definite shape, a clear-cut outline, and
* On the Human Intellect, ~ 364.
t Modern Painters, Vol. 11, p. 160 if.
398 
RELATION TO ELOQUENCE.
sometimes makes them stand out as in a stereoscopic picture.
This exciles the imagination of another, and thus affects
his feelings.  Objects of sense affect the feelings most
powerfully, and images more closely resemble objects of
sense than do mere ideas. Thus if, instead of dwelling
upon the idea of benevolence, we bring forward the image
of a benevolent man or a benevolent action, it is much
more affecting.*
And whether the particular idea can or cannot be converted into an image, we may associate with it, may group
around it, by resemblance or analogy, or by contrast, some
other idea or ideas which can be formed into images, and
which will reflect their light and splendor upon the thought
in hand.  This is Illustration, with all its power not only
to gratify the taste, but to assist comprehension, to carry
conviction, and to awaken emotion.
It is thus mainly through imagination that we touch the
feelings, and thereby bring truth powerfully to bear upon
the will, which is the end and the very essence of eloquence.
And on the other hand passion kindles imagination. Love,
for instance, will cause the dullest mind to give forth some
sparks of imagination.  Anger, overwhelming grief; passionate supplication, will often struggle to express itself
by means of the boldest images. Thus imagination and
passion continually act and react, causing the one to glow
more brightly and the other to grow fiercer in its blaze.
4. Another use of imagination, though not wholly distinct from the last, is in realizing and depicting what the
Scriptures reveal. We have already noticed how much
of the Bible consists of narrative, and how important it is
that the preacher should be able vividly to describe its
scenes and events.t "Historical imagination," in repro
ducing the past, is one of the favorite ideas of our day.
* Comp. Part I, chap. 8, on Application.
t See Part I, chap. 5, ] 1.
399 
IMAGINATION, IN ITS
In the exercise of it great care must be taken that it sliall
be directed and controlled by thorough knowledge of the
times reproduced, and true sympathy with their spirit, or
we shall carry back our own experiences and our modern
conceptions, and make, as historical description often has
made, an utterly erroneous representation. But with this
caution, historical imagination may be declareds indispensable, not only to description of Scripture history, but to
the just comprehension of the whole system of doctrine
and duty, for all rests upon a basis of fact. Controversialists, for example, often greatly err, from failing to realize
the circumstances of the primitive age, and thus misconceiving the precise aim of many a lesson or observance.
And not only as to the past. Imagination is requisite
if we are justly to conceive and vividly to realize the
Scripture revelations concerning the unseen world and
the eternal future. Faith believes these revelations, and
imagination, aroused by faith and called into its service,
makes the things unseen and eternal a reality to the mind,
so that they affect the feelings almost like objects of sense,
and become a power in our earthly life. It may also to some
extent fill out the Bible pictures of the unseen world, by
following the analogies of this world; but there is here
demanded a moderation and reserve, a care in distinguishing between the revealed and the supposed, which in some
books and many sermons are sadly wanting.
~ 2. MEANS OF CULTIVATING THE IMAGINATION.
If this faculty has so much to do with the construction
and style, and even with inventing the materials of discourse, it becomes a matter of very high importance that
preachers should employ the best means of giving it
thorough cultivation, and bringing it under complete
control.
400 
RELATION TO ELOQUENCE.
1. Certain mnoral qualities and habits greatly promote
the noblest uses of imagination.  We have seen that the
highest imagination is essentially serious. Habitual frivol
ity, in an individual or a people, will prevent the appreciation and the exercise of this exalted faculty.   "
suppose the chief bar to the action of imagination, and
stop to all greatness in this present age of ours, is its mean
and shallow love of jest and jeer, so that if there be in
any good and lofty work a flaw or failing, or undipped
vulnerable part where sarcasm may stick or stay, it is caught
at, and pointed at, and buzzed about, and fixed upon, and
stung into, as a recent wound is by flies, and nothing is
ever taken seriously nor as it was meant, but always, if it
may be, turned the wrong way, and misunderstood; and
while this is so, there is not, nor cannot be any hope of
achievement of high things; men dare not open their hearts
to us, if we are to broil them on a thorn fire..... We have
seen that imagination is in no small degree dependent on
acutei,)ess of moral emotion-in fact, all. moral truth can
only thus be apprehended; and it is observable, generally,
that all true emotion is imaginative, both in conception and
expression; and that the mental sight becomes sharper with
every full beat of the heart; and therefore all egotism, and
selfish care, or regard, are, in proportion to their constancy,
destructive of imagination; whose play and power depend
altogether on our being able to forget ourselves and enter
like possessing spirits into the bodies of things about us."
Besides, as ".the life of imagination is in the discovering
of truth," it will be independent, superior to praise or
blame. "Sympathy it desires - but can do without; of
opinions it is regardless, not in pride, but because it has no
vanity, and is conscious of a rule of action and object of
aim in which it cannot be mistaken; partly, also, in pure
energy of desire and longing to do and to invent more
and more, which suffer it not to suck the sweetness of praise
34*
401 
IMAGINATION, IN ITS
unless a little, with the end of the rod in its hand, and
without pausing in its mnarch."
These earnest utterances of Ruskin * relate originally
to painting; but they require very slight modification to
apply to oratory, and especially to preaching, where passionate love of truth and lofty earnestness of soul are so
eminently appropriate.
2. Imagination is awakened and invigorated by communion with nature.  A certain indefinable sympathy exists,
by a law of our being, between external nature and ourselves. Its forms and hues have a meaning for us more
subtle than language conveys, and excite in us strange
longings and kindlings of soul, till we idealize all we
behold. And our thoughtful observation of nature may
be quickened and exalted by science.   The systematic
study of minerals, vegetables, animals, reveals to us new
and wonderful things, teaches us to read, where we had not
seen it before, the handwriting of our God. Geology acquaints us with ea rtli's mighty past, Astronomy introduces
us to the ever widening and brightening glories of the
wonder-crowded universe, till the "music of the spheres"
attains for us a sublime, orchestral grandeur, an unearthly
sweetness, a wealth of precious meaning, which the wise
Greek never knew. We need not now to people all natural
objects with unseen, half-human creatures, nor need we lose
ourselves in the vagueness of pantheism; our personality
may everywhere indulge its longing for communion with a
person, we may find in all nature the personal God. - But
words are here vain. If we wish for power of imagination,
let us observe, contemplate, commune with nature.
3. Art and Literature may greatly aid us. s Nature is by
most of us very imperfectly understood and appreciated
till interpreted to us by the poet or the artist. Perhaps
we grew up amid glorious mountains, or beside the nmany           * Modern Painters, Vol. II, p. 166, 186.
402' 
RELATION TO ELOQUENCE.
sounding sea, and yet little knew their meaning, little felt
their inspiration, till some high-priest of nature had taught
us, by the pen or the pencil, how to behold and comprehend
and sympathize.
Sculpture, painting, architecture, have a strange power
to develop the imagination in general, and sometimes to
stimulate it for particular efbforts, and they can be devoid of
interest to none who possess this faculty in even a moderate
degree. When Andrew Fuller stopped suddenly amid the
architectural glories of Cambridge, and proposed to his
guide to go home and discuss with him the doctrine of
justification, he betrayed that deficiency of imagination
which is conspicuous in the structure and the style of his
otherwise admirable sermons. There is many a preacher
who could tell how some picture, perhaps casually looked
at, has helped him in making a sermon; there is many a
one utterly unable to tell how much the general study of
works of art has contributed to develop his inlagination.*
In our country few have any considerable opportunity
for beholding the most inspiring works of art.t But the
poets are accessible to all, and they are here our chief
teachers. They see the analogies of external nature to moral
and religious truth as most of us cannot; and they open up
to us unknown depths in our own nature. From them we
may learn how to observe and compare, how to depict and
interpret; though we must not forget that they aim mainly
to please, while we must subordinate everything to spiritual
profit, and that such difference of aim should lead to great
difference of method. And it is not of necessity those poets
who seem to the general reader to show most ilnagination,
but those who most kindle our imagination, that will in
*See some good thoughts in McCosh's Lecture, p. 39 if.
t Many suggestive ideas of art may be derived from Ruskin's
various works, and much useful information on the subject from
Samson's Elements of Art-Criticism (Philadelphia, Lippincott).
403 
IMAGINATION, IN irs
this respect be most useful. Thus Wordsworth and the
Brownings are much more profitable than Tom Moore and
the poems of Scott. We must seek by effort of our own
imagination to conceive the poet's image, if we are to have
not mere entertainment but improvement; and he is for us
the best poet who awakens our imagination, gives it general
direction, stimulates it by some of the most suggestive details,
and leaves it to do all the rest for itself. That is to say, in
order to the benefit here proposed, we must study poetry.
There is much highly imaginative prose which has a
similar value.  Novel-reading, while well known to injure
many, would if properly managed be to some preachers
exceedingly profitable, in respect to imagination and literary
taste. As a rule, one should read only the very best works
of the very best novelists; and he should never read two
novels in succession, but always put between them several
works of a very different kind. And there is often more to
be learned from a novel, if at an early period we turn over
and find out how the story will end, or if we deliberately
examine one previously read. Goethe, Edgar Poe, and
many others, have given us imaginative writings not properly called tales, which may in like maniner be profitable.
Some of the historians powerfully appeal to and exercise
the imagination of their readers; for example, Macaulay
and Motley. And the great orators and preachers present
to us imagination operating in precisely those methods with
which we are most concerned. If one wishes to stimulate
in himself the desire for affluence of imaginative diction,
let him read Plato, Cicero, Chrysostom, Jeremy Taylor,
Milton, Burke, Chalmers; if he wishes to chasten himself
into a more sober and regulated use of imagination, so that
it shall be duly subordinated to other faculties, let him read
Demosthenes, Tacitus, Daniel Webster, Robert Hall. In
general it must be remembered that here, as elsewhere,
appetite is not always a sure guide.
404 
RELATION TO ELOQUENCE.
4. After all, the great means of cultivating imagination,
as is the case with all our faculties, is actual exercise. The
excessive display of second-rate imagination which some
men make so offensive, drives other men to the opposite
extreme, so that they shrink from illustration and imagery
where they are really needful, and never stop to consider
how numerous and varied and surpassingly important are
the functions of this much-abused faculty. Let a man
freely exercise imagination, in constructing and inventing,
in picturing and illustrating, in reproducing the past and
giving vivid reality to the unseen world; but let him everywhere exercise it under the control of sound judgment and
good taste, and above all of devout feeling and a solemn
sense of responsibility to God.
405
I 
PART IV.
DELIVERY OF SERMONS.
CHAPTER I.
THE THREE METHODS OF PREPARATION AND
DELIVERY. *
1. READING.  ~ 2. RECITATION.  ~ 3. EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING.
Q 4. HISTORY OF THE THREE METHODS.  ~ 5. GENERAL AND SPE CIAL PREPARATION FOR EXTEMPORIZING.
EADING, reciting, extemporaneous speaking,- which
is the best method of preaching?  Though so often
discussed, this question constantly recurs, not merely for
the young preachers whom every year brings forward, but
for many of maturer age, who are not satisfied that they
have been pursuing the wisest course. It is a question
affecting not only one's manner of delivery, but his whole
method of preparation, and in fact all his habits of thought
and expression. While not so indispensable a condition
of usefulness as that a man shall hold the truth, or that he
shall love his work, or that he shall be a born speaker, it
is surely a matter of very great importance to one whose
* Among the numerous discussions of this subject, attention is
directed to those of Ware (in Ripley), Fenelon, Palmer, Coquerel,
Kidder, Skinner, and Hoppin. See above, Introduction, ~ 7, on
the Literature of Homiletics.
406
I 
THE THREE METHODS, ETC.
best energies through life are devoted to preaching, that
he should study and speak in the most effective way.
We can only inquire which method is generally best.
No one of the three can be properly set forth as exclusive.
For a process so complex as that of preparing and delivering a sermon, a process embracing such a multitude of
diverse and variable elements, it ought to be manifest
beforehand that only general rules can be determined.
And in such an inquiry particular cases will commonly
prove nothing. Some men have, spoken with great power
who could not write a word. Even now, when the art of
writing is so generally diffused, we may hear preachers,
both white and colored, who are, ill some important respects,
highly effective, while quite unequal to the merely mechanical task of writing a discourse. Among those who handle
the pen with ease, there are men, self educated, who have
become popular and really powerful preachers, who find
written composition very difficult, because they have never
practised it, nor in any wise trained themselves to it. Spurgeon speaks very strongly, in the preface to his first book,
of the drudgery and difficulty of composition, as compared
with the ease and rapture of free speech. The one had
become familiar to him, the other was new and irksome.
What wonder, if on the other hand, we find many whose
whole training and practice has been in writing, and for
whom it is difficult and apparently impossible to speak
what has not been written. Moreover, men of high talent
can speak effectively in any way. Luther laid on his
back, bound hand and foot, would have preached impressively. The rude drayman refuses to believe that it lessens
a horse's power of draught to rein him tightly, because
he has a very strong horse which can pull immense loads
when reined.  We call him foolish, and in regard to other
questions reason in the same fashion.  Each of the methods
of preaching'has been and is now employed by some men
407 
THE THREE METHODS OF
with admirable effect.  Something in the subject or the
circumstances may at times render it advisable to adopt
a different method from that generally employed. Some
ministers may be compelled to pursue one or another by
their very peculiar constitution, or by the confirmed habits
of a long life. But which is generally best?
Great extravagance is frequently to be observed in the
discussion of this question, on all sides. For example,
some will say that reading a sermon is not preaching at
all. Those who argue against extemporaneous preaching very often speak as if it meant preaching without any
preparation. Of course the proper thing to be done is
calmly to consider the advantages and disadvantages, so far
as they can be exbibited, of each method, and thus decide
which is to be preferred.
~ 1. READING.
1. To write sermons and read them, is a method which
has obviously some important  &dvantages.  These exist
both with reference to preparation, to delivery, and to the
preacher's usefulness in other respects.
(1.) Writing greatly assists the work of preparation,
by rendering it easier to fix the mind upon the subject.
Mental application is facilitated by any appropriate bodily
action, and men who do not write often find it necessary to
walk the floor, or, as was the habit of Schleiermacher, to
lean out of a window for hours, or in general to assume
some constrained posture or perform some regularly recurring act. Now writing involves a high degree of that control of body which so contributes to control of the mind,
and has at the same time the advantage of possessing a
closer natural relation to thought than any other act except speaking itself. Indeed every one knows how greatly
writing tends to keep the thoughts from wandering.
(2.) Besides, writing a sermon compels to greater
408 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.
completeness of preparation. He who prepares witl.h,ut
writing, may, and as a rule ought to, follow out all the
developments and expansions of his thoughts as far as
the discourse is to carry them; but he who writes must do
this, is compelled to it.
(3.) Still further, writing serves to secure, in several
respects, greater excellence of style. As a general thing,
unwritten speech cannot equal that which is written, in
grammatical correctness, in precision, conciseness, smoothness, and rhetorical finish.  These are highly important
properties of style, and particularly with respect to the
demands of some audiences, occasions, or subjects. Thus,
if one is discussing a controverted point of doctrine, in the
presence of persons ready to misunderstand or misrepresent
him, it is even more than usually desirable that his language should be precise and unmistakable. Some hearers
are very fastidious as to the preacher's finish of style.  His
language, as well as his manner of delivery and his dress,
must he cornmme ilfaut, or they will have nothing to do with
him. Such fastidiousness may not deserve any high respect, but of course it should not be needlessly disregarded.
And sermons on all occasion of academic or other specially
literary interest, are commonly and naturally expected to
possess an unusual degree of flowing smoothness and elegant
finish. The preacher himself, too, especially the young
preacher of fine literary cultivation, is apt to be sensitive
as to the minute faults of style; and writing enables him
better to meet the demands of his own taste.
(4.) As regards the delivery of the sermon, this method
has the advantage of placing the preacher  more at his
ease, both befbre and during the delivery.   Having the
sermon written, he will be preserved, and knows that he
will be, from any utter and mortifying failure.  It is a
great relief to eseape the tremulous and often distressing
anxiety which one is apt otherwise to feel. The preacher
3.5 - -
409 
THE THRiE E METHODS OF
who means to read, has a far better chance to sleep soundly
on Saturday night.  It is also an advantage to be collected
and confident while delivering the sermon, rather than
oppressed by nervous solicitude, or driven wild by uncontrollable excitement. Some preachers find that reading
saves them from an excessive volubility, or an extreme
vehemence which otherwise they find it hard to control;
and very many fear that without the manuscript they would
be utterly crushed by the dread of breaking down.
Besides, writing sermons tends to promote the preacher's
usefulness in several other respects.
(5.) The written discourse can be used on subsequent
occasions without the necessity of renewed preparation,
and thus frequently saves a good deal of time and labor.
(6.) The sermons remain for publication, if ever that
should be desirable.  Many a truly great preacher, and
widely useful in his day, has left but a fading, vanishing
name, while some contemporary of perhaps no greater
ability, but who wrote his discourses, is still known and still
useful. For example, compare Fenelon with Bourdaloue.
(7.) And then the practice gives facility in writing,
which in our day is a highly important means of usefulnless.  The successful preacher has now many opportunities to publish, and it is apt to become a sort of reproach
to him, diminishing his influence, if he is not sometimes
heard from through the press.
2. To write and read has thus a number of advantages,
some of them decidedly important. What, now, are its
disadvantages?
(1.) If writing aids in thinking, it is apt to render one
largely dependent on such assistance. Especially objectionable is the fact that this practice accustoms the preacher
to think connectedly only as fast as he can write, vwhen it
is more natural and m re convenient that a man should
think as fast as he can talk.
410 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.
(2.) And if writing compels th( preacher to go over the
ground more completely, it is not always done more thoroughly. The thinking is more extensive, but may be less
intensive. Being obliged to run over the surface everywhere, the preacher may go beneath it nowhere. If many
sermons are spoken with very superficial preparation, so
with very superficial preparation are many sermons written.
There is an immense amount of strictly extemporaneous
writing. People are apt to think that what is written and
read must have been carefully prepared, but they are often
egregiously mistaken. A highly popular preacher once
said,- of course half as a jest,- that he was so frequently
compelled to get up his sermons hastily, as to make it indispensable that he should write, in order to give them at least
the appearance of careful preparation.
(3.) Akin to this last is the disadvantage of consuming so
much time in the merely mechanical effort of writing,
time which might often be more profitably spent upon the
thoughts of the discourse, or upon the preacher's general
improvement. True, the extemporaneous speaker, in his
earlier efforts, needs to spend no less time, but rather more
in preparation; but if laborious at the outset, his power of
working out the details will rapidly increase, and the time
necessary for this become much less, while the writer must
as long as he lives spend a number of hours in the task of
writing. Now the pastors of large churches in this country
are often, indeed commonly, expected to do the work of
several different men. Their whole time might be usefully
spent in pastoral visiting, and some folks would complain
of them after all.  Their work on committees and boards,
in attending public meetings, and helping to push forward
all manner of benevolent enterprises, together with the
exercise of hospitality to visiting Irethren, makes heavy
drafts upon their time. The wide and varied knowledge
which many churches expect their iastors to exhibit, the
411
I 
THE THREE METHODS OF
supply of fresh material for argument, illust: atioo, and
application, so as to meet the constant demands of their
position without becoming exhausted and commonplace,
can be obtained only by giving much time to reading and
reflection. And now, with all this upon them, here are
two, frequently three sermons a week to provide, when if
elaborate discourses are wanted, it would be much more
reasonable to give two weeks to one sermon, than to expect
,two sermons in one week. How in the world preachers
get through all this, is a mystery even to most of those
who accomplish it. Generally, indeed, they do not get
through it all. They do those things which their circumstances, opinions, or habits lead them to think most important or most pressing, and the remaining departments of
the expected work are, except in the case of very remarkable men, inevitably more or less neglected. Aniong all the
causes of those frequent ministerial changes which are so
generally observed and deplored, perhaps none are so
potent as the fact that pastors are expected to do more
than they find practicable.  Harassed, disappointed after
many new schemes and efforts, and finally despairing, because he cannot study and improve himself; or cannot compass the needful pastoral work, or cannot avoid serious
damage to his health, the preacher receives a call to a new
field, and hoping that by a judicious use of former preparations, hlie may there find time for the duties he has seemed to
himself to be so sadly neglecting, he goes. These changes
often show faults of many kinds to exist in various quarters.  But most of all they show that our pastors are overburdened.  In such a state of things it becomes  a very
serious matter that a preacher should condemn himself, for
life, to spend every week six, eight, twelve hours in mnerely
Mwriting out each of two sermons, and that when by far the
most important and difficult portion of his preparation,.he
selection of text and subject, interpretation, invention of
412 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.
materials, and arrangement of the discourse, ought to have
been completed before he begins to write.
(4.) Again, this method compels the preacher to follow
out that plan of the discourse which he originally adopted,
though in the course of preparation it may become evident
that another plan would be much better. This must be
a very frequent experience, especially when the writing
begins before the plan has been very well matured. Who
has not found, when more than half through his preparation, that thirdly ought to be firstly, or even that.there had
better be a different mode of stating the subject, with a
corresponding modification of the whole treatment? How
often will tired and hurried human nature endure to throw
away all that has been written, and begin anew? Moreover, if haste or negligence in the preparation has produced
faults of detail, most readers.find it very difficult to correct
these in the course of delivery, however clearly they may
then be perceived.
(5.) This method also deprives the preacher's thinking
of the benefit of all that mental quickening which is produced by the presence of the congregation. As to thoughts
which are then for the first time struck out, it is true that
men of rare flexibility, tact and grace can often introduce
them effectively in connection with their reading. But
such men establish no general rule, and the great mass of
those who read have to lose such thoughts altogether, or to
introduce them awkwardly and with comparatively poor
effect. And besides the distinct thoughts which occur only
in the act of delivery, there is something much more
important in the warmer color which the now kindled and
glowing mind would give to the whole body of thought, in
those differences of hue and tone which change the mass
of prepared material into living, breathing, burning speech.
Y nider stand the autumn trees, with their many colors all
dull and tame beneath the ashen sky; but presently the
35*
413 
THE THREE METHODS OF
evening sun bursts through the clouds, and lights up the
forest with an almost unearthly glory. Not less great is
the difference between preparation and speech, for every
one who was born to be a speaker. Now whatever of this
concerns the mere mode of utterance, the reader may to
some extent achieve. But all that belongs to the transfigured conception, to the changed color and heightened
tone of expression, which in free speaking would show
itself with ease and completeness, all this he can but partially feel, and is powerless to manifest. It is true, as we
are sometimes told, that by an effort of imagination when
composing, one may to some extent bring before his mind
the congregation, and feel by anticipation the quickening
of its presence; but there are few respects in which imagination falls so far below the actual experience.
(6.) As to delivery itself, reading is of necessity less
effective, and in most cases immensely less effective, for
all the great purposes of oratory, than speaking. Greater
coldness of manner is almost inevitable. If one attempts
to be very animated or pathetic, it will look unnatural.
The tones of voice are monotonous, or have a forced variety.
The gestures are nearly always unnatural, because it is not
natural to gesticulate much in reading; and they scarcely
ever raise us higher than to feel that really this Man reads
almost like speaking. The mere turning of the pages,
however skilfully done, breaks the continuity of delivery.
In the midst, perhaps, of some impassioned passage, while
the preacher's face glows, his action bas become varied and
passionate, and he has wrought us up to a high degree of
sympathy with him, presently his right hand descends and
fli,ngs over a leaf, and the spell is broken; we are made to
remember what we are doing, are reminded that, after all,
this is not living speech, but only splendid reading, - that
we are not, as a moment ago we seemed to feel, in immediate
and fully sympathizing contact with the burning soul of
414 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.
the speaker, but "that paper there" is between us.  Consider, too, that the most potent element in the delivery of a
real orator is often the expressiveness of the eye. No man
can describe this; he cannot fully recall it afterwards, and
at the moment he is too completely under its influence to
think of analyzing and explaining it. But every man has
felt it, -the marvellous, magical, at times almost superlhuman power of an orator's eye. That look, how it pierces
our inmost soul, now kindling us to passion, now melting
us into tenderness. And all the better that it is not felt
as a thing apart firom speech, but blends with it more
thoroughly than gesture can, more completely than music
blends with poetry, and reinforces, with all its mysterious
potency, the power of thought and sentiment and sound.
Now in reading, this wonderful expressiveness of the eye is
interrupted, grievously diminished in power, reduced to be
nothing better than occasional sunbeams, breaking out for
a moment among wintry clouds.
In a word, reading is an essentially different thing fromn
speaking. When well executed, reading has a power of its
own, but it is unnatural to substitute it for speaking, and
it can at best only approximate, never fully attain, the
same effect.
(7.) It should be added, that reading is more injurious
to the voice. Any one who is so unfortunate as to have
become subject to laryngitis, will soon find that he can
speak with much less fatigue than he can read.  This shows
a natural difference, though persons whose vocal organs are
not diseased may not notice it. There are several causes
which combine to produce the "minister's sore-throat,"
which is so comnion.*  The practice of reading sermons is
by no means the principal one, but there can be no doubt
that it has some effect.
(8.) That the habit of reading should make one afraid
See below, chap. 2.
415
4 
THE THREE METHODS OF
to attempt speaking without a manuscript, is not a necessary consequence. Every enlightened defender of reading
would urge that the preacher ought to practice himself in
unwritten speech also, and thus be able to speak when sud denly called on; and certainly there are men who habitually read, and yet upon occasion can extemporize very
effectively.  Yet the manifest tendency, and the common
result of habitual reading, is to make one dependent and
timid; and such preachers often miss opportunities of doing
good, and are sometimes made ridiculous by their inability
to preach from not having "brought along any sermons."
Such a slavish and helpless dependence upon manuscript is
almost universally felt to be painful, if not pitiful.  For
this and other reasons, uniform reading is very seldom advocated, though still often practiced in some quarters.
3. The advantages and disadvantages of reading sermons
having been considered, a few suggestions may now be
offered to those who adopt this method.
If you read, do not try to disguise the fact.  Coquerel
remarks that all the artifices practiced for this purpose,
"have bad grace and little success.  If one reads in the
pulpit, it is better to read openly and boldly, taking no
other pains than to have a manuscript easily legible and
properly smoothed down on the front oi' the pulpit; then,
to turn the leaves without affecting a disguise, which is useless and unbecoming. We may be certain that the hearers
are not deceived in this respect; they always know when
an orator is reading." *
But more. Do not attempt to convert the reading into
speaking.  The two are, as already said, essentially difforent.  Is it possible for a man to speak as if he were
reading?  Let it be tried, and he who comes nearest to
success will most effectually spoil his speaking. But on
the other hand, is it really possible to read as if you were
Coquerel, p. 177.
4k
416 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.  417
speaking?  Schoolmasters often tell their boys, "Read it
j ist as if you were talking;" and the efort to do this may
help to cure the school-boy sing-song, by making the reading more like talking. But in fact, no one can read precisely as he talks, and no one ought to. As regards private
reading and private conversation, probably no considerate
person will deny thisessential difference. Is it not similarly
and equally true as regards public reading and public
speaking? Reading before a large audience will, of course,
differ from quiet reading to a few persons; and where the
matter read is preceptive or hortatory, something which we
personally desire to impress upon the hearers, this also will
give a peculiar character to the reading. But still it is
reading. The attempt to convert it into speaking is against
nature, must fail, and'ought to fail.  "It seems to us that
when a preacher, for whatever reason, reads his sermon,
then instead of wishing to produce the appearance of free
speaking, which is always in some measure an attempt at
deception, he should make it his aimn to read well; somewhat as when one with warmth and interest reads to his
family a printed discourse." To this view of the German
writer, Palmer, we should say, Yes, somewhat; but with
the difference naturally produced by the fact that you are
reading to a large assembly, and reading what intensely
interests yourself. Palmer proceeds:
"To hear a good thing well read, is always a pleasure.
But instead of this, one man gives himself no trouble with
his reading, but drawls out the contents of his manuscript with monotonous indifference and tediousness. This
is revolting. But another falls into the opposite extreme.
Feeling that reading is a fault, he wishes to make amends
by declaiming his sermon with a powerful pathos.  This
makes a contrary impression, for the more exaggerated the
declamation and action in the case, the more glaring the
co,trast produced bv the extremely prosaic act of looking 
THE THREE- METHODS OF
into the manuscript. He who is so terribly in earnest with
what he is saying, ought also, people think, to know what
he wants to say; his zeal ought, as is everywhere else the
case, to put words into his mouth. A modest, quiet, but
expressive reading, would be more appropriate."*
We add again, that the reading may sometimes become
very earnest, even if not impassioned, but it must still be
reading. Let not the reader try to assume postures, gestures, or looks, such as he thinks would be appropriate to
one speaking these words. To do so is not natural, it is
to be an actor; and acting, however skilful and however
much admired, is in the pulpit a crime, - and, as the diplomatists say, not only a crime, but worse, a blunder.  Nay,
let the reader know that he is reading; let him mean to
read, and mean to have everybody' understand that he is
reading; and then let him try to read well, so as to impress
the truth upon his hearers, and do them good. The observance of this distinction may also solve the much discussed
question, whether it is well for one who reads to interpolate
unwritten passages. If he attempts to do this without having the difference observed, it will fail. Alexander says:
"The whole train of operations is different in reading or
reciting a discourse and in pronouncing it extempore. If
I may borrow a figure from engines, the mind is geared
dliffererntly. No man goes from one track to the other without a painful jog at the'switch.' And this is, I suppose,
the reason why Dr. Chalmers.... cautions his students
against every attempt to mingle reading with free speaking.... It requires the practice of years to dovetail al
extemporaneous paragraph gracefully into a written sermon." t This is true where one wishes the two to sound
alike. But if his reading does not profess nor attempt to
be speaking, but simply reading, then he may, wherever
*Palmer, Hom. p. 526-7.
t Thoughts on Preaching, p. 142.
.418 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.
there is occasion, introduce something unwritten, either in
the familiar tone appropriate to some additional illustration or remark, or even in the outburst of some impassioned
appeal. It will be distinct from the reading, but this may
give variety; and the reading need not seem flat when he
returns to it, because it did not profess to be speaking.
This is in fact the practice of many skilful readers of sermons, though it may not be their theory; nature often
triumphs over wrong theory, and leads men to read simply
as earnest reading, and then to diverge, when they see proper, into speaking as a distinct thing. If those who read
sermons would settle it well in their minds that reading is
not speaking, and cannot be converted into it, and would
give nature free play in their reading, the advantages of
this method would remain intact, and its disadvantages
would be considerably diminished. Whether, even then,
reading can be made as impressive, in general, as wellprepared speaking, is another question. The remark may
be added, that where defective vision, or bad light, or a low
pulpit makes the reading difficult, it would be better just
quietly to hold up the manuscript, so that it can be seen.
If the pages are separate, and not too large, this can be
done without awkwardness; and if the people see that the
preacher does not pretend to be speaking, but reads with a
straightforward simplicity, they will rather like his openness, and at any rate will in a few minutes grow used to
what at first looked odd.
If any one objects to all this, and insists that it is neces sary, whether from' the nature of the case or from the
notions and feelings of the people, to keep the manuscript
out of sight, and make the reading look as much as possible
like speaking; then he is in fact saying what has not been
said in this discussion, that a preacher ought never to read
sermons at all.
419 
THE THREE METHODS OF
~ 2. RECITATION, -TO WRITE AND REPEAT FR()M
MEMORY.
1. This has all the advantages of the first method, as
regards more complete and finished preparation, practice
in writing, and possession of the sermon for subsequent use
and for publication. There is here, however, no preserva tion from utter failure, and from the dread of failure,
but quite the contrary. It has two advantages which the
former method does not possess. To recite one's own com position is really one kind of speaking, - and we have
seen that reading is not. To recite is speaking under difficulties and disadvantages, but it is speaking. It is not
against nature to treat it as such, nor impossible to make
it approximate somewhat closely to the excellence and
power of well-prepared free speech. The other advantage
is, that recitation cultivates the memory.   Any real improvement of the memory is certainly a matter of great
value; men who habitually recite must always gain benefit
in this respect, and with some, the results are remarkable.
It must not be forgotten, however, that while recitation is
in this superior to reading, it is not superior to extemporaneous speaking; for the power of verbal memorizing is
really less valuable than the ability to retain ideas with
only such of the words as are essential to their precise
expression.
2. As to disadvantages, recitation labors under many of
those which attend upon reading. There is here still less
opportunity for correcting errors observed at the moment
of delivery, for interpolating thoughts which then for the
first time occur, or for giving new shape and color to the
bhoughts, and new force to the expressions, under the excitemtnent of actual speaking. The mind is apt to be all in
shackles, having little use for any of its faculties except
memory. In the exercise of this, there is often a confusion
420 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.
of local with what might be called logical memory; the
recollection of what comes next on the page, and that of
the connection of thought, though sometimes aiding each
other, will at other times become confused and distractinig.
There is also with this method a still greater consumption
of time in preparation.  He who adopts it has not only to
prepare the materials and form the plan of the discourse,
as must be done upon any method, and not only to spend
many hours in writing it out in fill, as the reader also
must do, but to give other hours, and with most men not a
few, to the task of memorizing.  For one who preaches
two or three times a week to write and memorize all his
sermons, is, if not impossible, certainly incompatible with
patient and profound thinking in preparation, with wide
general improvement, and with the proper performance of
a pastor's other duties. The painful dread of failure is
also a very serious objection to recitation, a dread from
which the preacher can for no moment be free till the
delivery begins, and which is then only heightened.  For
the extemporaneous speaker, anxiety as to failure may
cause a helpful excitement; but to him who  recites it
brings no benefit, but only distress. We are told that
Bourdaloue would often keep his eyes shut throughout the
sermon; and upon being asked the reason, explained that
he was afraid he might see some occurrence which would
distract his attention, and cause him to forget. In so great
a man this is lamentable, pitiable, - of course it is an
extreme  case.   Furthermore, the delivery of what is
recited must always be more or less artificial. Whatever
may be done with occasional brief passages, such as Lord
Brougham boasted his ability to introduce into an extemporaneous discourse without its being possible for the
auditor to distinguish between them, we question whether
any man could so recite an entire and extended discourse,
-- verbatim recitation, - as to prevent the audience from
421
86 
THE THREE METHODS OF
detecting, especially from feeling the difference.  Certainly
very few can do it, and we are discussing general questions. It is all very well to say that art must conceal
art. We ask earnestly, can art conceal art? Who ever
heard Edward Everett in one of his orations, without
uneasily feeling that it was a splendid unreality, - only
the finished declamation of a magnificent composition.
This was all well enough in a great oration, such as that
on Washington, because then one expects a work of art,
and is satisfied and delighted if the art be consummate.
We readily yielded ourselves to the spell, and were deeply
moved, as we might be by a drama. But when a man is
pleading for the life of his client, or the salvation of his
country, and still more when as an ambassador on behalf
of Christ, he prays men to be reconciled to God, we feel
that all conscious art is out of place.
This method, then, may answer very well, if skilfully
managed, for college addresses, for extraordinary orations,
for any speaking in which art properly forms an important
element. It is to be noticed, moreover, that to make the
delivery as free and unconstrained as is possible for recitation, a mall needs- unless he be one of the few who
possess a wonderful memory -to have ample time for
becoming thoroughly familiar with the discourse. Now
the great French and German preachers who have adopted
this method, usually preached mulch less frequently than
an American pastor, and could afford to spend all necessary
time in making perfectly sure that they had memorized it.
Beside, Louis the Fourteenth's preachers were expected to
produce a work of art, so that artificiality was not objectionable; and in the case of a fervent evangelical preacher,
like Adolphe Monod, it was seldom a real recitation, but
again and again would become free speech from written
preparation. Wherever preacher and hearers are satisfied
with the habitual practice of verbatim recitation, it may
422
0 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.  423
be questioned whether either party deeply feels the reality
of preaching. Sydney Smith's inquiry, "What can be more
ludicrous than an orator delivering stale indignation, and
fervor of a week old?" is not only a keen sarcasm, but
contains an unanswerable argument. He who recites must
either be devoid of indignation and fervor, or else the
'delivery of these must be more or less artificial; and we
repeat that conscious art cannot be tolerated by a preacher,
nor manifest art by a congregation, if they justly appreciate and deeply feel the reality of preaching and hearing.
Of course there may be so much of genuine earnestness in a
really great preacher, as in spite of the inevitable artificiality of manner to make a deep impression; yet even then,
the mode of delivery is a drawback, a serious one, and
most serious precisely where the discourse ought to be most
impressive.
3. But may not a man write out his sermon, and then
speak freely from this written preparation?   Certainly;
some eminent preachers do this, and with the most admirable effect; but that is not recitation. Some of these men
tell us that they do not memorize the discourse at all, in
the sense of making a distinct effort to remember the words,
and yet that they reproduce all the thoughts, and to a great
extent in the same words, that they had written down.
And as already remarked, some of those who memorize,
learn by degrees to break away from recitation, and express
substantially the same thought in very different language.
Now this is a wholly distinct thing from recitation. When
one makes no effort to remember the words, and recalls
them at all only by their association with the ideas he is
seeking to express, the process lacks the essential character
of recitation.  What then is it?  The answer must be that
free speaking from written preparation is only one of the
varieties of what we call extemporaneous speaking.  It may
at first appear absurd to maintain that one may write out a 
THE THREE METHODS OF
sermon in full, then preach extemporaneously, and yet say
very much what he had written, and often in the same
words. Accordingly, Dr. Skinner, to judge from a single
expression in passing, recognizes a fourth distinct method
of speaking, and calls it a reproduction from manuscript.*
But what essential diffbrence is there between this free
speaking from complete written preparation, and speaking
from complete unwritten preparation?  Robert Hall would
pursue long trains of thought without writing, and reproduce them to a great extent in the same words; Cicero
mentions that HIortensius had this power; in fact, many a
man of comparatively humble abilities has sometimes done
likewise. If he were making an effort to repeat the words,
this would be recitation, though without writing. If he
makes no such effort, it is not recitation, whether the preparation were written or unwritten. Now such speaking
from unwritten preparation must, as every one would agree,
be classed as extemporaneous preaching; why not assign to
the same class all free speaking, even where the preparation was in writing? Nor does this leave any shadowy
boundary between the two methods. Though they may
sometimes approach very closely, though a practised speaker
may, like Brougham, pass freely from one to the other, yet
they are separated by a very definite and distinct line.
When one endeavors to repeat the words used in preparation, that is reciting, whether he wrote them down or did
not; and when there is no effort to repeat the words, that is
extemporizing, whether the preparation was partial or complete, purely mental, or written in full.
It may be doubted whether many persons can successfully manage this peculiar variety of extemporaneous speaking. It would seem that only a mind peculiarly constituted. would be capable of freely reproducing what had
Discussions in Theology, p. 144. In another paper, p. 185, he
speaks of this as the be-t form of recitation. 
424 
PREPARATION AND DELIIVERY.
been fully written, without falling into mnere recitation.
But if we are to attain just views as to the methods of
preaching, it is a matter of no small importance to have it
understood where the practice in question really belongs.
~ 3. EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING.
The technical meaning of this expression requires to be
defined. Primarily, of course, it denotes speaking without
preparation, simply from the promptings of the moment.
The colloquial expression for this is speaking "off hand,"
the image being that of shooting without a rest; and the
Germans have a corresponding phrase, speaking "from the
stirrup," as when one shoots on horseback, without dismounting. This popular phraseology is suggestive. By a
natural extension, the phrase extemporaneous speaking is
applied to cases in which there has been preparation of the
thought, however thorough, but the language is left to be
suggested at the moment.  Still further, when notes are
made, as a help to preparation, wheni the plan of the discourse is drawn out on paper, and all the principal points
are stated or suggested, we call it extemporaneous speaking, because all this is regarded only as a means of arranging and recalling the thoughts, and the language is extemporized.. If one to any great extent relics on these notes
for his language, then it is so far a recitation, where the
notes are left at home, and reading, where they are kept
before him in the pulpit; as a general thing, however, this
is not true, and preaching from notes is fairly called extemporaneous. And one step further we go, when, as already
stated, we insist that free speaking, after the discourse has
been written in full as preparation, but without any effoibrt
to repeat the language of the manuscript, shall be called
extemporaneous speaking. We think it has been satisfactorily shown that this last extension of the phrase is proper
86*
.425 
THE THREE METHODS OF
and necessary. And if so, then many eminent men, for
example, Whitfield, who have usually been spoken of as
reciting, were really, in part or in whole, extemporaneous
preachers.
No intelligent man would now propose that preachers
should habitually speak extempore, as regards the matter.
It is true that occasions not unfrequentlv arise which make
it important that they should be able to speak without any
special immediate preparation; but this will be done most
fitly and effectively by those whose habit it is to do otherwise. In truth, the fanatical or slothful men who say that
they never make any preparation, deceive themselves.
Most of what they say has been prepared by saying it many
times before, and its substance was originally borrowed,
whether from books, or from the preaching of others and
from conversation. Except as to single thoughts suggested
at the moment, their minds are led by association of ideas,
even though it be unconsciously, into what they have previously worked out.  Really to extemporize the matter of
preaching is as impracticable as it is improper. And it is
utterly unfair to represent the advocates of extemporaneous
preaching as meaning that men shall preach without preparation.
In presenting the advantages and disadvantages of this
method, there must be some repetition of ideas already
advanced. This is obviously necessary to completeness,
and such matters will now be regarded from a different
point of view.
1. Consider thei, the advantages.
(1.) As regards preparation, this method accustoms one
to think more rapidly, and with less dependence on external
helps, than if he habitually wrote in full.
(2.) It also enables a man to spend his strength chiefly
upon the more difficult or more important parts of the subject. When pressed for time, as must so often be the case
426 
PREPAR ATION A ND DELIVERY.
with a pastor, he can get more thought into the sermon
than if all the time must be spent in hurriedly writing
down what comes uppermost. The choice is in such cases
between extemporizing the language where the thought
has been elaborated, and taking the thought extempore in
order to prepare the language. This really important consideration has been forcibly stated by Wayland: "A large
proportion of our written discourses is prepared in a driving
hurry, late on Saturday night, and sometimes between the
services on the Sabbath; and the thoughts are huddled
together with little arrangement, and less meditation....
If the same time had been spent in earnest thought, would
not the discourse have been more carefully prepared than
by the simple process of writing? "*
(3.) In general, this method saves time, for general
improvement and for other pastoral work. Not at first, to
be sure, for the inexperienced preacher often needs more
time to make thorough preparation for preaching extenmpore, than he would use in writing; but after he has gained
facility and self-reliance, much time may be saved.
(4.) In the act of delivery, the extemporaneous speaker
has immense advantages. With far greater ease and effectiveness than if reading or reciting, he can turn to account
ideas which occur at the time.   Southey says:  "The
salient points of Whitfield's oratory were not prepared
passages; they were bursts of passion, like the jets of a
geyser when the spring is in full play." t Any man who
possesses, even in an humble degree, the fervid oratorical
nature, will find that after careful preparation, some of the
noblest and most inspiring thoughts he ever gains will
come while he is engaged in speaking. If, full of his theme
and impressed with its importance, he presently secures the
interested and sympathizing attention of even a few good
* Ministry of the Gospel, p. 120.
t Quoted by Skinner, p. 146.
427 
THE THREE METHODS OF
l-steners, and the fire of his eyes comes reflected back from
theirs, till electric flashes pass to and fro between them,
and his very soul glows and blazes and flames, -he cannot
fail sometimes to strike out thoughts more splendid and
more precious than ever visit his mind in solitary musing.
(5.) And, as we have before seen, there is a more important gain than the new thoughts elicited.  The whole
mass of prepared material becomes brightened, warmed,
sometimes transfigured, by this inspiration of delivery.
The preacher's language rises, without conscious effort, to
suit the heightened grandeur and beauty of his conceptions;
and, as Everett has expressed it in speaking of Webster,
"the discourse instinctively transposes itself into a higher
key." This exaltation of soul, rising at times to rapture,
can never be fitly described; hut the speaker who does not
in some measure know what it means, was not born to be a
speaker. And great stress should be laid upon the fact that
besides the thoughts which then first occur to the mind,a matter constantly remarked, -there is this effect of far
greater importance produced by delivery, in changing the
form and color, and incalculably augmenting the power of
the thoughts previously prepared.
(6.) Moreover, the preacher can watch the effect as he
proceeds, and purposely alter the forms of expression, as
well as the manner of delivery, according to his own feeling, and that of the audience. Especially in the hortatory
parts of a sermon, which are often the most important
parts, will this adaptation be desirable. If preacher and
hearers have been wrought up to intense excitement, then
it will be proper to use strong figures, impassioned exclamations, and in general to speak the language of passion.
Nothing else would then be natural, and if in such a case
one's language be unfigurative and quiet, it is felt by the
disappointed hearers to be flat and tame, and no vehemence
of mere delivery can supply the deficiency. Still worse is
428 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERS.  429
the effect if feeling has not risen high, and the preacher
comes to language previously prepared which is figurative
and passionate. If now his manner accords, as it ought
always to do, with the actual feeling of himself and his
hearers, there will be a painful incongruity between the
delivery and the style; if he strives to rise to his prepared
language, any partial success in so doing will but put him
out of harmony with the feelings of the audience. Surely
no one can question that this consideration is one of immense importance. What preacher has not often found in
repeating a sermon to another audience, that there was a
difference, and sometimes a very great difference, in the
feeling with which he and his hearers approached the closing exhortation?  A few sentences then, which in conception, style, and delivery strike precisely the right key, will
wonderfully enhance the effect of the whole discourse.
What that right key will be, no man of oratorical nature
can always foretell. Here, then, the reader or reciter must
inevitably fail, while the cultivated extemporaneous speaker
easily and naturally rises or falls to suit the feeling of the
moment.  But some one might reply, "I do not aimn at high
oratorical effects. I am content with more modest efforts."
That of which we speak is constantly practised by some
humble men in prayer-meeting addresses. It is the simple
rhetoric of nature.
(7.) And here let it be asked, What of dependence upon
the Holy Spirit, and prayer for his help in preaching?
How can a man pray that God will guide him through a
forest, when he has already blazed the entire path, and
committed himself to follow it? Of course one should seek
help in preparing his discourse, and if he reads, should
pray that he might be enabled to feel aright in reading.
But how much more natural is such prayer, how  much
more real the dependence upon Divine assistance, how
much freer the opening for the Spirit really to help, if the 
THE THREE METHODS OF
sermon is not already cast in moulds, but the material
which has been gathered, is now molten in the mind,
and the ultimate process remains to be performed.
(8.) As to the delivery itself, it is only in extemporaneous speaking, of one or another variety, that this can
ever be perfectly natural, and achieve the highest effect.
The ideal of speaking, it has been justly said, cannot be
reached in any other way. Only thus will the voice, the
action, the eye, be just what nature dictates, and attain
their full power. And while painstaking culture vainly
strives to read or recite precisely like speaking, the extemporaneous speaker may with comparative ease, rise to the
best delivery of which he is capable. In this way, too, as
before remarked, we most readily gain the sympathy of our
hearers; they are sympathizing with a man, not a composition, -a man all alive with thoughts hlie is now thinking, and fervors he is now feeling, and not simply reviving,
as far as possible, the thought and feeling of some former
time.
(9.) It is also an advantage of this method that it gives
facility in speaking without immediate preparation. The
preacher who cannot do this upon occasion misses many
opportunities of usefulness, and loses influence with the
people by an incapacity which they consider a reproach.
(10.) This leads to what is really among the most important advantages of extemporaneous preaching. With
the masses of the people, it is the popular method.  Where
principle is involved, one ought to withstand the notions
of the people; but when it is a mere question of expediency, - and the present question is nothing more, - then
a general and very decided popular preference is an exceedingly important consideration. It does not mend the matter to sneer at the folly of the masses, in so often preferring
ignorant preachers who thoroughly sympathize with them,
and speak in the way they like. There is real and grave
430 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.  431
danger that we shall "educate away from the people."
Here, now, is one respect in which educated preachers
have it in their power to suit the popular taste, and gain
the popular sympathy. If some obstacles to such sympathy
can be but partially removed, there need be no difficulty
with this obstacle., Those denominations, in particular,
whose strength has always been with the masses, ought to
make almost everything bend to retain their hold upon the
people. No doubt some congregations have been educated
into a toleration of reading, but it is almost always an
unwilling acquiescence, or a high regard for some man's
preaching in spite of the fact that he reads. No doubt
there are half-educated and fastidious people who greatly
prefer reading or recitation. But the thoroughly educated
fully agree with the masses as to what is generally the best
method. And instead of striving to educate the people
into enduring what they will never like, and what can
never so deeply move them, let the preacher educate himself into preaching in such a way that he can reach and
hold the masses, and leave the fastidious few to think what
they please.
2. But we must turn to the disadvantages of extenmporaneous speaking, some of which require not only careful
consideration in argument, but very watchful attention in
practice.
(1.) Perhaps the gravest of them all consists in the
tendency to neglect of preparation, after one has gained
facility in unaided thinking and extemporized expression.
Men are prone to abuse all their privileges; but it is a
superficial philosophy which thence concludes that privileges should be avoided. And if many extemporizers grow
indolent, and rely too much upon the suggestions of the
moment, at least they must at the moment have  some mental activity; whereas the same indolent men, if accustomed
to read or recite, would repeat sermons long ago prepared, 
THE THREE METHODS OF
with their minds no longer active, nor their hearts truly
warm. This tendency to neglect of preparation is real and
powerful, but it may be resisted, and many extemporizers
do resist it, continuing through life to prepare their ser mons with care; and as just intimated, it is only many
readers, and by no means all, that do likewise.
(2.) There is difficulty in fixing the mind upon the work
of preparation without writing in full. This may be removed by practice. At the outset, it can be overcome
either by making copious notes, or by speaking the subject
over in private.
(3.) The extemporizer cannot quote so largely as the
reader, from Scripture, or from the writings of others. But
he is likely to quote only what is really important to the
subject, and thus easily remembered.  Facility of quotation is not an unmitigated blessing. Those who read often
quote long passages which do not increase, which sometimes positively diminish, the interest and impressiveness
of the sermon. What fits exactly, we repeat, can be easily
remembered.   Besides, it is often much better to borrow
(with some sort of acknowledgment) the ideas of others, but
state them in our own language.  People are almost always
more interested in this than in extended quotations. Where
the quotation of the language itself is really important,
and the. passage long, one may read it from his Bible, or if
from some other source, may write it off and read it, expressly as an important quotation. Perhaps a mall who commonly speaks in an easy and familiar manner might carry
with him the Pilgrim's Progress, Paradise Lost, or a volume of Spurgeon, and just take it up as the lawyers do,
and read an extract. Something like this is frequently
done in controversial sermons and public discussions.
(4.) The style of all extemporaneous sermon is apt to be
less condensed and less finished, than if it were written out
and read or recited But this is not necessarily a fault.
432 
PREPARATION kND DELIVERY.
The style may be all the better adapted to speaking, as distinguished from the essay-style. That there is a real and
broad difference between these, has been strongly asserted
by such masters of effective speaking as Fox and Pitt and
Brougham. Copiousness, amplification, even the frequent
repetition of a thought under new forms or with other
illustrations, are often absolutely necessary in addressing a
popular audience, even if it be as cultivated as the House
of Commons.  Paragraphs of this sort may be preceded or
followed by terse, pithy statements, such as those which
occur so strikingly in the Epistle of James. Now we learn
the writing style by writing, and we must form the speaking style in the process of actual speaking.* In the case
of definitions, or other brief passages in which the language
becomes especially important, one may fix beforehand,
whether with or without writing, the precise terms to be
employed. While, however, a condensed and highly finished style is not generally to be sought after in speaking
which aims to make any practical impression, there is
danger of a wearisome repetition, of "linked dulness long
drawn out," especially of what some one calls "conclusions
which never conclude." This danger can be obviated by
care in preparation and in speaking, and by the constant
practice of careful writing for other purposes.
(5.) The success of an extemporaneous sermon is largely
dependent upon the preacher's feelings at the time of delivery, and upon the circumstances; so that he is liable to
decided failure. It is by this, more than anything else,
that many men are restrained from attempting to extemporize. And yet this is a condition by which preachers
will much oftener gain than lose. A man not capable of
failing, can never be eloquent. If he has not so excitable
a nature, so sensitive a sympathy with his surroundings, as
to be greatly depressed by very unfavorable circumstances,
Comnp. Part II!, chap. 1,. 2.
37
433 
THE THREE METHODS OF
then the most favorable conditions will not greatly exalt
and inspire him. In like manner a method of preaching
which renders failure impossible, also renders the greatest
impressiveness impossible. Preserved from falling below
a certain level, the preacher will also be hindered from
soaring as high above it as would otherwise be in his power.
Nay, let a man commit himself to the occasion and the
subject, -let him take heart and strike out boldly, sink or
swim.
(6.) If the sermon is to be used again, and has not been
written out in full, it requires some renewed preparation.
But this, too, is rather a gain than a loss; for thus the discourse can be more easily and exactly adapted to the new
circumstances. A sermon precisely suited to one audience
and occasion would usually be, at least in many of its details, quite unsuited to any other; and it is only the extemporaneous speaker that can readily make the requisite
changes, which are often slight and delicate, but surpassingly important to the practical result. Besides, while the
times change, we are changing in them. A sermon prepared years ago will often need no little modification in
order to suit the altered opinions, tastes, and feelings of the
preacher himself. And then the necessity for reworking
the preparation makes it all fresh to the preacher's mind,
and warm again to his heart. So the extemporaneous
method does make the repeated use of the same sermon
more laborious, but it also serves to make it much more
effective.
(7.) Still another, and a serious disadvantage of this
method is in its tendency to prevent one's forming the habit
of writing.   As fluency increases, the contrast between
winged, glorious speech, and slow, toilsome writing, becomes
to many men too great for their patience, and there grows
upon them what some one felicitously calls a calamophobia,
a dread of the pen.  And not only does this cut them off
434 
PREPARATION AN D DELIVERY.   435
from many important means of usefulness, -especially in
our day, the era of the printing-press, - but it reacts disastrously upon their power of speaking.  Both the beginner in
oratory and the experienced, ready speaker, must constrain
themselves to write, much and carefully.   Not, indeed, to
write out what they are about to speak, unless they belong
to the class who can speak freely after fully written preparation, but to write for other purposes, -essays and exegeses, by way of thoroughly studying a passage or subject,
articles for publication, sermons after preaching them, and
the like.  Thus their habits of writing and of speaking will
maintain an equilibrium in their methods of th[.isng and
style of expression, while yet each is practiced according to
its own essential and distinctive character.*
Let it now be carefully observed that all the disadvantages of extemporaneous speaking are such as can be completely obviated by resolute and judicious effort, while reading and recitation have many inherent disadvantages, which
may, of course, be more or less diminished, but can never
be removed.  Let this be noticed.   The born speaker will
be able to overcome the difficulties of extemporaneous
speaking, and will find here, and here alone, free play for
his powers. We are not referring to the few great orators,
but to all who have really a native talent for speaking,
including some in whom this long remains undeveloped,
through lack of exercise or wrong methods.  Some men,
not born speakers, but anxious to do good, and zealous
pastors, may be able to write and read tolerably instructive
and acceptable discourses, while they could never preach
extemporaneously. But certainly what is best for them,
is not thereby shown to be best in general. Methods of
speaking ought to be chosen according to the wants and the
powers of those who have some gift as speakers. Very few,
if any others, ought to make speaking their business.
*Comrp. on the construction of paragraphs, Part III, chap. 2, 2. 
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~ 4. BRIEF HISTORY OF THE THREE METHO DS.
No doubt men spoke in public before writing was invented, as often now among savage tribes; and from the
beginning, some of these speeches must have been thought
out beforehand, and even their language to some extent
fixed. When writing became common, it was natural that
sometimes the preparation should be made in writing. We
find the great Greek and Roman orators either extemporizing or reciting; and much in their practice that is commonly spoken of as recitation, appears to have been really
free speech from written preparation.  Lord Brougham,
who was a most devoted and appreciative student of
Demosthenes, has unhesitatingly asserted that "no Athenian audience could have followed Demosthenes in the condensed form in which his speeches are printed." Burke
and Fenelon express themselves to the same effect. If
reading speeches was ever practiced among the Greeks and
Romans, or reading sermons among the early Christians,
it was a rare and exceptional thing.  "The sermons," says
Neander, speaking of the age of Chrysostom and Augustine, "were sometimes, though rarely, read off entirely from
notes, or committed to memory; sometimes they were freely
delivered, after a plan prepared beforehand; and sometimes
they were altogether extemporary. The last we learn inecidentally, from being informed that Augustine was occasionally directed to the choice of a subject by the passage
which the'prelector' had selected for reading; when, he
tells us, he was sometimes urged by some impression of
the moment, to give his sermon a different turn from what
he had originally proposed. We are also informed by
Chlrysostom, that his subject was frequently suggested to
him by something he met with on his way to church, or
which suddenly occurred during divine service." *
*Church Hist. II, 317. HIe cites no authority for the statement
436 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.
The practice of reading sermons, as a frequent thing, is
generally believed to have originated in the reign of Henry
VIII.  "Those who were licensed to preach," says Burnet,
in his History of the Reformation, "being often accused for
their sermons, and complaints being made to the King by
hot men on both sides, they came generally to write and
read their sermons, and thence the reading of sermons grew
into a practice in this church; in which if there was not
that heat of fire which the friars had shown in their
declamations, so that the passions of the hearers were not so
much wrought on by it, yet it has produced the greatest
treasure of weighty, grave, and solid sermons that ever the
Church of God had; which does in a great measure compensate that seeming flatness to vulgar ears, that is in the
delivery of them." * The practice increased in consequence
of the civil wars, especially through strong dislike to the
impassioned preaching of the Independents. Charles II,
not accustomed, on the Continent, to this tamer method,
vainly attempted to correct it, as shown by the following
curious letter, extracted by Gresley from the statute-book
of the University of Cambridge:
VIcE - CHANCELLOR AND  GENTLEMEN: Whereas his Majesty is
informed that the practice of reading sermons is generally taken
up by the preachers before the university, and therefore continues
even before himself; his Majesty hath commanded me to signify
to you his pleasure, that the said practice, which took its beginning from the disorders of the late times, be wholly laid aside, and
that the said preachers deliver their sermons, both in Latin and
that sermons were sometimes read, nor does Bingham. Paniel, in
his copious History of Preaching (in German), makes no such state ment. It is perhaps only an inference from the fact that it was
common to preach other men's sermons; yet this would have been
done by committing them to memory, or appropriating their trains
of thought. Scholars who make a specialty of Church History,
might settle the question for us.
Y Quoted bh Gresley on Preaching, p. 391.
37*
43 
THE THREE METHODS OF
English, by memory, without books; as being a way of preaching
which his Majesty judgeth most agreeable to the use of foreign
churches, to the custom of the university heretofore, and to the
nature of that holy exercise: and that his Majesty's command in
these premises be duly regarded and observed, his further pleasure
is, that the names of all such ecclesiastical persons as shall continue
the present supine and slothful way of preaching be, from time to
time, signified to him by the Vice-Chancellor for the time being, on
pain of his Majesty's displeasure.
Oct. 8th, 1674.                                      MONMOUTH.
The effort failed, and reading was frequently practiced
in the Church of England. To this day, however, it is
quite rare on the Continent, and among Romanists everywhere, and is common only among certain Protestants of
England and America.  The few Episcopal ministers in this
country who extemporize, are surpassingly popular, even
among their own brethren, where they manage it effectively. Many leading Presbyterian ministers, and some of
their ecclesiastical authorities, have discouraged reading,
and even vehemently condemned it.
Most of the eminent examples of reading admit of some
explanation. Jonathan Edwards, late in life, regretted the
practice, and believed that it was better to preach memoriter
for the most part, sometimes extemporizing.* Dr. Chalmers, so often adduced, as if the example of a very peculiar man could establish a rule, declared himself unable
to extemporize.  But look at his style.  He was extremely,
in fact excessively fond of long sentences, formed of nicely
balanced clauses, with the corresponding terms in each
clause often indicated by alliteration, and he had an exceeding desire to achieve quaint felicities of phraseology. His
images are frequently drawn on a grand and elaborate scale,
and he was fastidious as to their color and finish. These
well-known peculiarities go far to account for his persuasion
* Hoppin, p. 71.
438 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.  439
thatl he could not extemporize.  It would be almost as
difficult to improvise a choral ode, as some of those elaborate passages in which he delighted.  And after all, Dr.
Wayland states,* "A gentleman who was in the habit of
hearing him, has assured nile that his extempore discourses,
delivered to operatives in the outskirts of Glasgow, were
far more effective, and more truly eloquent, than the sermnons which he delivered with so much applause in the
Tron church of that city;" -and there is other testimony
to the same effect.
~ 5. GENERAL AND SPECIAL PREPARATION FOR
EXTEMPORANEOUS PREACHING.
The preacher should be careful of his health, not only
on other accounts, but because speaking, real speaking,
demands a high degree of nervous energy and power of
endurance. Many a noble sermon is spoiled by the Scct
that the preacher begins to flag physically toward the
close, and can neither feel high-wrought emnotion, nor speak
with passion and power.
He should cultivate accuracy and rapidity of thinking,
and should discipline himself to pursue trains of thought
without interruption, and as far as possible without dependence on outward helps. He must get his knowledge of
Scripture, and all his knowledge (as far as may be) at his
tongue's end. The habit of keeping one's knowledge fit for
service, so that he can at once state what he knows or thinks
on subjects he has studied, will preserve from the danger
of breaking down, and will enable him to prepare sermons
with equal thoroughness in a shorter time.
Great attention ought to be given to the use of language
* Ministry of the Gospel, p. 126.  See also the account of Chalmers' speeches in the General Assembly, in Hanna's Memoir, Vol.
IV, 114, 199, 438 
THE THREE METHODS OF
in ordinary writing and conversation. There should be
the habit of seeking the most exact terms, and of constructing sentences which shall be grammatical, and yet simple
and easy. The most familiar conversation should not degenerate into slang, nor the most dignified into pedantry.
There should be no such marked difference as is often seen,
between a man's style in public speaking, and in conversation. These should not be different instruments, but simply
a higher or lower range on the same instrument. Children
are taught that to make sure of being polite when visiting,
they must be polite every day at home. So Coquerel says,
"In order to speak well sometimes, it is necessary to speak
well always." Certainly this is necessary in order that one
may feel sure of being able to speak well at any time.
And the man who forms such habits need not be uneasy,
for his use of language can never be excessively bad.
A young preacher who wishes to extemporize ought to
begin it at once. Mr. Zincke's method * may do very
well for one who has been reading till middle age, and
then sets himself to speak extempore, but it is by no
means best for the young.   Probably the greatest and
most common of blunders about this whole matter lies
just here. Authors, professors, pastors, often say to the
young minister: "Certainly, extemporaneous preaching is
best, if properly practised, and I hope you will learn to
extemporize. But do not think of attempting it at first.
Begin by reading, - or preaching mnernoriter,- and gradually use yourself to extemporizing." So he begins, forms
all his habits of thinking, of constructing discourse, his
mastery of expression, style, delivery, everything, to suit
the other method, -and a speaker's habits for life are very
soon formed, - and after a few years, occasionally attempts
to preach in a way for which he has not trained himself,
* The Duty and the Discipline of Extemporary Preaching, by
F. B. Zincke.
440 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.
and which is in many respects quite different. Who can
wonder that he fails, grows discouraged, and falls back
upon the continued practice of the other method, as somehow the best for him?  Nay, let a man begin at once what
he intends to make the habit of his life.
Lord Brougham insists that one must first learn to speak
easily and fluently, sacrificing everything to this as the
prime requisite; and afterwards learn to "convert this kind
of easy speaking into chaste eloquence." In saying this,
he supposes himself to "differ from all other doctors of
rhetoric."  And in fact the advice usually given follows
the saying of Quintilian: "It is not by writing fast that
we come to write well, but by writing well that we learn
to write fast." Probably different classes of minds are
thought of in the two cases. If a young man finds himself
not fluent, but slow and hesitating in speech, then let him
follow Brougham's advice, and learn, at all hazards, to
speak with ease, though he should at first violate all the
rules of rhetoric and even of grammar. But if, as is more
commonly the case, he is ready and fluent, then he must
rigorously discipline himself to precision of expression.
"The old and finished speaker always uses fewer and
choicer words, than the young orator."* Command of
language does not consist in what Huet disrespectfully
called utne fluxe de bouche, in a mere gush of words, but in
the ability to bring forward precisely the right word at the
moment it is wanted.
The extemporaneous preacher must carefully arrange his
sermon, according to the natural order of the thoughts, and
then he will have no difficulty in remembering.  The sermon must not wander at will over the subject, but have its
distinct and well-marked points, and advance steadily from
one to another.  In both these respects, what helps him
will also greatly help the hearer. Whether it has any
*Shedd, p. 238.
441 
THE THREE METHODS OF
formal division or not, a popular address should always
have points. And it is one advantage of extemporaneous
speaking, that it compels to such an arrangement.  If
now one has stretching before him a well-defined track of
thought, divided by natural landmarks into distinct sections, he can diverge from it upon occasion and return
without difficulty.*
If a preacher makes notes in preparing, as it is usually
best to do, he ought, in general, not to carry them into the
pulpit. Particular subjects or modes of treatment will
sometimes make this desirable.  But in general, one should
take time enough beforehand to get the matter of the sermon in solution in his mind, so that it can flow freely; or,
to resume the other figure, to get the track he is to follow
so clear to his mental vision, that he can flash a single
glance from beginning to end of it. This is not memorizing words, and with a little practice it can be quickly done.
In other respects, too, great benefit will be derived from
this necessity of going thoroughly over the prepared matter
shortly before preaching, for thus the mind and heart become kindled, and brought into sympathy with the particular subject to be treated. Sometimes the very words ought
to be fixed beforehand.  This applies generally to definitions, frequently to transitions, and sometimes to images,
such as must be presented with precision and elegance, or
they will be worse than nothing. Such preparation of particular sentences may be made in writing and memorized,
or may be altogether mental. The advice is often given,
to memorize the introduction, and extemporize the language of the remainder of the discourse. This is of questionable propriety. It gives a formal air at the outset, and
* " My earnest advice to you is that you never make the attempt
to extemporize without being sure of your matter. Of all the defects
of utterance I have ever known the most serious is having nothing
to- utter."  A exander, Thoughts on Preaching, p. 142.
44.2 
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY.
is apt to make the transition precipitous. Passages of
Scripture which are to be quoted, or other proposed quotations, should be gone over in the mind during the immediate
preparation, that there may be no blundering o0 hesitation.
We now see how the inexperienced young preacher may
speak extemporaneously without any great danger of utter
failure. Let him arrange the discourse with great care,
and again and again think through the whole, making no
effort to retain the words he lights upon (save as to definitions, etc.), but getting the thoughts, and their succession,
perfectly familiar. Speaking it over in his room or in the
forest is not wrong, and some find it in their early preparations very useful. Then let him pray for help, and go
forward, - he can remember better than he supposes,and facility will rapidly increase.
In familiar conversation with such a young brothel, one
might add such hints as the following, with reference to
the actual preaching. If you forget what you meant to
say next, do not stop. Nothing is so awkward as a dead
pause; and the awkwardness increases in geometrical ratio
to the seconds of time.   Say something, repeat, recapitulate, talk at random even, -anything rather than stop.
If you become embarrassed with a tangled sentence, do not
turn back, but burst through. If you have made a mistake of grammar, pronunciation, or the like, do not stop to
correct it, unless it is serious. An occasional inadvertence
is readily pardoned, if the general style be good. And if
you greatly blunder in style, forget half your best thoughts,
or utterly break down, it will not kill you. Other great
men have failed. Remember young Robert Hall.
Public speaking is one of the noblest exercises of the
human powers; preaching is its highest form; and if extemporaneous speaking be the best method of preaching, it
is surely worth labor to attain excellence in this,  diligent
and faithful self-cultivation, resolute determination always
to do our best, as long as we live.
443 
444 ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE.
CHAPTER II.
ON DELIVERY~ AS REGARDS VOICE.
1. GENERAL REMARKS ON DELIVERY. ~ 2. THE VOICE  ITS DIS TINCT POWERS.? 3. GENERAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE VOICE.
Q 4. MANAGEMENT OF VOICE WHEN ACTUALLY SPEAKING-NOTE
ON MINISTER'S SORE - THROAT.
~ 1. GENERAL REMARKS ON DELIVERY.*
-T can never be necessary to urge the importance of
delivery, upon persons who  correctly understand its
nature, and who appreciate the objects of public speaking.
The famous saying of Demosthenes, repeatedly mentioned
by Cicero, is sometimes utterly misrepresented. He did not
say that the first thing, second thing, third thing in oratory
is action, in the English sense of that term, but delivery, for
this is what the Latin actio signifies. And delivery does
not consist merely, or even chiefly, in vocalization and gesticulation, but it implies that one is possessed with the
*Of the works mentioned above, Introd. ~ 7, the most valuable
on this subject are those of Cicero and Quintilian, Whately (onesided, but instructive) and Monod.  Since the Introduction was
stereotyped, two works on Elocution have appeared.   McIlvaine on
Elocution, New York, 1870, is by far the best treatise on the subject
in existence, containing much thorough discussion of principle and
many useful suggestions, with but little that is liable to serious
objection. It will be frequently referred to in this and the followimg chapter.  Plumptre's "King's College Lectures on Elocution,"
London, 1870, is worth examining, though ill-arranged, and often
feeble.  The two chapters on Action in Dabney's Sacred Rhetoric,
Richmond, 1870, present a brief, but vigorous and useful discussion. 
ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE. 445
subject, that he is completely in sympathy with it and fully
alive to its importance; that he is not repeating remembered words, but bringing forth the living offspring of his
mind. Even acting is good only in proportion as the
actor identifies himself with the person represented -
really thinks and really feels what he is saying. In the
speaker this ought to be perfect; he is not undertaking to
represent another person, to appropriate another's thoughts
and feelings, but aims, or should aim, simply to be himself,
to utter what his own mind has produced.
Why then do speakers so often and so sadly fail in
respect to this chief element of delivery? Partly because
many of the thoughts they present are borrowed, and have
never been digested by reflection, and incorporated into the
substance of their own thinking. Partly because they so
frequently say not what they really feel, but what they
think they ought to feel, and are, it may be earnestly, but
yet unsuccessfully, trying to feel. And still more because
they are uttering the product of a former mental activity,
viz. at the time of preparation; and even if the thought
and feeling were then perfectly real and genuine, yet the
mental states which produced them do now but imperfectly
return. In each of these respects it is seen that the speaker
is liable to be to some extent an actor; and we can easily
understand how a gifted and laborious actor may become
much more thoroughly possessed with thought and sentiment which are wholly another's, than a speaker wanting
iii gifts and labor, with such as are at the moment not
wholly his own. Besides, we do not expect of the actor
perfect success in this respect, and we wonder and admire
that he sometimes so nearly approaches perfection; while
of the speaker we naturally do expect perfection, and are
offended that he obviously comes short of it.*  For a
* Comp. above, Part III, chap. 4, on the difference between poetry
and eloquence.
88 
446 ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE.
speaker, then, and above all for a preacher, it is a matter of
the highest importance that he should resist the tendency
to become in part an actor, should strive most earnestly to
say nothing but what he now really thinks and now truly
feels. It may sometimes be that while a preacher is chagrined at having forgotten a choice expression or a treasured thought, the omission of what his mind's present
activity failed to produce may in fact have been a gain, for
it would have come in only as a-dead thing, detracting from
the vitality, and retarding the movement, of the discourse
as a whole. At any rate it seems to be clear that a preacher
should seek to form mental habits quite different from those
of an actor. And while men who wish to be orators are
found expecting to profit by taking lessons from actors, it is
all the while true that the actor is but attempting to imitate
the orator. It is surely better to strike at the heart of the
matter, and try to be the real thing one is called to be, than
to copy an imperfect copy -better to practice ourselves in
saying what we really do think and feel, than to learn from
an actor how to say what we do not, almost as if we did.
These views receive confirmation from the strong words
of one who has rarely been equalled in his appreciation and
his mastery of true art.
"Wagner. I've often heard them boast, a preacher
Might profit with a player for his teacher.
Faust. Yes, when the preacher is a player, granted:
As often happens in our modern ways.
Wagner. Ah! when one with such love of study's haunted,
And scarcely sees the world on holidays,
And takes a spy-glass, as it were, to read it,
How can one by persuasion hope to lead it.
Faust. What you don't feel, you'll never catch by hunting,
It must gush out spontaneous from the soul,
And, with a fresh delight enchanting,
The hearts of all that hear control. 
ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE. 447
Sit there forever!  Thaw your glue-pot,Blow up your ash-heap to a flame, and brew,
With a dull fire, in your stew-pot,
Of other men's leavings a ragout!
Children and apes will gaze delighted,
If their critiques can pleasure impart;
But never a heart will be ignited,
Comes not the spark from the speaker's heart.
Wagner. Delivery makes the 6rator's' success;
Though I'm still far behindhand, I confess.
Faust. Seek honest gains, without pretence!
Be not a cymbal-tinkling fool!
Sound understanding and good sense
Speak out with little art or rule;
And when you've something earnest to utter,
Why hunt for words in such a flutter?
Yes, your discourses, that are so refined,
In which humanity's poor shreds you frizzle,
Are unrefreshing as the mist and wind
That through the withered leaves of autumn whistle." *
A speech, in the strict sense of the term, exists only in
the act of speaking. All that precedes is preparation for
ai speech; all that remains afterwards is report of what was
spoken. Whatever may be necessary for convenience in
our rhetorical treatises, it is yet exceedingly important not
to think of the speech and the delivery as things existing
apart. Whatever-be our method of preparing, we should
habitually regard all as but preparation; it must be cherished and kept alive in the mind, must be vitally a part
of itself, and then as living, breathing thought it will be
delivered.
And as the preparation is not a speech till it is spoken,
so the mere manner of speaking should not At the time
receive separate attention. It should be the spontaneous
product of the speaker's peculiar constitution, as acted on
* Goethe's Faust, tr. by Brookes.
I[I
I 
448 ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE.
by thb subject which now fills his mind and heart. The
idea of becoming eloquent merely by the study of voice and
gesture, though sometimes entertained, is essentially absurd.
No one would expect to become agreeable in conversation
by such means. The Athenians set a far greater value than
we do, upon what has been called "the statuary and the
music of oratory." They listened to political and judicial
speeches with much of the same critical spirit with which
we hear a professional musician or a literary lecture.  Yet
they were very far from giving their chief attention to the
mere use of voice and gesture. And even taking delivery
in its broadest sense, we find that Demosthenes, as heretofore remarked,* by no means treated delivery as the great
thing. He took it for granted that an orator would be
careful about materials, arrangement, style, and his orations show that he himself was thus careful in the very
highest degree. But delivery, peculiarly important in
Athens, had been for him a peculiarly difficult task.
Hence his striking, hyperbolical statement- delivery is
everything.
The things requisite to effective delivery may be briefly
stated as follows:
Have something to say which you are confident is worth
saying; scarcely anything will contribute so much as this
confidence, to give dignity, directness, ease and power to
delivery. Have the treatment well arranged, not after the
fashion of an essay, but with the orderly and rapid movement proper to a discourse. Be thoroughly familiar with
all that you propose to say, so that you may feel no uneasiness; for the dread of failure sadly interrupts the flow of
thought and feeling.t Think it all over within a short
time of the hour for speaking, so that you may be sure of
the ground, and so that your feelings may be brought into
* See above, Introduction, ~ 5.
tComp. Mcllvaine on Elocution, p. 120. 
ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE. 449
lively sympathy with the subject; it is however best immnediately before speaking to have the mind free from active
thought, maintaining only a quiet, devotional frame.  Let
the physical condition be as vigorous as possible.  In
order to this seek good health in general; take abundant
sleep the night before speaking; at the meal before speaking eat moderately, of food easily digested, and if you are
to speak immediately, eat very little; and do not, if it can
possibly be avoided, exhaust your vitality during the day
by exciting conversation.  A healthy condition of the nervous system is surpassingly important; not a morbid excitability such as is produced by studying very late the night
before, but a healthy condition, so that feeling may quickly
respond to thought, so that there may be sympathetic
emotion, and at the same time complete self-control.*
Above all, be yourself. Speak out with freedom and
earnestness what you think and feel.  Better a thousand
faults, than through dread of faults to be tame. Some of
the most useful preachers, men in a true and high sense
eloquent, have had grave defects of manner. Habitually
correct faults as far as possible, but whether the voice and
the action be good or bad, if there is something in you to
say, speak it out.  And by all means let there be no affectation, or even artificiality.t
"In man or woman, but far most in man,
And most of all in man that ministers
And serves the altar, in my soul I loathe
All affectation.'Tis my perfect scorn;
Object of my implacable disgust.
What! will a man play tricks, will he indulge
A  silly fond conceit of his fair form
And just proportion, fashionable mien,
And pretty face, in presence of his God?
* Comp. McIlvaine, p. 108 if., 165 if.; Monod, p. 899 f.
t Comp. above, Introd. i 5.
38* 
450 ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE.
Or will he seek to dazzle me with tropes
As with the diamond on his lily hand,
And play his brilliant parts before my eyes
When I am hungry for the bread of life?
He mocks his Maker, prostitutes and shames
His noble office, and, instead of truth,
Displaying his own beauty, starves his flock!
Therefore. avaunt all attitude, and stare,
And start theatric, practiced at the glass! "*
~ 2. THE VOICE -ITS DISTINCT POWERS.
The voice is the speaker's great instrument. Nothing
else in a man's physical constitution is nearly so important. "For an effective and admirable delivery," says
Cicero," the voice, beyond doubt, holds the highest place." t
Not every eminent orator has possessed a commanding person, but every one of great eminence has had an effective
voice. The faults which come from natural organization,
such as drawling, fineness, feebleness, defective articulation,
may often be partially remedied by judicious and patient
effort; witness Demosthenes. And a voice extremely faulty
in some respects, may yet in other respects have great
power, and be precisely suited to the mental character of
the man; witness John Randolph. It is said of Burke that
"his voice, which he never attempted to discipline, was
harsh when he was calm, and when he was excited he often
became so hoarse as to be hardly intelligible."  This, along
with the essay-style of his otherwise magnificent speeches,
will account for the fact that he was commonly listened to
with weariness; yet on some occasions, when expressing
certain varieties of thought and feeling, his delivery was
very forcible.1 Robert Hall had a comparatively weak
voice; but he gave it effect by rapidity of utterance, and
*Cowper.                t De Or. III, 60.
1 See Bulwer on Style, in Caxtoniana. 
O)N DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE.  451
when he was excited it would swell into power. The vocal
gifts of Chrysostom, Whitfield, Spurgeon, are well known.
From all this it appears that while one cannot be an orator
of the highest class without unusual powers of voice, he may
yet be a highly effective speaker notwithstanding grave
defects; so that every one should be encouraged to make
the best of such vocal powers as he possesses.
A minute acquaintance with the anatomy and physiology of the organs of speech is not necessary to the orator. Even a general knowledge of them is more useful in
the way of avoiding disease than of positively improving
delivery.*
But there are certain powers of voice which, with reference to public speaking, it is important to distinguish. -
(1.) Compass, the range of pitch over which the voice
extends. The difference between voices in this respect is
very obvious in the case of singers, but it is not less real in
speaking, and is a matter of great consequence in expressing the immense variety of sentiments which a speaker will
feel, even in the progress of the same discourse.
(2.) Volume, the quantity of sound produced, is entirely
distinct from pitch, though frequently confounded with
it in the popular use of such terms as loud and strong.
Ample volume, properly regulated, will render the voice
audible to a greater distance, and will make it more commanding.
(3.) Penetrating power. The distance to which one can
be heard, does not depend simply on volume and pitch, nor
on distinct articulation; there is a difference between voices
as to their power of penetration. A similar difference
exists in the case of many other sounds, natural and artificial. The philosophy of it has not been satisfactorily
explained, and the fact is scarcely noticed in treatises on
* A good and sufficient account of these organs is given by
Mcllvaine, p. 183-98. 
45') ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE.
elocution, but a very little observation will convince one
that the difference is real. Indeed, penetrating power is
sometimes clearly hereditary,* which proves that it is a
natural property of voice.
(4.) Melody. This depends on both sweetness and flexibility of voice. The single sounds must be sweet, and
the constant transitions in pitch, required by variations of
sentiment, must be made with promptness, precision and
smoothness. A voice is not melodious if in either respect
deficient.
~ 3. GENERAL IMPROVEMENT OF VOICE.
Cicero tells us that Caius Gracchus, when speaking, kept
a servant near him and out of sight, having a flute, the note
of which would now and then bring up the orator's voice when
flagging, or recall it when overstrained; and he judiciously
adds that it were better to leave the flute-player at home,
and carry to the forumn the habit acquired.t  This holds
good as to all vocal improvement, in fact as to all that
pertains to delivery. We must seek by general exercise
and care to form such habits, of speech and of bearing,
that there may be little need to give them attention when
actually engaged in public speaking.
Whatever improves the general health will improve the
voice, especially muscular exercise, and particularly such as
develops the chest, and promotes an easy erectness of position. Singing cultivates the voice in almost every respect,
and probably to a greater extent than anything else except
actual speaking. It is on many other accounts also very
desirable that a minister should be able to sing, and to sing
by note; and young ministers, and those preparing for the
ministry, should take much pains to learn to sing. If it
* The author is'familiar with a manifest instance.
t De Or. III, 60 f.
'N 
ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE. 453
should require as much time and effort to gain the power
of singing church music at sight as to learn a modern language or a branch of science, it would be fully as profitable;
and almost any man who is still young can learn to sing
moderately well, by judicious and persevering effort. Reading aloud is also of good service in cultivating the voice.
It is, however, more laborious than speaking, and should
be promptly suspended when it becomes decidedly fatiguing.
A proper management of the voice in all ordinary conversation, is a matter of the very highest importance. As in
politeness, and as in style, so in the use of the voice (and
also in action), it is impossible for one to do really well
on special occasions who is habitually careless and slovenly.
We have already urged this as regards style, and extemporaneous preaching, but it deserves to be repeated and
reiterated. Take care that your utterance in conversation
shall always be audible, agreeable, and at the same time
easy and natural; and then in public speaking your utterance will almost take care of itself.  Vocal exercises may
be quite useful for certain purposes and to some extent.
If excessive, or of an improper character, they may seriously injure the organs; and there is still greater danger
that they will produce artificiality. When conducted in
private, under the direction of a really judicious teacher
of elocution, they might be of great service in correcting
special faults; but teachers of elocution, the most intelligent, appear singularly prone to attempt too much, to be
dissatisfied with the humble task of correcting faults, and
undertake to superinduce some positive, and of necessity
artificial excellence. After all, practice in actual speaking
is, next to care in conversation, the main thing. But it
must be heedful practice, with observation of the faults
developed, and effoibrt afterwards to avoid them, or it will
but confirm and render incurable one's natural or acci 
454 ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE.
dental defects. Some one has said: "Practice makes perfeet; and bad practice makes perfectly bad."
Care must constantly be taken not to destroy individuality of voice. A man's voice is a part of himself, a part
of his power; he must keep it essentially unaltered, while
improved as far as possible.
A few points may be noticed, as to the means of improving particular powers of voice.
(1.) Compass will be improved by nothing so much as
by singing. Something may be gained by taking a short
sentence, and repeating it (in the open air) on a key successively elevated or lowered, to the full limit of our range
of voice; taking care that the utterance shall at every
pitch be speaking, and not become half singing. In such
exercises it is necessary to remember that on a low key it
is best to speak slowly, and swiftly on a high key. The
difference is clearly seen in comparing the lower and upper
tones of a piano or violin, and the human voice is also a
stringed instrument. In actual speaking, nature at once
prompts the swifter or slower utterance, if only we let
nature have liberty.
(2.) As to volume, we gain mainly by such habitual
carriage and such physical exercise as may expand and
strengthen the lungs. Riding horseback, cutting wood,
and in a remarkable degree certain gymnastical exercises,
will have this effect, as soon appears from increased breadth
of chest. Taking a series of long breaths, every morning
before breakfast, or at any time of day when the stomach
is not full, will act upon the lungs, and if regularly practised, accomplish much more than might be supposed. The
habit of talking with the mouth well opened, so as to give
full and free utterance (of course without mouthing), is
here quite important. Occasional loud singing (not on a
high pitch) will be of service, and actual speaking, unless 
ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE. 455
very badly managed, will steadily augment the volume of
one's voice, through all his earlier years.
(3.) Penetrating power may be increased by giving the
matter distinct attention, in vocal exercises, and sometimes
in speaking. The effort should be to project the voice, to
make it reach farther, without elevating the pitch or
increasing the quantity of sound.  By calling to a friend
on an opposite hill, or by fixing the eye on a distant person
in a large audience and endeavoring to make him hear, we
naturally develop this power; but great care must be taken
not to substitute an alteration of pitch or tone. It is found
by physical experiments of different kinds, that pure tones,
those not mixed with irregular noises, tones full, clear,
steady,* are heard at a greater distance than others; and
this is even a more important reason for cultivating purity
of tone than its efbfect in the way of melody.
Purity of tone applies chiefly to the utterance of vowel
sounds. But penetrating power of voice is also greatly
assisted by the distinct articulation of consonants. Nothing
is more common than in approaching a speaker to hear
sound, even loud sound, before we hear words. This is
chiefly due to the fact that the speaker swells his vowel
sounds, but does not bring out the consonants. Yet it is
mainly these that determine the word, in speech as well'as
in stenography.
Now as to distinctness of articulation, great faults are
very common, and there is ample room for cultivation, by
simple means.  In conversation, reading, speaking, especially in singing, (because there it is most difficult,) let
pains be constantly taken to articulate every letter accordiilig to its true sound, and particularly every consonant.
Special exercises may be used, containing consonants often
neglected, such as the strong r and the nasal sound of ing;
or difficult combinations of two or three consonants, as
* Comp. MIcIlvwine, p. 296. 
456 ON DELIVERY~ AS REGARDS VOICE.
shrink, expects, fifth and sixth verses. It is on various
accounts important that preachers should learn to utter
with ease the forms of the second person singular of verbs,
such as wouldst, blessedst, etc., which constantly occur in
prayer, and sometimes in exhortation. Where a consonant,
or combination of consonants, ends one word and begins
the next, there is often special difficulty.   E. g. "takecare," "sit down."  Not one in five of educated ministers
will correctly articulate the words, "In the evening it is
cut down and withereth." An excellent example is the
saying, "It is the first step that costs." *
Distinctness of articulation is everywhere much neglected
by the masses of men; it is especially so in this country,
and particularly at the South. American English is feebler
in sound than the language in England; and at the South
there is already to some extent seen the general tendency
of people living in a warm climate, to prolong and make
musical the vowel sounds, but to drop; alter, or slur over
the strong combinations of consonants. This is a grave
fault in public speaking. Italian is admirable for music,
but for oratory, genuine English is far better. At the
same time, let us beware of extremes. The rolling English r, for instance, is contrary to the established usage of
America, and should not be imitated. And in. general, we
must not show an effort at distinctness; even mumbling is
hardly so bad as this.  A man need not speak-a German
writer suggests - like one who is teaching the deaf and
dumb to talk. When one who grew up with careless
habits as to articulation first attempts to correct them, he
will for a while betray the effort; but this can be soon
overcome, by practicing exercises in private, and especially
by care in conversation.
* Usefil collections of examples for this purpose may be found
in the highest School Read(lers, and in some works on elocution.
Mcllvaine has good remarks on articulation, p. 218-26, and a long
and instructive chapter on pronunciation, p. 239-93. 
ON DELIVERY) AS REGARDS VOICE. 457
He who wishes to be heard at a great dista -e, must
speak rather slowly. There is thus a clear interval between
the sound-waves, and even when they have come a long
way and are growing faint, they will still be distinct.
This penetrating power of voice, with the distinct articulation which aids it, is believed to deserve the special attention of all public speakers.
(4.) As regards melody, we have seen that it depends on
sweetness and flexibility of voice. The former is chiefly a
natural quality, but it may be improved by singing; also
in conversation by attention to purity of tone, avoiding
huskiness, and all mingling of mere noise with the vocal
utterance; and in general, by keeping the organs of speech
in a healthy condition. The vowel sounds are here most
important, the prolongation of these making the sweet
tones.   The  consonants, while distinctly articulated for
other purposes, must in order to melody be uttered with
smoothness and ease. There is a marked tendency in this
country, particularly at the North, to omit or disguise many
unaccented vowel sounds, thereby greatly impairing the
melody of the words, and sometimes making them indistinct. Take, for example, the shortened utterance we so
often hear, of absolute, tolerable, inmmensity.* This tendency ought to be studiously avoided by all who desire to
speak agreeably, and should be resisted and corrected by
all who wish well to our language. But not a few preachers
go to the opposite extreme, and exhibit an affected precision.   Thus in diicult the vowel of the second syllable
should have its proper sound (though vulgarly sounded like
short u), but in audible, sensible, this would be an affectation, for the disguised sound is established by the best usage.
Flexibility is necessary for the exact expression of varying sentiment, as well as for melody. It will improve by
practice, if one speaks with earnest feeling, and it may be
* Comp. I)abney's Sac. Rhet. p. 305,
89 
458 ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE.
cultivated by any exercises i Evolving quick transitions
from one pitch to a much higher or lower one.  "Probably
the best exercise is that of reading aloud.... dialogues,
in which the reader represents alternately a number of
interlocutors.   The animation which is characteristic of
this species of discourse, and the frequent and rapid changes
of the voice which are requisite to maintain the distinction
of persons and characters, afford the most effective aids to
the development of this power. Humorous selections also
are good for this purpose." *
Melody is exceedingly desirable, but without possessing
it in a high degree a speaker's voice may be, on other
accounts, very effective.   And it is a grave fault to play
tunes on the voice, to give a sort of musical accompaniment, distinct from the sentiments uttered, as appears to
be quite common in England, and is sometimes seen in
Arierica, in the pulpit-tone of even educated men.
~ 4. MANAGEMENT OF VOICE WHEN ACTUALLY
PREACHING.
A few simple hints may be profitably borne in mind.
(1.) Do not begin on too high a key. One is particularly apt to do this in the open air, or in a large and unfamiliar church, or when much excited.  It is wonderful how
difficult a speaker finds it to lower the main key on which
he has once fairly started. IHe may become aware of it
in three minutes, and make repeated efforts to correct the
mistake, but in most cases he will fail; and when impassioned passages come, in which the voice must rise, it will
rise to a scream. Every one has often witnessed this process. It is of course not impossible to change the key, and
* Mclvaine, p. 320. His chapters on the qualities and powers of
the voice, and their improvement, p. 294-320, contain a good deal
that is useful. 
ON DELIVERY, AS REGARD, VOICE. 459
this should be carefully attempted when necessary. But
the great matter is to avoid beginning wrong. Tenor
voices, it is obvious, are especially apt to begin too high.
If one becomes impassioned in the early part of the discourse, he ought not then to let out his voice in its full
force, but reserve its highest power for- some later and
culminating point, as is done with the more powerfiul instrumients in an oratorio.*   In fact, the voice should very
rarely go to its highest pitch, or to its fullest volume;
there ought always to be a reserve force, unless it be in
some moment of the most exalted passion. Long passages of bawling, relieved only by occasional bursts into
a harrowing scream, are in every sense hurtful to all concerned.
It was speaking long on a high key in the open air, with
unrestrained passion, that led many of the early Baptist
preachers of this country into that sing-song, or "holy
whine," which is still heard in some parts of the country.
The voice, strained and fatigued, instinctively sought relief
in a rhythmical rise and fall, as is also the case in the loud
cries of street peddlers. They were commonly zealous, and
sometimes great men who fell into this fault, and it was
often imitated by those who came after them, after the
usual superficial fashion of imitators, mistaking the obvious
fault for the hidden power. To some of the ignorant people, this peculiar whine is connected by a life-long associationI with the most impressive truths and the most solemn
occasions; and so it touches their feelings, independently
of what is said, and sometimes when the preacher's words
are not heard -like the revival tunes, or those familiar to
us from childhood.
We must not begin on a high key, and yet the text
should be distinctly heard.   The difficulty thus arising
when the audience is large, may be overcome by stating
*Palmer,  lHomriletik, s. 538. 
460 ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE.
the text slowly, distinctly, and if necessary, a second tirne;
and by projecting the voice, instead of elevating it.
(2.) Do not suffer the voice to drop in the last words of
a sentence. Though it must often sinik, returning to the
general pitch of the discourse, yet it must not fall too suddenly, nor too low.  It is not uncommon for the last words
to be quite inaudible.
(3.) Never fail to take breath before the lungs are
entirely exhausted; and usually keep them well filled.
This will generally be done without effort in extemnporaneous speaking; but in recitation and reading it requires
special attention. Monod says: "For this purpose, it is
necessary to breathe quite often, and to take advantage of
little rests in the delivery." * A speaker must not gasp in
his breath through the mouth, but breathe through the nostrils, regularly and steadily. He must keep the head and
neck in an upright posture, for the sake of breathing freely,
as well as for other reasons; and there must be nothing
tight around his throat.
(4.) Look frequently at the remotest hearers, and see to
it that they hear you.  If particular persons anywhere in
the room have grown inattentive, they may often be aroused
by quietly ainming the voice at them for a moment.
(5.) Let there be variety; of pitch, of force, and of
speed.t  Monotony  is utterly destructive of eloquence.
But variety of utterance must be gained, not by assuming
it from without, but by taking care to have a real and
marked variety of sentiment, and then simply uttering each
particular sentiment in the most natural manner. 
For the rest, let rules alone, and think not about your
* On the Delivery of Sermons, p 402.
f See McIlvaine, on Time and Pause, p. 346 if.
I Emphasis requires much attention in reading. and will be discussed below in Part V. In speaking, a correct emphasis will be
spontaneous, whenever one is fully in sympathy with his subject. 
ON DELIVERY, AS REGAi1D. VOICE. 461
voice, but your subject, and those on whom you wish to
impress it. Except that when some marked fault has
attracted attention, or been pointed out by a friend, care
must be taken to avoid it hereafter.
NOTE ON MINISTER'S SORE-THROAT.
There is a peculiar disease, produced by excessive or ill-managed
use of the organs of speech, which occurs so much oftener with
preachers than with other public speakers or with singers, that it
is commonly called clergyman's or minister's sore-throat. It is by
no means confined to them, being found in lawyers, professors,
public singers, and private persons.   A statement of the principal
causes which produce the disease will perhaps explain why it is
more common with ministers.
It is desirable first to explain briefly the nature of this disease.
The windpipe, upon leaving the throat, divides into two branches,
o-ne for each lung, and each of these branches subdivides into several small tubes, called bronchial tubes. A disease which consumes
the substance of the lung itself is called consumption; an inflammation of the lining membrane of the bronchial tubes is called bronchitis. The disease we are at present considering is laryngitis,
an inflammation of the larynx, just at the upper end of the windpipe, where it opens into the mouth.   The ulcers it often forms
can be seen by another person with the unaided eye, by pressing
down the tongue with a spoon. It is obviously a far less serious
disease than bronchitis, and is perhaps never fatal, except when it
passes into bronchitis
The causes of this laryngitis are apparently several, (1.) Feeble
health in general, especially of the alimentary system. This is apt
to take effect upon that part of the body which is most severely
exercised; as in a silversmith, upon the eyes, in a sleaker, upon
the throat, &c. Now ministers are particularly subject to feebleness in the alimentary organs, because their life is anxious and apt
to be too sedentary, and because they are often tempted to eat too
freely. (2.) Speaking much when under the influence of depressing
emotions.  These naturally cause the throat to contract,* and render speaking more fatiguing; whereas exciting emotions, such as
anger or joy, will expand the throat. It is obvious that ministers
89*
* Compare the etymology of the word anxious. 
462 ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE.
are peculiarly exposed to such depressing feelings while they speak.
(3.) Speaking when hoarse. Preachers, having fixed and very frequent occasions for speaking, are morelikely than even lawyers to
think themselves bound to speak when hoarse. (4.) Singing, when
the organs are fatigued Those who suffer from laryngitis usually
find singing much more injurious than speaking, and this shows it
to be particularly trying to the larynx. Now ministers very often
sing when greatly fatigued by a long and impassioned sermonand there is no corresponding experience in the case of others.
(5.) Speaking from an elevated stand, looking down upon the hearers,
causes a bending and contraction of the vocal tube just at the point
where this disease arises. High pulpits are not now universal, as
they once were, but are still unhappily common, though for other
reasons also objectionable. Besides, in some parts of the, country
it is usual for one who ispraying, to stand with upturned face, which
throwing the head back, produces a like constriction of the larynx;
and various cases of laryngitis are said to have been promptly
relieved by ceasing to adopt this very unnecessary posture.
(6.) Reading is much more injurious to these organs than speaking.
This also is conclusively shown by the experience of persons suffering from laryngitis, and the reasons for it can be easily perceived.
The fact is noticed by a clergyman of the Church of England: " The
song-note and speech-note are essentially different, yet each may
be produced in their respective work of singing and speaking for
several hours daily without injury to the throat. It is only the
speech-note as produced for reading, that induces this condition." *
Public reading instead of speaking is, it is well known, very rarely
practiced by any other persons than ministers.
It thus appears that several causes conspire to render preachers
more liable to this disease than others, but that most of the causes
can be removed, or counteracted. The symptom which especially
demands care, is a feeling of great fatigue and feebleness in the
organs, so that speaking, while not yet painful, seems burdensome
and laborious. At any time, and particularly when the general
health is feeble, this symptom imperatively calls for rest.  One
should for a while refrain from preaching, as far as practicable,
and from singing, and protracted and excited conversation; and
should carefully avoid taking cold, for this will almost certainly
* Cull, Lecture on Reading Aloud, quoted in Plumptre on Elocution,
p. 199. 
ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS VOICE. 463
l,rodi.ce ulcers.  It is highly injurious in such a case to stimulate
the jaded organs by mea,ns of ginger, pepper, etc., in order to strain
them a little longer. Let it be observed that an ordinary hoarseness, or sore-throat, without the tired and enfeebled feeling just
nEmtioned, is not to be confounded with the disease in question.
If laryngitis has actually occurred, it is certainly a serious
cal,ramity, but by no means hopeless.   The disease is often cured,
wholly or in great part, and men who continue subject to it, are
not unfrequently able, by proper care. to do  much preaching.
The chief remedies are temporary rest and especially improvement
of the general health.  Horseback exercise, travel. or some active
and enlivening employment, with increased attention to the ordinary conditions of health, will often work a cure in a few weeks.
If ulcers are formed, and the physician proposes cauterizing, let it
he done without hesitation; the dread of it commonly felt is without cause. After a few weeks of rest, if there has been partial
though not entire recovery, and especially if the general health
has improved, it is best to resume preaching to some extent. To
find oneself able to do this, even with some difficulty, will promote
cheerfulness.  And moderate exercise of the organs of speech is
beneficial to them, precisely as with other organs. Even consumrnptives frequently derive unquestionable benefit from singing or
speaking.
It is very apt to injure even a healthy voice, if it be much
strained in very cold or very hot air. When one has grown quite
warm in preaching, and goes out into cold air, it is extremely
important to guard against taking cold, not so much by wrapping
the throat as by protecting the whole body.  Neglect of this often
produces worse diseases than laryngitis. 
464 ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS ACTION.
CHAPTER III.
ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS ACTION.*
r  HE  term action is now commonly restricted to what
-- Cicero calls the sermo corporis, or speech of the body,
including expression of countenance, posture and gesture,
but not including the use of the voice.
The freedom and variety of action exhibited by children
when talking to each other, shows that it is perfectly
natural. Its wonderful expressiveness, even apart from
language, is sometimes displayed by the deaf and dumb,
and by others skilled in pantomime. There is a familiar
story of a dispute between Cicero and Roscius, an actor
famous for pantomime, as to which could express a thought
more eloquently, the one by words, or the other by signs.
In many cases a gesture is much more expressive than any
number of words. "How truly language must be regarded
as a hindrance to thought, though the necessary instrument
of it, we shall clearly perceive on remembering the comparative force with which simple ideas are communicated
by signs.   To say,'Leave the room,' is less expressive
than to point to the door.  Placing a finger on the lips is
more forcible than whispering,'Do not speak.' A beck
of the hand is better than'Come here.'  No phrase can
convey the idea of surprise so vividly as opening the eyes
and raising the eyebrows. A shrug of the shoulders would
* On this subject profitable use has been made of the notes of
lectures by the author's esteemed colleague, Rev. B. Manly, Jr.,
D. D. Among the treatises, Russell is here best, Pulpit Elocution,
p. 346-68. 
ON DELIVERY) AS REGARDS ACTION.  465
lose much by translation into words."*   "He  who  is
master of this sign-language has, indeed, an almost magic
power. When the orator can combine it with the spoken
language, he acquires thereby exceeding vivacity of expression. Not only his mouth, but his eyes, his features,
his fingers, speak. The hearers read the comling sentiment
upon his countenance and limbs almost before his voice
reaches their ears: they are both spectators and listeners;
every sense is absorbed in charmed attention." t
How-happens it that the man has so often lost this wonderful power, which the child possessed?  In some cases he
has been hardened, even in early manhood, by the too fierce
struggle of life, and has lost the fresh and lively feeling of
childhood.  In most cases he has become constrained and
self-conscious, no longer forgetting himself, as the child
did, in the subject he speaks of, and whether he be timid
or vain, his nmanner is of necessity unnatural and awkward.
Action is true only when it is spontaneous, and for the
moment almost unconscious. Even the child becomes constrained as soon as it is aware of being observed; and on
the other hand, the shyest or most conceited man, if his
whole soul be absorbed in his subject, and himself for the
time forgotten, again grows free and expressive in action,
so far, at least, as bad habits will now permit. And besides
all this, there has sometimes been the influence of wrong
notions about action, learned from unwise teachers or from
casual talk.
How then shall the preacher, in this respect also, "be as
the little children?"  He must cultivate his religious sensibilities, and a realizing faith.  He must prayerfully seek
to care more for his sacred themes, and less for himselfto keep the thought of self habitually and thoroughly
* Herbert Spencer on Style, p. 11. Quintilian (XI, 8) compares
also the impression made on us by pictures.
t Dabney's Sac Rhet. p. 323. 
466 ON DELIVERY) AS REGARDS ACTION.
subordinate to the thought of saving souls, and glorifying
the Redeemer. He must remember that he himself; as the
Creator made him, is called to preach the gospel; and
that with his individuality unimpaired, while faculties are
developed and faults corrected, he is to do the work to
him appointed. Then, thoroughly possessed with his subject, lifted above the fear of man, and kindled into zeal for
usefulness, let him speak out what he thinks and feels. No
doubt he will make some blunders; but what of that? A
child can never learn to walk, without sometimes falling.
But the child will not keep on falling the same way;
and so the speaker's blunders may teach him something.
Though probably not aware of them at the time, because
too busy with higher things, he may recall afterwards his
faults of action, or may be told of them by some kindly, or
perhaps some unkind critic, - and next time he will notice
a little, and correct or avoid.
Some men have naturally much more action than others.
And so with races, and men of the same race in different
regions. The more excitable nations, as the French, gesticulate almost constantly; the English comparatively little. On this subject English writers should not be heeded
by us;* for Americans are naturally more ardent and
excitable, more inclined to free and varied gesture, than the
English. And the same man will have more or less action,
according to his physical condition and the mood he is in,
as well as according to the subject and the circumstances.
Trust, then, to spontaneous impulse. Do not repress nature, save where particular faults present themselves. And
never force nature; for action is not indispensable, while
unnatural action would be injurious. Robert Hall had
usually not much gesture, though his expression of countenance was remarkable. Spurgeon has nothing very strik  E. g. Whately, p. 443, says: "Action is hardly to be reckoned
as any part of the orator's art." 
ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS ACTION. 467
ing in his action, but an extraordinary voice. On the other
hand, "there is an oaken desk shown at Eisenach, which
Luther broke with his fist in preaching; " * and the Apostle Paul appears to have had a peculiar and impressive
manner of stretching forth his hand. Do, then, what is
natural with you, and at the time. Have much or little
action, of this sort or of that. And always remember that
you are not engaged in a tournament, but in a battle -
that your great concern is not to keep within rules, but to
conquer.
It has been remarked above that action, the "speech of
the body," includes several distinct things.
1. Expression of countenance has great power. "But
especially dominant is the countenance. With this we
supplicate, threaten, or soothe, with this we are sad or joyous, elated or dejected; on this the people hang, this they
look at and study, even before we speak.... this is often
superior to all words." t With the exception, however, of
one feature, expression of countenance is almost involuntary, and little can be done in the way of improvement
beyond the correction of faults. When a man is possessed
with his subject, and thoroughly subordinates all thought
of self, his countenance will spontaneously assume every
appropriate expression.
But the exception is notable. Cicero says: "In delivery,
next to the voice in effectiveness is the countenance; and
this is ruled over by the eyes." I "The expressive power
of the human eye is so great that it determines, in a manner, the expression of the whole countenance. It is almost
impossible to disguise it.  It is said that gamblers rely
more upon the study of the eye, to discover the state of
their opponents' game, than upon any other means. Even
animals are susceptible of its power. The dog watches the
eyes of his master, and discovers from them, before a word
* Hoppiti. p. 253.
t Quiu t. XI, 3, 72.
I De Or. III, 59, 
468 ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS ACTION.
is spoken, whether he is to expect a caress, or apprehend
chastisement. It is said that the lion cannot attack a man
so long as the man looks him steadily in the eyes..... All
the passions and emotions of the human heart, in all their
degrees and interworkings with each other, express them selves, with the utmost fulness and power, in the eyes." *
Now the eyes we can in some respects control. We cannot
by a volition make them blaze, or glisten, or melt; but we
can always look at the hearers. And the importance of this
it would be difficult to overstate. Besides the direct power
which the speaker's eye has over the audience, penetrating
their very soul with its glance, it is by looking that he
catches their expression of countenance, and enters into
living sympathy with them. We have before remarked
upon the sustaining and stimulating power of sympathy in
the audience.t He who does not feel helped by this, and
does not greatly miss it when wanting, was not born to be
a public speaker, or has strangely perverted his nature by
wrong notions and bad methods. And in addition to the
involuntary effect upon the speaker of seeing the countenainces of his hearers, he can watch the effect produced,
and purposely adapt his thoughts, style and manlier to their
condition at the moment.
If a man feels as he should, his look at the outset will be
respectful without timidity, independent without defiance
or conceit, and solemn without sanctimoniousness, and then
will spontaneously change its character with every variation of feeling.
2. Posture. In walking, standing, sitting, riding, one
should take pains to acquire habitual uprightness and ease;
*Mcllvaine, p'. 400.
t Introd. ~ 1. Comp. also Part IV, chap. 1, upon the great
advantage which an extemporaneous speaker has in the freedom of
the eye. McIlvaine, p.103 if., states very strongly the value of sympathy in public speaking. 
ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS ACTION. 469
and then in public speaking there will be little danger of
his assuming any other than an appropriate posture.  But
there are various faults which, through lack of such habits,
or from mistaken views of oratory or wrong feelings at the
time of speaking, many persons exhibit. Quintilian and
later writers give warning as to these, and some of them
ought to be mentioned.
Among the commonest faults of preachers is leaning on
the pulpit. All inexperienced speakers are apt, feeling ill
at ease, to have a tottering equilibrium, and to look for
something with which they may prop themselves.  The
pulpit is so convenient for this purpose, that we need not
wonder if a habit of leaning on it is often formed. When
a young preacher finds himself inclined to this, he should
not only resist the tendency while in the pulpit, but should
take pains in social meetings, Sunday-school speaking, etc.,
to stand out with nothing before him. A few early experiences will rapidly form a habit, good or bad.
The body should be simply erect. A slight inclination
of the head at the opening is with most men a natural
expression of deference for the audience, but it must be
very slight, and will disappear as the preacher grows more
animated. An habitual stoop is a grave fault, both because
unsightly, and because hurtful to the organs of speech, and
should be corrected if possible; with a few men it is
natural and invincible.  To "rear back," as some do, suggests, though it be unjustly, the idea of arrogance or
conceit.
The arms should hang quietly by the side. To fold them
on the breast is a gesture expressive of peculiar sentiments,
and to be rarely used. To place the hands on the hips, if
with the fingers forward, seems to indicate a sort of pert
defiance; if with the fingers backward, it suggests weakness
in the back. To clasp the hands over the abdomen is
offensive, and to clasp the hands behind the back, though
40 
470 ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS ACTION.
not offensive, is scarcely graceful, particularly if they are
placed under the coat-skirts. To put them in the coat
pockets is inelegant, and in the breeches pocket is vulgar.
To stand, as many do, with one hand in the bosom, or to
occupy one hand in playing with a watch key or guard, or
with coat-buttons, etc., (Andrew Fuller's practice,) is in a
greater or less degree undesirable. It is natural that the
arms should at first hang easily by the side, (with the
palm towards the body,) until there is occasion to move one
or both in gesticulation, and that after any gesture they
should tend back to the same position, though in many
cases they remain for a while in some intermediate position
of comparative repose.
The feet should neither be far apart, like a sailor, nor in
immediate contact. Their precise position will be determined by the man's form and habits, and rules laying
down  one particular posture should be rejected.   The
Roman orator commonly stood with the left foot forward,
because he bore up the toga on his left arm, and the
ancient soldier advanced the left foot, because his left arm
carried the shield. No similar causes now exist for regularly advancing the left foot.* The only ground of choice
would seem to be, that if one hand is at any time actively
used in gesticulating, it seems natural and easier to have
the corresponding foot thrown somewhat forward.  How
often a speaker is to change posture will depend on his
temperament and his excitement at the time; one need
scarcely give himself any concern on that point, unless he
happens to be inclined to a restless, fidgety movement,
which is of course to be avoided. We must beware of
"striking an attitude," like Corporal Prim, and many an
other would-be orator.
He who finds himself inclined to any of these faults, ought
resolutely to correct them, carefiully to guard against them.
* Russell's Pulpi' Elocution, p. 357. 
ON DEL'IVEiP~Y, AS REGARDS AOTION.  471
The only real difficulty about correcting such comparatively
trifling faults is that men will not think them worth the
trouble. But nothing that at all affects a preacher's usefulness is really trifling. The young need have but little
trouble in curing these bad habits; and for those of middle
age it is still entirely possible.  Resolute determination,
with perseverance, and  especially care to form counter
habits when out of the pulpit, will commonly triumph.
If such defects really cannot be remedied, one must try
not to be worried about them, but to do his best notwithstanding.
3. Gesture - when we have excluded posture - denotes
movement, whether of the whole person, the feet, the body,
the head, or the hands. It is not natural for a speaker, if
at all animated, to stand perfectly still, and it is important not to fidget about, nor to walk the platform like a
tiger in his cage.  Between these extremes, a man will
change place more or less freely according to temperament,
circumstances, and taste. To stamp with the foot, may
sometimes naturally express indignation or certain other
vehement feelings, but it is apt to suggest an impotent
rage; and at any rate' it is scarcely ever becoming in a
preacher. Movements of the body, such as rocking to and
fio, or swaying from side to side, are almost always to be
avoided, and bending far forward is very rarely proper.
The head has a variety of appropriate and expressive
movements, but one must beware of awkwardness, extreme
vehemence, and monotony.
The arms and hands have to be considered together,
because in public speaking there can be scarcely ally
gesture with the hand that is not naturally accompanied
by some movement of the arm. Thus either may be taken
as representing both. The Greeks comprehended the whole
art of elocution under the term chironomy, or management
of the hands.* Certainly the hands and arms are in geg
-  Russell, p. 360. 
472 ON DELIVERY) AS REGARDS ACTION.
ture of unequalled importance. Quintilian says: "As to
the hands, without which delivery would be mutilated and
feeble, it can scarcely be said how many movements they
have, when they almost equal the number of words. For
other parts of the person help the speaker, these, I might
almost say, speak themselves." *   But many  speakers
are greatly at a loss what to do with their hands,t and
a similar difficulty is often betrayed in the parlor and
on the street. Gresley here points out an advantage of
reading sermons:  "The  extemporaneous preacher....
must find employment fir his hands. But when you have
your sermon written before you, your hands are occasionally
used in turning over the leaves of the manuscript," } and so
the reader, fortunate man, is not compelled to gesticulate.
It would be tedious to catalogue the faults which may be
observed in gesture with the hand and arm. Among the
commonest are a fluttering of the hands, which with some
persons becomes a marked habit; a shoving motion, which
is appropriate to express abhorrence, or any repulsion, but
not otherwise; and a sort of boxing movement. Some
work the arm up and down, like a pump handle, and others
flap the fore-arm only, like a penguin's wings, instead of
moving the arm from the shoulder, with the free action
which public speaking naturally prompts. Angular movements are appropriate to certain sentiments, but as habitual, are very awkward. The palm of the hand, as its most
expressive part, should in general be turned towards the
audience, and somewhat expanded.  "Yet how often we
see the hand of the speaker held out flat and close, like a
piece of board, or edgewise, like a chopping knife, or feebly
hollowed, like that of a beggar, receiving alms. Sometimes, on the contrary, we see it clinched in a style which
calls up the associations of smiting with the fist of wicked    * Quint. XI, 3, 85.     t Comp. above, as to posture.
: Gresley on Preaching, p. 282. 
ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS ACTION. 473
ness." * The clenched hand, the pointed fore-finger, etc.,
are very effective when their peculiar meaning is wanted,
and otherwise are proportionally inappropriate and damaging. It is also a common fault to bring down the hand
with a slap on the thigh, a movement necessarily ungraceful, or to slap the hands frequently together, which is very
rarely appropriate; and some preachers have quite a trick
of banging the Bible.
In all the employments and circumstances of life, let the
speaker see to it that his bearing shall be free, unconstrained, and not ungraceful. Then in speaking he will
have little occasion to think of posture or gesture, and may
follow, without fear, the promptings of nature. In general,
one should never repress a movement to which he is inclined, because afraid it may not be graceful. After all, life
and power are far more important than grace; and, in fact,
timid self-repression destroys grace itself. Oil the other
hand, never make any gesture from calculation. It must be
the spontaneous product of present feeling, or it is unnatural, and has but a galvanized life. He who declaims or
even thinks over his address beforehand, and arranges that
here or there he will make such or such a gesture, will
inevitably mar his delivery at that point by a fault, were
he Edward Everett himself. It is inexpressibly foolish,
though actually done by some teachers of elocution, to be
determining how many sentences may be uttered before the
first gesture. It is utterly unwise to begin gesticulating at
any point from the notion that it is now time to begin.
The time to begin is when one feels like beginning, neither
sooner nor later.  A sermon or other speech ought usually
to open quietly, and therefore there will usually be no gestures just at the outset
A few simple rules may be added, with regard to action
of every kind.
* Russell, p. 360.
40 * 
474 ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS ACTION.
(1.) Action should be suggestive rather than imitative.
Closely imitative gestures, except in the case of certain dignified actions, are unsuitable to grave discourse, and belong
rather to comedy. In saying, "he stabbed him to the
heart," one will make some vehement movement of the
hand, suggestive of the mortal blow; a movement imitating it, would be ridiculous, comic. A really good man, in
preaching at a University, once said: "You shut your
eyes to the beauty of piety: you stop your ears to the calls
of the gospel: you turn your back," etc., and in saying it,
shut his eyes, stopped his ears with his fingers, and whirled
his broad back into view. Alas! for the good done to the
students by his well-meant sermon. In "suiting the action
to the word," he "o'erstepped the modesty of nature."
Even lifting the eyes toward heaven, or pointing the finger
toward it, or pressing the hand upon the heart, etc., though
allowable, are sometimes carried too far, or too often repeated.
(2.) Gesture must never follow, and commonly must
slightly precede, the emphatic word of the sentence.* It
seems to be natural that excited feeling should find a more
prompt expression in the instinctive movement, than in
speech, which is the product of reflection.
(3.) Action must not be excessive, in frequency or in
vehemence. To some subjects, occasions, or states of feeling
ill the speaker, it is natural that the action should be rare
and slight. Too frequent gesture, like italics in writing
and emphasis in speaking, gradually weakens its own effect.
Extreme vehemence produces a revulsion of feeling in the
hearer, a tendency to just the opposite of what the speaker
desires.  Hamlet says to the players:  "Do not saw the
air too much with your hand thus, but use all gently: for
in the very torrent, tempest, and (as I may say) whirlwind of your passion, you must acquire and beget a tem
perance that may give it smoothness."
* Whately, p. 445. 
ON DELIVERY, AS REGARDS ACTION. 475
(4.) Avbid monotony. A certain unvarying round of
postures and gestures, again and again repeated, is a somewhat common, and most grievous fault. Akin to it, though
not yet so offensive, is the use, from mere habit, of some
~avorite gesture, when the emotion felt would be better
expressed by some other. The noticeably frequent recurrence of a word, a tone, or a gesture is always a fault, and
as soon as one becomes aware of it, should be carefully
avoided.*
In conclusion, it is proper to repeat that at all hazards
there must be life, freedom, power. Do not repress nature,
though it must be governed; and do not force nature. Aim
not at positive improvement in action, but negative - the
correction of faults as they appear. Look out for such
faults. Now and then ask some true and very judicious
friend to apprise you of such as may have struck him. No
one can be in this respect so helpful as an intelligent wife.
Speak out freely and boldly what you feel, A man can
never learn to perform any movement gracefully save by
performing it, frequently and with great freedom. The
vine must grow, or you cannot prune it. And let us not
forget that even some of a man's faults, in action and in
voice, may be a part of himself. Correct them wherever
possible; but better let them remain, than be succeeded
either by tameness or by artificiality.
* Comp. as to variety of expression, Part  11, chap. 4, end. 
PART V.
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
1. READING SCRIPTURE.. 2. HYMNS.  ~ 3. PUBLIC  PRAYER.
.   4. LENGTII OF SERVICES.  ~ 5. PULPIT DECORUM.  ~ 6. CONCLUDING REMARKS.
TENDENCY may often be observed in our religious
assemblies to neglect the worship, and think only of
the preaching. Indeed, we frequently hear good men speak
of the preliminary exercises.  The devout reading of God's
Word, sweet hymns of praise, and "prayer and supplication, w4h thanksgiving" - these, we must understand, are
of no great importance, only the porch, the threshold!
Straws show which way the winid blows, and the very form
of public notices is here instructive. "Divine service will
be held at St. Mark's Church, on next," etc. "The Rev.
will preach at the Baptist (Presbyterian,
Methodist, etc.) Church, on next," etc.  The Episcopal
notice mentions only the service. The others mention only
the preaching, and rarely fail to say who is to preach.
Accordingly, Highchurchmen usually care little for the
sermon, being mainly concerned that it should be suitably
short; though evangelical Episcopalians lay much greater
stress on preaching, and are often anxious for some liberty
of omission in the service. The other denominations men                                             476 
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
tioned, too generally think little of the service, the worship.
Some persons among them, dissatisfied with the felt lack of
interest, imagine that there is no'remedy save in having a
"form of worship," or some approach to it; and accordingly one meets now and then with a Sunday-school or congregation reading alternate verses, or engaged in choral
responses, etc., - some " entering wedge" for other things.
But the remedy lies elsewhere. The freedom, sponltaneity, simplicity, spirituality, of New Testament worship
must be maintained at all costs. The natural tendency of
the human heart to make much of externals while devoid
of spirituality, must by all means be resisted. So far as it
is lack of devotional feeling on their part that makes men
weary of informal modes of worship, so far we must beware
of yielding. But the dissatisfaction is often caused, at least
in part, by the coldness, lack of animation, want of connection, and general slovenliness which in so many cases
mark our worship. We must pay far more attention to
this than is common, both in the way of general cultivation and of preparation for each particular occasion.  This
is less necessary for those who have only to go through a
form of service prepared by others, than for him who, on
every separate occasion, is required to produce a service,
for himself and for the congregation. Thoroughly simple
in form, so as not to encourage the people to rest in exteriials, but full of interest, animation, devoutness, solemn
sweetness, and with a specific but inelaborate adaptation
to the occasion, - such should be our worship. That which
is not interesting and impressive cannot be the full expression of warm devotion, and then the expression, by a general law, reacts upon the feeling. Externals, however they
may appeal to esthetic sentiment, can never create devo tion; but animated and earnest expression will strengthen
devotion, and this may be achieved while carefully avoid ing the danger of formalism.
477 
478   CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
It is therefore deemed important to speak of the preacher's part in the conduct of public worship. This can only
be done very briefly here, though the subject deserves minute discussion, and, in fact, a separate treatise.*
~ 1. READING SCRIPTURE.
1. In selecting the portion or portions of Scripture to be
read, we should prefer such as are in a high degree devotional; e.g. many of the Psalms, passages from Isaiah and
other Prophets, from the Gospels, Epistles, and Revelation.
These will not only instruct, but will awaken devout feeling. The reading of them will naturally precede the principal prayer, whether immediately, or with the intervention of a hymn. The particular kind of devotional passages selected, and the general tone of the sermon, should
harmonize. To read a mournful passage, and afterward
preach a joyful sermon, or vice versa, would be inappropriate. Still, a general harmony is sufficient; great effort
to find an exact correspondence is unnecessary, if not unbecoming.
But there are many cases in which the preacher wishes
to read the connection of his text. If this connection is
highly devotional in tone, it may be read at the usual
point, as a part of the worship. If not, it should be read
after the principal prayer, either before the second hymn
or when announcing the text. In this case it is often well
to read before the prayer some brief devotional passage, as
*The pastor's management as to the whole ordering of public
worship, belongs only to works on Pastoral Duties; hut the part
which he himself performs, stands in immediate and almost inseparable connection with his work as a preacher, and may be regarded
either as pertaining to Homiletics, or to the pastoral work in general. The best discussions are those of Hoppin, Shedd, and the
German writers. See below for works on Hymns, and on Public
Prayer. 
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.  479
a few verses from a psalm. Sometimes two different passages may be read in immediate succession. In all these
details there is large liberty, and one need be no more
bound by custom than by rubric. Good taste and devout
feeling should govern, and there may be an interesting
variety, without hunting after novelty. A good effect is
sometimes produced by reading the connection of the text
when just closing the sermon. In very many cases it is
best not to read the connection at all, but to make a summary statement of it in opening the discourse.
The passages selected need not begin or end with a chapter. Some preachers seem to feel bound to read a whole
chapter, however long, and only a chapter, however short.
We have heretofore seen* that the current division into
chapters is awkwardly made, often uniting matters which
are wholly distinct, and dividing where there is a close
connection. By quietly disregarding them whenever the
sense requires, a preacher will help the effect of the service,
and will accustom his hearers to look out for the real connection, in their own reading.
If the passage proposed contains expressions which now
and to us seem indelicate, it may be either exchanged for
another, or the portions in question omitted, where that can
be done without attracting attention, and without material
loss. In general such expressions should be read, and if
so, then without the slightest hesitation, reserve, or manifestation of feeling.  The beautiful air of unconsciousness
seen in a refined woman, when she is led to hear or see
something indelicate, is in all such cases the best model.
2. To read well, is a rare accomplishment.  It is much
more common to excel in singing, or in public speaking.
Good preachers are numerous; compared with good readers.
The requisites to good reading are several. One must have
great quickness of apprehension, seizing the meaning of
* Comp. Part  I, claip. 2,? 2. 
480   CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
whole sentences at a glance; for one of the commonest
faults is to begin reading a sentence with an expression
which does not accord with its close; and in fact, the
reader must throughout keep clearly in mind the entire
connection, and read every sentence as part of a greater
whole. This also shows the need of a familiar acquaintance with what is read, and if not with the language of
the passage, at any rate with its subject-matter. A second
requisite is sensibility, so as not only to understand, but
promptly and thoroughly to sympathize with the sentiment.
Probably this is oftener wanting than the former. There
must also be great flexibility of voice, so as at once and
exactly to express every varying shade of feeling. And
finally, it requires ample and careful practice. But very
few persons practise reading much at the critical period of
life. In childhood, knowledge is too limited, the voice has
too little power, and the details of pronunciation, etc., require too much attention, to admit of thoroughly good
reading. Just at the time of opening maturity, when the
mind is developed in strength and quick in its grasp, when
the sympathies are wide and still sensitive, when the voice
has reached nearly its full power and lost nothing of its
flexibility, ought there to be thorough training, whether
with or without instruction, in the noble art of reading.
Careful exercise in reading ought to close the course of
College study. If at College commencements, instead of
the inevitable speech we could hear some graduates readnot with elocutionary display, and half-acting tricks, but
simple, manly, genuine reading - it would be a pleasure
and a profit to all concerned. A Reading Club in a village, especially if it includes both sexes,* will often be
* Women, of equal culture and practice, will oftener read well
than men; and this is not surprising when we note that women are
usually quicker in apprehension, more sensitive in feeling and sympathy, and have greater flexibility of voice. 
CONDUCT (IF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
more profitable than a debating society. Instruction in
reading is less hazardous than in public speaking, because
the former is to some extent necessarily an artificial thing,
and in reading there is somewhat less danger of corrupting
nature and falling into wretched affectations.
He who reads well, must of course be a master of correct pronunciation,* and must have acquired a distinct and
easy articulation. Beyond these, everything is included in
what we call expression; and power of expression, so far as
it is not a natural gift, must be acquired by well-ordered
practice. The practice ought usually to be in reading that
with which he is well acquainted, and in full sympathy with.
Besides such reading for practice, one should embrace every
fit occasion of reading for the pleasure and profit of those
who hear- selecting something full of interest, so that he
may forget himself in the sentiment. And preachers inclined to be lugubrious ought by all means to read in private some humorous selections, in order to maintain the
equilibrium.
Among the different elements of expression in reading,
two or three must be briefly mentioned. The first thing
thought of is apt to be emphasis; and the first result of
effort in this direction is usually a great amount of false
emphasis. Besides the obvious fault of placing it on the
wrong word, there is a subtler and very serious fault, which
consists in failing properly to distribute the emphasis.
Many men of ability and cultivation will throw the whole
weight of emphasis upon a single word of the sentence or
clause, when it ought to be divided, in different proportions, between two, or three, or several words. This point
deserves special attention and practice, with mutual criticism on the part of friends. After all, the real difficulty about emphasis is in thoroughly comprehending the
* McIlvaine's Elocution, p. 239-93, has a full discussion of this
subject, with many useful examples of common errors.
41
481 
482  CONDUCT OF PUBLIO WORSHIP.
thought and feeling the sentiment of what we read; as is
shown. y the fact that we very rarely hear false emphasis
in unrestrained conversation. It may be remarked that
the Book of Proverbs presents numerous admirable examples for exercise in emphasis.  Very many persons read
all interrogative sentences with the peculiar expression at
the close which is appropriate to questions expecting the
answer yes or no. Thus: Did he say he would come?
But there is a second class of questions which expect an
answer, but not in the form of yes or no. Thus: Who
said hlie would come? And in a third class no answer is
expected; as, Will any one ever come and help me? The
distinction is here very obvious, and never overlooked in
conversation, but frequently in reading. —There should
very rarely be any gesture in reading, beyond some natural
movement of the head, together with expression of countenance. -The injunction often given by teachers, "read
precisely as if you were talking," is not strictly correct.
A sort of oratorical reading is strongly to be condemned,
and it may be convenient to say, "read more as if you
were talking," but the essential distinction between talking and reading should not, and in fact cannot, be destroyed.*
It is particularly important that the Scriptures should be
well read. A comparatively small, and rapidly diminishing number of persons in our congregations are now necessarily dependent on public reading for their entire knowledge of Scripture, as was so common at first, when it was
said, " Blessed is he that readeth, and they that hear, the
wvord(s of this prophecy." t But as a matter of fact, many
persons do not read the Bible themselves, and their minds
are brought in direct contact with it only by the public
reading. On the other hand, those who read the Bible
niost at home, are often most pleased to hear it read in
* Conip. Part IV, chap.,  1, 3.       t Rev. 1: 3, 
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORISH IP.
public worship.  And in general, whatever reasons there
are for reading anything well, apply pre-eminently to the
book of all books, the Word of God. Good reading has
an exegetical value, helping to make plain the sense. It
also brings out the full interest, and impressiveness, of the
passage read. There are passages which have had a new
meaning for us, and an added sweetness, ever since we once
heard them read, it may be long ago, by a good reader.*
But to read the Bible Really well, is a difficult task.
The common mode of printing the verses, often seriously
obscures the connection. The proper names require atteintion, that we may pronounce them readily, correctly, and
yet without pedantry.- Far more important is the lack
of full intellectual and spiritual sympathy with Scripture,
which so often prevents our entering fully into the sense.
There is a common  tendency to be subdued by mistaken
reverence into a uniform tone, devoid of real expression.
The Bible should never be read precisely as we read other
books. It is all sacred, and in reading even its less strikingly devotional parts there should be a prevailing solenmnity; but this solemnity does not forbid a rich variety of
expression, as many readers appear to imagine.
Different parts of the Bible also differ very widely in
subject and style, and there must be a corresponding difference in the reading. There are narrative portions, varying
from simple stories through many grades to the surpassingly
pathetic or impassioned; didactic portions, of many kinds,
as seen in our Lord's various discourses, in the precepts
which everywhere abound, and in the elaborate and often
passionate arguments of certain Epistles of Paul; and
* See in RItussell, p. 2!)1-4, some good remarks on the importance
of reading the Scriptures well.
t Never depart from the pronunciation of them which is common
among educated people, unless there is something real to be gained
by it.
483 
184   CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORISHIP.
poetical portions, comprising the ele Sated imagery of prophetic description, both in the Old and ill the New Testament, the poetical argument of Job and precepts of
Proverbs, and the immnense variety of lyrical passages, in
the Psalms and elsewhere, presenting many phases of feeling, and often passing, in the same brief Psalm, from
penitence to rejoicing and praise.* In fact, the Bible is
not so much a single book as a library, containing almost
every species of composition, and requiring to be read in
almost every variety of manner.
One ought never to read a passage in public worship,
without being thoroughly acquainted with it, and this will
usually require that it be carefully gone over but a short
time before.
3. It was once a very common practice, and is still
wisely retained in some quarters, to make in connection
with the reading, explanatory and other remarks. These
should not be so numerous or extensive as to usurp the
attention due to the passage itself. They should aim to
explain it, to awaken interest in it, occasionally to indicate
some of its practical bearings, and especially to give it
effect in exciting devotional feeling. If there has been
thorough study of the passage, and if the preacher has
taken pains to acquire skill in this respect, there may be
brief, lively and yet devout remarks that will make this
part of our public worship far more interesting and profitable. But random remarks, made without study and without skill, do but interrupt the reading, and are sometimes
a sore drag upon its movement.
~ 2. HYMNS.
1. It is strange that some ministers should care so little
* Russell, Pulpit Elocution, p. 295, has a partially similar classification, with some remarks upon the several classes, and some good
specimens of each variety. 
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
for the proper selection of hymns. They surely do not
consider the blessed power of sacred song, nor the fact
that inappropriate and unimpressive hymns not only fail
of doing good, but are positively chilling and painful.
Some take their hymns at the first opening of the book,
with no care to make them suit the general tone of the
service. Others are solicitous that every hymn shall be
upon precisely the subject discussed in the sermon, forgetting that hymns are designed not for instruction, but to
express and quicken devotional feeling.
To succeed well in selecting, and also in reading hymns,
one must understand the nature, and sympathize with the
spirit of lyrical poetry- that is, of poetry suitable to be
sung. Some men are so constituted as to do this with ease,
but all will be benefited by making, as they may find
opportunity, special study of the chief lyric poets, such as
Pindar and Horace, Goethe and Beranger, Burns and the
Old English Ballads,* as well as good lyrics from many
other sources. This will not only develop and refine the
general taste for poetry, but the special taste for lyrics,
which, besides their importance for our purpose, are among
the highest and most potent forms that poetry can assume.t
The devout study of the Psalms, while pursued chiefly
for higher purposes, will also give one a better comprehension of the spirit of Scripture poetry.   And Christian
hymns, of different ages and nations, exist in rich abundance, suited to advance personal piety, and at the same
time to improve the critical appreciation of sacred lyrics,
so that we may become able to select wisely. The most
valuable of these are the Patristic and Medieval Latin
Hymns, the German and the English Hymns. The first
are often disfigured by more or less of unsound teaching,
* The best collection easily accessible is Percy's Reliques, which
may be had in cheap editions.
t Compare Shedd, p. 301-4.
41
485 
486  CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
many of them being addressed to the Virgin Mary or the
Saints; yet even these have much that is of great value,
while others, including some of the very finest, are almost
entirely free from objectionable matter, and full of the
noblest poetical and devout inspiration.*   The German
Hymns began to be composed at an earlier period, and are
now more numerous than our own;  and many of them
are unsurpassed for rhythmical movement, and devotional
sweetness.t English Hymns were very few before the
time of Dr. Watts, early in the last century; but to the
great number produced by him, and afterwards by Charles
Wesley, copious additions have ever since continued to be
made, till now we have a goodly heritage. All the recent
hymn-books, particularly those issued by Congregationalists and by Baptists, are rich with beautiful and blessed
hymns, though usually containing some that could be
spared. The minister ought, by all means, whatever time
and pains it may require, to make himself thoroughly
familiar with his Hymn-book, in order to prepare him for
prompt and judicious selection, to make him ready in that
timely quotation from hymns, which adds more in preaching than quotation from any other source except the Bible,
and to increase his personal piety. A delightful hour may
sometimes be spent by friends in discussing the Hymnbook, comparing favorite hymns, reading specimens, and
thus gaining critical knowledlge, at the same time with
devotional enjoyment and profit. It is also important to
examine other collections than our own, to look out the
original form of hymns from the older writers which have
been altered, and others which modern works omit, as
* There are convenient collections by Daniel and by Mone, and
Trench has an entertaining little volume entitled Sacred Latin
Poetry.
t Dr. P. Schaff has issued a German Hymn-Book, copious, and no
doubt the result of careful selection. 
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
seen in Watts and Rippon, in the complete Poetical
Works of Charles Wesley, etc. And there are inferior
collections, containing some homely pieces which would
be at once rejected by the critics, but which have such
power with the people as to provoke inquiry, and often
to reward it. One may also find it interesting to classify
the principal writers of English hymns, according to the
number and excellence of the hymns they have left us.
The first class would doubtless contain Watts and Charles
Wesley; the second probably Cowper, Montgomery, and
Miss Steel; the third, John Newton, Doddridge, and
Beddome; and then there would be a numerous class
of those who have written one or a few hymns of the
highest excellence.* The circumstances connected with
the original production of a hymn are sometimes very
interesting, and while it is seldom desirable to mention
them when the hymn is about to be sung, they may
sometimes be stated, with good effect, when it is quoted in
a sermon.
The properties of a good hymn may be briefly stated as
follows: (1) Correct in sentiment. Its general doctrine
should be sound, which is not quite true of some popular
hymns and songs and choruses,t and all its particular sentiments should be just. (2) Devotional in its spirit. Some,
even of Beddome's hymns, are purely didactic, and not
warm or moving.  A  good many hymns as to affliction,
and as to heaven, present morbid or merely fanciful sentiment, altogether wanting in true devotional feeling.
(3) Poetical in imagery and diction. Many hymns are
*Works on English Hymns, accessible and cheap, are those of
Belcher,  and  Christopher,  and an  entertaining work  entitled
Evenings with the Sacred Poets.
t E. g. "I want to be an angel."  Saved human  beings are entirely distinct from angels, and occupy, in some respects, a position of higher dignity.
487 
188  CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
only metrical prose, without any touch of genuine imagina tion, and sometimes employing words that are alien to the
very genius of poetry.   But a song which is not really
poetical, lacks a vital element of power. Even when we
chant unmetrical sentences, they must always be poetical
in sentiment, the language of imagination and passion.
(4) Rhythmical, being correct as to metre, animated and
varied in movement, and yet not rugged or halting, but
truly melodious.* (5) Symmetrical, the verses exhibiting
a regular progress in thought, and forming a complete
and harmonious whole. In a thoroughly good hymn it
would not be possible to omit any verse, without destroyilig the sense.  Still, there are many useful and even
delightful hymnns in which this is not the case, and when
the exigencies of our worship require the omission of some
verse or verses, much greater care should be taken than is
sometimes observed, so to manage the omission as to leave
the hymn still coherent and harmonious.t
It is better that the first hymn sung should not relate
to the precise subject of the sermon, but be emphatically
a hymn of worship.  Especially when the sermon is to the
unconverted, must it be out of place to begin the solemn
worship of God by a mere metrical exhortation to impenitent men. Of course this opening hymn, as well as every
other part of the worship, should have a general harmony
of tonie with all that is to follow. The hymn immediately
preceding the sermon will naturally be preparatory. The
last hymn will apply to the sermon, or express the sentiments which the subject presented ought to excite, or form
a general conclusion to the services. And it should be
constantly borne in mind that specific appropriateness to
* See below as to rhythmical pauses.
t Numerous examples of faulty hymns which it would be instructive to examine, (as well as many of great excellence,) are found in
the Olney Hymns (John Newton's Works). 
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
the subject of the sermon is far less important in a hymn
than that it should be a truly good hyni, eminently pleasing, impressive, warm.  As in the case of texts, it is very
unwise to avoid the familiar hymns, for they have become
familiar because they are singularly good.
2. Why should we read hymns at all, when they are
about to be sung? Not only because many present, particularly in some parts of the country, will have no hymnbook,* but because the previous reading brings the mind
into a certain sympathy with the sentiment, so that we
enter into it more fully when it is sung,- somewhat for
the same reason that makes us so apt to ask that a good
song may be repeated. It follows that the reading ought
to be animated and sympathetic.  If a man cannot, or will
not read otherwise than in a dull, languid, monotonous
fashion, he had probably better omit the reading altogether.
True, the overdone, oratorical manner of reading hymns is
extremely objectionable. There should be no effort, nothing but natural feeling.  But then if the hymn is a good
one, worthy to be read and sung at all, and if the man
knows it well, from general acquaintance or from thoughtful reading not long before, it will not be natural to read
it otherwise than with life and warmth. To read in a calm
and perfectly quiet manner, the words
"Jesus! I love thy charming name,
'T is music to mine ear,"
would be, for a truly devout man, well-nigh impossible.
* For the same reason it is still proper, in some places, as it was
once very common, to' give out " the hymn, two lines at a time.
Alas! there are not a few localities in which many white as well
as colored people cannot read, and giving out is a great comfort to
them.  Better annoy the chief singers a little, than despise our
weak brethren, and rob them of a share in this delightful part of
the worship.
489 
490  CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
In fact, as to all expression of feeling, cultivated people
are more apt fastidiously to shrink back, than to transcend
the limits of propriety.
Similar considerations will show that the rhythm of hymns
must never be disregarded. The sing-song fashion of read ing verse, often observed in ignorant men, and the monot onous inflections, regularly reproduced at the end of the
first, second, third and fourth lines by many educated men,
are one evil; but it is going grievously to the other extreme if a man attempts, as some actually avow, to read
verse as if it were prose. The sense is predominant; but
to neglect the rhythm is both to lose part of the beauty
and impressiveness of the hymn, and to offend  by the coinspicuous absence of what is naturally expected and demanded. Especially must we observe the rhythmical
pause at the end of every line; not letting the voice drop,
nor take the falling inflection, unless the sense so requires;
but even where the sense goes right on, we should make a
slight pause, with the voice suspended, in recognition of
the rhythmical close. In all lines of any considerable
length, there is also an equally important pause somewhere
about the middle of the line, the varied position of which
greatly contributes to the rhythmical effect. Those who
have not studied the classic caesura, may, without embarrassing themselves with technicalities, easily learn to perceive the position of this pause, by privately reading many
lines with a view to it, especially by exaggerating, at first,
the rhythmical movement, making even a sing-song. Sometimes there are two such pauses, one near the beginning,
the other towards the end, of the line. These rhythmical
pauses are too often neglected, though a man of good ear
for music will frequently observe them unconsciously.
And yet they may be mastered with comparative ease.*
Many good examples are given in the Appendix to Lord's Laws 
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
Not a little may also be gained from the study of
English metres, particularly those common ill hymns. A
man's ear may for the most part carry him through, but it
must often fail. There are exceedingly few persons who
read verse without frequent faults, unless they have attended to its metrical structure. The task of learning
the metres of our hymns is not difficult,* and to classify
them into the somewhat numerous varieties of Iambic,
Trochaic, (with combinations of the two,) Anapaestic, and
(in a few specimens) Dactylic verse, will be to some persons a pleasant amusement, by no means devoid of profit.
It is in reading Anapaestic hymns, many of which are extremely beautiful, that faults are most frequently observed.
It will of course greatly increase a man's skill in reading
hymns, and will especially serve to correct a tendency to
be dolorous or monotonous, if he will often read aloud from
secular verse. It would help many a preacher with his
Common  Metre hymns, now and then to read to some
friends, with full life and spirit, Cowper's John Gilpin.
It is curious to see how old custonis are maintained, after
the occasion for them has ceased to exist. -When even the
leader of the singing had no hymn-book, it was necessary
to announce beforehand the metre of the hymn; and this
is still regularly and most formally dohe by many Baptist
and Methodist ministers, where there is no possible need
for it.  So in "giving out," the minister would, after reading over the hymn, then read the first two lines, to be
of Figurative Language, and in Russell's Pulpit Elocution. There
is also a good discussion, chiefly with reference to heroic verse, in
Kames' Elements of Criticism.
* They may be studied with advantage in Angus' Hand-book of
the English Tongue, Quackenbos' Composition and Rhetoric, and to
some extent in almost any treatise on Composition or on Grammar.
There is also a book on English Metres, (or some such title,) by
Everett.
491 
492   CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
sung; and where giving out has long been abandoned.
often still the minister will repeat the first two lines in the
same way. If it is desired to revive the impression of the
opening words, this is lawful, but will frequently be better
accomplished by reading again simply the first line, or in
other cases the whole verse.
3. With reference to the music of hymns, it is proper
here to make only a brief remark. The superiority of congregational singing is beyond- question. Yet it seems generally necessary to have a choir, whose proper function is
to lead the singing of the congregation, but whose wellknown tendency is to usurp the whole. Hence result great
evils, sadly familiar to us all. Now the preacher is the
proper mediator between choir and congregation. If a
lover of music, especially if able to sing well by note, he
may keep the sympathies of the choir, and may induce
them, not by public but private requests, to sing for the
most part familiar tunes; and then an occasional public
and private exhortation to the people, to take part in the
singing, will effect the best arrangement that is usually
practicable. Friendly conference with the leader of the
singing might also secure a better adaptation of tune to
hymn than is often observed.
~ 3. PUBLIC PRAYER.*
The prayers form the most important part of public
worship. He who leads a great congregation in prayer,
who undertakes to express what they feel, or ought to feel,
before God, to give utterance to their adoration, confession,
supplication, assumes a very heavy responsibility. We
all readily agree, and sometimes partially realize, that it is
* See on this subject, besides the German writers and Hoppin,
Porter's Homiletics, Dabney's Sac. Rhet. (Richmond, 1870), and
Miller's Vol,lme on Public Prayer. 
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
a solemn thing to speak to the people for God; is it less so
when we speak to God for the people? Whatever preparation is possible for performing this duty, ought surely
to be most carefully made. And yet, while very few now
question the propriety of preparation, both general and
special, for the work of preaching, it is feared the great
majority still utterly neglect to prepare themselves for the
conduct of public prayer.
The general preparation for leading in public prayer consists chiefly in the following things: (1) Fervent piety.
This will include the habit of praying in private, and in
social meetings.  If it be true that "the only way to learn
to preach is to preach," it is still more emphatically true
that the only way to learn to pray is to pray. And while
some do tolerate preaching for practice, all will utterly
condemn praying for practice. It is thus plain that no
one will regularly pray well in public, who does not pray
much and devoutly in private. Along with this it may be
observed, that in every attempt to pray, under whatever
circumstances, one should earnestly endeavor to realize what
he is doing. (2) Familiarity with Scripture, both as furnishing topics of prayer, and supplying the most appropriate and affecting language of prayer.   The minister
should be constantly storing in his memory the more
directly devotional expressions found everywhere in the
Bible, and especially in the Psalms and Prophets, the Gospels, Epistles and Revelation. Perhaps a few men err, in
making their prayers consist of an almost uninterrupted
succession of long quotations; but this is uncommon, and
most of us greatly need in our prayers a large and more
varied infusion of Scripture language. (3) Study of instructive specimens  of prayer.   In the Bible there are
found, besides the numerous single devotional expressions,
various striking examples of connected and complete
prayers, and very many instances in which the substance
42
493 
494   CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
of a prayer is given though not the form. These ought to
be carefully studied, for instruction in the matter and the
manner of praying. Some of the long-established liturgies
are also very instructive.   However earnestly we may
oppose the imposition of any form of prayer, there is certainly much to be learned from studying forms prepared
with the greatest care, and in most cases by very able and
very devout men. More modern works, as collections of
prayers, and those recorded in diaries, will also repay
occasional examination.   In all such study of prayers,
great pains must be taken not to lose the devotional in the
merely critical spirit.
The special preparation which ought to be made for
prayer on any given occasion, may be best understood by
considering public prayer as to its matter, arrangement, language, and utterance.*
1. As to the matter, prayers will be very general and
comprehensive, or very specific, according to circumstances.
The simple and wonderfully comprehensive prayer given
by our Lord as a model in the Sermon on the Mount, and
afterwards repeated in a much shortened form,t which is
commonly called the Lord's Prayer, is a specimen of the
former kind, while to the latter belongs the prayer in the
17th chapter of John. In both directions we often witness
grave errors. Some prayers are so general as to include
* It will he sofn that these divisions correspond to the four leading parts of the present work, as a treatise on Preaching.   A friend
suggests that ai  Essay might be appropriately written on what
should be styled " The Homiletics of Public Prayer."
tSee any of the recently revised texts, in Greek or English. The
omrission of several important clauses on this second occasion (Luke
11: 2-4,) and the alteration of some expressions, prove conclue
sively that this was not. meant by our Lord as a form of prayer, for
(,,i that supposition we should have him failing to repeat the form
cor.ectly.  Notice how much is omitted in the corrected text of
b,1'.}:e 
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
almost everything, and thius to have no point.  A prayer
ought never to be indefinite and straggling, but should
alwvays have certain well-defined topics; anid these should,
when practicable, be determined beforehand. Other persoils enter into such minute details as to be inconsistent
with the character of a prayer suited to a whole assembly,
and sometimes to be indecorous.
Too many persons wholly omit, in public prayer, or
mention only in a few conventional  phrases before closing,
those great sulbjects of supplication which lie apart firom-,
their own  immediate  concerns.  Yet  ill the  "Lord's
Prayer" these subjects occupy half the space, and the first
half.  Prayer for Missions, at home and abroad, for the
in.crease of laborers, for Sunday-schools, and other such
objects, ought frequently to occur- sometimes one of them
being dwelt on, and sometimes another.
It is often and justly urged that we must not, in praying,
undertake to instruct God.  Yet this idea must not be carried too far. Our Lord, in the prayer of John 17, states
what he has been doing, and explains how eternal life is
attained. It is therefore proper sometimes to recite occurrences, or make statements, provided they become the occasion of thanksgiving or petition. Again, prayer must not
be used as a mnedium for exhorting the people, as is often
half unconsciously done.   Nor  must it contain complimentary allusions.   To pray for another minister present,
with elaborate compliment, is a sadly frequent, and grossly
improper practice.  Robert Hall erred in praying too often
for distinguished persons present.   So with allusions to
"this large and intelligent congregation."  Of course there
nmay be prayer for particular classes of persons, and sometimes for individuals; but no compliments.  Allusions to
political questionis, or any matters which are occasioning
strife in the community, can be justified only by peculiar
circumnstances and niode of handling.
495 
496   CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
Special pains should be taken to give to public prayer
the requisite variety- in topics, as well as in order.
Many preachers pray uniformly for the same objects, and
where they also follow a fixed order, and use many stereotyped phrases, it becomes pretty much a form of prayer,
without the advantage of having been eminently well prepared.  Much may be done towards securing variety by
inquiring beforehand what petitions would be suggested by
the occasion, or by the subject of the sermon, or by the
passage of Scripture just read, or the hymn which has been
sung. Of the topics which must of necessity be frequently
introduced, some may be elaborated on one occasion, and
some on another. In these, and many such ways, variety
may be gained. Of course there should be no straining
after it, nor any elaborateness in the prayer, of whatsoever
kind
Any attempt to catalogue or classify the materials of
prayer would be here inappropriate.
2. The arrangement of prayer must not be formal, but
there should always be a real order. It is not necessary,
if desirable, that this should descend to details. The leadiing topics must not only be chosen, as we have seen, but
arranged in the mind beforehand. All the arguments we
have urged in favor of arrangement in preaching, apply,
more or less, to order in prayer.*
The order which seems to be usually thought most
appropriate, may be stated as follows:  (1) Invocation,
adoration, thanksgiving.  (2) Confession, and prayer for
forgiveness. (3) Renewed dedication, and prayer for help.
(4) Intercession, for all general or special objects. BeginIling with the thought of God's character and mercies, we
are naturally led to think next of our own sins; and hence
the order named. But adoration may also naturally be
followed by prayer that God may be known and adored
*See Part II, chap. 1. 
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
over all the earth, (see the Lord's Prayer,) and reference
to ourselves, whether thanksgiving or supplication, be introduced afterwards. Or the very first words, after addressing God, may be a confession of sin, and a cry for
mercy.   Moreover, something peculiar in the occasion,
something known to be pressing upon the hearts of the
worshippers, may demand a great departure from the usual
order, as well as the usual selection, of topics. We must
avoid the two extremes, of wandering hither and thither,
and of stiff, formal, unchangeable order. Within these
limits, one may be guided by judgment and taste, by feeling and the occasion.*
3. The language of prayer must, of course, be grammatical, and free from all vulgarisms and oddities.  It should
be  thoroughly simple, -not  low  and coarse, but not
learned or inflated. We must avoid elaborateness, and
prettiness, which is extremely offensive to good taste and
painful to truly devout feeling, but must not avoid, when
deeply affected, the natural language of emotion, which is
apt to be figurative, and sometimes very highly figurative.
Where this is really natural, it will never strike one as
finery. It is one of the poorest compliments that can be
paid a man to say, that he made an "eloquent" prayer;
earnest, fervent, solemn, deeply impressive -such are the
terms to be desired, if indeed a prayer is complimented at all.
Almost all who lead in prayer come to have pet phrases,
whether they were originally imitated, or have only grown
habitual. It is very well that the prayer of another should
suggest to us topics or sentiments we had never introduced,
but to borrow phrases in prayer is in wretched taste, and
even unconscious borrowing should by every possible
means be avoided. Yet one hears certain favorite phrases
all over the country, which must have been adopted by
imitation. Sometimes they involve an image, as, "Stop
*As to the length of prayers, see below, ~ 4.
42*
497 
498   CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
them in their mrad career;" or an alliteration, as, "Choose
all our changes for us," "Touch and tender their hearts"
(which is bad English); or a big word, instead of homely
Saxon, as, "And  ultimately save us," where  "at last"
would be simpler and better. Examples cannot be multiplied, though the evil is extremely common, and very
hurtful. The use of such phrases seems to show that the
mind is occupied with the mere externals of prayer, instead
of being engrossed with devout feeling. Even where expressions are not borrowed, but have merely become habitual, their too frequent recurrence is still more objectionable
in prayer than in preaching.
Many are constantly repeating Oh! and Ah! or O Lord!
or "We pray thee," "We beseech thee," and the like,
Familiar language, such as the mystics use, "my Jesus,"
"sweet Lord," had better be avoided.
The phrases used in addressing God will naturally be
chosen with some reference to the connection. Thus our
Lord says, "I thank thee, O Father, Lord of heaven and
earth, that thou hast hid these things," etc. It is an act
of sovereignty. "Shall not the Judge of all the earth do
right?" is natural, rather than," Shall not the Almighty
[the All-wise, or the merciful God] do right?"
In employing the language of Scripture, as already
recomnmended, it is quite important to quote correctly; and
it is curious to observe the incorrect quotations which are
heard in widely distant States, showing that they have been
learned by oral tradition. " VWhere two or three.... there
am I in the midst of them, and that to bless them." The
words in italics are an addition.  "Thou canst not look
upon sin with the least degree of allowan?ce," spoils a forcible and beautiful image. "That the word of the Lord may
have free course, run, and be glorified," adds from the margin the word "run," there suggested as a possible substitute
for "have free course."  "The Lamb of God, that taketh 
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
away the sins of the world," is a curious change from
"sin."
4. The utterance of prayer "should be softer, more level,
.... less vehement, more subdued. Every tone should
breathe tenderness and supplication......It is difficult
to say which is most unsuitable to this sacred exercisea hurried, perfunctory utterance, as of one who reads some
tiresome or trivial matter, a violent and declamatory manner, as though one had ventured upon objurgation of his
Maker, or a headlong and confused enunciation." *
The utterance must by all means be distinct -not boisterous, but perfectly audible throughout the room. It is
very painful, and somewhat common, to be unable to hear.
As to the precise tones to be employed, let one strive to
realize what he is doing, and then speak simply as he feels,
unless he becomes conscious of special faults. Some men
are given to the use of a lugubrious tone, which does not
belong to the natural language of penitence and love, and
is sometimes ridiculous.  The tone should, of course, be
solemn and reverential, rather than familiar, but that does
not require it to be "mournful."
We must also avoid contortions of countenance, and
tricks of posture and gesture, which there will always be
some persons to notice.
~ 4. LENGTH OF THE SERVICES.
The proper length will depend very much upon circumstances. Two centuries ago it was not uncommon, both ill
the Church of England and among Dissenters, to occupy
from three to six hours. At present there is in many quarters a great impatience of long services, which should be
neither yielded to nor disregarded.  In the country, where
people ride or walk some distance, and have but one ser
*Dabney, Sac. Rhetoric, p. 358.
499 
500   CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
vice a day, it may be much longer than in town.  When
some particular occasion demands unusual length, and will
make the services interesting throughout, they may be
prolonged beyond the usual time. In general, while the
customs of the place and the known preferences of the congregation are to be consulted, we must not allow them to
bind us with iron fetters. There should be freedom, and
some variety, so as to withstand the perpetual tendency to
gravitate into formalism.  Many persons regard custom as
a sort of common law, more binding than an authoritative
form of worship. Against this the minister may practically
protest by such occasional variations as seem appropriate,
taking care not to shock by abrupt or singular changes.
There can be little of free, spontaneous life, where it is
cramped by unvarying forms, whether they be fixed by
statute or by custom. But innovation merely for the sake
of novelty, is worse than useless.
As to the length of a sermon, it would be well for a pastor to get it understood that he may sometimes make the
sermon very short, and sometimes quite long. There are
subjects which can be made very interesting and instructive
for twenty minutes, but to occupy thirty or forty minutes
it would be necessary to introduce matter really foreign
and calculated to lessen the effect, or so to hammer out the
style as to make it less impressive. Many a preacher has
thought of subjects or texts of precisely this description,
and has been compelled either to abandon them, or to spoil
them in one of the ways indicated.  Why not occasionally
preach a very short sermon, of twenty, or even of fifteen
minutes? In that case, if circumstances warrant, the other
services might, without remark, be made longer than usual,
pains being taken to render them interesting and impressive. On the other hand, there are subjects which imperatively demand an exteuded treatment, and canlot well be
divided; and the preacher, especially when at home, ought 
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.   501
to feel at liberty to occupy a full hour, or in rare cases even
nmore, provided lie is sure the sermon will have such a variety of distinct points, such stirring movement from beginning to end, and such sustained energy of delivery, as will
keep the people interested in a high degree. Within these
limits, the proper average ini towns, will probably be from
thirty to forty-five minutes, the former being best where
the habitual mode of treating a subject is condensed and
concentrated, the latter where it is more discursive and
varied.  It is obvious that much depends on the mode of
treatment. A long sermon may seem short, a short one
may be "tedious -brief," like the scene of Pyramus and
Thisbe.
The prayers are very commonly made too long. The
people cannot avoid becoming weary. It would be better
to have a greater number of prayers during the service,
and have them shorter. In general, there may be three
prayers, but varying in length according to circumstances.
The invocation, which opens the services- following the
voluntary anthem from the choir or voluntary hymn from
the congregation- is usually and properly short, but might
sometimes be made longer upon occasion. The principal
prayer, which is followed by the sermon, is especially liable
to become too long.  The last prayer, after the sermon,
ought to vary widely in length. If the preacher, or some
other who is called on, feels deeply moved, and if the services have not been unusually long, this prayer may be
considerably extended. If not, it should be short, sometimes very short. Even where the sermon has made a great
impression, the particular character of that impression and
of the subject must determine whether it had better be followed by a long prayer or a short one. It is sometimes
well to let a hymn follow the sermon, and then close with a
benediction. Or, without a hymn, the benediction may
follow at once. In either case the benediction, which is 
502   CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
nothing but a short prayer, may be preceded by a few sentences of other prayer, appropriate to the subject which has
been presented.
In general, as has been intimated, the different parts of
the service, reading Scripture, singing, preaching, prayer,
should vary in length according to circumstances, one part
being made longer when another is shorter, with no straining after sensational novelty, but with the variety which
unrestricted feeling naturally prompts.
~ 5. PULPIT DECORUM.
It is wonderful how much harm is sometimes done by
trifling acts of indecorum in the pulpit. If the preacher,
especially a young man, is seen arranging his hair or his
neck-tie, it will utterly prejudice some persons against his
sermon. If his dress is slovenly, or showy, it will have a
similar effect. If he is seen or heard taking a chew of
tobacco, or even a glass of water, while another prays after
his sermon, or hunting up hymns while another prays
before it, we can hardly wonder that people are offended.
Two ministers should not talk together during the singing,
unless there is peculiar occasion for it. To look about
carelessly before beginning the services, betokens a mind
little occupied with sacred things. Yet it is far from
desirable to substitute an elaborate solemnity of air. And
the practice of kneeling upon entering the pulpit, is of very
doubtful propriety. The preacher ought to pray before
beginning his solemn duties, but had he not better offer his
prayer in private than in public?
The following picture has become famous:
,, Would I describe a preacher, such as Paul,
Were he on earth, would hear, approve, and own -
Paul should himself direct me. I would trace 
CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
His master strokes, and draw from his design.
I would express him simple, grave, sincere:
In doctrine uncorrupt: in language plain,
And plain in manner; decent, solemn, chaste,
And natural in gesture; much impressed
Himself, as conscious of his awful charge,
And anxious mainly that the flock he feeds
May feel it too; affectionate in look
And tender in address, as well becomes
A messenger of grace to guilty men.
Behold the picture.  Is it like?  Like whom?
The things that mount the rostrum with a skip
And then skip down again; pronounce a text;
Cry- hem; -and reading what they never wrote,
Just fifteen minutes, huddle up their work,
And with a well-bred whisper close the scene! "*
A preacher should never exhibit irritation at inattention, or even at misconduct, in the audience. When it is
really necessary to rebuke, and to rebuke sharply, it ought
to be manifest that he is not resenting a personal slight,
but affected by higher motives. And in the great majority
of cases, public rebukes are better omitted. They often
give offence, and the good they do might usually be reached
in some other way. A kind, but decided word in private
is commonly much better. Few preachers have ever had
occasion to regret that they had been silent, when moved
to public rebuke; many have regretted that they spoke.
There should be nothing self important, or formal, in the
preacher's manner. It is generally better to say " I " than
to use the royal "we," the plural of majesty. There may
be more egotism in the latter case than the former. To
avoid the too frequent recurrence of the first person singular, the preacher may often associate hlimself with the
hearers, and then say "we."
After great excitement, in the pulpit or elsewhere, there
* Cowper on Pulpit Proprieties.  Comp. Kidder, IUou. p. 378 if.
603 
504   CONDUCT OF PUBLIC WORSHIP.
is apt to be a corresponding reaction. But many persons
fail to understand how a man who was so solemn  during
the sermon, is now so light. Men of excitable nature
should avoid exhibiting the effect of this reaction.  How
foolish soever people may be in criticizing trifles, we must
not leave them, as to such minor matters, an excuse for
finding fault.
~ 6. CONCLUDING REMARKS.
After all our preparation, general and special, for the
conduct of public worship and for preaching, our dependence for real success is on the Spirit of God. And where
one preaches the gospel, in reliance on God's blessing, he
never preaches in vain. The sermon meant for the unconverted may greatly benefit believers, and vice versa.  Without the slightest manifest result at present, a sermon may
be heard from long afterwards; perhaps only in eternity.
And the most wretched failure, seeming utterly useless,
may benefit the preacher himself, and through him, all
who afterwards hear him. Thus we partially see how it
is that God's Word always does good, always prospers in
the thing whereto he sent it.
Nor must we ever forget the power of character and life
to reinforce speech. What a preacher is, goes far to determine the effect of what he says.  There is a medieval
proverb, Cvjus vita fulgor, ejus verba tonitrua. If a man's
life be lightning, his words are thunders.
I 
I N    X.
I CTION, in delivery, 464; in children, 468; in men of different
nations, 468; rules of, 474.
Affectation, to be avoided, 449.
Alexander, J. W., Thoughts on Preaching, 85; striking remark of,
47; on speciality in subject, 90; pointed saying of, 130; on
divisions, 265; on expository preaching, 442, note.Amusements, how to preach on, 104.
Analogy, defined, 189; metaphors rest on, 191; argument from, 191;
use of, 192.
Analogy of faith, 85, note.
Analysis, a tremendous, 269, note.
Anecdotes, use of, in preaching, 224.
Anglo-Saxon words, observations on, 345; relative force of, 362.
Announcements peculiarities, in making, 476.
Antithesis, use of, 367.
Apologetics, definition of, 93.
Apologies, 252.
Apostrophe, 376.
Application, 230; persuasion a chief part of, 232; part of conclu    sion, 280.
A priori, definition of, 174; Kant's use of, 178.
Argument, use of, 158; men fond of, 159; preliminaries to, 162;
varieties of, 173-198; order of, 206; general suggestions as to,
210-213; not to be multiplied, 212.
Argumentum ad hominem, 197, 202.
Aristotle, on induction, 188; quoted, 210; on style, 321, 356, 880.
Art and literature, study of, 402.
Artificiality, 28; danger of, 29.
Athenians, their estimate of oratory, 448.
43
505
I
f 
INDEX.
Augustine quoted, 20; on study of models, 333.
Authority and testimony distinguished, 180; of the Fathers, 184;
of the Scriptures, 185.
ARROW, his analysis, 268.
Beecher, H. W., source of his illustrations, 218.
Belief and disbelief, 185.
Bible, division of, into chapters and verses, 61; paragraph, 63;
history, 106; preacher's chief study, 121; standard of appeal,
161; model of style, 332.
Biography, 223.
Bourdaloue, manner of preaching, 421.
Brevity, or conciseness of style, 352, 369, 372.
Bright, John, allusion to, 277.
Brougham, Lord, allusion to, 277.
Buffon on style, 320.
Burden of proof, 164.
Butler, Bishop, quoted on habit, 236.
CAMPBELL, George, on style, 249, 359, 363.
Cause and occasion, 180.
Chalmers, Dr., use of English version, 55, note; on Romans, 316;
sermons of, 354; read his sermons, 438.
Changes, a cause of pastoral, 412.
Chaplain, Roger de Coverley's, 136.
Charity, spurious, 95.
Chaucer, quoted, 128.
Children, sermons, 114; critics, 117; observation of, 219.
Choirs, use of, 492.
Christ, teachings of, 81; types of, 84; teacher of morals, 98.
Chrysostom, his manner of exposition, 313; preaching of, 314;
Homilies of, 317.
Cicero, advice to young orator, 20; striking remark of, 323; famil    iar letters of, 334; and Roscius, 464.
Clarke, Dr. Samuel, referred to, 176.
Clay, Henry, early training of, 24.
Commonplace book, use of, 42, 125.
Commonplace, ground of eloquence, 22.
Comparison, use of, 157, 239.
Conclusion of sermon, 277; length of, 286; impassioned, 284,
506
i
I
i
3 
INDEX.
507
Concordance, Greek and Hfebrew, use of, 78.
Coquerel, on arrangement, 247.
Countenance, expression of, in delivery, 467.
Cowper, on affectation, 449; description of preacher, 502.
ABNEY, Dr., referred to, 492; quoted, 499.
Decorum, pulpit, 502.
Deduction, defined, 194; use of, 194.
Definition, meaning of term, 153; examples of, 154; importance
of, 155.
Delivery, of sermons, general remarks on, 406; importance of, 444;
causes of failure in, 445; requisites to effective, 448.
Demosthenes, notice of, 26; saying of, "Action," etc., 444.
De Quincey, on style, 324, 351, 355; on English Grammar, 327.
Description, preacher's use of, 150; power of, 151.
Dilemma, 197.
Divisions, of sermon, 262; historical allusions to, 263; number of,
266; advantages of three, 267; character of, 268; relation to
each other, 269; order of, 271; statement of, 272; announce    ment of, 273; transition from one to another, 274.
Doctrines, staple of preaching, 88; great, to be preached on, 89;
specific aspects of, 91; examples, 92; history of, 123.
Dramatism, 377.
DWARDS, Jonathan, allusion to, 438.
Elegance of style, general characteristics of, 380; in different
kinds of composition, 381; preacher not to aim at exclusively,
384; not to avoid, 385; elements of, 386-394.
Eloquence, definition of, 20, 246; a practical thing, 21;  a serious
thing, 21; commonplace the ground of, 22.
Emphasis, in reading, 481.
Energy of style, 357; chief requisites to, 358-372; mistakes as to,
379.
English language, 826; works on, 327.
English version, use of, 54.
Epithets, use of, 361.
Errors, chief power of, 94; often to be unnoticed, 97.
Ethical philosophy, 124.
Exclamation, 376.
Ex concesso, argument, 197.
k\ 
INDEX.
Exegesis, use of, 146.
Exemplification, 146.
Everett, Edward, speaking of, 42w.
Evidences of Christianity, Ro. Hall on, 93; how treated, 34; inter    nal and experimental, 95.
Exhortation, concluding, 284.
Experience, subject of sermons, 109; religious, 220.
Explanation, often needed, 144; cautions in reference to, 145; of
subjects, 153.
Exposition, continuous, 306; Chrysostom's manner of, 313.
Expository preaching, advantages of, 300; objections, 301; man    agement of, 302; unity necessary to, 304; details in, 309;
parallel passages in, 311; difficult passages, 311; examples, 316.
Expression, in reading, 481.
Extemporaneous speaking, definition of, 425; advantages of, 42    431; disadvantages of, 431; difficulties of, 435; general and
specific preparation for, 439.
Eye, power of orator's, 415, 467.
-ABLES, use of, in preaching, 226.
Failures, susceptibility of, 433.
Fancy and imagination, 396.
Fathers, authority of the, 184.
Feelings, to be excited, 234.
Figures of speech, works on, 372, note; conducive to elegance, 390.
Foster, John, refered to, 164, 337; on use of Scripture phrases, 387.
Free speaking, from written preparation, 423.
Fuller, Andrew, his interpretation of Scripture, 55; influence of,
67; as an expositor, 307; exposition of Genesis, 417; insensi    bility to art, 403.
Fuller, Richard, his use of incidents, 223.
ESTURE, in speaking, 471, 473; in reading, 482
Goethe, quoted, on actor and orator, 446.
Gospels, discrepancies in the, 182.
Gracchus, Caius, anecdote of, 452.
Grainmars, English, 327; use of, 328.
Grimm, Jacob, on English language, 326.
-- ALL  ROBERT, on Evidences of Christianity, 93; on $lan of
--   sermon, 259; fond of specific subjects, 291; style of, 331.
Hands, use of, in speaking, 472.
I;
508
e 
INDEX.
Happiness, desire of, a proper motive, 233.
Hell, reference to, 83.
Henry, Patrick, early training of, 24.
History, use of, in interpretation, 81; examples of use, 82; Bible,
106; source of illustration, 223.
Holiness, desire of, a motive, 233.
Hlomiletical habit, 119.
Homiletics, meaning and origin of term, 30; works on, 32-37.
Hoppin, Prof., Office and Work of Christian Ministry, 36; on
argument, 159; on introduction, 251.
Howe, John, his use of texts, 39.
Hymns, importance of selecting good, 484; supply of, 485; best
writers of, 487; the properties of a good, 487; connection of,
with sermon, 488; the rhythm of, 490; music of, 492.
Hyperbole, 374; examples of, 375.
-LLUSTRATION, defined, 213; uses of, 214; works on, 216, note;
-importance of, 215; sources of, 217-228; may be invented, 220;
cautions as to employing, 228.
Imagination, use in exciting passions, 238; uses to orator,  395;
works on, 397, note; historical, 399; means of cultivating,
400; models of, 404.
Imitation, conscious and unconscious, 27; instances of, 28, note.
Indolence, a foe to originality, 134.
Induction, defined, 186; hasty, 186; safe, 188; Aristotle on, 188.
Inferences, part of conclusion, 281.
Interrogation, 376.
Interpretation, sources of error in, 53-70; treatises on, 78, note;
rules of, 61.
Introduction, propriety of, 248; sources of, 250; examples of, 253,
note, 255; qualities of a good, 254; Vinet on, 257.
Invention, rules for, 176; a source of illustration, 220.
Irony, allowable, 203.
a UDAS, sermon on, 296.
ANT, his use of a priori, 178.
~. Knowledge, requisite to good preaching, 23; all kinds useful,
120; has three dimensions, 134.
43*
i
509 
INDEX.
- ANGUAGE, imperfection of, 53; Scripture, 57; Study of
affects style, 325; books on English, 327.
Letters, familiar, style of, 333; Cicero's, 334.
Life, human, source of illustration, 218; our Lord's references
to, 219.
Literature a source of illustration, 225; study of, affects style, 329
Logic, study of, recommended, 160, 206.
Love, the strongest motive, 234.
Loyola, Ignatius, preaching of, 236.
T ATERIALS of sermon, prepared beforehand, 118; from every
source, 120; provided at the time, 126; original, 127-135;
borrowed, 135-142; special, 143.
Melody of voice, 457.
Metaphor, 373.
Methods of preaching, historical notices of the three, 436.
Metres, books on, 488, note.
Mill on Fallacies, 206.
Minister's sore throat, note on, 461.
Miracles, proof of, 183.
Misapplied texts, examples of, 70-78.
ARRATION, preacher's use of, 147. 
Narratives of the Bible, 303.
Natural gifts, 23.
Nature, source of illustration, 217; communion with, 102; energetic,
necessary to energy of style, 358.
Negative, not required to prove, 164.
Newman, John Henry, on earnestness, 236.
News of the day, how used, 223.
Newspapers, 331.
New Testament, Revised, 79; Moody's, 86, note.
Newton, Sir Isaac, reference to, 174.
Novels, the reading of, 404.
BJECTIONS, refutation of, 209.
Obscurity, often pleasing, 339.
Oddity, 130.
Old Testament, not to be neglected, 47.
Orator and actor, 445.
510
4
.,r
i
I
.1 
INDEX.
Orators, Indian, 24; great secular, 332.
Origen, his spiritualizing, 67.
Originality, 127; affectation of, 130; desirable, 130; obstacles to,
132.
Original Scriptures, advantages of using, 55; in expository preach    ing, 307.
-ALMER, on reading sermons, 417.
Parables, interpretation of our Lord's, 69.
Paradox, sometimes lawful, 130.
Paragraph, importance of, 349; requisites to a, 350.
Parallel passages, quotation of, 311.
Particles, use of, 350.
Paul, style of the Apostle, 322; language of, 375.
Personification, 375.
Perspicuity of style, 339; necessary, 341; explanation as to, 342;
requisites to, 342-357.
Persuasion, use of, 232; motives used in, 332-334.
Peter's denial, sermons on, 294.
Piety, a requisite to effective preaching, 22.
Pilgrim's Progress specially commended, 225.
'Plagiarism, defined, 135; ludicrous and serious effects of, 137.
Plan of sermon, 257; simple and fresh, 259.
Poetry and Preaching, 382.
Poets, study of, 403.
Points, speaker to fix his mind on, 351.
Polemics, references to, 95-97.
Posture, in speaking, 468.
j    Practice, chief means of improvement,'334.
Prayer (public), general preparation for, 493; special preparation
for, 494; matter of, 494; improprieties in, 495; arrangement
of, 496; language of, 497; pet phrases in, 498; the utterance
of, 501; remarks on Lord's, 494, note.
Preacher, when eloquent, 22; to preach on doctrines, 88; relation
to controversies, 96; to morality, 98; to politics, 103; to avoid
ultraism, 104; experience of young, 117; "homiletical habit" of,
119; Bible, chief study of, 121; why old fails, 119; how ori         ginal, 129; how to use thoughts of others, 139; when make
acknowledgment, 141; explaining text, 146; to study common
mind, 210; to be a close observer, 217; to excite feeling, 235;
511 
INDEX.
be subject of feeling, 236; not uniformly vehement, 240; to
cultivate variety, 276; to avoid forced feeling, 284; to be per    spicuous, 340; to have variety of style, 377; not to aim at
prettiness, 382.
Preaching, characteristic of Christianity, 17; relation to printing,
18; to pastoral work, etc., 18; difficulty of, 19; requisites to
effective, 22; an art, 25; doctrinal, 88; political, 99; histor    ical, 107; expository, 300.
Presumption, logical, defined, 165.
Profuseness, 372.
Progressive approach, argument from, 196.
Prolixity, 353.
Proposition, logical and rhetorical, 261.
Proverbs, value of, 226.
Punctuation, 335.
[AUINTILIAN, on slight arguments, 212; sharp saying of, 227; on
introduction, 256; on clearness of style, 241.
Quotations, use of foreign, 329.
_ EADING, remarks on, 124; public, of Scriptures, 478; good, a rare
accomplishment, 479; club recommended, 480; emphasis in,
481; expression in, 481.
Reading sermons, advantages of, 407-410; disadvantages of, 410    416; suggestions as to, 416-419; origin of practice, 437; where
custom prevails, 438.
Recapitulation, 279.
Reciting sermons from memory, advantages of, 420; disadvantages
of, 420.
Reductio ad absurdam, 197.
References, use of, 86.
Refutation, 198; men fond of, 198; often not complete, 199; indi    rect, 201; not too vehement, 203; effect of successful, 204.
Renan, reference to, 321.
Repentance, texts on, 92.
Rhythm, in prose, 388; books on, 390, note.
Rogers, Henry, quoted, 382.
Romanist, difficulties of, 172.
Ruskin, on imagination, 396; on prevailing frivolity, 401.
Ryle, J. C., Expository Thoughts of, 317.
512
t 
INDEX.
ACREI) eloquence, Henry Rogers on, 382.
Schleiermacher, quoted, 304.
Science, a source of illustration, 221.
Scriptures, a source of illustration, 228; study of, formerly and
now, 307.
Sentences, short and long, 348; periodic, 363; emphatic arrange    ment of, 365; broken, 368.
Sequence, logical and physical, 179.
Sermon, several parts of a, 248; introduction of, 248; plan of, 257 
divisions of, 262; conclusion of, 277; length of, 500.
Sermons, subject or text of, 87; classified according to matter, 87;
doctrinal, 88; not treatises, 91; moral, 97; political, 98; his    torical, 107; experimental, 109; funeral, 111; academic, 113;
to children, 114; different species of, 288; subject, 289; models
of subject, 292, note; text, 293; examples of text, 294, 297,
298; expository, 299; scheme of series of expository, 308
Services, length of, 499.
Shedd, on getting meaning of text, 79; on preacher's duty to society,
102; on "homiletical habit," 119; on discovering hidden skel    eton,  294; on expository preaching,  302;  on plainness  of
style, 340.
Simplicity in style, 391, 393.
Singing, a means of cultivating the voice, 452.
Skeletons and sketches, 138.
Smith, Adam, quoted on style, 381.
Speaking, in relation to style, 337.
Spencer, Herbert, on style, 394.
Spiritualizing, founded in nature of things, 66; in the Bible, 66;
practiced by the Fathers, 67; evil effects of, 84.
Spiritual manifestations, 180.
Spurious passages, not to be used as texts, 48; examples of, 48.
Stowe, C. E., on expository preaching, 315.
Style, general observations on, 319; treatises on, 319, note; Buffon on,
320; importance of, 321; English, French, German, and Ameri    can, 322; means of improving, 324; models of, 331; properties of,
329; perspicuity of, 329-357; spoken and written, 355; energy
of, 357-379; elegance of, 380.
Swedenborg, reference to, 65.
Swift, letter to a young clergyman, 343.
513 
INDEX.
TALKS, on meaning of passages, 308.
Terms, ambiguous, to be avoided, 163; to be intelligible, 343;
exact, 345; specific, more energetic, 359; elegant use of, 386.
Testimony, argument from, 180.
Text, meaning of the term, 38; originally long, 38; advantages of
having, 39; objections to use of, 40; selection of a, 41; rules
for selection of, 43, 50; ludicrous, 44; familiar, 46; spurious
passages not to be used as, 48; sayings of uninspired men as,
48;  accommodation  of, 51;  difficulty of interpreting,  52;
sources of error in interpreting, 53-70; grammatical study
of, 79; explanation of, 146.
Theology, systematic, value of, 122-123.
Transitional words, 276.
Translation, disadvantages of a, 54; uses of a, 79.
Translations, making a means of improving style, 337.
J NITY, importance of, 296, 303.
University (English) training, effect of, 322.
-ERBOSITY, 370.
Vinet, on eloquence, 22; on use of texts, 41; on interpreta    tion, 56; on political preaching, 101; on a priori, 178;  on
arrangement, 242; on Bossuet, 266.
Voice, importance of a good, 450; powers of, 451; improvement
of, 452; penetrating power of, 455; rules for management
of, 458.
Voltaire, on texts, 40.
W/HATELY, pointed sayings of, 79; anecdote of, 133; Logic,
162, note; definition of presumption, 165; on conciseness
352.
Whitefield's oratory, 427.
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2