T H E THE IBLE HAND-BOOK: AN INTRODUCTION TO 1h ^9fudt a4 Marred 2rrtnturn BY JOSEPH ANGUS; D.D. SECOND REVISED EDITION. With Retvisions, Notes, and an Index of Seripture Text, BY REv. F. S. HOYT, A.M. NEW YORK: NELSON & PHILLIPS. CI~xINNATI: HITCHCOCK & WALDEN. 1873. int3rd according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by JAMES S. CLAXTON, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. STEREOTYPED AND PRINTED BY ALFRED MARTIEN. etMdlaPeiHqd N31ilVWA~ S3~1:1 Aq Paqs.lqnd ~58~o- ^0^ff'0\ 0m_____ ____1"0^"" ~-~_____^__________"____ _ —/ i...._.... ~. ~ - ~ _,......__,,,...__. ~.,, -.._.........~..., ~....~ ~ ~ -.........O...........-....l.-t-.-.... -..,. ~~~'-4_.-_ az)i I i I I ii l l ll i ii ^ I I -i i - ii i!i i i, ~ l~ i i -~ V ii r m ~ i i i ) I i ~ i oim a m~i, il! i i I a l,~-LI I -imiifT~;~mm ii WL12P ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ^^i^^^^ ^T^^ ^'' ~~^-?^(4i ^' ^"B^'t^^ ^^ ^^.1 ^ l^^^^^^> ^^M~~~~~~~~~~~~l^,.. -o.'. i 11 N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:, I ^'^C^I^^^ ^^ I ^T ^ ^^ ^/^^\^^ ^^^^\'~ ~... i ^ s" ^'^ i' ^ ' ^ jL~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~nw -"^ / ^ 7-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I' V I-H-l S ^ ~V<~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a'IV V I ~ ~- ~aV^^ ^r jjl___________ ^ \\ y/ ^^ ^ ^^^ / ^ ^ ^ ^__^!^lot - oJ All ~ ~ ~ ~ - A ^""" ^ill " < I -9 n.o T, O~~~...~~~,~~ ~~...~. ~~,~.~~~,N ~~,~. ^^.,~.~,^'^' 0:p' O fr., _________ O.S _______ ____________ ^ ^______________________________________^ _____________ ______________________________________^__________________________________________ ^ ~~~~ ~' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ PREFATORY NOTE TO THE THIRD AMERICAN EDITION. The Bible Hand-Book has met with so general favor and has been so largely introduced as a text-book into Theological Schools, that the publisher is encouraged to spare no pains to correct and improve it. In the present edition, an effort has been made not only to correct all known errors in typography, and in the Scripture references, but also such statements as criticism has proved to be unfounded, or to require modification. A few notes have also been appended, numeral references to which have been inserted in the text. Additional matter, and the emendations, where it was practicable to do so, have been included in brackets. These improvements, too numerous to mention here in detail, place this edition far in advance of the English, and if all previous American editions. Suggestions as to future emendations and improvements will be gratefully received from those using the book. They may be addressed to the publisher, or to the Rev. Professor F. S. IOYT, of Delaware, Ohio, by whom most of the corrections in this edition have been made~ Acknowledgments are due to Rev. MI. B. GRIER, D.D., editor of the Presbyterian, and to Professor F. D. HEMENWAY, A.M., of the Garret Biblical Institut, and others, for valuable criticisms and suggestions. N. B.-The corrections introduced into the text of the Hand-Book rendered the multiplication of Notes unnecessary. The few, which are appended, are purposely limited to Part First. PREFACE. The following pages are intended as an introduction to the study of Scripture, and are written with the view of being used by all classes of intelligent readers. On a first perusal by younger readers, it is suggested that the sections marked (a) in the table of contents, be omitted, together with such paragraphs as may be thought too abstruse. The attempt to adapt the work to both young and advanced students, renders such a selection at the outset desirable; and the whole has been written so as to make the portions read, in the first instance, easily intelligible and complete in themselves. On the other hand, any who wish to consult the book on particular subjects —as on the study of the Greek Testament, or on the proof of particular doctrines-can easily do so by the help of the Index. If any wish to connect the study of these pages with the study of Theological Science generally, he will find the following classification important. Theology is Exegetical, Historical, Systematic, and Pas. toral - Under the head of EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY are placedPHILOLOGY, or the study of the languages of Scripture, with their cognate dialects, see Ch. I. Secs. 2, 4; Ch. IV. Sec. 5. CEITICISM, which aims first to establish a correct text, and secondly, to explain the peculiarities of the style, etc., of the several books, see Ch. I. Secs. 1, 3, 5, 6; Ch. VI. Sec. 1, and Introductions to Pent., Gospels, Epistles, etc.HEnRENEUTICS, or the theory and practice of Interpretation, Ch. L Sec. 6; Ch. IV., and Ch. VI. iV PREFA CE. Under the head of HISTORICAL THEOLOGY are placed —ARCHAEOLOGY, with its two divisions: Biblical Archaeology, which treats of ancient customs, etc., see Ch. IV. Sec. 6, and Ecclesiastical, which treats of the opinions of early Jewish and Christian sects and writers, see Ch. IV. Sec. 6; Part II. Ch. IV. Sec. 2; Ch. IV. Sec. 1; Ch. VII. Sec. 1. HISTORY OF DOCTRINE, of which this volume does not treat. Under the head of SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY are placedDOGMATIC THEOLOGY, which treats of matters of faith, etc. PRACTICAL THEOLOGY, which treats of practice. See Chaps. III., V., VII., and Introduction to Cor., Romans, etc. Under the head of PASTORAL THEOLOGY are placedHOMILETICS, of which this volume treats but indirectly, see Ch. VII. The PASTORAL CARE and ECCLESIASTICAL LAW, of which nothing is said here. The EVIDENCE OF CHRISTIANITY, and the EXTERNAL HISTORY of the Church of Christ, are distinct branches of inquiry. Of the first, the following pages treat at some length, Chap. I. Sec. 1: Chap. II. Sec.' 1-4, etc. To some of the subjects enumerated in this list, this volume is only an introduction intended to guide the advanced reader to larger works; but on most it will be found sufficently full to enable earnest-minded inquirers to study and master the evidences, facts, and doctrines of Scripture for themselves. Its aim is to teach men to understand and appreciate THE BIBLE, and, at the same time, to give such information on ancient literature and history as may aid the work of general. ucation among aFl classes CONTENTS. PAe~ PREFAEB ~. ~ O ~.. ~ ~ ~ PART I. INTRODUCTORY.* ~ 1 CHAPTER I. ON THE GENUINENESS OF SOCIPTURE: OR THE BIBLE A8 INSPIRED MEN WROTE IT..1 Sec. 1. Genuineness defined and proved, j 6-24. Sec. 2.& The original languages of Scripture. Hebrew and the Shemitish languages generally; Hellenistic or Hebrew Greek of the New Testament and LXX, g 25-41. Sec. 3.' The manuscripts of Scripture, 1 42-64. Sec. 4.* Tle ancient versions of Scripture, 65-74. Sec. 5., The various readings of Scripture r rules for determining the text, 75-112. Sec. 6. The English version on the whole identical with the original text, 1 113-134. CHAPTER II. ON THE AUTHENTICITY AND AUTHORITY OF SCRIPTURE. 8 See. 1. Scripture claims to be regarded as an inspired teacher, and as the only inspired teacher, ~ 135-145. Sec. 2. Inspiration, g 146-150. Sec. 3. The canon, ~ 151-166. Sec. 4. Authenticity.-Scripture evidence, ~ 167 213. 1* (v) Vi CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. PA *f PECULIARITIES OF THE BIBLE AS A REVELATION FROM GOn.. 141 Sec. 1. A revelation of God, of Christ, and of human nature, Q 214-218. Sec. 2. A revelation of spiritual religious truth, ~ 219-227. Sec. 3. A gradual and progressive revelation, ~ 228-238. Set. 4. The unity of the Bible, & 239-245. Sec. 5. Not a revelation of systematic truth or specific rules, 8 246-253. CHAPTER IV ON THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE.. 167 Sec. 1. Of the necessity for care in the study of Scripture, g 254-269. Sec. 2. Of the spirit in which the Bible should be studied, 270-273. Sec. 3. Of rules of interpretation,.- 274-309. Sec. 4. Of the utility and application of rules in interpretation, 310, 311. Sec. 5.a Of the application of these rules to the study of the. original Scriptures, ~ 312-338. Sec. 6. Of the use of external helps in interpretation; Jewish and heathen opinions; history, profane and ecclesiastical; chronology; natural history; manners and customs; geography, historical and physical, & 339-404. Sec. 7. Of the application of these rules to the interpretation of allegories, parables, types, and symbols, & 405-433. Sec. 8.a Of the interpretation of prophecy, ~ 434-454. CHAPTER V. ON THE SYSTEMATIC AND INFERENTIAL STUDY OF THE SCRIPTURES...... Sec. 1. Of the study of the doctrines of Scripture, ~ 455-464. Sec. 2. Of the study of the precepts of Scripture, ~ 465-472. Sec. 3. Of the study of the promises of Scripture, 4 473-480. Sec. 4. Of the study of the examples of Scripture, d 481-487. CONTENTS. VUi CHAPTER VI. PAOG PRIOCIPLES AND RULEJ ILLUSTRATED IN THE QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT FROM THE OLD, AND APPLIED TO THE SOLUTION OF SCRIPTURE DIFFICULTIES.... 378 Sec. 1.& Quotations classified and examined with reference to the state of the text, the truths and evidences of Scripture, and principles of interpretation, 4 489-500. Sec. 2. Scripture difficulties, i 501-523. CHAPTER VII. OX THE INFERENTIAL AND PRACTICAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 408 PART II. THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE. INTRODUCTORY..... 423 CHAPTER I. THE PENTATEUCH AND THE BOOK OF JOB.. 428 Sec. 1. Genuineness and authenticity of the Pentateuch, 7 7-13. Sec. 2. The Book of Job, i 14-17. Sec. 3. Of Hebrew poetry and the Poetical Books, ~ 18. Sec. 4. The Books of the Pentateuch, arranged and epitomized with occasional helps, ~ 19-24. Sec. 5. The design of the Law; summary of its religious institutions, ~ 25-31. CHAPTER II. HISTORICAL AND POETICAL BOOKS TO THE DEATH OZ SOLOMON. 473 Sec. 1. The Historical Books of Scripture generally, 1 32-35. Sec. 2. Brief Outline of these Historical Books, ~ 36. Sec. 3. The Books of Joshua, Judges, and Ruth, j 37-42. Sec. 4. The Books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, & 43-51 S~c. 5. The Poetical Books-Psalms, Song of Solomon. Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, 52-62. Viii CONTENTS. PAG& Bec. & The whole arranged and epitomized, with occasional helps, j 63-68. CHAPTER III. HISTORICAL BOOKS FROM THE DEATH OF SOLOMON TO THE CLOSE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT CANON.. 523 Sec. 1. Brief historical view of this period; the Prophets in connection with history, J 69-73. Sec. A. The nature of Prophecy during this period; Predictions arranged according to time and according to subjects, ~ 74-76. Sec. 3. The Books of Jonah, Joel, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, Nahum, { 77-87. Sec. 4. The Books of Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Habakkuk, Daniel Ezekiel, and Obadiah. The Captivity, ~ 88-94. Sec. 5. The Books of Ezra, Haggai, Zechariah, Esther, Nehemiah, and Malachi, ~ 95-102. Sec. 6. The whole arranged and epitomized, & 103-106. Sec. 7. chronology of Scripture and early profane history from the Deluge to the close 6f the Canon, g 107. CHAPTER IV. CIVIL AND MORAL HISTORY OF THE JEWS FROM MALACHI TO JOBH THE BAPTIST......... 599 Sec. 1. Sketch of the Civil History of the Jews between the two Testaments { 108-115. Sec. 2. Sketch of the Moral and Religious History of the Jews between the two Testaments, 1 116-128. CHAPTER V. THE GOSPELS........ 613 INTRODUCTORY, 4 129-134. Sec. 1. The Gospels in their mutual relations, ~ 135, 136. Sec. 2. The genuineness of the Gospels, ~ 137. Sec. 3. Introduction to Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, a 138-141, Sec. 4 The Chronology of the Gospels,. ~ 142. Sec. 5. The Gospels Harmonized, j 143-150. CONTENTS. i1 Sec. 6. Topics to be notieed in reading the Gospels. Lessons to be gathered from a comparison of passages, ~ 151-152. CHAPTER VI. TEEs BooI OF ACTS.... 636 Sec. 1. The Gospel and the Gentiles, & 153-161. Sec. 2. Introduction to the Book of Acts, ~ 162, 163. Sec. 3. Chronology of the Acts and Epistles arranged, ] 164-166. CHAPTER VII. THE EPISTLES AND THE BOOK OF REVELATION.. 647 Sec. 1. On the study of the Epistles, i 167-169. Sec. 2. On the genuineness of the Epistles, Q 170. Sec. 3. Helps to study of 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans, James, Ephesians, Colossians, Philemon, Philippians, Hebrews, 1 Peter, 1 Timothy, Titus, 2 Peter, 2 Timothy, Jude, and precepts given in each, with epitome of Doctrines, ~ 171-195. Sec. 4. Helps to the study of 1, 2, and 3 John, and to the Book of Revelation, J 196-204. NOTES........ 717 INDEX (OF CONTENTS)........ 727 ERRATA IN INDEX OF TEXTS.. 727 INDEX OF SCRIPTURE TEXTS....... 38 THE BIBLE HAND-BOOK. PART I. Tan SnSTEmRTIU OF VESPASIAN: A. D. 69. ACTUAL SIas. It commemorates the conquest of Judea. The country is represented by the PAIM TREB, beneath which is a sitting figure, the "captive daughter of Zion," in an attitude of dejection. The emperor stands by, holding a lance, and with his foot on a helmet. Judtea capta (Judea taken): S. C. (by decree of the Senate). INTRODUCTORY. " I use the Scriptures not as an arsenal to be resorted to only for arms and weapons...but as a matchless temple, where I delight to cOntemplate the beauty, the symmetry, and the magnificence of the structure; and to increase my awe and excite my devotion to the Deity there Dreached and adored."-BOYLE: On the Style of Scripture, 3d obj. 8. "Scarcely can we fix our eyes upon a single passage in this wonderful book which has not afforded comfort or instruction to thousands, and been met with tears of penitential sorrow or grateful joy drawn from eyes that will weep no more."-PAYso: The Bible above all Price. " This lamp, from off the everlasting throne, Mercy took down, and in the night of time Stood, casting on the dark her gracious bow, And evermore beseeching men with tears And earnest sighs, to hear, believe, and live." —POLLo. 1. EVEN as a literary composition, the sacred Scriptures form the most remarkable book the world has ever rhe Bible seen. They are of all writings the most ancient, its claims. 12 THE BIBLE -OW TO BE STUDIED. They contain a record of events of the deepest interest. The history of their influence is the history of civilization and happiness. The wisest and best of mankind have borne witness to their power as an instrument of enlightenment and of holiness; and having been prepared by "men of God who spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost,"" to reveal " the only true God and Jesus Christ whom he has sent,"b they have on this ground the strongest claims upon our attentive and reverential regard. The use of a hand-book of Scripture requires one or two cautions, which both writers and readers need to keep before them. 2. First. We are not to contemplate this glorious fabric of To be stud- Divine truth as spectators only. It is not our busifed ith iness to stand before Scripture and admire it; but obedience. to stand within, that we may believe and obey it. In the way of inward communion and obedience only shall we see the beauty of its treasures. It yields them to none but the loving and the humble; We must enter and unite ourselves with that which we would know, before we can know it more than in name.~ 3. Secondly. Nor must the study of a help to Scripture be All helps of confounded with the study of Scripture itself. Such value onlyas they lead to helps may teach us to look at truth so as to see its the Bible itself. position and proportions, but it is the entrance of truth alone which gives light. The road we are about to travel may prove attractive and'pleasing, but its great attraction is its end. It leads to the "wells of salvation." To suppose that the journey, or the sight of the living waterperhaps, even of the place whence it springs-will quench our thirst, is to betray most mournful self-deceit or the profoundest ignorance. Our aim-" the sabbath and port of our labors"-is to make more clear and impressive the Book of God, " the god of books," as one calls it,-the Bible itself. a 2 Pet. i. 21. bJohn xvii. 3; Ps. xix ~ Prov. ii. 2-5: John vii. 17. The Synagogue, No. ui. THE BIBLE —ITS TITLES. 13 4. The names by which this volume is distinguished are not wanting to significance. It is called the BIBLE, nm. or the book, from the Greek word gixo0s, book, a TheBible. name given originally (like liber in Latin) to the inner bark of the linden, or teil-tree, and afterwards to the bark of the papyrus, the materials of which early books were sometimes made. [Biblel is directly from $,3A;r, little books]. It is called the Old and New Testament (that is, covenant or appointment), the term by which God was pleased OldandNew to indicate the relation or settled arrangement be- Testament. tween himself and his people. The term was first applied to the relation itself,a and afterwards to the books in which the records of the relation are contained. Among the Jews, the Old Testament was called "The Law, the Prophets, and theWritings." Sometimes theTheLa, Writings,or'(as the Greek name is) the Hcagiographa eaProph were called, from the first book under the division, Writings. the Psalms. What books were included in these divisions we gather from ancient Jewish authorities.2 Josephus reckons two-andtwenty canonical books of the Old Testament, and the whole may be thus divided: (1.) The five books of Moses, [nin Torah]: the Law. (2.) The Prophets, [tv:.'. Nebiim]:-including (a.) The historical division vtn:at.:iw.., Nebiim Rishonim, namely1. Joshua. 6. Daniel. 2. Judges and Ruth. 7. Ezra and Nehemiah. 3. Samuel, 1 and 2. 8. Esther. 4. Kings, 1 and 2. 9. Job. 5. Chronicles, 1 and 2. Ex. xxiv. 7: 2 Kings xxiii. 2: 2 Cor. iii. 6-14. kJAtMr, in classic Greek is disposition, or a will; in Hellenistic Greek, it is often equivalent to uo-,ix, a covenant. Gen. xxi. 27-32: xxvi. 28: xxxi. 44. b Luke xxiv. 44. C[See on the Canon 1158]. 14 THE BIBI[E-ITS rITLES. (b.) The Prophets, properly so called, ten.rn tevste, Nebiim Acharonim: 10. Isaiah, 11. Jeremiah and Lamentations. 12. Ezekiel. 13. The twelve minor Prophets. (3.) And the Hagiographa,..ie. Cethubim, namelyThe Psalms, the Proverbs, the Song of Solomon, and Ecclesiastes. In modern copies the following are also placed among the Hagiographa:Job, Ruth, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles. And this is the arrangement now in use in the Hebrew Scriptures. The terms, " the Scripture," " the Scriptures,"b " The Holy Other Scriptures,"* are also applied in the Bible itself to names. the sacred books; as is the expression, "the oracles of God;"d though this last is sometimes used to indicate the place where, under the old dispensation, the will of God was revealed.~ "The Law"' and "-the Prophets"* are each employed, and sometimes unitedlyh by a common figure of speech, to designate the whole of the Old Testament. The sacred writings were sometimes called the canon of Canon of Scripture, from a Greek word signifying a straight Scripture. rod, and hence a rule or law, Gal. vi. 16: Phil. iii. 16. This term was employed in the early age of Christianity with some indefiniteness, though generally denoting a standard of opinion and practice. From the time of Origen, however, it has been applied to the books which are regarded by Christians as of Divine authority. The Bible, therefore, is the canon, that is, the authoritative standard of religion and morality. 5. But of all titles, the "word of God" is perhaps the most ~ John x. 35: Jas. iv. 5. b Luke xxiv. 27. e Rom. i. 2; 2 Tim. iii. 15. dActs vii. 38: Rom. iii. 2: Heb. v. 12 1 Kings viii. 6: 2 Chron iv. 20: Ps. xxviii. 2. Mat. v. 18: John x. 34: 1 Cor. xiv. 21. I Mat. xxvi. 56: Acts iii. 18-21: xxviii. 23. h Mat. xi. 13: xxii. 4(. THE BIBLE —ITS GENUINENESS. 15 impressive and complete. It is sufficient to justify The word the faith of the feeblest Christian, and it gathers up of God. all that the most earnest search can unfold. We may say more at large what this title involves, but more than this we cannot say. It teaches us to regard the Bible as the utterance of Divine wisdom and love. The JEWISH SHExKE. ACTUAL SIZE, —SmVE. The earliest Jewish coined money (B. C. 125). On one side is "Aaron's rod that budded," on the other the "pot of manna." The inscription, in Samaritan characters, is:"Shekel of Israel," and "Jerusalem the Holy." The date (the "second year," i. & of Simon) is written over the pot of manna. CHAPTER I. ON THE GENUINENESS OF SCRIPTURE: OR THE BIBLE, AS INSPIRED MEN WROTE IT. "The integrity of the records of the Christian faith is substantiated by evidence, in a tenfold proportion more various, copious and conclusive than that which can be adduced in support of any other ancient writings." -IsAAc TAYLoR. SEC. 1.- GENUINENESS DEFINED AND PROVED. 6. IF a MS. of each book of the Biblein the author's handwriting were still extant, and if the fact of its being A genuine such could be proved, every copy that agreed with MS. wha the MS. would be perfectly genuine. There are now, how 16 OtENTUIXTENESS-PRINTED COPIES. ever, no such autographs of any ancient books; and yet there are circumstances attending the preservation and transmission of the MSS. of the Scriptures, which prove their genuineness with nearly as much' certainty as if the first copies were still in existence. 7. [A MS., or book, whether anonymous or written by the person Genuine- whose name it bears, or by one using an assumed name ness defined or title, is genuine, (1.) If whatever it affirms in respect to the authorship of it is true; and (2.) If its text in all material points remains as it proceeded from the author. If the text has been materially changed, it is corrupt. If its statements in respect to authorship are false, the MS. or book is spurious, or forged.3] 8. The question of the genuineness of Scripture is much ii simplified by the invention of printing. That art shortens an fixes the dates of books, and by multiplying copies qui and editions secures the text from corruption. As printed books cannot be altered by the pen, any material change of the text becomes impossible or nugatory. The MSS. of printed books are now committed therefore without fear of falsification "to the immortal custody of the press." 9. There are still extant, for example, printed copies of the Printed Old Testament in Hebrew, dated Soncino, A. D. copies of 1488, and Brescia, A. D. 1494. A copy of the year the Scriptures, A.D. 1488 is in the library of Exeter College, Oxford, and 1488-1616. in the Royal Library at Berlin is the identical copy (dated 1494) from which Luther made his German translation. There are extant also copies of the New Testament in Greek, dated Basle, 1516, edited by Erasmus, and in Greek and Latin, dated Alcala or Complutum (in Spain), 1514. On being compared with each other, and with modern editions, these copies are found to agree in the main. They, therefore, prove by a single step, the existence of the Scriptures in the 15th century. They prove, also, that the text of modern editions has not been materially impaired during the last 350 years. 10. These two editions of the New Testament which are Textu, founded upon a very partial examination of MSS. Receptaa form the basis of the Received Text. The first edition of that text was printed in 1624, by Elzevir. Besides GENUINENESS-MANUSC-LPTS. 17 the two editions just named, he had the advantage of consulting the editions of Stephens (Paris, 1546), and of Beza (Gen. 1565), but did not introduce from them many important readings. 11. At the time these volumes were printed, there were MS. copies of the Scriptures in most of the public M f th libraries of Europe. They form, with the writings Scriptures. From A. D. of the Fathers, or of other ecclesiastical authors of 1457 to the the middle ages, the bulk of most library catalogues cetury of the 15th century. Dr. Kennicott collated 630 of these MSS. for his critical edition of the Hebrew Bible. De Rossi collated 734 more. And upwards of 600 MSS. have been examined for recent editions of the Greek Testament. (~ ~ 59. 75.) 12. In the case of the Greek and Roman classics, twenty, or ten MSS. are deemed amply sufficient to form an Compared accurate text: fifteen MSS. of Herodotus are known as to numbers with to critics, of which the most ancient belongs to the Mss. of Classics. 10th century: and this is a fair average of the ancient MSS. of classic authors. It is obvious, therefore, that the advantage in this respect is greatly on the side of the Scriptures. The number of MSS. has afforded ample provision for restoring the text to its original purity, and at the same time gives absolute security against extensive corruptions. 13. The MSS. of the Hebrew Scriptures, now extant, were most of them written between the years A. D. 1000 Age of 1Reb. and A. D. 1457.4 Some, however, belong to the 8th MSS. and of and 9th centuries, among which are two of the MSS. (Nos. 634, 503), lately in the possession of M. de Rossi, by whom the various readings they contain were published. The MSS. of the New Testament, and of the Septuagint, or Greek translation of the Old, are earlier still. The Alexandrian MS.5(Codex Alexandrinus, called A by Wetstein, Griesbach, and other critics), now in the British Museum, comprising, in four volumes, small folio, both Old and New Testaments, must have been written in the first half of the 5th century. The Vatican MS. (called B), preserved in the library of the 2*~.... 18 GENUINENESS-QUOTATIONS Vatican,6 at Rome, belongs to the 4th, as does [also the Cod, Sinaiticus7 (n), at St. Petersburgh obtained by Tischendorf, from the convent of St. Catherine, Mount Sinai, 1859; doubtless the best of the New Testament MSS]. The Codex Regius, or Ephrsemi (C), so called from the author whose works were written over it, the parchment being what is called a rescript (or "twice-written," in Greek palimpsest, or "rubbed again,") belongs to the 6th century. The Codex Bezse (D), given by the reformer Beza to the University of Cambridge, belongs (in the opinion of Wetstein) to the 5th century; critics who give it least antiquity assigning it to the 6th or 7th. 14. A Virgil in the Vatican claims an antiquity as high as Cor ared the 4th century; but generally the MSS. of the claswithMSS. sics belong to periods between the 10th and the 15th centuries. In antiquity, therefore, as in numbers, they are greatly inferior to the MSS. of Scriptures. 15. As we reach the time of the earliest hSS. of the Scriptures, another kind of evidence presents itself no Quotations from Scrip- less impressive: namely, the quotations of Scripture, ture in ecclesiastical and references to it, which are found in the writings writers. Their of the early Fathers, and in the Rabbinical paranature. phrases. The references of classic authors one to another, though sufficient to establish the antiquity of the works quoted from, form a very inadequate provision for correcting the text of each. They are generally in the way of allusion only to some fact or passage. Even when the references are more pointed, they are generally so loosely nade as to be of little critical value. In quotations from the Scriptures the case is entirely different. They are generally made with the utmost care, the very words of the Sacred writers being introduced, and forming the subject of lengthened discussion, or of important practical teaching. 16. Looking first at quotations from the New Testament, we have in the 5th century the writings of Theodoret in CenL of Cyprus, in Syria, on the Epistles of Paul, and on most of the Old Testament. Still earlier, Cyril of GENTI fENs ESS~ERSIONS.S 19 Alexandria wrote on the Prophets, and on John. In the 4th century, Chrysostom wrote commentaries on the whole of the New Testament. To the same century belong also the writings of Gregoiy of Nyssa. In the 2d and 3d centuries, we have the writings of Origen and Theophilus, of Antioch: fragments of each remain (though the second, in Latin only), and are often quoted by later writers. In the 2d century, we have the writings also of Irenaeus, and of Clement of Alexandria. Not less important are the writings of Jerome, who wrote commentaries on Scripture in the 4th century. To the same century belong also the voluminous writings of Augustine. For a complete list, see page 107. These are a few only of the authors of the early age of the Christian Church. In not less than one hundred Number of and eighty ecclesiastical writers (whose works are qUOt"tion. still extant), are quotations from the New Testament introduced; and so numerous are they, that from the works of those who flourished before the 7th century, the whole text of the New Testament (it has been justly said) might have been recovered, even if the originals had since perished. The experiment was tried by Dr. Bentley, and he confirms this statement. 17. A similar process of investigation into the Hebrew text carries us to the era of our Lord. The Targum, or Targums interpretation of Onkelos, translates the Pentateuch into Chaldaic Hebrew (though of the purest order), and was written [in the 1st century after Christ.] The Targum of Jonathan on the Prophets and historical books was written about the commencement of the Christian era. In the 4th century, Joseph the Blind wrote a Targum on the Hagiographa; and a little later, various similar versions of other parts of Scripture were published. These Targums, ten in all, are of great value in determining the text of Scripture, being, for the most part, very literal paraphrases of the original Hebrew.8 18. To corroborate this evidence of the correctness of the New Testame it, and o carry st:'.1 further back the evidence 20 GENUINENESS-VERSIONS. Dn the old, we have the ancient versions of the Scriptures. Versions In the 9th century, a version of the Bible into the from the Slavonic, or old Russian language (of great critical to the st. value), was published. In the 6th century was completed a version of the whole Bible into Georgian. In the 5th, a version into Armenian, under the care of Miesrob, the inventor of the Armenian alphabet: in the 4th one into Gothic, under Ulphilas. In the 3d and 4th centuries, all the New Testament, and part of the Old, were translated into the Copto-Memphitic, the language of Lower Egypt,-the Copts being Egyptian Christians: and also into Sahidic (or Thebaic), the language of' Upper Egypt. In the 4th century a translation was made into Ethiopic, the language spoken in Ethiopia, the country of Candace and the modern Abyssinia. Several of these versions were made from the Septuagint, some from the Syriac, and a few from the Latin Vulgate. The Peshito (or literal) Syriac version of the Hebrew and Peshito. Greek Scriptures belongs probably to the2ndcentury. It was in general use among the Syrian churches in the year 378, and is then quoted by Ephrsemthe Syrian as the version generally received, and so ancient as to require frequent explanation. The true Philoxenian, or New Syrian, belongs to the 6th century, and the Haraclean (commonly called the Philoxenian) to the 7th. Both versions take their name from the persons under whose sanction they were made. The Peshito being, as its name implies, very literal, is of great value in determining the original text. (~ 71). Nor for this purpose is the Vulgate itself of small importVulgate. ance. The text it contains was made by Jerome [between 382 ard 405]. Part of it, including the New Testament, he took from an older Latin version, called the old Italic, which is quoted by Tertullian in the year 220; but the greater part he himself translated from the original of the Old Testament. This version was gradually adopted by the Latin Church, and was the first book ever printed. The present text is very corrupt. [See Bib. Die., Art. Vulgate.] GENt-INENESS-VERSIONS. 21 Still more ancient than most of these are the versions of the Old Testament by Symmachus, Aquila, Theo- Greek dotion, and the Seventy. The whole were in the versions hands of Origen in the year 228 A. D., and were used by him in revising the text of the Septuagint. He afterwards published them all, with the Hebrew text in Hebrew and Greek letters, in what was hence called his Hexapla, or six-columned Bible. The version of Aquila was made about the year 160 for the use of Hellenistic Jews, and is quoted by Justin Martyr (A.D. 160) and Ireneus (A.D. 176). It is extremely literal, and was read by the Jews in their synagogues. The version of Theodotion appeared about the same time, and is quoted by the same authors. The version of Symmachus is of later date, and is expressed in plain, elegant language, without being a literal translation. These three texts are now lost, but their important variations are preserved in the Hexaplarian text of the Seventy, published by Montfaucon at Paris, 1713. The version of the Seventy (so called, perhaps, from the number of translators supposed to have'been engaged Septuagint in making it) is the most ancient of all. It has generally been received by both Jews and Christians; is more frequently quoted in the New Testament than the Hebrew; and was in common use both in the Synagogues and in the early Christian churches. The first reference to it is by Aristobulus, who lived in the 2d century before Christ. The most probable date of the beginning of the translation is about the year 285 B. C., when Ptolemy Lagus and Ptolemy Philadelphus were kings of Egypt,a [and completed by 150 B. C.] 19. Such is a sample of the evidence by which it is proved that in the 1st century of the Christian era (and in Result. * Hody (on the authority of Clement and Eusebius), Usher, Walton, Eichhorn, and others, do not materially differ in the date they assign to it. Some (De Wette and others) suppose that it was written by different authors and at different times, though it is agreed nat the whole wts extant in the timi.e of the sor o. Sirach, B. C. 130. 22 GENUINENESS-StYMMARY. the case of the Old Testament, two centuries earlier), there existed and were known throughout the Roman world book, called the Sacred Scriptures, written by inspired men, and that the present text of the Bible is identical with the text which these books contained. 2G These remarks apply without exception to the books of the Old Testament, and to twenty out of the Homol& goumena twenty-seven of the New. These twenty are the Antileso- four Gospels, the Acts, the Epistles of Paul (except that to the Hebrews), and the first Epistles of John and Peter. These twenty books were universally received as genuine, and were therefore called Homologoumena (i. e. acknowledged). The other seven books were disputed for a time by particular churches, and were therefore styled Antilegomena (or disputed). After a deliberate examination, however, they were at last received as genuine, the very delay proving the closeness of the scrutiny which their claims had undergone. 21. Decisive as these facts are, they give a very inadequate tsmoridea of the amount of proof of which the genuineness decisive of the Scriptures is susceptible. The MSS. are instill. numerable. They belong to all ages; and many of them are very ancient. They have been kept for centuries in distant parts of the world, under the custody of opposing sects, and in circumstances that made extensive or important alterations impossible. The possessors of these MSS. deemed them of the highest value, and professed to live under the influence of the truths contained in them. Copyists preserved them with the utmost reverence, counting every letter of every book, and registering the very tittles of the law. How remarkable, how decisive as an evidence of Divine care, that while all the libraries of Europe and of the world containing copies of the Sacred Scriptures have been examined, all ancient versions extant compared, the MSS. of all countries from the 3d to the 16th century collated, the commentaries of all the Fathers again and again investigated, nothing has been discovered, GENUINENESS-VARI( US READINGS. 23 not even a single general reading which can set aside any important passage hitherto received as genuine. This negative conclusion, that our Bible does not essentially differ from the Bible of the Primitive Church, is indeed an ample recompense for all the labor and time which have been devoted to these pursuits. 22. To give the reader a just conception of the expression that our Bible does not differ essentially from the Effect of various Bible of the Primitive Church, we may notice what readings. the various readings of the New Testament involve. In the Epistle to the ROMANS, for example, which contains 433 verses, there are at most four passages, the mean- Epistle to ing of which is modified by readings which Griesbach Romans. deems of weight:In ch. vii. 6, for " that being dead in which we were held," he reads "We being dead to that in which we were held:" a difference in the original between o and e. So some editions of the tex. rec. In ch. xi. 6, he omits the latter half of the verse. In ch xii. 11, he reads "time" for " Lord;" Mup for vpt. In ch. xvi. 5, he reads the first fruits of Asia for Achaia. These are the only corrections that affect the sense, and they are all unimportant. To make them he examined all the principal MSS. already named, 110 others, and 30 from Mount Athos collated by Matthaei, who travelled over a great part of Russia and Asia for this purpose. In Galatians the important corrections are three Epistle to Galatians. only: In ch. iv. 17, for you in the second clause he reads us: a change in the original of one letter. In ch. iv. 26, he omits the word " all." In ch. v. 19, he omits the word "adultery." Corrections which make no difference in the sense. In the 7959 verses of the New Testament there are not more than ten or twelve various readings of great impor- New tance, and these afect not the doctrines of Scripture, Testamet. 24 GENUINENESS-VARIOUS READINGS. but only the number of proof passages in which the doctrines are revealed. The important various readings sanctioned by Griesbach are the following:In Acts viii. 37, he omits the verse. In Acts ix. 6, he omits the first part of the verse. In Acts xx. 28, for "the church of God," he reads "the church of the Lord," a change depending on one letter K for o. In Phil. iv. 13, for "through Christ," he reads " through Him." In 1 Tim. iii. 16, for " God manifest," he reads "who was:" a difference arising from the supposed omission of a mark in one of the two letters of the word — for S. In Jas. ii. 18, for "by thy works," he reads "without thy works," aa do many copies of the English version. In 1 John v. 7, 8, he omits from "in heaven" to "in earth." In Jude 4, he omits " God." In Rev. viii. 13, for "angel," he reads "eagle." These corrections are all sanctioned, except Acts xx. 28, and 1 Tim. iii. 16, by Scholz and Hahn. In these two passages I o h writers agree with the common text, as they do much more frequently than Griesbach in other unimportant readings. Several of the readings of Griesbach, though not theologically important, removed difficulties from the present text. 23. Of the Old Testament, a careful examiner -has noted Old 1314 various readings of value. Of these, 566 are'estament. adopted in the English version; 147 of the whole affect the sense, but none can be regarded as theologically important: generally they correct a date or complete the sense. See Hamilton's Codex Criticus, Lond. 1821. 24. The writings of Terence (six pieces only) contain 30,000 variations, and they have been copied many times Result. less frequently than the New Testament. We may well acquiesce, therefore, in the language of Bengel, who, after laborious research into these topics, wrote to his scholar, Reuss, "Eat the Scripture bread in simplicity, just as you have it, and do not be disturbed if here and there you find a grain of sand which the mill-stone may have suffered toqpass. If the Holy LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE —IEBREW. 25 Scriptures, which have been so often copied, were absolutely without variations, this would be so great a miracle that faith in them would be no longer faith. I am astonished, on the contrary, that from all these transcriptions there has not resulted a greater number of various readings.", But many expressions have already been employed which need to be explained. If their meaning be clear, yet is there much to be said in relation to them before the reader is thoroughly prepared to understand all they involve. The general conclusion that our Bible is, on -the whole, as inspired writers left it, is undoubted; but the Bible-student often requires materials for closer inquiry.'We proceed, therefore, to give a brief account of the original languages of'the sacred volumeHebrew and Hellenistic Greek-of the manuscripts, versions, and various readings of the-sacred text. bSEC. 2.-THE ORTGINAL; LANGUAGES OF SCRTPTUREE.- EBREW AND THE SHEMITIC LANGUAGES GENERALLY. 25. The Hebrew language, in which nearly all the Old Testament is written, was the language of the Hebrews or Israelites during their independence. The people themselves were known among other nations by the name of Hebrews and Jews, not by the name of Israelites. Name. The epithet of Hebrew, however, was not applied to their language till the days of the son of Sirach, (B. C. 130.) It occurs first in the Apocrypha, where it means, not the old Hebrew, but the Arammean, or Syro-Aramcean. This is also the meaning of the term in the New Testament. Josephus seems to have been the first who applied the amrne Hebrew language (rxh;ac — T,;v'ERCwy) to the old Hebrew, and this is the uniform meaning of the phrase' in his writings. The Targums call the Hebrew "the holy tongue," and in the. Old Testament it is quQoted by Gaussen in his "Theopneustia." b See Preface. s...:....... ~26 LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE —HEBREW, called "the language of Canaan," or "the Jews' langaage "o Isa. xix. 18: xxxvi. 13. 26. That the Hebrew language was the common tongue of Realy Canaan and Phcenicia is generally admitted: a conPhenician. clusion supported by several facts. (1.) The Canaanitish names of persons and places mentioned in Scripture are genuine Hebrew, as Abimelech, Melchizedek, Salem, &c. (2.) Fragments of the Phoenician and Carthaginian tongues which still remain on coins and in inscriptions preserved in Roman and Greek writers, are Hebrew. Augustine and Jerome both testify, moreover, that the Carthaginian spoken in their time was made up chiefly of Hebrew words, while there is evidence that Carthage was founded by Phcenicians, who left Canaan before the Jews could have resided long in their country. (3.) The silence of Scripture respecting any difference between the language of Canaanites and Hebrews is also remarkable. They both dwelt in the land, and yet no difference of speech is noticed, though the difference between the language of Hebrew and Egyptian (Psa. lxxxi. 5: cxiv. 1) is noticed, and even between the Hebrew and cognate languages, as in the case of the Aramasan used by the Assyrians (Isa. xxxvi. 11); and of the Eastern Aramsean used by the Chaldees (Jer. v. 15). It may be added that the Hebrew of Abraham's day was probably closely allied to the original tongue, if it were not itself identical with it. This conclusion is based chiefly on the proper names of the early chapters of Genesis. These names are all significant in Hebrew, and the meaning in that tongue always explains the reasons why they were given. See Havernick's Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 134: see also Gesenius's Monum. Phcenicia. 27. The Hebrew, or modern Phcenician, as we may call it, belongs to the Shemitic family of languages; and it is most closely connected with the other members of that family, both in matter and in form. The other members are the following: 28. The Aramsean. Of the old Aramsean, as spoken while the Hebrew was a living tongue, we have no remains. Araman. But there have been discovered, near Palmyra, some inscriptions in this language, which were w-'itten about the commencement of the Christian era. The language was spoken in Syria and Mesopotamia. bee Gen. xxxi. 47. LANGIUAS: OF THE BIBLE~ -DIALECTS. 27 Z. From this common root sprang the Chaldee or Eastern Aiamdean, spoken in Chaldea and Babylon, and the Chaldee^ Syriac, or Western Arammean, spoken in Northern Syriac. Mesopotamia and Syria, and perhaps the Hebrew itself. The Chaldee is known only from Jewish memorials-the Scriptures and the Targums. The purer style of Onkelos is called the Babylonian dialect, to distinguish it from the language of the later Targums, which has been called the Jerusalem or Palestine dialect, and which is really a mixture of Hebrew and Aramman or Syriac. What is now called Syriac is new Aranmean, as formed or spoken by the Christians of Emesa and its neighborhood. This tongue early produced a literature rich in ecclesiastical ]history and theology, and is still the ecclesiastical language of Syrian Christians. Chaldee is the language of part of Ezra and Daniel," as Syriac was the language of the Jews in the days of our Lord. 80. The Samaritan is a mixture of the Hebrew and Wester Arama3an. All the ecclesiastical matter in this tongue arit Samaritan. is in the Samaritan Pentateuch, and in some poems edited by Gesenius (Leipsic, 1824), from MSS. in the British Museum.b 31. Of all the languages yet named, the Arabic has by far the richest modern literature: and next to the Hebrew it is the most important of the Shemitic tongues. It is still spoken in a large portion of Asia, and in part of Africa. The two chief dialects of it are the Himyaritic, forItimyaritio, merly spoken in Yemen, and now extindt, and the Coreitic spoken in the north-west of Arabia, and especially at Mecca This was a spoken language long before the time of Mahomet, and is still the popular dialect The old Arabic differs from this language in its forms, which are more various, and in its matter, which is more copious. a Ezra iv.: vi. 18: vii. 12-26: Dan. ii. 4-vii- 28: Jer.. 1 1. b At Oxford there is a Liturgia Damascena in Samaritan: whence C.esenius has given a complete view of Samaritan theology. De Sam. Theol., Halle, 1822. 28 HIEBREW-ITS PROGRESS. 32. A colony of Arabians, speaking the Him1yaritic, \eay settled on the opposite side of the Red Sea in EthiEthiopic. opia, and introduced their language into that country. This language, modified by time and circumstances, is the ancient Ethiopic, which is closely related to the Arabic. The district where it was spoken, is the modern Abyssinia, and Amharic, or IGeez, is the presenttlanguage of the people. 33. All these languages are of value in guiding the student Utility of of the Old Testament, to an accurate knowledge of these dia- the original tongue, and no Hebrew lexicon can be lects in interpretation regarded as a satisfactory authority, unless compiled with a constant reference to the meaning of the roots of Hebrew words in the cognate tongues. It is upon the knowledge and use of these tongues that the superiority of modern lexicographers chiefly depends. The history of the Hebrew language may be be divided into History of' three periods, each of which has its peculiarities of theebrew. style and idiom. 34. (1.) The first includes the language as spoken in the days In the ays' of Moses, and as used in the Pentateuch. In those of Moses. books are forms of construction and phraseology not found elsewhere. Words are introduced, which seem soon afterwards to have become obsolete; or they are used in senses which early became unintelligible. Sometimes a knowledge of this peculiar usage is important only as supplying evidence of the antiquity of the books: sometimes it affords access to the meaning of particular passages. (2.) In the post-Mosaic period there is a marked change. me golden New words are introduced;; old one seem forgotten. period. New forms of expression become common, and some found in the Pentateuch are gradually discontinued; a process which goes on till the days of David, who writes the language in great purity and elegance. To this period belong the writings of Solomon and the books of Judges, of Samuel, and of Ruth. The older prophets, Jonah,.mos, Hosea, writ in a HEBREW-ITS PrGRE 29 style of simplicity and harshness not found'n their immediate successors: but still their language is pure. Isaiah, Micah, Nahum, Habalkkuk, and Obadiah are remarkable for the beauty of their style; and the Hebrew is generally pure, though in some of them, as in Micah and in part of Isaiah, there are forms of speech (chiefly Arammean), that bespeak the admixture of a foreign element. All these writers belong, however, to the golden period of the Hebrew tongue. (3.) Zephaniah (the contemporary of Josiah) Jeremiah, Daniel, and Ezekiel belong to the third period, and all exhibit h the influence of intercourse with foreigners, as do the of the deIcqne. writings that appeared during or immediately after the exile-Ezra, Esther, and Nehemiah: all these writers employ words and phrases, which in the early purer state of the Hebrew were not known. The later prophets, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, again write in purer idiom, chiefly in consequence of the Hebrew having become, during the captivity, a written, rather than a spoken tongue. As they wrote their predictions, it was less necessary to use forms of expression which were familiar chiefly in conversation. Their predictions it was probably the part of the prophets to explaina, A few examples will explain these statements: " To be added to his people" is a phrase peculiar to the Pentateuch, meaning "' to die." "To sleep with his fathers" is the common phrase in later books. The word "people" is always applied in the Pentateuch to the Jews. In the prophets the meaning iS more extended, Hos. ix. 1; Isa. xi. 10. The expression " Arise, 0 Lord," was at first used in lifting up and carrying the ark, as a prayer soliciting the Divine presence. In the Psalms it often means, Assist and help. In the Pentateuch ithere are many words and forms peculiar, which, however, are translated as ordinary words —~h for species, =_ for =p to curse, 2p3 for property, n fine linen, for.t, tne later word, Ex. xxvi. 1: 1 Chron. xv. 27. See also Gen. xv. 9: Deut. xxxii. 11 (5 9 for ), Ex. ii. 20, &c. Of such phrases Jahn has reckoned in the Pentateuch upwards of two hundred. Foreign words are all Egyptian, Gea, xl. 2, 18 (t>a); 41, 45, w-bhre Joseph is called "Saviour of the 8' ^ $S LANGTUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 85. Of the Hebrew of all these periods, it may be remarked Peliarity. that it has few roots; so that words have often secFew roots. oadary or analogical meanings. Many phrases, therefore, sound strange to our ears, and some are susceptible of fanciful interpretations. 36. These facts give evidence of the aniqRity, and of the successive comnpsition of different parts of Scripture. of these They also illustrate the importance of ascertaning the meaning attached to words at the time when each writer used them, before investigating their meaning, as employed in later or earlier times. HELLENISTIC, OR HEBREW-GREEK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, AND LXX. 37. The 16th century witnessed a singular discussion. ErasNew Test-: mus and L. Valla, happening to affirmthat the Greek meat-'reek of the New Testameat was corrpted with:Hebra- Contro- t versy on its isms, both of words and idioms, were opposed by IH frue charac-' - - ter. Stephens with great vehemence. In his preface to the New Testament (A.D. 1576), he undertook to prove that the Greek of the inspired writers was pure and idiomatic. A world" (Jerome). See- Jablonsi Opera i. 45, 374; ii. 160, and Rosenmfiller's Scholia on Old Testament, i, 30-3S2. So in other books. Job has several grammatical and other peculiariies, iii. 3 (p. pual ~iMh)}, iv. 12; sxvi. 14 (wh:isper), i. 18 (hearer), v 26; xxx. 2 (age), v. 2; xvii. 7 (indignation). Jerome observe d, and Schultens proved, that the language of Job is peculiarly rich in Syraic expressions, and also in Aramaisms, iv. 2; xxxix. 9; xvi. 19. For words and phrases peculiar to later writers, ee I Chron. xxi. 23 (I:v,:5):' 1 Chron. ii. 13 (5,~l): Esther iv. I1 (.z-J): 1 Chron. xviii. 5, 6; 1 Chron. x. 12 (,T.s forr -.); 2 Chron. xi. 21 (,^R i l T T:. - * T T for Tjp, Gen. iv. 19). For Persian words see Nahum. iii. 17, captain, or satrap. Esther iii. 9: Ezra v. 17, treasures-gaz, hence Gaza. For Assyrian words, see proper names, Nebu —planet Mercury; Merodach — planet Mars. Chaldaisms need not be enumerated. See Havernick's Introduction, { 31-35. LANGUAGE OF THE W W TSTAMENT. 8] long controversy springing out of these assertions, the respective parties were called Purists and Hellenists, or Hebraists, The topic was deemed important on several grounds: 1. It involved questions of theology; for, if the writers of the Bibl be inspired, ought they not to write, it was asked, in pare Greek? Could inspired men do anything, as such, that was imperfect? 2. On the other side it was deemed important as a qtestion of evidence; for if the Greek of the New Testament is Hebraistic, this fact i - a proof that it was written by Jews, and probably is Judea, 3. By all it is admitted to involve an important canon of intepretation; for if the dialect of the New Testament is peculiar, the study of the common tongue (e xoisy) is not sufficient for the interpretation of Scripture. The Greek of the New Testament and of the LXX. is likely, il was held, to have rules and principles of its own. 38. Both parties seem to have forgotten, in the heat of controversy, that the question was purely one of facts, and was not to be settled, in the first instance, by any such considerations. The truth is, that the Greek of the New Testament is Hellenistic; a truth, which once ascertained, taggests Relly Ie important lessons. The perfection of inspired corn- lenisti. position is clearly not so much classic purity as intelligibleness and adaptation to its proper end. The Greek of Scripture was evidently written by Hellenists, i.e., by Jews who spoke Greek, and whose modes of thought were formed on Hebrew originals. Hence, important evidence of the truth of their record. Hence, also, an instructive rule of interpretation. The prime source of biblical interpretation is clearly the Bible itself; and we must gather thence, as far as possible, the meaning and illustrations of its terms. These are all important lessons, but the fact on which they are founded mustfirirsbe established, before we can safely apply them; least of all can they be taken as proof of the fact itself. 39. The Greek tongue is itself a mixture of dialects. The Hellenians, or Greeks, consisted originally of several lassic * > ^ ~ 5~ 1~ *^. ~ ~ ^~,. 0~(Greek: its tribes, of whom two, the Dorians and Ionians, were ewxnenat chief. O- GREEK — ITr DIALECTS. The Doric dialect is first in time and in iifluence: it is rough and broad-sounding. Among its chief writers are Pindar, Sappho, Theocritus, and Bion. The Ionic is second in time. It is soft and smooth; was ioneic. spoken at first in Attica, and then, as the Ionians migrated to Asia Minor, in that district. Among its authors are Herodotus and Anacreon. The Attic was formed after the Ionians left Attica, and ocAttic. cupies, in quality, a middle place between the Ionic and Doric. The chief Greek authors wrote in this dialect: Thucydides, Plato, Xenophon, Demosthenes, AEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes. After the freedom of Greece was destroyed by Philip of iellenic, r Macedon, these dialects were blended, and the Hel-,v~E. lenic or common dialect was formed, of which the base was Attic. On the death of Alexander, the people of Macedon and Alexandria occupied the first place in literature, as in power, Aexan- and from their influence, Macedonian and Alexandian. drian idioms became common in Greece, and especially in Egypt and the East. At Alexandria many Jews resided. There the Septuagint was written; and as the writers were Jews, the Alexandrian Greek which they spoke was modified so as to embody the b. thoughts and idioms of the Hebrew. And this is the language of the New Testament. It is Hellenistic, or more properly, Hebrew-Greek: the later Greek, that is, chiefly Attic, with a mixture of other Elements'. enumo- dialects, and the whole modified by Jews who had rated. resided in Alexandria, and in Palestine. Hence words and phrases from foreign sources, Aramaean, Latin, Persian, Egyptian: hence words peculiar in their orthography or form, in their inflexion or gender: hence words common to the ancient dialects, but not usual in the Hellenic; and hence, also, words and phrases in senses peculiarly Jewish or Christian. CRITICISM-ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS. 3 Aramean expressions may be seen, Mark xiv. 36 (abba): Acts i. 19 (field of blood): Mark iii. 17 (sons of thunder): Matt. v. 22 (vain, foolish). Latin words, Matt. x. 29; xviii. 28; v. 26; xvii. 25; xxvii. 27, 65; xxvi. 53; Mark xv. 39: Luke xix. 20: John ii. 15: Acts xix. 12: and phrases, Matt. xii. 14: Mark xv. 15 Luke xii. 58: Acts xvii. 9, Persian expressions, Matt. xxvii. 32: Acts viii. 27: Matt. ii. 1: Mark vI 11: Luke xxiii. 43 (paradise, a garden of beautiful trees). Egyptian expressions, Matt. xxvii. 59: Luke xxiv. 12. For a full account of grammatical and other peculiarities, see Planck's Treatise on the nature and character of the Greek style of the New Testament, Bib. Repository, 1831, p. 638. See also a brief account in M. Stuart's Syntax of the New Testament. 40. The grand lesson taught by these facts, is that while we need a knowledge of Greek generally, in order to read the New Testament, we need, in order to understand it, a knowledge of New Testament Greek, and of the Old Testament version. So essential is this knowledge, that a merely English reader, with only his English Bible, may understand the New Testament better than the scholar who brings to the investigation of a particular passage only classical acquisitions. 41. For aid in studying Hebrew, see the ordinary grammars and dictionaries of that language. In studying Hellenistic Greek, see Winer's Idioms; any good Atids tothe study of the grammar of the New Testament; and Thiersch de NewTesta Pentateuchi Versione Alexandrina. The "Englishman's Hebrew and English," and " Greek and English" Concordances, are of great value to all classes of students. The careful study of the LXX. compared with the Hebrew and the New Testament, is of course the best aid.. SEC. 3.-THE MANUSCRIPTS OF SCRIPTURE 42. In speaking of the MSS. of Scripture, we have mentioned their age, and their comparative value. It is now Questions necessary to state the facts on which these distinc- on the age of MSS. tions rest. How, it may be asked, is it possible to a See Preface. 3-4 ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS AGE. ascertain the age of a MS., often fragmentary, and generally How ascer- exposed to influences which cannot have failed to obtained. scure or modify the evidenceof its date and character? 43. In answering this question, it may be observed that in some MSS. the date is inscribed upon them; and from detes when this inscription is by the first hand, and other heMS. evidence is confirmatory, it is regarded as pretty decisive. Such inscriptions, however, are never found on MSS. earlier than the 10th centu y. 44. Sometimes the traditional or known history of a MS. Or from afiords important aid. The Cod. Alex. (A), for exits known ample, was given by the patriarch of Constantinople history. (Cyril Lucar), to Charles I., with the tradition inscribed upon it in Arabic, that it was written by Thecla, an Egyptian princess, who lived not long after the first council of Nice, A. D. 325. [See ~ 13 and Note V.] 45. In most cases, however, the question of date is more intricate, and can be settled only after a careful inGenerally Ibyexamina- vestigation of somewhat abstruse evidence, supplied tion of difficult evi- by the material on which the MS. is written, the form dence. of the letters, and the general style of the writing. 46. Some parts of the ancient Scriptures were written on skins tanned, or dyed red or yellow. In use, these material on skins were generally connected, so as to contain on which manusripts one roll, or volume, an entire portion of the Bible, Skins. arelotte" as the Pentateuch, or the Prophets. Some of the most ancient MSS. in the world are copies of the Pentateuch in this form. Next in durability was the parchment of the ancients, so archmnt. called from Pergamos, the town where it was first Parchment. made. Most MSS. which have come down to us, earlier than the 6th century, are on this material. Sometimes tables of woodb or of stone, called caudices a Isa. viii. 1: Jer. xxxvi. 2: Zech. v. 1. b Ex. xxxii. 15: Deut. vi. 9: Isa. xxx. 8: Hab. ii. 2: Luke i. 63: 2 Cot. iii. 3. ANCIENT DIANUSCPIPTS-AGE. 35 or codices, were employed: hence the term codex came to be applied to a MS. on any material. For legal purposes, where durability was important, the use of such tables was very frequent; and from this circumstance a system of laws was called a code. These ta.les were written on in their natural state (or when used for temporary purposes, covered with wax), with an iron Style. needle called a stylus. From the name of this instrument our term style is taken. For many ages the article most in use was made from the papyrus, or flag of Egypt. By the Romans espe- p Papyrus. cially this manufacture was carried to great perfection. Towards the end of the 9th century, however, the papyrus was very much superseded by paper made from the cotton plant (not unlike the present paper of India and China); and a little later, in the 10th and 11th centuries, old Paper. linen was substituted in the manufacture for the raw material. Notices of these different materials occur occasionally in ancient profane writers. Herodotus, mentions theThese skins of goats and sheep, roughly dressed, as being materials mentioned used by the Ionians (v. 58). Pausanias says that by ancient he saw in Boeotia the works of Hesiod engraved on lead (ix. 31). Roman laws were often written on tables of brass, and Pliny states that papyrus was in use long before the Trojan war (B. C. 1184), Nat. His. xii. 21-29. "Libros linteos," books of cotton cloth, are also mentioned-by Livy. 47. MSS. on all these materials are known to the The mateantiquarians, and from the material an inquirer is aial herlpsto aided in ascertaining their age and origin. the age. 48. The earliest specimens of Greek'writing, the dates of which are known, are books found among the ruins of Hercuianeum and Pompeii. These cities were destroyed A. D. 79. The books recently found there are, at latest, of Kindof writing and that date, and consist of sheets of the papyrus, form o'f connected together with gum and rolled. The writ- ltrsof ing runs across the volume, is in capital or uncial Pompeii 36 ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS-AGE. letters, without any division of words or sentences, without accents or ornaments, and with but very few pause marks. These books give evidence of the most ancient style of writing, and are older than any MS. of the New Testament Scriptures.;' In the Imperial library of Vienna there is a copy of an anMS. of Di cient work by Dioscorides, the copy written for the scorides. daughter of one of the early emperors of Constantinople, and certainly belonging to the 5th century. It agrees in th6 shape of its letters, and in the absence of all Test of age. ornaments and marks, with the MSS. of Herculaneum. These peculiarities suggest important tests of age. 49. In the earliest time the New Testament was divided Division of into two parts: (1) the Gospels (,o ivtyyay7o,); (2) the books and Epistles and Acts (o'Awoo-rxo'K), and the Revelation chapters a test of age. (a Mwonxnv44).lol In the 3d century the Gospels were divided into two kinds of chapters, the longer called TirTor, or breves; the shorter xea ax&,, or capitula. The latter were originally introduced by Ammonius, and were thence called Ammonian sections. In the 4th century they were in common use in the Gospels, and to these sections Eusebius adapted his tables of references, called from him the Eusebian Canons (A.D. 315-340). 50. In the latter part of the same century (4th), Chrysostom Illmina- speaks of the practice of writing biblical MSS. on tion a test the finest parchment and in letters of gold and silver, of age. as already introduced. Various 51. In the year 458 Euthalius published an edition other tests. - * of the Epistles of Paul, in which he gave, for the first Euthalian, dlscription time, the contents of the chapters. In 490 he dio cnts vided the Acts and the Epistles into sections. He accents; himself states also that he introduced accents into MSS. copied under his supervision,-a custom, however, which did not become common till the 8th century. He Subscript - tions tova- also added to the books of the New Testament the rious books; subscriptions which are still found in the English ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS-~AGE. 87 version. To make MSS. more legible, Euthalius further divided them into lines, called c'rXo&, consisting in i some instances of as many letters as could be placed metric divisions; in the width of a page, and in others of as many words as could be read uninterruptedly. This style of writing soon became common. In the 8th century, however, do dots; the lines ceased to be written separately, and were indicated only by dots. In the same century other marks of punctuation were introduced, and later still the stichometrical dots were omitted. In the 7th century lectionaries, that is, MSS. of Scripture lessons for use in public service, were multiplied, and form of about the same time the letters in which MSS. were letters; written began to be compressed and slightly inclined. lecVtionry In the 8th century these changes were still more of gospels; marked; in the 9th the note of interrogation and stops; the comma were introduced; in the 10th the cursive cursive letter; style of writing had begun to supersede the uncial; chapter and verse; and in the 13th the present division of chapters was alltests introduced by Hugo de Sancto Caro. of ag 52. From these facts various rules are deduced: A MS. with the present division of chapters is Negative not earlier than the 13th century: results. A MS. on cotton is not earlier than the 10th century: A MS. in cursive character than the 10thcentury: A MS. with compressed or inclined uncials than the 8th; or with notes of interrogation or commas, than the 9th century: A MS. systematically punctuated, or marking the vo"xoi with points or with ornamented initials, than the 8th century: A MS. in uncial letters, divided into lines or accented, or with the Euthalian division or titles or subscriptions, than the last half of the 5th century: A MS. with Eusebian canons, than the 4th century. 53. These rules lead, it will be observed, to negative conclusions only. When the facts are applied to ascertain Positive positive results, much minute inquiry and skilful 4 88 CRITICISM-HIISTORY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT TEXT. criticism is necessary. Full information may be obtained in the books mentioned below. On the whole subject see Montfauson's Palmeographia Grsca. Hug's Introduction to the New Testament, ch. vi. Scott Porter's Lectures on Bib. Crit., and Michaelis's Introduction, (4th edit.), vol. ii. 54. These results and the facts on which they are founded istoryof were reached at a comparatively recent period, and tiese tests after protracted inquiry. In the meantime progress biblical was made in other processes of investigation, which criticism generally- led to results no less important. These results will 1. As to New Testament. be best understood if our remarks be thrown into the narrative form. 55. The received text of the Greek Testament is founded, as he textu e have seen (par. 10), on the texts of Erasmus and -eceptus. of the Complutensian editors. Both these texts were printed from modern MSS., and therefore, comparatively speaking, the authority of the" received text" is not high. The examination of early MSS. was the work of many years. London It began with the London Polyglot (1657), which Polyglot. added to previous editions the readings of sixteen MSS., and supplied the renderings of ancient versions. Curcellmus also examined several MSS. for an edition Curcellemus. of the New Testament which Elzevir printed in 1658. Dr. Fell. In 1675 Dr. Fell published an edition with the readings of forty more, and selected Dr. Mill to complete a more thorough revision of MSS. and versions. To this work Dr. Mill devoted thirty years, and gave in his edition the readings of a large number of MSS. nob previously examined, and also the readings of the early Fathers. In 1734 these readings were further augmented by the labors of Bengel. Forty years after Mill, the edition of Bengel, Wetstein was published (1751), in 2 vols. fol. His Wetstcin text is the Received; but he applies the results of his inquiry to the correction in notes of the text wherever he deemed it faulty. Upwards of forty years later still, Gries CRITICISM-HISTORY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT TEXT. 39 bach applied the rules and investigation of Wetstein to a correction of the text itself (1796-1806), and added many various readings which his own inquiries had discovered. In the meantime other important additions to our knowledge had been made. In 1782 —8 Matthaei, of Moscow, published an edition, remarkable chiefly for containing the readings sanctioned by what was afterwards called the Constantinopolitan recension; while Alter, at Vienna Alter, &c. (1786-7), Birch and Adler, in Italy, Moldenhauer and Tychsen, in Spain, and others elsewhere, were busy completing inquiries which were to supply Griesbach with the materials of his critical apparatus. The results were embodied in the edition of the New Testament, published by Birch, at Copenhagen.l 56. On comparing the evidence which these investigations disclosed, Griesbach found (as his predecessors had Griesbach's intimated) that characteristic readings distinguished dvision of certain MS. Fathers and versions, and that they readings. were all divisible into three classes: MSS., &c., having one set of readings, being said by him to belong to the Alexandrian family or recension; those with another set to the Constantinopolitan; and those with another set to the Western. This conclusion, supposing it well founded, was a most important discovery. It changed the whole science. I Hitherto the reading favored by most MSS. had importance. been regarded as having the best evidence on its side; but from this time not the number of individual MSS. in favor of a reading, but the number of families, became the great question. In later times Scholz, who devoted many years to this work, divided Greek MSS. of the New Testament first into Scho Scholz's five, and then finally into two families,-the Alex- division. andrian (which includes the Western of Griesbach), and the Constantinopolitan. Of the three classes Griesbach himielf attached most importance to the Alexandrian and Western 40 CRITICISM- IiSTORY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT TEXT. families; Scholz, on the contrary, preferred the readings of the Constantinopolitan; Hahn and Lachmann, it may be added agree in substance with Scholz, but attach importance, the first to internal evidence, and the second to the antiquity of MSS. 57. It must be added that though later inquiries have not set aside this principle of classification, they have thrown doubt upon it. It is now a question whether Griesbach's conclusions be not an instance of those hasty generalizations which impede almost as much as they aid the progress of true science. This suspicion is strengthened by the inquiries of Dr. Lawrence of Dublin. Proposals have been for some time before the world for the publication of a text founded not on families of MSS., but on the readings sanctioned by the most ancient authorities. Dr. Bently first suggested this principle. Lachmann has practically acted upon it to a large extent; and Dr. Tregelles now proposes to adhere to it strictly in his intended edition of the New Testament. Whether antiquity alone, however, is a satisfactory test, may be gravely questioned. The earliest transcribers were subject to local influences as well as the later. Cursive manuscripts, of late date, may be accurate copies of very early ones, which are now lost, and their testimony is not to be disregarded; and, Moreover, if there be any ground for the division of MSS. into families, mere antiquity may be like mere numbers, a aelu8ion and snare.12 58. Uncial MSS. of the New Testament, their dates: contents, where preserved, when and by whom collected and published. [For Codex Sinaiticus, see ~ 13 and Note VII.] ~~~~~~~~~~Present Date. Published. General Character 1 ark. Name. Where Preserved. Contents. - of the Text, ___________________ ____________~ Century. If, whes. and chief Collators. A. Codex Alexandrinus.. Br. Mus. London.. Old and New Testament; V... 1786-1819. Woide. Const. in Gos. Alex. defective. Baber. Elsewhere. B.." Vaticanus, 1209. Vat. Lib. Rome.... In progess... Alex. Hug.Lach. Sch.. Tisch. < C. " RegiusorEphrsemi Roy. Lib. Paris. a " v..... 1843, Tisch... Alex. Wets. Gries. Tiseh. D. " BezseorCantabrig. Univ. Lib. Cambridge Gospels, Acts, part of v. or vi.. 1793, Dr. Kipling Mill. Wetstein. Epistles; defective. " D. " Claromontanus. Roy. Lib. Paris.. Other Epistles; defective viii.... Wets. E. " Basileensis... Pub. Lib. Basle.. Gospels; defective..... Cons.Wets. Seh. Tisch. E. " Laudianus... Bod. Lib. Oxford. Acts; defective.... v.orvii. 1715.. Mill.; used by Bede. > E. " San Germanensis Imp. Lib. Petersburg Paul's Epistles; imperfect x... Mill. Semler. F. " Boreeli.... Lib. Utrecht... Gospels; defective. i. x... Tisch.; its readings Const. Col. for Wet- c by Vincke, 1843 stein. Q P. " Coislianus... Roy. Lib. Paris.. Part Old Testament,Acts v.... Tisch..... Const. (H* in Griesb.) ix.; xxiv. 5. F. 6 Augiensis... Tr. Col. Cambridge Paul's Epistles... ix. or x.. Alex. Wetstein. Tisch. G. " Harleianus, Seide- lii, or Wolfii A.. Br. Mus. London.. Gospels; defective.. s... Cons. Wolf. Tisch. G. " Angelicus. ngel Lib. Rome. Acts, Epistles; Paul's Ix...... Birch. Sch. Epistles called I. G. " Boernerianus. Elect. Lib. Dresden Paul's Epistles, except... Mattheei, 1791. Like Cod. Augiensis. Hebrews. Hahn. H. " Wolfii B.... Hamburg.... Gospels; defective.. i...... Const. Wolf. H. " Mutinensis... odena. Acts, part of. Var. dates,. Scholz. IX.-xv. H. " Coislianus... Roy. Lib. Paris.. Parts of Paul's Epistles vi... PublishedbyMont Wets. Griesb. faucon. I. " Cottonianus... Br. Mus. London Part of Matthew &John vii.orvm. ReadingsbyUsher I. ** BMosquensis.. Lib. Moscow Epistles..Ix....... Tisch. Mon. Med. Matthsei.SimonforMill. L~~~~~~ ~i.~!~os~ 1 Eistes.... Uncial MSS. of the New Testament, &c.-Continued. Pr~esent Name.Date. Published. General Character, Mark Nam. Where Preserved. Contents., ofthe Text, Presen'ao.Where Pr e s e r ved. Contents. Century. If, when. and chief Collators. K. Codex Cypius or Beg., 63 Royal Library, Paris. Gospels.... vi.. or ix. Alex. Sch. Tisch. L. " Regius, 62.. " Gospels; defective.. ix. Tisch. Mon.. Alex. Greisb. M. Regus, 48... " " Gospels.. x... Alex. Sch. Tisch. N. a Vindobonensis Impp Lib. Vienna. Luke xxiv: 13-21,39,49 vi... Tisch. Mon.: Co. by Alter. Tisch. Csesareus (Part, c 0. probably, of I.) 0. t Montefalconii.... Luke xvii........Wetst. Griesb. r B (Tis_.) Mosquen- Moscow. Part of John.... iX *.. Matth. 1785. Tischen. sis, 120 t a Guelpherbytanus, Lib. Wolfenbuttel. Gospels; defective. vi. o. 1763, Knittel A., rescr. Q. I Guelpherbytanus, " " o Lukeand John; defective vi.... B., reser.' B a T ubinge nsis.. Tubingen. John 1: 38-50.....vi. By Reuss, 1778. Wetst RB. B (Tisch. Neapolita-... Part of Gospels V.....III. Tischen. nus.. 8. a Vaticanus, 354. Vat. Rome.... Gospels......... Const. Birch. T. " Borgianus. Veletri..... Part of John. v.. or v. 1789, by Georgi. Alex. Georgi. Birch. U Venetianus, or Na- St. Mark's Lib.Venice Gospels.......x. Const. Birch. Sch. nianus Tisch. V. Mosquensis.. Library, Moscow.. Gospels; imperfect.. Var. dates,. * Const. Gross Matthsei. ix. & xiii. W. B Regius, 314... Royal Library, Paris Part of Luke........ Alex. for Gries. and by Schol. Tischen. X. u' Landshutensis, or Munich.. * I Gospels; defective. x.... Alex. Schol. Tischen. Monacensis. B Barberinus.. Lib. Barb. Rome. Part of John.... I. Tisch. Mon... B. * Dublinensis,rescri. Tr. Col. Dublin..Matthew; defective. vi.... 1801. Dr. Barrett. Alex. Dr. Barrett. r. B Vaticanus, part of Vat. Rome.... Part of Matthew. v. v ~.. Tish.... G. Marini. I and N. _a. "* Sangallensis.. St. alle, Switzerland Gospels.........ix.... 1836, Ret ig.... MANUSCRIPTS-NEW AND OLD TESTAMENT TEXTS 43 50. In addition to these uncial MSS. Griesbach has given the numbers, contents, and dates of 236 cursive Total MSS., 1 to 236; Matthmi of 23 more, 237 to 259; ofmbSe Scholz of 270, which he for the first time collated examined either in whole or in part, 260 to 469. Particulars may be seen in the introductory explanations of the editions of the New Testament by Griesbach, Matthsi, Scholz, and Tischendorf; also in Horne ii., Part 1, ch. iii., ~ 2. [See Scrivener's Introd. to the Grit. of the New Testament.] Of Lectionaries, Scholz enumerates 176 Gospels, and 48 from the Acts and Epistles (Praxapostoli). Of the former, one (No. 135) is referred by him to the 6th century, and most to periods between the 10th and 15th. [Scrivener enumerates in all, exclusive of 66 duplicates, Utncials, Cursites. Total. Of Gospels... 34 601 635 Acts, and Catholic Epistle? 10 229 239 Paul's Epistles.. 14 279 293 Revelation.. 4 102 106 Evangelisteria.. 58 180 238 Apostolos.. 7 65 72 127 1456 1583] 60. The history of the Hebrew text is much briefer. ThL process of inquiry which was undertaken in the case Bibl Crit of the Greek text within the last two centuries o tAlP.le was undertaken for the Old Testament a thousand obthelted years earlier at Tiberias. There, existing MSS. Testament were revised and compared, and a text was formed, on the whole very fair and accurate. This text is called the Masoretlc Masoretic, and nearly all recent investigations have teigxt. t ended in sustaining generally its readings. On the accUllny. dispersion of the Jews through the influence of Mohammedan. ism, their learned men moved westward into Spain, Italy, and Central Europe, carrying with them the Masoretic text of 44 S:ISTT01 OF Tr E OLD TESTAE tRT TEXT. Scriptu-e, and in process of time multiplying the editio ls (au they may be called) to meet the wants of their nation. The value of these editions differed, according to the care with which they were written. As a matter of fact, the Spanish MSS. are generally most accurate; next in accuracy are the Italian, and last the German, 61. It is an instance of the slow progress of truth, that Tle Cor- Buxtorf, one of the greatest Hebrew scholars, mainpleCto (cu tained, in the 17th century, the absolute uniformity tioned. of all MSS. of the Hebrew Text. Cappellus (1650) was among the first to combat this view, and Bishop Walton, Citical the editor of the London Polyglot, having sided with tis com- Cappellus, commenced the work of forming a critical eonedo apparatus From this time, the collation of Hebrew London Polyglot. MSS. Was made with vigor, and the results soon appeared in the publication of an improved text. In 1667, Athias. Athias, a rabbi and printer of Amsterdam, published a Hebrew Bible, the text of which was founded on MSS. and printed editions,. In 1690, Jablonski published, Jablonski. at Berlin, a critical edition, and in 1705, the very Van der accurate edition of Van der Hooght was printed at Amsterdam. His text is formed on that of Athias, with Masoretic readings in the margin, and a collection of various readings at the end. In 1709 Opitz, at Kiel, and in 1720 I. H. Michaelis, at Halle, also published editions of critii tcal value; and in 1746-53 Houbigant published, at Paris, a splendid edition in 4 vols. folio, though its value is much diminished by the number of conjectural emendations embodied in the notes and translation. In the same y ear Kennicott published his first Dissertation on the Kenmicott. state of the printed Hebrew text, and in 1776-80 his Hebrew Bible was printed at Oxford. The text is that of Van der Hooght, with the various readings of 692 different authorities, including MSS., printed editions, and rabbinical writings. Rssi. In 1784-8, De Rossi, of Parma, published 5 vols. of extracts from Hebrew MSS., and in 1793 the most fISTOiY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT TEXT. 45 important readings of Kennicott and De Rossi were published in an edition issued at Leipzig, 1793, by Doederlein and Meisner, and at Vienna by Jahn, 1806, as they were Jah. also in the English edition of the Hebrew Scriptures published in 1810-16 by Boothroyd. Boothrod. 62. The result of all these inquiries is that we have but one class of MSS., the Masoretic, and that the variations Result: but of reading in them do not exceed those of one family'fass.ild of MSS. of the Greek Testament. An edition of the readings. Hebrew Bible which shall give the readings sanctioned by ancient versions is still needed; but so far as the accuracy of the present text is concerned, such a work is rather curious than important. 63. The general uniformity of Hebrew MSS. makes a classification of them less important than in the case of Number of Greek MSS. Kennicott mentions 630, of which 258 Heb. MSS. were collated by him throughout, the remainder only in part. De Rossi collated 751, of which all but 17 were collated for the first time. Many others remain uncollated. (See Jahn's Hebrew Bible, vol. iv. App.) Though, as already stated, there is but one recension, the Masoretic, it seems that in the 10th century the Jews at Babylon had one set of readings, and those at Tiberias another. Hence arose the distinction of Eastern and Western Eastern and families. Bishop Walton, in his Polyglot, has given western the differences on which this distinction is founded. famlie They are differences in the letters, and are about 220 in all, none of which, however, materially affects the sense; and in the vowel points these amounting to about 860. In reference to the first, our printed editions vary from the Eastern readings in 55 places; in reference to the second, they follow the Masoretic text, as fixed at Tiberias. Particular copies were long celebrated for accuracy, but only their traditional fame has descended to our times. a Bee Preface. 460 CRITICISM-ANCIENT VERSIONS. 64. It is a summary proof of the general accuracy of the Conclusionpresent text, that the Jew agrees with the Christian in the letter of the Old Testament, and the Romanist with the Protestant in the letter of the New. On this subject see Home, vol. ii. part i. ch. ii. ~ 1: Scott Porter, p. 73; Bishop Marsh's Lectures on the Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible; and Davidson's Bib. Cr., vol. i. SEC. 4.-THE ANCIENT VERSIONS OF SCRIPTURE. 65. The origin and history of the LXX were long matters The LXX. of controversy, though now the questions connected with it may be regarded as settled. The story of Aristeas, a writer who pretends to be a Gentile and favorite at the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus, is, that this version was made by seventy-two Jews (six from each tribe) sent to Alexandria by Eleazar at the request of Demetreus Phalareus, and that the whole was completed in seventy-two days. To this story various additions were made, claiming miraculous interposition for the work, and infallibility for the translators. Dr. Hody first proved that the narrative could not be authentic; though nothing has been discovered that materially affects either the value or the date of the version. Regarding the work critically, it may be observed that it contains many Grseco-Egyptian words, and that the Pentateuch is translated with much more accuracy than the other books. The Book of Job, the Psalms, and the prophets, are all inferior, and especially Isaiah and Daniel. The historical books are often inaccurately translated. In the early Christian church the version was deemed of great value, though writers often appealed against it to the Origen's Hebrew. With the view of correcting it, Origen Hexapla. formed his Hexapla. This work, which made altogether fifty volumes, perished probably at the sacking of Caesarea by the Saracens, 653, A. D.; but happily the text of the LXX (which formed one of the columns) had been copied by CRITICIS —ANCIENT VERSIONS. 47 Eusebius, together with the corrections or additions which Origen had inserted from the other translators. This Hexaplarian text, as it is called, was published by Montfaucon at Paris, in 1714. Of the two celebrated AISS. of the LXX, the Vatican (B) follows the original version, while the Alexandrian (A) exhibits many of the readings embodied in the Hexapla, and conforms more generally to the present Hebrew. The four chief printed editions of the LXX are-the Aldine, exhibiting many of the readings of B; the Complutensian, which often follows the Masoretic Hebrew and Origen's Hexapla; the Roman or Vatican; and the Grabian, which is taken chiefly from A. The version is rather free than literal, and frequently misses the sense of the original. It is often valuable in interpretation, though less so in settling the text.13 66. Among the earliest versions founded on the LXX wasthe Italic. In the days of Augustine (died 430) there Versions were several Latin versions of the Bible, of which the fXthe old Italic was the best. Jerome bears the same testi- 1 Thetalic. rnony to its general excellence. It was made, as may be gathered from fragments which still remain," from the Alexandrian IMS., and is ascribed by Eichhorn to the 1st century. 67. The diversities and imperfections of this version induced Jerome (A. D. 382) to revise the text, as Origen had previously revised -the version of the LXX. He employed for this purpose the Hexapla of Origen, and carefully corrected the whole of the Old Testament, though portions only of his revision remain. As these labors of Jerome were drawing to a close, the LXX, though long favorably received by. the Jews, began to fall into disrepute, on the ground, probably, that it was appealed to by Christians. To meet this feeling Jerome undertook to prepare a translation into Latin direct from the Hebrew. He devoted the larger portion of twenty years to this work, and it vas.completed in 405. A superstitious reverence for the LXX led many to oppose this version, but it gradually gained infiu~ Job, Psalms, aome d the A.pocrypha, and par-t oi othe& hroke 48 CRITICISM-ANCIENT VERSIONS. ence, and in the time of Gregory the Great (604) it had at least a co-ordinate authority, and was dignified with the name of the 2. The Vulgate. The text was made up in part from the Vulgate in old Italic, in part from Jerome's improved edition of part. that version, and is in part a new version formed immediately from the Hebrew. Jerome was acquainted with Hebrew expositors, and many of their interpretations are embodied in the Vulgate, but generally it follows the LXX,- even when that version differs from the Hebrew. It is more useful for interpretation than for criticism, though for both it is of value. The version of the Psalms was made from Origen's Hexapla, and is called the Psalterium Gallicanum. The text was early corrupted, and various learned men have undertaken to revise it, among whom are Alcuin and Lanfranc. The two chief editions are those of Sixtus V. and Clement VIII., which, however, though both sanctioned by papal authority, contain some most remarkable errors.a (See ~ 76). 68. Ecclesiastical history places the conversion of Ethiopia Other about A. D. 330, and.to the same century belongs the versions translation of the Scriptures into Gheez, the sacred from the LXX language of Ethiopia. Its author is not known..ontinued. 3. The Perfect copies of the Old Testament are not common, Ethiopic. though Bruce states that he found several; and there are MSS. of this version in some of the libraries of Europe. Only fragments have been printed. The text follows the readings of A, and is founded entirely on the LXX. The New Testament has all been printed. The text seems to be founded on the Peshito and the old Italic.-See Ludolf, Gieseler, and the Travels of Bruce. The greater part of the Old Testament is also extant in the 4,. Coptic, Coptic and iThebaic, dialects of Egypt, though only a Thebaic. portion has been printed. The most probable date of their origin is the 3d and 4th century, though some suppose them to have been made as early as the 1st and 2d. Both are a Of the Vulgate, as prepared by Jerome, the most important MS. is the G. Amiatinus, now at Florence, and written ahbot the year 541, CRITICISIA — NCIENT VERSIONS. 49 founded on the LXX, and generally follow the readings of A. The translators are not known. The Gothic version of the Bible was made by Ulphilas, a bishop of the Moeso-Goths, who assisted at the Council of Constantinople in 359. The version was made from the Greek, and is of considerable critical value, though unhappily only fragments of it remain. The most celebrated MS. is the Codex Argenteus, written in silver letters, which is now preserved in the library of Upsal, in Sweden. This MS. contains only the four Gospels, and is imperfect. Of the Armenian version little more is known than is stated in another paragraph. The date is 410, and theA translator Miesrob, who seems to have used the LXX and the Alexandrian recension as the basis of his version. The Georgian version was made in the following century, from copies of the Armenian translation. The Armenian version has been repeatedly printed (Bible, Amst. 1666, New Testament, 1668-1698), and the whole Bible, in Georgian, was printed at Moscow in 1743, parts of it having been previously printed at Tiflis. To the 9th century belongs the Slvic or Slavonic version, supposed to have been made by the sons of Leo, a vic. Greek nobleman, who first preached the gospel to the Slavonians. It is generally regarded as a descendant of the LXX, though ancient testimony states that it was made, in great part, from the Italic, a statement which recent collation has confirmed. The text was early corrected from Greek MSS. and it is hence deemed of considerable critical value. The whole was printed in 1576, and several editions have since been issued from Moscow. 69. From the VTqtlgate were formed the various Anglo-Saxon versions of parts of Scripture. About the year 706, veisions Adhelm, the first bishop of Sherborn, translated the from the Vulgate. Psalms into Saxon, as did Egbert, the bishop of Holy Island, the four Gospels. About the same time Bede (A. D. 735) translated parts of the Bible. King Alfred undertook to 5 50 CRITICIS —ANCI ENr VE ISTOS,. translate the Psalms, but died (900) when his work was aboui half finished. JElfric of Canterbury translated the Pentateuch and some of the historical books. To the same version we may ascribe the various translations of the Old Testament into French, Italian and Spanish, executed before the 16th century, and even Luther availed himself largely of its renderings in making his German translation of the Bible. 70. The Samaritan Pentateuch is rather a recension than a Samaritan translation of the Hebrew text. Copies are referred Pentateuch to by Eusebius and Cyril, but it was long thought that the whole had perished. In the early part of the 17th century, however, a copy was transmitted from Constantinople to Paris. Usher afterwards procured six copies, and Kennicott collated sixteen. The most probable account of this recension is, that it was taken from the copies of the Pentateuch which were in the hands of the Israelites in the days of Rehoboam, when the kingdom was divided. The Psalms and the writings of Solomon, which were known to pious Jews of that age, were rejected for obvious reasons. The critical value of the readings of this recension was overCritical estimated at first, but now they are held to be not at'alue. all superior to the Hebrew. The LXX seem to have followed it more frequently than the present Hebrew text; from which, however, it does not materially differ. Gesenius deems its readings preferable to the Hebrew in Gen. iv. 8, where it supplies the words, "Let us go into the field;" in Gen. xiv. 14, where it reads, "he numbered," instead of "he armed;" in Gen. xxii. 13, where it omits the words "behind him;" and in Gen xlix. 14, where the difference is in expression only and not in sense. The Samaritan is of great value in determing the history of the Hebrew vowels, and in confirming the general accuracy of the present text, but it is not a source of valuable independent emendation. The characters in which it is written are probably the older forms of the Hebrew. The ancient Samaritan Pentateuch must n~(t be confoundad C2ITICItSX ANCIENT VERSIONS. 51 with the more modern Samaritan version which is printed with the other in the Polyglots. This is a very literal translation into modern Samaritan. 71. [The Peshito version (~ 18) was probably executed by Christians during the second century. The tradition Syria. that it was made by translators " sent to Palestine Holi. by the apostle Jude and Abgarus, King of Edessa," Syriacm. clearly shows that it was believed to belong to the early times of Syrian Christianity. It contains all the canonical books of the Old Testament, and all those of the New, except 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and the Revelation. It is of great critical value. The Old Testament portion was the first version for Christian use, made from the original Hebrew. The New Testament was made directly from the Greek, with great skill and ability; and, as it precedes by two centuries any Greek MS. we now have, and has been exempt from changes at the hand of Western critics, it is, as Stuart says, a witness above all exception, as to its general testimony, for the fidelity and accuracy with which the Greek text of the New Testament has, in the main,been preserved. See Bib. Die. Art. Versions; Hug's Introd. ~~ 62-69; Stuart in same, Note8.]l4 The Philoxenian (New Testament only) version was made from the Greek, by the hand, or under the care, or Philo. in the days of Philoxenus, Bishop of Mabug, in xein Syria, about the year 508. No MS. of it remains, but various readings taken from it are given in a MS. in the Vatican (153). Early in the following century Thomas of Harkel, or Heraclea, the successor of Philox-enus, began to revise the work of his predecessor, and published another ver- Herea sion in 616. It contains the whole of the New Testament except the Apocalypse. The most complete MS. of it is one which formerly belonged to Ridley, and is now preserved in New College, Oxford. The style is extremely lita ral, and in consequence frequently violates the Syriac idiom. There is also a fourth Syriac version of Lessons from the Gospels (Vat MS. 19). The date of the MS. is 1031, but the 52 CRITICISM-VAREIOUS READING3. version seems to belong to the 5th or 7th century. The language is a mixture of Chaldee and Syriac. The readings generally favor the Western recension; and the MS. is sometimes called the Palestino-Syriac or Jerusalem version. 72. The Arabic verrsions of Several of the books of Scripture, Arabic as given in the Paris and London Polyglots, were ersions. made from the LXX by different authors between the 10th and 12th centuries; and of Job, Chron., Judges, Ruth, Samuel, and parts of ether books from the Peshito Syriac. 73. From the same version was made the Persian version, Persian of the Gospels, published with Le Clere's Latin verion.. translation in the London Polyglot; it abounds with Arabic expressions, and must have been later than the time of Mahomet. Another version of the same part of Scripture was published by Wheelock in 1652; but these, with the more recent version made under the care of Nadir Shah 1740-1, are of little critical value. 74. From these facts it is clear that the Samaritan Pentateuch, the LXX, part of the Vulgate, and the PeCOncluslon.''' shito Syriac, are all more or less valuable for ascertaining the text of the original Hebrew; but that other versions of the Old Testament being made from these, and not from the original, are of little or no critical value, except for ascertaining the text of those versions from which they were made. In the case of the New Testament, all the earlier versions from the Greek are of value, proportione d, oi course, to the general condition of their texts, and to the obvious accuracy with which they have been maade. Modern versions (and to a great extent the ancient) are of value only as helps to inter petation. Full accoinnts of ancient versions may be seen in L. Long's BibIio* theca Sacra ^Masch's edition), or in Hornes Introduction, vol. iL CRt'ICISM —; VARIOUS READfINGS. a. 5.. THE VARIOUS READINGS OF SCRIPTURE, RULES FOR DETERMINING THE TEXT. 75. Of Hebrew MSS. upwards of 1,300 have been c llated, and of Greek upwards of 600. These numbers, it Number of will be observed, do not represent copies of complete MSs. Scriptures, but of parts only. Each of the three divisions of the Old Testament (par. 4) forms in Hebrew one roll, and each of the New Testament divisions (par. 49) generally' forms one MS. in Greek. 76. These MSS. have been exposed, in transcription, to many errors. Nor will this fact excite surprise if it Origin of various is remembered that oarefully-printed books often readings. contain numerous inaccuracies. In writing, the risk is of course much greater than in printing. Revision and correction are less practicable in the first than the second. The slowness of the process increases the probability that letters, syllables, and words will be added, omitted, changed, or transposed. Sometimes the writer transcribed from a MS. before him; sometimes from dictation. In the latter case his ear frequently deceived him, and in the former, his eye. Different words having often the same final syllable, or different sentences having the same final word, made mistakes the more easy. A misunderstanding of the MS. from which he copied would sometimes lead to the same result. He might either misinterpret its abbreviations, or inaccurately divide the words where they were written (as in most ancient MSS.) without pause marks; or the MS. might be wholly or partially effaced. Independently, therefore, of design, these causes of error were always at work. The results, however, seldom affect the meaning of the text materially (thoagh they do so in some cases), and are similar to the mistakes produced in an English version by such errors of the press as escaped the eye of even a careful reader. Differences more serio is may be seen in the Bibles printed "by authority" of the Popes a See Preface. 5 54 CRITICISM-VARIOUS RBEADIEg1 Sextus and Clement. Joloy has given a large number of these discrepancies. Compare them in Prov. xxv. 24: Matt. xxvii. 35: Judg. xvii. 2, 3; which are left out in the Sextine edition.; and in I Sam. xxiv. 8: 2 -Sam. viii. 8; which are left out in the Clementine edition. They oantradict one another, moreover, in Josh. ii. 18; ix. 19: Exod. xxxii. 28: Gen, xxiv. 24:1 Kings ii. 28. For example: — 77. (1) There are many cases in which, from the similarity Similarity of sound or of form, the transcriber would natuo sound or rally make a false reading. In: Gen. xiv. 5, the Heb., Sam., and LXX red "with them"' (wr)X Beham. The English, and seven Sam. MSS. read' "in Ham" (Orfa);, Be cham. In Judges viii. 16, some Hebrew MSS,. and the English read "he taught" ( YI), Yodah: but many MSS., the LXX, ChaId., Ara.>, Syr., and' VYag., read "he tore" (~ r Yadash, which is clearly the true reading. S, in Numbers xxii. 5, where maany read Ammon i ttead of "Amma" (his people). In I Kings i. 18, "And ntow" is omr English version (,}^rl), Veatta; but 200 MSS, and- the Chalcd. ead, "And thou." (,,)r Veatta. So ver. 20. In Jonah i. 9, "I am a Hebrew"' (:g), vi, is tihe r-eading of most MSS. and of the English: but the LXX, and some MSS. read "'lly Abdi, "the servant of Jehovah." 5 lo (not) is put for j lo (to him.) fi-fteen times in the Old Testament, and the reverse twice. Though there is this change, the text which the Jews use, and which our Version, translates, is in these places the corsect one, excpt, perhaps, in one passage, 2 Kings viii. 10, where for " Go, say unto him., Thous mayest certainly recover," we ought to read, as the present Hebrew MSS.,. "Go, say Thou shalt not recover, for —"' In Eph. iv. 19, some MSS, read "past hope" instead o'f "past feeling' (&xrorr/vor), because more common in the commencement of Epistles. Acts xvii. 26, "of one blood" is more probable than "of one" (as in Rom. ix. 10), because it is a good Hebraism. John vi. 69, " Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God" (troc), is preferable to Griesbach's reading, "the Holy One of God" (ayto), because this last is nowhere applied to Christ, except, in the confession of the demoniac. Mark i. 2, "in the prophets" is preferable to "in the prophet Isaiah," which is the reading of Griesbach and Mill, because two prophets are quoted (Isa. xl. 3: Mal. iii. 1). 109. (6.) Conjectural readings, supported by the sense, or similar texts, may be probable; but must not be received as true, unless they are confirmed by evidence. In Gen. i. 8, "God saw that it was good" is wanting at the end of the second day's creation, but is found in ver. 10, in the middle of the third day's work. There has, therefore, probably been a transposition of the clause, especially as the LXX reads the phrase in ver. 8. Josh. xxiv. 19, "Ye cannot serve the Lord" ( -5ij" ~), seems strange at the end of an exhortation to serve him. "Cease not to serve him" ('t5. /~) is probably the true reading, but it wants confirmation. Isa. lii. 15, "So shall he sprinkle many nations" (age yazze) is generally interpreted "he shall purify or make expiation for themr;" but this sense does not agree with the parallel, and the verb has everywhere else a preposition after it (by). The LXX reads "Many nations shall admire CIAITICISM-VATIOVs READING. 65 hftn." They probably read (1'1 yechezu), as in Psa. xi. 7; xxvii. 4. The lexicographers give this meaning to the present word. Isa. xvii. 2, "the cities of Aroer" (~), Aroer) are broken: but to say that tha cities of a city are broken is unmeaning; atnd, besides, this has nothing to do with Damascus. Perhaps ('3?y.: adadi), is the true reading. The LXX reads "for ever," as this last reading means; and the Chald. reads "are laid waste.' 110. In the New Testament (as MSS. are nume-... Conjectural rous and varied) conjectural emendations are not emendations. admissible, and but very rarely in the Old. 111. In a few cases passages have two or more various readings, all of which are suitable to the sense, and are supported by MSS., versions, and quotations; and in these cases the probabilities vary with the evidence; and the work of determining the true reading is one that requires much discrimination and care. It is highly satisfactory to know that in the Bible, generally, the text is clear and certain beyond doubt. 112. To aid the reader to apply these.rules, we take Rules p. as an instance, 1 John v. 7. on v. The passage is printed in the Clementine editions of the Vulgate, in the Complutensian of the Greek, in the third edition of Erasmus; and so thence found its way into the common texts of Stephens, Beza and Elzevir. [See i 10 on Textas Receptus.] Against its genuineness it may be said, 1. That no Greek MSS. of certainly earlier date than the 15th century contains it. It is omitted in 174 Cursive MSS., and in A, B,, G, I. 2. It is wanting in all the ancient versions, except the Latin, nor is it found in the most ancient MS. of the Vulgate, the C. Amiatinus, or in any earlier than the 9th century. It is wanting, for example, in the two Syr., Arab., Copt., Ethiop., Armen., Slavonic, though some PRINTED editions of the two latter, and of the Peshito insert it. [See Note, { 71]. 3. Ancient Greek fathers have never quoted it. Ver. 6, 8, 9, are quoted more than once, but ver. 7 never. 4. The best critical editions of the Greek Testament omit it; the first and second of Erasmus, Aldus, Harwood, -Mfattlfhi, Griesbach, Lachmm, 2. Bcholz, 8isch., aRhn; tloutgh, on the other hand, MiE and Penget t. tain it. In favor of its gentliheilss it may bh said1. That i, is iilbrted in some Greek MSS., the Codexz Pdianu~, at Berlin, Cod. Guelph, and thfree thers, concerning which, howtever, it is remarked that the first is a forgery 9 the se.ond has the passage written, hot iin the text, bit iin the margin; and that the others belong to tho 15th century or later, and are, therefore, modern authorities. 2. It is found in the old Latin versions, except in copies made in Africa. this is another form of part of the statement above, No. 2. 3. It is supposed to be qtited by somle of the Latit Fathers, as'e& eullian, Cyprian and F'zdgentius It is not clear, however, W'ethher thh quotations are from the 7th or from the 6th and 8th verses. 4. It is quoted ii a Cotfessiot of Faith, given i1i the history of the ITandalic persecution in Africa, and which Confession is said to have been presented by a body of Christians in the year 484. This alleged fact, however, is thought hot sufficieht to Weaketi the positive evidence, And is, moreover, itself doubtful. 5. It is said to be required by the construction and cotiiection of the passage, an argtiment of which the English reader can himself judged — Porter's "Biblical Criticism." On the whole, it is better not to rely -pon this paasage when We are quoting proofs of Scripture doctrilne.1 EOc. 6, -THsE EGLIStH VERSION OX TIaE WtLtL IDENTIOCA WITH THE ORIGINAL TEXT. 113. A question of nuch interest remaings Is the Englist version of the Bible accurate, and may the readet tersion. regard it as, on the whole, expressive of the mind fJsaccu- of the Spirit of God? And again the -answer is at cy hand, The English Bible is essentially the Bible of the Primitive Church. The CoMtIITT E appointed in the days of the Commonwealth to inquire into the possibility of improving it, reported that while it contained some mistakes, it was, in their judgment, "the best of any translation in the worldc" A later witness, Dr, Gedds admits "that if acou S'aey, fidelity, and the 8ttictest attUetion to the letter of the text be supposed to constittlt the qualities of ati excellent Version, this, of all tersionsi must in general be accounted the nost excellent," "Of all the European translations," sayg Dr. A. l1arkee, "this is the most aCuirate and faithful; tior i1 this its only praise. the translators have seized the very spirit and the soul of the original, atid expressed it almost everywhere with pathos and energy,"^ Dr. Doddridge bearg the same testimony, and adds that his " corrections affect tio the fundamentals of religion; they seldom teach any furthef than the beauty of a figures or at mostj the connexion of an argument.' -b 114, But while this is the unatiimiois testimony of compea tent aithorities, there are points, it is admitted, in.y,. which the translatioii might be improved; and these itproved improvements, though not of vital importance as affecting the doctrines of Scripture, would, if made, often serve to remove objections which are now urged against it. 115. (1.) In some cases the tiuglish version ha' given a wrong meaning to the words or expressioni of inmac l f>~~~ 4^ ~~~~ -.,''-i ert tatetran of the original, lation. tn Exod. iii. 22, the tsiaeit-iS at nid; to have "borrowed" of thb tgyptiilis thinigs which they never intended to return; The original Says simply, that they asked for them. In 2 Sam. il. 31i, ptepositior is translated under instead of to. David c&ruetll tortured his captives is the meantiig of the English version. Hle put them to ignominious emw ployments is the meaning of the original. So Psa. lxxiii. 4, fop' "tie bands in their death," read, no bands or difficulties till their death (5) tosenm. It may be observed, generally, that the tise of prepositios atid pata tides is often indeterminate in our version, For soiietimes mearin because, 2 GoCa. 1 sometimes insted of, Isa, lx 17j sometimes in order to, Reom iv. 3,. So, of mea.nst from, as in John viii. 40, 42 and by, as-in 1 Cot' xv. 5. These ambiguities are not in the original. In the narrative of Elisha, g Kitngs i, 23, the Word traislated "children" Preface to Comlmeitatry oti Old Testamtent, p. 19. 5Works, ii. p. 329. C[Better a iseet Heb. of Gen, x, 6,] 68 -Is -; 1- LIST VERSION, is translated elsewhere, "young men;' and is applied to Tsaac rwhen he was twenty-eight years old, and to Joseph when he was thirty. In I Chron. xix. 7, a word is translated "chariots" instead of "riders," and the passage is made to contradict 2 Sam, x. 6. This correction makes the passages consistent, 32,000 men (cavalry and foot-soldiers) being the entire number. In 2 Kings vi. 25, the article sold for five shekels of silver Was a kind of pulse or vetch, as Bochart thinks ({ 360); the fourth part of a cab being about a pint. Gen. iv. 15; for "set a mark upon," read " gave a sign or assurance to." Lev. vii. 10; for "mingled with oil and dry," read, or dry (i. e,, whichever it be). Deut. xxxiii. 25; for "shoes," iron and brass, read bars, alluding to the chain of mountains which protected Asher from the inroads of the Gentiles. Judges xv. 8, 11; for "top," read "cleft." Josh. xxiv. 14, 15; for "flood," read "river." 1 Kings i. 45; for "in Gihon" (a river), read "at Gihon." 1 Kings iv. 31; for "sons of Mahol," read "players on the timbrel": compare 1 Chron. ii. 6. 1 Kings xviii. 42, for "he cast himself down upon," read "he bowed down to." 1 Kings xviii. 43, for "he said go again seven times," read "he said seven times, go again.' 2 Chron. viii. 2, for' had restored," read "had given." 2 Chron. xxi. 11, for "compelled,' read "sent him astray," as in Dent. xxx. 17; iv. 19. Neh. vi. 11, for "to save his life," read "and live.".TNot being a priest, Nehemiah was not allowed to enter the holy place. Psa lxxxvi, 2, for "I am holy," read " I am a devout man, or the object of thy favor." In John x. 28, 29, for "no man, any man," read "none, any." In Acts vii. 45, for, "that came after," read "having received." In Acts x.vii. 23, for "ignorantly," read "without knowing him." In Acts xxii. 23, for "cast off," read "threw up." In Acts xxvii. 12, for "lieth," read "looketh." In verse 15, for "into the wind," read "against the wind." In Acts xxvi. 18, for "to turn them," read "that they may turn." In 2 Cor. iii. 6, for "who hath made us able ministers," read "who hath fitted us to be ministers." In Gal. iv. 24, the history of the sons of Hagar and Sarah is said to be an "allegory," or a fictitious narrative. The apostle merely says that it represents important spiritual truth; the Jews of the apostles' day, "Jerusalem that now is," answering to Ishmael; and true believers —t e Church'-to Isaac, the heir of the promise. In 2 Pet. i. 5, for "and beside this," read "and for this very reason." Miletus (not uzn), Euodia (not as), Urbanus (not e), are the correct renderings; and Joshua is less liable to mistake than Jesus, in Acts vii. 45: Heb. iv. 8. Efxamnples 116. (2.) In some cases the full foce of the origiof miade-.quato traru n3,1 is not expressed. Uatio]L GCITICISI1 —ENGLISH VERSION. 69 In John i. 14, the word is said "to have dwelt among us;" the original connects his appearance with the ancient tabernacle as the dwellingplace of the Divine glory. In 1 Cor. iv. 13, the apostles are said to have been made as "the filth of the earth:" literally "'the sweepings" (classical usage), or " appeasing offerings" (LXX and classical usage.) "Rid of us, the world will deem itself comparatively clean:" or "it offers us in expiation to its gods"; John xvi. 2. In Heb. xii. 2, Christians are described as "looking to Jesus;" the original implies, looking up to him and away from every other object of trust.. In 2 Tim. ii. 5, read "if a man contend in the games." So in 1 Cor. ix. 25. In 1 Thess. iv. 6, read " in that [the] matter." In 1 Pet. ii. 13, read " Submit yourselves therefore." In several passages the sense of the original is weakened by a mistranslation of the Greek article. In 2 Thess. i. 12, e. g., we read "according to the grace of our God and the Lord Jesus Christ;" the original reads "according to the grace of our God and Lord, Jesus Christ:" and so in 2 Pet. i. 1. In Titus, ii. 13, the original reads "the glorious appearing of our great God and Saviour Jesus Christ." In 1 Thess. iv. 13, read for "even as others," "even as the rest of the world." In 2 Thess. ii. 15, read "whether by our word." In 1 Cor. iv. 5, read "and then shall every man have of God the praise that is his." In 1 Cor. v. 9, read "in m epistle," and for "I wrote," read "I have written," referring probably to'the same epistle. The Hebrew article, though less definite than the Greek, is often important. In Exod. xvii. 14, read, "in the book (viz. of the law);" in Psa. lxxxix. 37, read, "and the witness" (the moon) "in heaven is sure." In Isa. vii. 14, Bp. Lowth reads, following the Hebrew, " Behold the virgin conceiveth," etc. 117. (3.) In some cases the peculiar idiom of the original has been overlooked. Examples of neglect In I Kings ii. 8, 9, where David says concerning Shimei, of peculiar " Hold him not guiltless..... but his hoary head bring om down with blood to the grave," the word not ought (in Dr. Kennicott's opinion) to be repeated in the second clause, as it is in Psa. i. 5; ix. 18; xxxviii. 1; lxxv. 5: Isa. xxiii. 4 (orig.), etc. The event shows that Solomon understood David's language in this sense. He immediately put Joab to death; but Shimei, though he held him not guiltless, he merely bound to remain in Jerusalem, as a person who might not be trusted elsewhere. Kennicott's Remarks, p. 131. In 1 Cor. iv. 4, "I know nothing by myself," is, "I am not conscious of anything" (viz., wrong). In Gal, v. 17, the expression is ambiguous, and should be, "So that ye 70 CRITICISM-ENGLISH VERSION. do not the things that ye would." In Acts xvii. 23, for "'devotions," read, "objtcts of devotion." In 1 Cor. i. 21, for "the foolishness of vreaching," read, "the foolishness of the preaching," i.e., with special reference to the doctrine preached. So Luke xi. 32. In 2 Pet. ii. 5, read, "Noah, with seven others." In Heb. xii. 18, read, "the mountain that could be touched." Both in the Old and New Testament again, verbs are sometimes translated in the wrong tenses. Many of the imprecations in the Psalms are really predictions, and express the rule of the Divine government rather than the prayer of the author. In 2 Kings xxiii. 30, read, "in a chariot dying." See 2 Chron. xxxv. 24. The present translation of John xiii. 2, " supper being ended," contradicts ver. 26-28. The original is, "supper being come.' So in Acts ii. 47, for "such as should be saved," read, "such as were being saved." So 1 Cor. i. 18; 2 Cor. ii. 15, 16: iv. 3. In Luke v. 6, read, "began to break," or "was breaking" (see ver. 7). So Matt. viii. 24: Luke viii. 23: Mark iv.. 37: 1 Cor. xi. 23. In 2 Cor. v. 14, read, "then are all dead," or "have all died."a In 2 Cor. xii. 2, 3, for "I knew," read, "I know." In Luke xxiii. 46, read, "And Jesus cried with a loud voice, saying." In Philer. xxi. for " I wrote," read, " I have written," as in ver. 19. See also Jas. ii. 21: 1 Thes. i. 10: Acts vii. 36. a ['Therefore (then) all died."-Al ford.] In some parts of the Old Testament the numbers mentioned seem enormously large, and may be corrected by the idiom. It is said, for example, that at Bethshemesh (a small town) the Lord smote 50,070 men, 1 Sam. vi. 19: and in Judges xii. 6, there are said to have fallen of the Ephraimites 42,000; while a short time before the tribe contained only 32,500 persons. Both passages are corrected by a mode of notation still common among the Arabians. They say, in the year 12 and 300 for 312. Translating literally, we have for the first passage, "the Lord smote seventy men, fifties and a thousand," or 1170. And for the second, "there fell of the Ephraimites 40 and 2000," or 2040. —Taylor in Calmet. It deserves to be noticed generally that numerical statements in Oriental languages are peculiarly liable to error in transcription. In the Hebrew, for example, X is 1; 4 is 1000; 2 is 2; t is 20;' stands for 7000; 1 stands for 700; and the one letter being inadvertently writ CRITICISM-ENGLISH VERSION. 71 ten in very early copies for the other has given rise to sorne apparent contradictions, 2 Sam. viii. 4: 1 Chron. xviii. 4. There is a similar error in 2 Sam. x. 18, 700 (1); see 1 Chron. xix. 18; 7000 ( ). 1 Kings iv. 26, 40,000 (t ~.t probably); see 2 Chron. ix. 25, 4000 (h nSIW.) 1 Kings ix. 23, 550 (A); see 2 Chron. viii. 10, 250 ( I). 1 1 Kings ix. 28, 420 (G); see 2 Chron. viii. 18, 450 (:). 2 Kings viii. 26, 22 (-5); see 2 Chron. xxii. 2, 42 (:a). The numerals in Josephus are similarly corrupt. 118. (4.) In some cases, the same word in the original is rendered by different words in the English. Same words In Isa. xxxvii. 3, an accurate translation would suggest translated that the insult Rabshakeh had offered to Judah was to recoil ones. upon himself. He reproved Judah, and God reproved him. In Psa. cxxxii. 6, " the fields of the wood" is the translation of what is really a proper name, " of Jearim," as it is given in 1 Chron. xiii. 5, " Kirjath (i.e. the city of) Jearim." In Lev. xix. 5, " at your own will," should rather be, "that it may be accepted of you," as in ver. 7, and so xxii. 20, 21. In Matt. xxv. 46, the eternal life of the righteous and the everlasting punishment of the wicked are expressed by the same word. To " apprehend" may be translated to lay hold of or obtain, in Phil. iii. 12, as in 1 Cor. ix. 24. The same word is translated "imputed," "counted," and " accounted" in Rom. iv. 3: Gal. iii. 6: James ii. 23. "Attendance" is everywhere translated "heed" or " attention," except in 1 Tim. iv. 13. "Comforter," (John xiv. 16; xv. 26; xvi. 7) is the word translated " advocate" in 1 John ii. 1, and the idea is given in the word " consolation" in Luke ii. 25, and elsewhere. In 2 Cor. iii. and Heb. viii. "covenant" and "testament" represent the same words. In Acts xix. 2, a word is translated "if there be" a Holy Ghost, which is rendered more accurately in John vii. 39, " the Holy Ghost was not yet given." The following should be translated uniformly: 1 Cor. xv. 24, 26 (put down): Rom. v. 2, 3, 11 (rejoice, glory, joy): Rom. viii. 19, 22 (creature, creation): Matt. xx. 31: Mark x. 48 (charged, rebuked): Mark viii. 35, 36 (life, soul): 1 Cor. i. 4, 5: Eph. i. 3 (in, by): I Cor. vii. 12, 13 (leave, put away). See also Heb. ix. 23.(ver. 14); i. 3; x. 2: Tit. ii. 14: John xv. 2, 3: also Rom. xv. 4, and 5. 119. (5.) On the other hand, different words in the origina) are often rendered by the same word in English. Different In the Old Testament the word "vanity" represents three wordstrans eew wodsat least, one meaning "breath'" olated by theod }ebrew wards at least. one meaning "breath" oi nothing- saune wor. 72 CRITICISM-ENGLISH VERSION. ness, as in Ps. lxii. 9; another meaning wicked profitless deception, as the heathen idols, Isa. xli. 29; and a third meaning falsehood, as in Ps. xli. 6. Job xxxi. 5. All these terms convey sometimes the ideas of profitless" ness and of sin; but the first especially is used to indicate mere insignificancy. In Ps. lxxxix. 47, the sense is, How vain (fleeting, insignificant) are the sons of men, whom thou hast created. LORD in capitals is the translation of Jehovah, and Lord in small letters, of another word. See Ps. cx. 1. This distinction is important. The word "repentance" is used to translate a word denoting that change of disposition (,STra'VCL) to which the term is properly applied: and this is the common meaning. But it is also used to translate another word, denoting merely regret or a change of plans (/TszAs4), without implying any change of disposition. This is the meaning in Matt. xxi. 29, 32; xxvii. 3: 2 Cor. vii. 8, 10: Heb. vii. 21. Elsewhere the former word is used. " Conversation" again is the translation of two words; and means (1) citizenship, Phil. i. 27; or country, Phil. iii. 20; but (2) elsewhere in the New Testament, course of life, or behavior. The Greek word for conversation, in the modern sense, is translated in our version "communication," Matt. v. 37: Luke xxiv. 17: Eph. iv. 29. In 1 Cor. xv. 33, however, commnunications is the rendering of a word which signifies intercourse. "Hell" includes both (1) the invisible state, the place of departed spirits, without reference to their condition of happiness or misery, as in Matt. xi. 23; xvi. 18: Luke x. 15; xvi. 23: Acts ii. 27, 31: 1 Cor. xv. 55: Rev. i. 18; vi. 8; xx. 13, 14; and (2) the place of eternal punishment, as in Matt. v. 22, 29, 30; x. 28; xviii. 9; xxiii. 15, 33: Mark ix. 43,45, 47: Luke xii. 5: James iii. 6. These two meanings are represented in the original by different words. The word "temple" is the translation of two words; and means either the whole consecrated precinct (iev), or the portion appropriated as the local abode of God's presence (vc6a). In the first sense (including the outer or unroofed court) markets were held in it (Matt. xxi. 12),-and the rabbis met their pupils there. It is to the second that our Lord refers when he said, " Destroy this temple" (alluding to the indwelling of the Divine nature in his person). So is it applied to Christians in 1 Cor. iii. 16; vi. 19. " Ordain" is the translation of several words; and means determined in Acts x. 42; xvii. 31; and foredetermined in 1 Cor. ii. 7. The word used in the following passages is different; and means ordained, with the idea of setting in order, Acts xiii. 48: Rom. xiii. 1: Gal. iii. 19: 1 Cor. ix. 14. In Acts xvi. 4 it represents a word that means to deide. CRITICISM-ENGLISH VERSION. 73 In Eph. ii. 10, to prepare (as in Rom. ix. 23). In 1 Tim. ii. 7, to appoint (as in 2 Tim. i. 11: Acts xiii. 47; xx. 28). In Heb. v. 1; viii. 3, to constitte or establish. In Jude, ver. 4, to write up in the face of men, or denounce, or t write concerning a thing beforehand. In Acts i. 22, and Rom. vii. 10, there is no corresponding word in the original. The word ":devils" (pl.) should always be translated demons or evil spirits; and the word devil should be translated demon in the following passages: Matt. ix. 32; xi. 18; xii. 22; xv. 22; xvii. 18: Mark, wherever found. Luke iv. 33, 35; vii. 33; xi. 14: John vii. 20; viii. 48, 49, 52. In all other passages the word is rightly translated the devil, as in Matt. iv. 1: Rev. xx. 2. "Will" is sometimes the translation of the future; but sometimes of a.n independent verb, as in John v. 40; vii. 17; viii. 44: Matt. xi. 14, 27; xvi. 24, 25; xix. 17, 21: Luke ix. 24; xiii. 31: 1 Pet. iii. 10; Rev. xi. 5. In two passages "I woud" expresses a duty in addition to a wish (gpexsr), Gal. v. 12: Rev. iii. 15. "Shall" is sometimes used imperatively, and sometimes as a simple future. It is a simple future in Matt. xvii. 22: Mark x. 32: Luke xxiv. 21: John vi. 71; xii. 4: Acts xxiii. 3: Rom. iv. 24; viii. 13. The word translated " shall" in some of these passages (,/A~.,) is translated " will" or "would" in Matt. ii. 13: Luke x. 1: John vi. 6; vii. 35; xiv. 22: Acts xvi. 27; xxv. 4; xxvii. 10: Rev. iii. 16. Simple futurity is expressed in each. On the other hand, duty or necessity (Ji) is found in Matt. xxvh 35. This is the word generally translated "must" or "ought." "Shall" is not now used as a simple future, except where " will" would be ambiguous. [Should, Acts xxiii. 27, is used for would.] See also Acts xix. 15: Rev. iv. 6 (comp. chap. xiii.): 1 Cor. ii. 15 (comp. ii. 14). 120. (6.) Some of the expressions of our English version are obsolete in the sense in which the translators Obsolete i ^i -termsi used them. tes. AUDIENCE means the (act of) hearing, Lule vii. 1. CARRIAGE expressed what is now called baggage. 1 Sam. xvii. 22: Acts xxi. 15. CHARGER means a large dish, Matt. xiv. 8. CHARITY means love, 1 Cor. xiii. 2. To COMFORT means to strengthen, as a helper, to succor; and hence, to encourage and cheer. So ADVOCATE meant one called in on an emergency. The first word is now confined to consoling the afflicted, and the second is used in a restricted sense. In Scripture the idea is general, to strengthen, to guide, stimulate, aid, encourage, 1 Cor. xiv. 31: 1 Thess. v. 11, 14 (where it is rightly translated "exhort"): 7 74 GRITICISE-ENGLISIH VERSION. orm. xv. 4. CONVINCE has, in old English, the sense of convict, JohA viii. 46, as may be seen in the writings of Lord Bacon (Essays). DAMNATION would be more correctly rendered "condemnation" in 1 Ccr. xi. 29: so in Rom. xiv. 23, DISPENSATION of the gospel means: "stewardship," I Cor. ix. 17. To EAR the ground is to till it, I Sam. viii. 12. FRANKLY or FREELY means gratuitously. "Freely ye have received, freely give." "He frankly forgave them both." HARNESS in Exod. xiii. 18: 1 Kings, xx. 11, denotes armor. The word in the original may also mean in files or rows. HEIR often meant, in old English, heritor or possessor. "Heir of the righteousness by faith" is possessor of it; Heb. xi. 7. So Christ was appointed heir or possessor of all things, Heb. i. 2. His is the old English form of its, Matt. xii. 33. xxiv. 32; xxvi. 52: Acts xii. 10: 1 Cor. xv. 38: (her) I Cor. xiii. 5. INSTANT, INSTANTLY, means urgent; closely applying oneself to a business, Luke xxiii. 23: Acts xxvi. 7. LEASING means lying, Psa. iv. 2. To LET means to hinder, Isa. xliii. 13: 2 Thess. pi. 7: Rom. i. 13. LEWD means ignorant, untaught, idle, bad, Acts xvii. 5. MALICE (from Malitia) always means vice or wickedness generally. It refers to sin in its intrinsic nature; sinor transgression having reference to it as the violation of Divine law, I Cor. xiv. 20: 1 Pet. ii. 16. So in James i. 21, where the same word is translated "naughtiness." MORTIFY means to kill, to put.to death' Rom. viii. 13: Col. iii. 5. To OFFEND means sometimes to give offence; but its ancient meaning is to cause or give occasion to stumble, as in 1 John ii. 10: Matt. v. 29. It may often be translated "insnare." MYSTERY now means a doctrine or fact which is incomprehensible; involving often the idea of apparent and to us irreconcileable contradiction. In Scripture it means a revealed secret, a truth not previously know.n, Rom. xvi. 25, 26: 1 nor. ii. 7-10: Eph. i. 9; vi. 19: Col. i. 26, 27. Of course, Scripture doctrines often involve mystery in the common sense of the word. But it is not in this sense that Scripture uses it. The doctrine that God would receive the -Gentiles into the church, e. g., is called by St. Paul "a mystery," because it "was not made known unto the sons of men" till the gospel revealed it, Eph. iii. 3, 5. "Mystery" is also used in Eph. v. 32, and in Rev. for a symbolical representation, i. 20; xvii. 5, a meaning not materially different, however, from the above. It signifies an emblem of revealed trutu. NEPHEW is an old word for descendant, 1 Tim. v. 4. PENNY wa; originally any piece of silver money. It is now confined to our largest copper coih. The value of the Roman penny was then 17 cts. John vi. 7. See Rev. vi. 6, where the sense is reversed by our present translation: "a-measure of wheat for a penny," giving rather the idea of plenty than of want. PREVENT means to come before or anticipate, ICITICISM —ENGLISH VERSION. 75 PEa. cxix. 148, Matt. xvii.25: I Thess. iv. 15: or to surprise, 2 Sam. xxii. 6, 19. PURGE is t cleanse, to clear away, John xv. 2 (applied to pruning): Heb. ix. 14. Qucix means alive, 2 Tim. iv. 1: Eph. ii. 1: Psa. cxxiv. 3. RELIGIOK is never used in Scripture, in the modern sense of the word, for godliness or piety; but for religious worship or observance. It is found only in Acts xxvi. 5: Col. ii. 18 (orig.): and James i. 26, 27. It means (as in the last case) the outward expreseion of religious feeling. RooM means place (as in Acts xxiv. 27): Matt. xxiii. 6: Mark xii. 39: Luke xiv. 7; xx. 46. To TAKE THOUGHT means to be distracted or anxious, Matt. vi. 25. VAIN is unreal, false, delusive, immoral; especially as connected with a groundless and idolatrous creed, Rom. i. 21: 1 Pet. i. 18: Rom. viii. 20: Eph. iv. 17. So_ "made a road," means went for spoil,, or "made a raid," in 1 Sam. xxvii. 10: "in a several house" for "alone," 2 Kings xv. 5: "fetched a compass" for "made a circuit," in Acts xxviii. 13. For "coasts" read "borders" or "districts," in Judges xviii. 2: Matt. ii. 16; xv. 21. Strange as it may seem, most of these obsolete terms have furnished objections to the truth of the sacred Scriptures. Very many of the objections urged by Voltaire are founded on similar mistranslations in the Vulgate.^ 121. It may be added that there are several-apparent discrepancies in Scripture from want of uniformity of translation. Want of utiformlty in translatin Psa. xix. 4, "line" may be translated "sound," as in ingthe samewords. oRm. x. 18. Jer. xxxi. 32, "though I was a husband unto them" may be rendered, "and I rejected them," as in Heb. viii. 9. So Hos. xiv. 2 (Heb. xiii. 15): Isa. xxviii. 16 (Rom. ix. 33): Mic. v. 2 (Matt. ii. 6): Psa. civ. 4 (Heb. i. )-: Psa. lxviii. 18 (Eph. iv. 8). 122. Some words are untranslated: as AMErx; true, or so be it. HALLELUIA; praise Jehovah. HosA^NA; save now. MMMON; riches. MAEANATHA; in Wordsunthe coming of the Lord. SABAOTK; hosts. 123. The precise meaning of a very few words is unknown. Newcom-o' Historical View -of English Biblical Translations, p. 20a 76 CRITICISM-ENGLISH VERSION. eaiing "4 Higgaion" occurs in the Psalms seventy-one times, ot kowna. and thrice in Habakkuk. It was probably a musieal mark. "Selah" is equally uncertain; but may have been used for the same purpose. [See Part II, ~ 57]. 124. The marginal readings of the English versio-n often M1argina deserve attention. They express another sense, of ed wngs. hich the original is eapable: and they sometimes throw light apon the meaning. They might be multiplied with advantage, e.g. Gen. xxi. 14, Hsgagr wondered into the wildern s, as if despair, or she "losti her way," having probably set oat to retular to Egyp4. Rom. i. S1, "who aold the truth," or "repress," or'"impde," a sense more consistent with the seope, and with Seripture generally. The marginal reading in. the following passages, is preferable: Judges xi. 31: Gal. v. 24. 125. It is to be observed, further, that words printed in the English version, in Italics, are not generally in the original. "They are often necessaryr to express the sense, and they often express it happily; but they sometimes add a sense which is not in the sacred text. Of felicitons Italics there is an inst nrce in! Psa. cix. 4: " I,m mymlf to prayer';, and again in, Psa. exxxiii. 3: "As kte dew ef H rmo-n, aend as tlTe des tha;t descended upon the moun tains of Zion." Withod the words in Italics, the passage would be in consistent with physical facts, Hlermoa being upwards of a huncdred miiles'istant ifrim Zion. Oa ths eothber hand, the sense iss obscuredd in Matt. xx. 2S, where Christ is represented in the En'glish version as havirg no, power to- give -onors in hBeave. The oraission of the words in Italies exhib.t the tue earAing. "Toi sit upo. my right had is not mrin. to, give, xeepi for whe-m it is prepared." Soe. John xvii. 2: Rev. iij. 21. In, some cases the Italic words ought to. be printed iBn Roman e tters: as the, auxili ry verbs, the word ". not," in such passages as Deut.. xxik, 6: Psa. lxxv. 5:,b. xxvii. 17: Job xxx. 29, 25h: the ile ews idiom not requirinag the repettiton of the negative. [, 117]J. 126 The analysis of th. chapters of the Bible, and e ENGLISH VERSION-DIVISIONS.'77 titles and subscriptions of the books of the New Anlys o Testament, form no part of the inspired writings. chapters, (See ~ 51). scriptions. 127. The present division of the Scriptures, too, into chapters and verses, and the order of the several books, Divisions. are not of Divine origin, nor are they of great an- tiquity. The books are now arranged not with reference to their historical connection, but chiefly with reference to their contents, and the position of their authors. The Vulgate was the first version divided into chapters: a work undertaken by Cardinal Hugo; not as Jahn thinks, by Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, 1227. He introduced the division of chapters only. The Hebrew Scriptures were similarly divided by Mordecai Nathan in 1445, and in 1661 Athias added, in his printed text, the numbers of the verses. The New Testament was divided in the same wary by Robert Stephens, who is said to have completed it in the year 1551, during a journey (inter equitandum) from Paris to Lyons.17 As might be expected, these divisions are very imperfect: and even when not inaccurate, they tend to break the sense and to obscure the meaning. The subject of 2 Kings begins at the 24th verse of chap. vi. The description of the humiliation and glory of Christ (the subject of Isa. liii.) begins at chap. lii. 13: and the previous verses of chap. lii. belong to chap. li. The 6th verse of Jer. iii. begins a distinct prophecy, which is continued to the end of chap. vi. The first verse of Col. iv. belongs to chap. iii. Connect in the same way, Gen. ii. 1-3, and chap. i.: Rom. xv. 1-13, and chap 14: 1 Cor. xi. 1, and chap. x.: 2 Cor. iv., and chaps v., vi., vii. The latter part of Matt. ix. belongs to the 10th chapter. John viii. I, belongs to the 7th; and the last two verses of Acts iv. belong to chap. v. As a rule, no importance is to be attached to the division of verses or of chapters, unless it coincide with the division of paragraphs. Follow the pauses of the narrative, and mark the change of the subjects discussed, 7* 68 ZENGS:LISR TEIRSSION1D-rIVSI, 128. The' ancient divisions of the New Testamtrz are no. i e ticed in ~ 49. To complete iAformation on this Jewish' divisionof Old point, we append a brief aecoun t of the aneent ivisions of the Old Testament. Modern Jews use the present divisiotn of chapter and verse, B]ut ancient MSS. were differently divided. The law had fifty-four greater divisions, called Farshiyoth,. and the Prophets had similar divisions, called Haphtaroth, or dismissions, being read shortly before the close of the serviee, One of each of these divisions were read on the Sabbath. Smaller divisions were employed especially in' the law, called also Farshiyoth;. sometimes "open" ('nrTi ), where there is an obvious break in the sense, and sometimes "shut," or leaning upon (S..taw or n.we), where tbe sen-se run on. Of these, there are in the Pe:ntateuch. alone 669, They are marked t and r respectively. 129.. When Jews referred cto the Old Testament, it was.riptore their custom to mention the subject of the parahowquoted graph, as it still is- nmong the Arabs, inm suoting from the Koran, "InT Eli:is," Rom. xi. 2, (mag.) refen te I Kings xvii.-xix. "' Th bow," i- 2 Sam. i. 18, refers to the poem so called-, i th e book of Jasher. So, perhaps-,. "-i the uBsh'"to. Exod. iii. 130. Thee corrections must not lead to a depreciation of our English Bible. The more we examine it the higher will "be o:u estimate- of its general excellence. But zeal for any verslon must yield to zeal for that Divine word which it seeks to represent;. 131, They have been given at considerrable length7, for sevbj et al reasons. They furnish answers to objections Object of these co - which have been brought against Sacred Scripture. rct. They remove dificu!ties~an reconcile apparent con~ tradictions, They are of value, moreover, because they illustrate'Tvry fully the nature of the diffbren.ces whieb exist "between the English verion asd the origina text. It is obvious that very many of these differences may be rectified by a comparison of parallel passages, so that the English reader has in his own hands the means, to a large extent, of correcting them, Nor do they disturb the conclusion ato which the mest competent authorities have come, that the English Bible is, on the whole, identical with the Bible of the early Church, 182. The Englislh version of the Scriptfures now in use iS itself the result of repeated reTisions. In the pref- Histo ace to the Bishops' Bible, (A. D. 1568) a distinet Englis version. reference is made to early Saxon versions, and there are still extant parts of the Bible in Saxon, versions. translated by Bede, by Alfred the Great, and by Efric of Canterbury. Early Saxon MSS. of the Gospels are still preserved in the libraries of the British Musemin. and Corpu-s Christi College, Cambridge, The translation of the Bible was completed by Wyclife and his helpers about A. D. 1382. It existed only in MS. Wydiffe' for many years, but the whole is now in print (New version. Testament, 1731; Old Testament, 1848.) The work was regarded with grave suspicion, and a bill was introduced into the House of Lords for suppressing it; but through the influence of John O'Gaunt this was rejected. In 1408, however, in a convocation held at Oxford, it was resolved that no ore should translate any text of Scripture into English, as a book or tract, and that no book of the kind should be read. This resolution led to great persecution, though there is reason to believe that, notwithstanding, many MSS. of Scripture were at that time in extensive circulation throughout England. The first printed edition of the Bible in English, Was published by Tyndale; the- New Testament in 1526, and the Bible, in part, in 1532. Tonstall, Bishop of Londond and Sir Thomas More, took great pains to buy up 8I ISTORY OF ENGLIS:1 VERSION. and barn the impression, but with the effect thereby, of enabling the translator to publish a larger and improved edition,, diligently corrected and compared with the Greek. o, Miles Coverdale revised the whole, and dedicated Coverdale, etc. it to King Henry the 8th, A. D. 1535; and in 1537 pTohn Rogers, who had assisted Tyndate, and was then resid-.ing, Antwerp, reprinted an edition, taken from Tyndale and Covewale. This edition was published under the assumed name of Thomas Matthews. A revision of this edition again was lablished (A. D. 1539,) by Richard Tvcerner. The Great Bible appeared A. D. 1539. It was Coverdale's, revised by the translator, under the sanction of Cranmer. It was printed in large folio. For the edition of 1540 Cranmer wrote a preface, and it is hence called Cranmer's Bible. Itwas publithed "by authority." During the seven years of King Edward's (VI.) reign eleven editions of the Scriptures were printed, but no new version or revision was attempted. During the reign of Mary was published the Geneva Bible, A.D. 1557-60. Coverdale and others who had taken refuge in Geneva, edited it, and added marginal annotations. Archbishop Parker obtained authority from Queen Elizabeth to revise the existing translations, and with the help of various bishops and others, published in 1568 what was called the Bishops' Bible. It contains short annotations, and in the smaller editions (from 1589) the text is divided, like the Genevan, into verses. The same text was afterwards printed (in 1572) in a larger size, and with various prefaces, under the name of Matthew Parker's Bible. It continued in common use in the churches for forty years, though the Genevan Bible was perhaps more read in private. The Rhemish New Testament and the Douay Old Testament form the English Bible of the Romanists. The former aSee Anderson's Annals of the English Bible, and "Our English Bible," published by the Religious Tract Society. VALUE OF A WRITTEN REVELATION. 81 was printed at Rheims, A. D. 1582 and the latter at Douay, A. D. 1609-10. In 1603 King James resolved on a revision of the translation, and for this purpose appointed fifty-four men of learning and piety. Forty-seven only undertook the work, and in four years (from 1607-11), it was completed. The text, as thus prepared and printed in 1611, is the authorized version. 13., What wisdom is seen in the fact that we have a writ-'ten word; Scripture and not tradition, and not many Advange Bibles, but one. A revelation more than this would of a written record. have multiplied the difficulties of inquiry. A revelation less than this would long ago have lost its distinctness. Apart from any desire to vitiate a Divine message, merely oral tradition must have suffered from the condition of those to whom it was addressed. So incessant is the influence of man's moral state upon his judgment and perceptions, that any unwritten revelation must have undergone essential, though, perhaps, insensible modifications. Every truth too, which had ceased in one age to be of present importance, would have been omitted in the number of truths handed down to the next. But for the Bible we should have had a fearfully mutilated revelation, and of what remained we should have been contending, not so much for the sense of our Master's words, as for the words themselves. What grace is it, therefore, that in a world prone to deteriorate everything holy, and to falsify everything true, whatever may have grown old with age, has the means of renewing its youth; whatever may have been lost from the memory of the Church is not lost irrecoverably. We have the seeds of reformation and of renewed knowledge: the very "word of the Lord, which liveth and abideth forever." 134. And yet this blessing of a written Bible will prove a curse, if on that account we forget the reverence Dar Danger to that is due to it. As each truth of Scripture was which a written revmade known of old, God gave sensible evidence elationmay whence it came and wherefore it was sent. Men e 82 VALUE OF A WRITTEN REVELATION. were called to believe the report, because the arm (If the Lord was revealed. Awe and submission, and the consciousness of a divine approach were impressed upon the minds of men by the most instructive solemnities. Adam heard God in the garden before he had to answer for his disobedience. When God spoke to the children of Israel, they had such sensible proofs of his power, that they desired to hear his voice, without a mediator, no more. When He spoke to Moses, the cloud was on the tabernacle, or his thunders shook the mountain. Samuel was taught by miraculous signs to give the Divine message a fervent welcome. Isaiah witnessed the scenes which we now read with so little awe, and he cried out in conscious unworthiness, " Woe is me, for I am of unclean lips." John was prepared to receive his visions by a spectacle which absorbed all his faculties, and made him fall down as one that was dead. A complete written revelation is clearly inconsistent with such miraculous evidence: and there is danger lest the familiar tone of the Bible, and the every-day appearance of the volume itself, should tempt us to read it as a common composition. We need, therefore, to supply by our thoughtfulness and solemnity, the feelings which were produced of old by sensible images of the Creator's.presence and authority. It is not the word of an equal, and if we would have it bless us, we must study it with the collected and reverential frame of mind which becomes an interview with Him who is its Author and our Judge. SCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINE, 8 CHAPTER II ON THE AUTHENTICITY AND AUTHORITY OF SCRIPTURE. "This reverence have I learnt to give to those books of Scripture only which are called canonical. Others I so read that I think not anything to be true because they so thought it, but because they were ablr to persuade me either by those canonical authors, or by some probable reason that it did not swerve from truth." —AGUSTINE, Ep. 19: died 430. "If any of these books were disputed at first, but on examination were admitted, they are confirmed by their trial."-GAMBIER's Moral Evidence. "If those facts (on the origin, nature, and progress of the Christian religion) are not therefore established, nothing in the history of mankind can be believed."-CHIEF JUSTICE BIUSHE. SEC. 1. SCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE REGARDED AS AN INSPIRED TEACHER, AND AS THE ONLY INSPIRED TEACHER. 135. In proving the genuineness of the books of Scripture, nothing has been said of their Divine authority. thori They have come to us as their writers left them, of S..,as taught in and this is all that is proved. What they are, and Scripture itself. what they claim, must be first gathered from the books themselves. A little attention will easily satisfy the reader of the truth of the following statements: 136. (1.) The books of Scripture represent the mission of our Lord as Divine. He professes to be a teacher Mission o sent from God, and from the first anno inces that he our Lord rfepresented is to give his life for the salvation of the world. as DiPine. John viii. 42; vii. 16; xvii. 8; iii. 14-18. In proof of his mission he performed many miraculous works, and showed supernatural acquaintance with the human heart and with future events. 84 SSCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINE. Matt. xi. 2-6: John v. 36; xv. 24; vi. 64; xvi. 30: Matt. xx. 17-19. Luke xix. 42-44. Those who knew him best and were least favorably disposed towards him were unable to account from natural causes for his power and wisdom. Mark vi. 1-3: Luke iv. 22: John vii. 15. His public life was self-denying and disinterested: his private life blameless and beneficent. 1 Pet. ii. 22, 23: Matt. xxvii. 3, 4: Acts x. 38: John iv. 34; vi. 15; vii. 18. He was put to death (as he foretold) for making himself "equal with God,"-a charge he did not deny; and after his death he arose from the grave. Luke xxii. 70: John xx. 17: Acts i. 3. On these grounds we conclude that his words are to be received as Divine. John xiv. 10, 11; xii. 44-50: Matt. xvii. 5. 137. (2.) They represent the commission of the apostles The com- as Divine. Of the eight writers of the New Testamission of fie of the ment five, Matthew, John, Peter, James, and Jude, eight Writ. erTof the were among the number of the apostles to whom New Testarment Christ gave power to perform miracles, and to pubDivine. lish his gospel to the world. Matt. x. 1-4, 7, 8: Luke ix. 6. He promised to them, in this character, on four different occasions, the presence of a Divine instructor, who should recall to their remembrance what he himself had taught, and impart a more complete and permanent knowledge of his truth.* The apostles proved their commission by miracles ~ Matt. x. 19, 20: Luke xii. 11, 12: Mark xiii. 11: (Luke xxi. 14): Johnxiv-xvi. See also Matt. xxviii. 18-20: Mark xvi. 20: Acts i. 4; xxi. 4: 1 Pet. i. 12. SCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE DIVINfl 85 which they performed in the name and by the power of Christ, and they imparted supernatural gifts to others.* Their mission was attested by holy self-denial and integrity of purpose, and by the rapid and (humanly speaking) the unaccountable success cf their ministrations. Acts iv. 19; v. 29; ii. 41; xii. 24. We therefore conclude that the words of Matthew, John, Peter, James, and Jude, are Divine. John xiv. 12-14; xx. 21: Matt. x. 20: 1 John iv. 6. 138. The Gospels of Mark and Luke were written by companions of the apostles: Mark, the convert of Mark Peter (1 Pet. v. 13), and Luke, the intimate friend and Luke. of Paul. Papias (flour. A. D. 140-150), Justin (died 165), Ireneus (flourished 180),and Origen, all speak of Mark's Gospel as commonly received, and as having been dictated or sanctioned by Peter. Luke and Paul resided in Palestine for two years, travelled together during a large part of the apostles' journeys, and were together during Paul's imprisonment at Rome. Acts xxi. 17; xxiv. 24; xxviii. 16: Col. iv. 14: 2 Tim. iv. 11. Luke x. 7 is quoted as Scripture in 1 Tim. v. 18. Irenseus, Tertullian, and Origen, speak of his Gospel as universally received, and as sanctioned by Paul. 139. (3.) They represent the commission of Paul as Divine. He was called to the apostolic office, claimed apos- Commis tolic authority, vindicated his claims by miracles, sionofPaul imparted supernatural gifts, manifested the utmost disinterestedness, submitted to the severest sufferings, was acknowledged by the rest of the apostles, and was eminently successful. He therefore claims to speak in Christ's name, and his words are Divine. a Acts iii. 16: Heb. ii. 4: Acts v. 12, 15: Mark xvi. 17, 18: Acts viii. 17-19. 8 80 SCRIPTURE CLAIMS TO BE 1)IVINGA 1 Gor. xv. 8: Acts xxvi. 12-17; ix. 13-17: 2 Cor. xi. 5: Gal. i. 1-12, ii. 6: 1 Cor. ii. 10-13: 1 Cor. vii. 40: Rom. xv. 18, 19: 2 Cor. xii. 12 Acts xix. 6: 2 Tim. i. 13, 14: 2 Cor. xi. 7: 2 Cor. i. 5: Gal. ii. 7-9: 2 Cor. xi. 14-16: 2 Cor. v. 18-20: 1 Thess. ii. 13. 140. (4.) They represent the apostolic writings generally as Divine. The apostolic writings were composed Apostolic writings by Divine command, and in fulfilment of the comvne mission their writers had received. 1 Thess. iv. 15: 1 Tim. iv. 1: Rev. i. 19: John xx. 31: 1 John v. 13: 1 Cor. xiv. 37. The apostles had the same object in view in their writings as in their preaching. Jude 3; Heb. xiii. 22: 1 John ii. 1, 26. The writings of the apostles set forth their verbal instructions in a permanent and condensed form, and they claim for both the same authority. Eph. iii. 3-5; 1 John i. 1-5; ii, 12-14: John xx. 31:-2 Pet. i. 15: 2 Pet. iii. 1, 2: 2 Thess. ii. 15; iii. 14: 1 Cor. xv. 1 (ii. 13). The writings of the apostles were received by the first Christians as of equal authority with their preaching, and produced similar effects. Acts xv. 19-31; xvi. 4: 2 Cor. vii. 8-10: 2 Thess. ii. 1. There is evidence that from the first the apostolic writings were held equally sacred with the Old Testament, and that they were quoted as the words of God. 2 Pet. iii. 15, 16: James iv. 5 (comp. Gal. v. 17-21): James ii. 3 (comp. Matt. xxii. 39). 141. (5.) The Jewish religion and the Jewish Scripture Jewish r are represented in the New Testament as Divine. ligion and Christ and the writers of the New Testament Jewish Scripture uniformly assume that the religion of the Jews was Divine m from God. SCRIPTURE THE ONLY DIVINE AUTHORITY. 87 Christ, in John iv. 22: Peter, in Acts iii. 13: Paul, in Rom.. ix. 1. They acknowledge the Divine origin of the revelation given to Abraham and to Moses. Christ, in John viii. 56: Peter, in Acts iii. 25: Paul, in Gal. iii. 18. Christ, in Mark xii. 26: John, in John i. 17: Paul, in 2 Cor. iii. 7. They acknowledge the Divine authority of the moral law and the Divine origin of the Jewish ritual,and of the civil enactments of the Mosaic law. Christ, in Matt. xv. 4: Peter, in 1 Pet. i. 15, 16: Paul. in Rom. vii. 22 (see ver. 7,12). Christ, in Luke xxii. 15, 16: John, in John xix. 36: Paul, in 1 Cor. ix. 8,9. They represent Christianity as the completion of Judaism, and as foretold by the prophets. The Old Testament writers at the same time acknowledge that what they spoke or wrote was given to them from God, and published by his command. Christ, in Matt. v. 17; xxvi. 54-56: Peter, in Acts x. 43: Paul, in Eph. ii. 20. Rom. iii. 21: 2 Cor. iii. 6-14. Ex. iv. 12, 15, 16: Dent. xviii. 18: Jer. i. 6: Amos iii. 7, etc. They maintain the Divine authority of the ancient Jewish Scriptures under the three-fold division of the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms, and under other equally familiar titles, ascribing all to the Holy Ghost. Matt. xxii. 31: Heb. xiii. 5: Acts xxviii. 25: Matt. xxii. 43: Rom. iii. 21: John x. 35: Gall iii. 8: Heb. iii. 7 (comp. iv. 7): 1 Pet. i. 11. 142. Here then we have the first peculiarity of the Bible. It professes to be a book from God, speaks every- Re where with Divine authority, and demands our submission. It is the one book, which claims " God for its author, unmixed truth for its contents, and salvation for its end." If we admit the authority of our Lord as a Divine teacher, the authority of the Bible is established. If we deny the authority of the Bible, we deny the truth of some of his most frequent teachings, and with it the divinity of his mission. 88 SCRIPTURE THE ONLY r iVINE AUTEORtITT. 143. As Holy Scripture claims to be regarded as the book Scripturethe of God, a Divine authority, so it claims to be the only Divine only authority. It is not a rule, it is the rule both of practice and faith. To ascertain its meaning, we Result of san oppo employ reason and the opinions of good men, and site view. the experience of a devout heart; but no one of these helps, nor all combined, can be regarded as of co-ordinate authority. They are not parts of the law, they only help to expound it. To follow reason or opinions, or inward experience in matters of faith, when their decisions contradict the Bible, is to deny it: to follow them when they add to it, is to admit another revelation; and to make them our rule when they agree with it, is to rest our obedience on the wisdom of man, and not on the truth of God. Faith ceases to be, even in the last case, submission to Divine authority. 144. From the following passages it will be seen that these conclusions are drawn from the lessons of the Bible Proof Proo itself. The inspired writers address themselves to men of every country and condition. Prov. viii. 1-4: Psa. xlix. 1-3: Rom. x. 12, 13. See Deut. xxix. 29: Psa. lxxviii. 5-7. The most important parts of the inspired books were addressed, in the case of the Old Testament to the Jews, in their assemblies; and in the case of the New, to the people generally, and to the churches. Deut. v. 22; xxxi. 24, 26: Ezek. xxxiii. 30, 31: Josh. xxiii. 6: Jere. xxxvi. 2-6: Hab. ii. 2: Matt. vii. 28: Acts v. 20: Rom. i. 7 (2 Cor. i. 1: Gal. i. 2: Col. i. 2: Philip i. 1): Rev. ii. 29. The public reading of these books in a language intelligible to the people, was appointed by God both among the Jews and in the Christian Church. Deut. xxxi. 11-13: Josh. viii. 33-35: Ezra vii. 6-10: Neh. viii. 1-S: 1 Thes. v. 27: Col. iv. 16. The private reading of Scripture, which was strongly inculcated in the Old Testament, is commended in the New. SbRiPTRUE THE CNLY DIVINE AUTHORITY. 89 Dentit. xi. 18-20: Psa. xix: Psa, i. 2: Josh. i. 8: Acts viii. 30-35; xvii. 11: Rom. xv. 4: 2 Tin.. iii. 15: 2 Pet. i. 19. Men are ultimately accountable for their religious opinions and practices to God. Eccl. xi. 9: Rom. xiv. 4-12: James iv. 12. The Bible, on the principle of man's responsibility, expressly appeals to his reason. 1 Sam. xii. 17: Jer. ii. 9-11: Mark vii. 1, 16: 1 Cor. x. 15. In the New Testament especially, the exercise of private judgment-in a teachable spirit, of course-is represented as essential to the existence and progress of true religion. Matt. vi. 22, 23: 1 Cor. xiv. 20: Col. i. 9: Phil. i. 9, 10: Acts xvii. 23, See 1 Pet. iii. 15: Rom. xii. 12. Men are exhorted in Scripture to bring all doctrines proposed to themtand their own character, to the test of scriptural or apostolic truth. Isa. viii. 20: 1 John iv. 1: 1 Thes. v. 20, 21: Eph. v. 6, 8-10, 17: Col. ii. 18: Gal. vi. 4, 5: 2 Cor. xiii. 5: 1 Ocr. xi. 28-31. Our Lord and his apostles, in addressing those who had the Old Testament in their possession, always appealed to its authority. See ~ 141. Our Lord and his apostles condemn all spiritual usurpation, and point to their teaching as the ultimate standard. Matt. xxiii. 1, 8-10: 2 Cor. i. 24. The utter insufficiency of unenlightened reason to discover or rightly to appreciate Divine truth, makes it incompetent to do more than interpret the revelation; it cannot sit in judgment upon it. Psa. xix. 1: 1 Ocr. ii. 9, 14; i. 18-25: Gal. i. 11, 12. From the earliest times, God commanded that whatever was to become a rule of faith or practice, should be committed to writing. 8* g0 SOCfttiPtRR, ~3: WILT ~)IV11\ 1 ACTROQMY^6 Exod. xvii. 14: r-tut. xxxi. 19: Hos. viii. 12: Ita, viii, 19, 20. The inspired writers were guided to use such language a~ the Spiiit of God approved. Dan. xii, 7-9: Matt, x. 19, 20: 1 Pet. i 10-12: 2 Pet. iL 21: 2 Tim. ii. 16: Heb. i. 1: 1 Cor. ii. 12, 18. Hence conclusions are drawn from particular Word. 1 Cor. xv, 45: Heb, iii. 7-10. Any attempt to add to or to take atWaF from the words of Ood is denounced. Deut. iv. 2; xii. 32 (Heb, xiii. 1): Prov. xxx. 5, 6 Rev. xxii. 18, 19 (Gal. iii. 15). The oral traditions of the Jews, which were censured both by the law and the prophets, were condemned by our Lordo Isa. xxix. 13, 14: Matt. xv. 2-9. If the comparatively imperfect revelations of the Old Tests ament were sufficient for man's instruction and salvation, much more are the fuller discoveries of the New. Psa. xix. 7-11; cxix. 9, 104, 130, Prov. xxii. 19-21: John xx. 30, 31: 1 John i. 3, 4 1 Cor. xv. 1-4. An examinatioi of these passages will prove that the Script tures are our only rule, that we are bound to study them, anm that according to our use of this blessing they will become the "savor of life unto life or of death unto death."' 145, These are among the first principles of Protestantism, ot the It claims for us the right, and it enforces the duty, knowledge of examining the Bible for ourselves, But be it of these Principles, remembered, that our safety lies not in the acknowlEnt the application of edgment of these principles, but in the application them can o save. of them; and in the consequent belief of the doctrines and precepts which the Bible reveals. S See for these passages in detail Morret's Biblical Theology, Part l. On the Rule of Faith, SEc. 2-tNSPIPn.AIO. 146. The geneaal truth that the books of Scripture are of )ivine origin and authority is sometimes expressed in another form, and they are said to be inspired. Holy men spoke or wrote them as they Wete moved by the Holy Ghost. 147. Whatever refers to the explanation of this truth"-ag, how men were inspired, and whether the catie kind of inspiration was needed in each case-is theory, and is cohcerihed with questions rather criolis than usefil, The truth itself is all that is fully revealed. Among the heathen and uninspired Jews it Was generally held that while inspired men were under the Diviie ncient Ancient iimpulse, all voluntary action Was suspended. Among views. the early Christians the doctrine of inspiration was held rather.practically than speculatively, though they geteraily maiiitained that the writers of the Bible, -when inspired, exercised their ordinary mental powers. On the mode oi kinds of inspiration they said little. When the authority of thd Papacy, however, began in modern times to be questioned, the whole doctrine of inspiration was more closely examined. The facts were generally admitted, but the theory ot compreliensive statement which best embodied and adcounted for them, was a topic regarded as open to discussion. See the chief opinions of the Fathers, in Westcott's Introd. to Gospels, Some held that the Holy Spirit dictated the sacred books word for word," as we have them in the original Moderi languages' others, however, holding that this theory views. Went beyond the facts, and was inconsistent with the diversit ties of style, the varying quotations, and the very professions of the writers themselves. A few taught that the fundamental truths of the Bible Advocates of verbal dictatie, are Calaimy, Haldane, and othciw Were g tin by intspiration, wLile the arguments and illustra tions were of human origin; to which it is a sufficient reply, that unless we are told what truths are fundamental, this theory throws the whole of Scripture into disrepute, and is inconsistent with those texts which represent it as an authority in religious matters. Others, again, held that those parts of the Bible whose moral tendency is obviously good are Divine, but not the rest; a theory which strips the Bible of all authority, and supposes man to have right notions of what is morally good before he can use the Bible.b Another and much more rational theory is one which Dr. a.rious Doddridge and many modern theologians" have inds of. sanctioned. In this theory there are supposed to be different kinds of inspiration; the first and highest providing ibr the revelation of things not previously known to the sacred writers; the second providing for the security of the writers against error in exhibiting doctrines and facts with which they were already.acquainted; and the third, conferring Divine authority by the approbation of inspired men, on parts of writings originally composed without inspiration. This theory does not materially differ in its results from ta another which many have preferred. They mainStatement without tain that holy men wrote in obedience to Divine theory. command, and that in writing they were kept free, we know not how, from all error, whether they taught truths previously unknown to them, or published truths and facts already familiar. In this theory, which is indeed rather a statement of the fact than a tAeory in relation to it, inspiration is ascribed to the whole of Scripture, while revelation is confined to those acts of the Spirit by which truths previously unknown were communicated to men. All Scripture ts inspired, and the new truths of Scripture are revealed; or, Priestley and even Burnet: see on the Articles, Art. 6. I Kant. cBishop D. Wilson, eto. INSPIRATIoN. 93 as Thomas Scott expressed it, inspiration discovers new truth (this we call revelation), and superintends the communication of the old. This distinction it is convenient to retain.18 148. These (except the last) are theories of inspiration, The fact which they have to embody and explain Scripture is that Scripture is everywhere the utterance-the claims. word-of Divine wisdom, and that it expresses the very ideas which the Holy Spirit intended. It is this gift which the inspired writers profess to have received. Their writings are God-inspired, or, to use the words of one not prejudiced in favor of sound views on this question, "animated through and through by the Spirit."-De Wette. 149. Old Testament writers, for example, claim it for themselves. Scripture Exod. iv. 15, 16; xix. 9: Lev. passim: Deut. iv. 2: Num. th1fac f xxiii. 12: 2 Sam. xxiii. 2: Jer. i. 7-9: Ezek. iii. 4-10: Mic. iii. 8, etc. New Testament writers claim it for the Old, and also for themselves. 2 Pet. i. 20, 21: Lukei. 20: 1 Pet. i. 11: Acts i. 16; xxvili. 25: Heb. iii. 7. John xiv. 26; xvi. 13, 14: 1 Cor. ii. 13; xiv. 37: 1 Thess. ii. 13; iv. 8: 2 Pet. iii. 1, 2, etc. 150. The gift, however, admitted, in the sacred writers, of diligent and faithful research; of the expression Whatispir. of the same thought in different words;b of such ation allows. differences (not discrepancies) between the accounts of inspired men as would be likely to arise from the different Luke i. 1-4 bCompare Matt. xxvi. 26, 27: Luke xxii. 19, 20, and 1 Cor. xi. 24, 25: and Matt. iii. 17: Mark i. 11, and Luke iii. 22. To this class belong quotations from the Old Testament. These are taken either from the LXX, without giving the exact words, and even when that version is not verbally accurate, or sometimes (when the original differs from the Greek), from the Hebrew direct. The quotations are rather subistantially than literally accurate; see Chaip VI. 94 SCRIPTURE CANON. stand-points of each;a of quotations from other inspired authorities;b of the employment of uninspired documents; and of peculiarities of style and manner arising from diversities of intellectual structure and from educational or other influences, such as may be observed on a comparison of Ezekiel and Isaiah, of John and Paul. Add to these facts that the inspired writers were sometimes uncertain of the precise meaning or application of their.message,d and that this message was delivered in language which the spirit of God approved, and we have the Scripture facts on this doctrine. These facts it is the business of theory, if a theory must be framed, to embody and explain. SEC. 3.-THE CANON. 151. The question of the authority of the books of Scripture is sometimes put in another form, and it is Canonicity of Scripture asked whether the whole belong to the Canon; a how-proved. question settled, if it is once proved that they are the production of inspired men.'It is sometimes said, indeed, that we prove the inspiration of the books by first proving their canonicity; the church has received them, and therefore they are Divine. The reverse, however, is the accurate order. They are Divine, and therefore the church has received them. a See Introduction to the Gospels, Part II. bPsa. cviii. and Psa. lvii. 7-11; lx. 5-12: Gen. chaps. x., xi. and 1 Chron. i. 17, etc.: 2 Kings xviii. 13-37, and Isa. xxxvi. 1-22: Mic. iv.: Isa. ii.: also Chron., with Kings and Sam. Eichhorn has given a list of such quotations. CJosh. x. 13: Numb. xxi. 14: Jude 9, 14, 15. dl Pet. i. 10, 11: Dan. xii. 8; so, also, the facts mentioned in the fol. lowing passages are not recorded in the Old Testament Scripture: Aces vii. 22: 2 Tim. iii. 8: Heb. ix. 4, that the pot vwas golden: Heb. xii. 21, the words of Moses: facts in xi. 37, etc.; so the burial of the patriarchs in Sychem, Acts vii. 15. l Pet. i. 10, 11 Dan. xii. 8: 2 Tim iii. 16: Heb. i. 1: I Cor. ii. 12, 13 See ~ 144. CANON~-NEW TESTAMENT. 95 The books are now received as canonical because we have satisfactory evidence of their inspiration; and if there had been other books not recognized in the present canon, but demonstrably of Divine origin, we should be bound to give them a place among the rest. 152. The question, therefore, of the canonicity of the books of Scripture is three-fold. Is each book the pro- A treefold duction of its professed author? is it authentic? question. and was the writer in composing it under the special guidance of the Spirit? Genuineness and authenticity are both involved; and though the present section is placed between the sections on those subjects, the argument needs the facts of both. 153. We begin with the New Testament. In the early church many writings were extant, professing to give an account of the life and character of our The Lord; but four only were received as authoritative. Gospels. It was admitted on all hands that these were the productions of the Evangelists whose names they bear: the Gospels of Mark and Luke being respectively penned under the care of Peter and Paul. The apostle John, moreover, is recorded to have acknowledged publicly the authority of the first three Gospels, and added his own to complete them. These books, therefore, were written by apostles to whom our Saviour specially promised his Spirit, that He might guide them into all truth, bring to their remembrance whatever He himself had told them, and qualify them to give his gospel to the world. In the same way, though less directly, John is supposed to have attested the book of Acts.* The Acts. So of the Epistles of Paul. There are thirteen The Episof them which bear his name. Other disciples were tTes of Pl t. witnesses of his having written them.b Generally he wrote by an amanuensis, who also became a witness of the * See the evidence in Wordsworth on the Canon, pp. 156-160. b 1 Thess. i. 1: 2 Thess. i. 1. 96 CANON-NEW TESTAMENT. genuineness of his writings: in these instances he added his subscription and salutation.b His Epistles were sent by private messengers." Nine of them, moreover, were addressed to public bodies. The earliest of them he commanded to be read in the public assembly; the second, and indeed all the rest, were read in public too; and we know from Ignatius, Polycarp, and Clement, and especially from Peter, that his Epistles were regarded as inspired Scripture, and read with the Law and Prophets of the Old Testament and the Gospels of the New.e To complete this evidence, it should be added that the language of Peter was used by him after all the Epistles of Paul to the churches had been written,f and that he applies to them a name ("Scripture") which, though occurring fifty times in the New Testament, is never applied to any other than the present canonical books. The conclusion, therefore, is that these Epistles are Paul's, and that they have what Paul claimed for them (~ 139), and what the early church and a chief apostle ascribed to them-inspired, and therefore canonical, authority. They are not the words which man teaches: they are the words of the Holy Ghost. All the parts of the New Testament mentioned thus far Aitilego- were deemed, as soon as published, to be Divine, as mena, or were 1 Peter and 1 John. The remaining books DeuteroCanonical. of the New Testament were called, as we have seen (~ 20), Antilegomena, or, from their forming a part of the Canon only after a second revision, the Deutero-Canoaical. That position in the Canon they gained gradually; at the beginning of the fourth century they were received by A Rom. xvi. 22. b Col. iv. 18: 1 Cor. xvi, 21. c Rom. xvi. 1: Appendix: Col. iv. 7, 8: Appendix: Eph. vi. 21: Philip. ii. 25. d 1 Thess. v. 27: 2 Thess. ii. 15; iii. 6, 14: 2 Cor. i. 13: Col. iv. 16. e Ign. to Eph. chap. xii.: Polyc. to Phil. iii. 11, 12: Clem. to Cor. i. c. 47: 2 Pet. iii. 15, 16. f Shortly before the death of Peter, who suffered martyrdom the same year as Paul, 2 Pet. i. 14, CAION -NEW TESTAMENT. 97 most of the churches, and at the end of that century they were received by all. The special evidence of each book it is not necessary to give now. The point to be noticed is that the doubts which existed had reference not to the canonicity onicity.why of the writings of James, Cephas, John, and Jude, questione but to the question whether the writings bearing their name were really written by them. Nor can these doubts excite surprise. The subject was one of deep interest. Many spurious compositions were abroad under the names of these very apostles.* Apostolic teaching might be quoted in defence of caution. The internal evidence of the authorship of these Epistles is peculiar; the Epistle to the Hebrews, for example, is without the author's name, and differs in style from most of the Epistles of Paul. The style of 2 Peter differs in the same way from the style of the first Epistle. In James and Jude the authors are described not as apostles, but as "servants" of Christ, while in 2 and 3 John the writer describes himself as a presbyter or elder, not as an apostle. Jude also refers to stories which were supposed to be contained in apocryphal writings. All these Epistles, moreover, were addressed either to Christians generally or to private persons, not to particular churches. No oody of men, therefore, were interested in preserving them, and external evidence in their favor was necessarily scanty. All these causes of doubt did operate, as we know. In the end there was universal conviction; and the very doubts which deferred the reception of a small portion of Scripture in certain parts of the early church now serve to confirm our faith in the rest. 154. These facts sufficiently indicate the course of argument by which the canonicity of the New Testament Nature is proved. Let it be shown that they were written of Poof. by the men whose names they bear, and that there is reason for believing that their authors wrote under the guidance of * Jones on the Canon, i. 37-45. b 2 Thess. ii. 1, 2: 1 John iv. 1. 98 CANON-NEWS TESTAMENT. the Spirit, and the evidence of the canonicity of the boors is complete. As part of the evidence (in some sense a subordinate part, Evidence of for the claims and character of the books themselves churceilsor supply the chief evidence), it may be added that how im- the books which now form the Canon were read from the first in Christian assemblies as of Divine authority,' that ecclesiastical authors quote largely from them," and that they constituted the canonical books of the early church. 155. Between the years 200 A. D. and 400 A. D. fifteen Ancient catalogues of such books were published. Of these, lists. six-those of Athanasius, Epiphanius, Ruffin, Austin, the third council of Carthage, and of the anonymous author of the works of Dionysius the Areopagite-agree with the present canon: three-those of Cyril, the Council of Laodicea, and Gregory Nazianzen-omit the Book of Revelation only: one-that of Caius, probably 196-omits James, 2 Peter, 8 John, and Hebrews: another-~that of Origen-omits James and Jude, though he elsewhere owns them. The catalogue of Eusebius marks James and Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Revelation, as doubted by some. Philastrius omits Hebrews and Revelation. Amphilochius inserts all, but marks the Antilegomena, he himself deeming the Hebrews genuine; and Jerome speaks of the Hebrews only as doubtful, and that Epistle he elsewhere receives., Add to this evidence the authority of the Peshito and of the early Latin versions. The former contains all our present books, except 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and revelation; and the latter included probably all the books afterwards inserted in Jerome's version. a Lardner, ii. 132, 526. b Lardner, ii. 52, 72, 93, 109. c These authorities may be seen in the original in Wo-dsworth on the Canon, Appendix A. Thirteen out of the fifteen are referred to ia Jones on the Canon, i. 73-76. CANON-OLD TESTAMENT. 99 156. Though the opinion of the early church is (alled subordinate or indirect evidence, that opinion has often be66r regarded as sufficient to decide the canonicity calnoicity indirectly; of the books of Scripture. The reception of these not itself decisive. books by the churches was taken as proof of their inspiration; just as the decision of a competent legal tribunal would be deemed conclusive evidence of any fact proved before it, or as the opinion of an eminent mathematician might be taken as proof of the soundness of some demonstration. This practice, however, must not turn our attention from the real nature of the proof. The question is not one of authority, but of evidence. To reckon a book canonical, because a council or a church has pronounced it so, is neither logical nor scriptural. Our wisdom is to use such a decision (according to its intrinsic worth) for the purpose of ascertaining the claims of the book itself. The canonicity of each book-its right, that is, to a place in the Canon-is a question as large as the question of its Divine authority, and involves a consideration of the same evidence. Of that evidence early opinion is only part; an important part, doubtless, for the utmost care was taken from the first in discriminating the genuine from the spurious; but it is only part. It may aid, it must not control our decisions. 157. The canonicity of the Old Testament is best established by the New. Our Lord received as Scripture what Canonicity the Jews delivered to him as Scripture, and the of Old Testament apostle speaks of the advantage of the Jew as con- proved sisting chiefly in his possession of the " oracles of from New. God." As an evidence of the close connection of the two dispensations, and of the sanction given in the New Testament to the Old, it may be noticed that the former has not less than 263 direct quotations from the latter, and that these quotations are taken from almost every book. The obvious allusions to the Old Testament are even more numerous, araounting to upwards of 350. See Chap. VI. ~ 1. 158. That at the time of our Lord the Canon was fixed as 100 CANON-OLD TESTAMENT. at present is established by decisive evidence. In addition Philo and to quotations in the New Testament fiom particular Josephus. books, Josephus and Philo both testify to the books themselves, and to the reverence with which the Jews regarded them; the former expressly stating that the Canon he was setting down was received by all Jews, that they all would contend for it to the death, and that none had ever dared to add to, or take from, or change anything in tle sacred books.19 159. Testimonies no less decisive will be found in the next.nciest paragraph. In examining this list it must be rememlists. bered that when certain books are omitted from professed catalogues of the Old Testament Scriptures, there is the greatest probability that each of those books was included in the'preceding book: Esther, for example, in Nehemiah; Ruth in Judges; and Lamentations in Jeremiah. The fact that some books are not quoted in the New Testament is accounted for on the simple principle that the writers had no occasion to quote them. That all our present books were included at the time of our Lord in the Old Testament Canon is undoubted, and as such they are quoted under the usual Jewish division. 160. The authorities referred to in the preceding paragraph, may be classed as follows:The New Testament, which is really authoritative, refers to all Scripncien Oid ture under the threefold division of Law, Prophets, and Testament Writings. It also appeals to each of the books, except Ruth, lists. Ezra, Nehemiah, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and perhaps Lamentations. The version of the LXX, which is evidence, includes them all. The son of Sirach, B.C. 130, mentions the threefold division; as does Philo, A. C. 41, quoting from all except Ruth, Chronicles, Nehemiah, Esther, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel. Josephus, b. A. D. 37, enumerates them according to their classes, including all the present books. Melito, 177, mentions all except Esther Nehem. and Lam. Origen, 230, mentions all, without exception. Athanasius, 326, mentions all except Esther. Cyril (Jerusalem), 348, mentions all, as also the Council of Laodicea, 363;.Epiphanius, 368; and Htilary, of Poictiers, 370. Gregory of Nazianuen, 370, mentions all except Esther; as dots Amphilochius, 370. The Apostolic Canons, CANONICAL BOOKS —HOW PRESERVED. 101 of uncertain date, but not later than the end of this century, mentions all; as also the Apostolic Constitutions. These are Greek authorities. Of Latin authorities, the chief are Jerome, 392; R.fin, 397; 3d Council of Carthage, 397; and Augustine, 395; and all agree in enumerating the whole. 161. How the books of the Old Testament were preserved, is a question of some difficulty, and we can but give the most probable solution. The books of the law were placed in the Tabernacle with the ark of the covenant, and were kept there during ow Old the journeyings in the wilderness, and afterwards in Testament preserved. Jerusalem.* To the same sanctuary were succes- sively consigned the various historical and prophetic books, from the time of Joshua to that of David. On the erection of the temple, Solomon deposited in it the earliest books,b and enriched the collection with the inspired productions of his own pen. After his days, a succession of prophets arose, Jonah, Amos, Isaiah, Hosea, Joel, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Obadiah, and Habakkuk. The.y all flourished before the destruction of the temple, and enlarged the volume of inspiration by valuable additions. About 420 years after the temple was built, it was burnt by Nebuchadnezzar. What became of the MSS. of the Sacred Scriptures is not known. In Babylon, however, Daniel speaks of the book of the law as familiar to him, and also of Jeremiah, and of other prophets.' Shortly after the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, the Jews were released from captivity, rebuilt the temple, and restored Divine worship, being encouraged to persevere by the exhortations of Haggai and Zechariah. About 50 years after the temple was rebuilt, Ezra is recorded by tradition to have made a collection of the sacred writings, as he certainly took great pains to expound and enforce the a Deut. xxxi. 9, 26: Josh. xxiv. 26: 1 Sam. x. 25. b 2 Kings xxii. 8: Isa. xxxiv. 16. c Dan. ix. 2, 11. In these passages thy worj book or a book is more properly' the bock." 9* 102 CANON-THE APOCRYPHA. ancient law (see Neh. viii. 1, 3, 9). To this collection were added (probably by Simon the Just) the writings of Ezra himself, with those of Nehemiah and Malachi, and thus was comr pleted the canon of the Old Testament; for, from the days of Malachi, no prophet arose till John the Baptist, who connected the two covenants, and of whom it was foretold that he should precede the great day of the Lord. Mal. iii. 1. The collection of the canonical books is generally said to have been the work of the Great Synagogue, a body which included Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, and afterwards, Simon the Just. The existence and labors of this body are distinctly referred to in the most ancient Jewish writings. After the captivity, synagogues were established in Judea, and throughout the world, and copies of the inspired Scriptures were so greatly multiplied as to make the preservation of particular MSS. rather a question of curiosity than of historical importance.' The early existence and history of the LXX., have been noticed in a previous chapter. 162. If we examine by these tests the books called ApocryThe Apo- phal, we shall be constrained to reject their authority crypha. as Divine. 163. Externally the evidence is conclusive: External They are not found in any catalogue of canonical evidence. writings made during the first four centuries after Christ; nor were they regarded as part of the rule of faith till the decision of the council of Trent, 1545. Philo never quotes them as he does the Sacred Scriptures, and Josephus expressly excludes them.b The Jewish church never received them as part of the Canon, and they are never quoted either by our Lord or by his apostles, a fact the more striking, as Paul thrice quotes heathen poets. It is remarkable, too, that a See Stuart on the Canon, and Havernick's Introduction to the Old Testament, Edin., pp. 1*-22. b Contr. Apion. i. 8. APOCRYPHA-EVIDENCE AzGAINST. 103 the last inspired prophet closes his predictions by recommending to his countrymen the books of Moses, and intimates that.no other messenger is to be expected by them till the coming of the second Elijah.^ Against this decisive external evidence must be placed the fact, that particular books have been quoted as canonical by one or more of the Fathers.20 Baruch alone is quoted as canonical by Origen, Athanasius, Cyril, and Epiphanius. Of the Latin church, Augustine alone quotes as canonical, Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. By other writers of the 3d and 4th centuries, the books are not cited, or their canonicity is denied. 164. Internal evidence, moreover, is against their inspiration. Divine authority is claimed by none of the nternal Internal writers, and by some it is virtually disowned.b evidence. The books contain statements at variance with history,~ selfcontradictory,d and opposed to the doctrinese and precepts of Scripture.f 165. For historical purposes, and for "instruction of mnanners," so far as they exemplify the spirit and pre- How far cepts of the Gospel, the books are of value. But useful. they are without authority, and form no part of the rule of faith. aMal. iv. 4-6. b 2 Mac. ii. 23; xv. 38: Prol. of Eccles. e Baruch i. 2, compared with Jer. xliii. 6, 7. The story of Bel and the Dragon contradicts the account of Daniel's being cast into the lions' den. dComp. I Mac. vi. 4-16: 2 Mac. i. 13-16: 2 Mac. ix. 28, as to the place where Antiochus Epiphanes died. The writer of the Book of Wisdom pretends that it was composed by Solomon, and quotes Isa. xiii. 11-18. Prayers for the dead sanctioned, 2 Mac. xii. 43-45. Justification by works involved, Tob. xii. 8, 9: 2 Esd. viii 33. fLying sanctioned, Tob. v. 12; xii. 15. Suicide is spoken of as a manful act, 2 Mac. xiv. 42; assassination is commended, Judith ix. 2-9, comp. Gen. xlix, 7; and magical incantations sanctioned, Tob. vi. 16, 17. 104 APOCRYPHA-EVIDENCE AGAINST. 166. The utility and relative importance of these books Relative may be further explained. The whole illustrate irtorance the progress of knowledge among the Jews, their of these books. taste, their religious character, and their government; while some of the books explain ancient prophecies, and prove the fulfilment of them, and others exhibit the most exalted sentiments and principles of uninspired men. Of least value are 1st and 2d Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Esther, Susanna, and the Idol Bel and the Dragon. These books contain indications of childish credulity, or of wilful disregard of truth. An intermediate place is due to the book of Baruch, the Song of the Three Children, and the prayer of Manasseh. The authorship of these books is uncertain, and they contain several mistakes; but they were probably written with sincere intentions, and they show the views which, in that age, were entertained of personal religion. The remaining books claim a higher place. The Wisdom of Solomon, though not written, by the Preacher, was probably intended as an imitation of his writings, and contains many striking counsels. Ecclesiasticus, avowedly uninspired, is often excellent. To the student it is also useful, as showing how the Jews expounded their law, what hopes had originated in the Divine promises, and by what motives the practice of godliness was enforced. The 1st book of the Maccabees gives the history of the deliverance of the Jews, under the illustrious family from whom its name is taken. It contains many examples of heroic faith, and may be perused with the same design as any other portion of authentic history. The 2d book is less accurate than the 1st, historically and morally, but it illustrates the firm confidence of the Jews in a future life, and records sev. eral instances of devotedness to the religion and institutes oi the law. For an account of other Apocryphal Books see Fabricii Codex Pseudigr. V. T 1713-41, and Codex Ps. N. T. 1713 —22, with Birch's Auctarium, 1804, or Jones on the Canon. EVIDENCES —HISTORICAL. 105 SCULPTURE ON ARCE OF TITUS, REPRESENTING THE VESSELS OF THE TEMPLE. SEC. 4.-AUTHENTICITY-SCRIPTURE EVIDENCES. 167. All that has been advanced thus far on the authority of Scripture is taken from Scripture itself. We have only arranged and given expression to its claims; The evidence by which those claims are sustained is among the most interesting subjects of inquiry. We can but touch upon it here, and must be content to refer to various authors for ampler information. 168. We have already seen that Scripture is genuine, and that from the earliest times, its various books were What evireceived as written by the men whose names they dence ofn,bear. Ordinarilyl nothing more would have been involved in yl. genuineproved by this process; but in this case the evi- ness. dence of genuineness is also evidence of authenticity. The truth of the general narrative, its authenticity, is involved in the very proofs of the genuineness of the record. The books are quoted and copied as history, and were received as such, while witnesses of most of the transactions they describe were living. That Palestine was under the Roman yoke; that during the reign of Herod Christ was born, that he professed 106 EVIDENCES —HISTORICAL. to be a teacher sent from God; that he claimed the power of working miracles; that these miracles were always beneficent; that they sustained a morality altogether unknown to the Gentiles, and novel even to the Jews; that he had several followers; that he was put to death under Pontius Pilate; that many hundreds, believing him to have risen from the dead, became his disciples; that, in the course of a few years, his disciples were scattered over the whole Roman world; that, in short, all the main statements of the Gospel history are facts, is involved (whatever be thought of their spiritual significancy) in the very genuineness of the record. The whole was deemed historically true; so that, while many rejected the gospel, the facts, on which in one sense it was founded, were acknowledged by all. 169. An explanation of previous evidence (~ 16,) will make Summary this statement clear. In the first four centuries of eviden- we have upwards of fifty authors who testify to ces of renuineness. facts told or implied in the Gospel narrative. The whole or fragments of the writings of these authors remain. The writings of about fifty others referred to by Jerome (392) have perished. These authors belong to all parts of the world, from the Euphrates to the Pyrenees; from Northern Germany to the African Sahara. They speak the Syrian, the Greek, and the Latin tongues. They represent the belief of large bodies of professed Christians, and no less the admissions of multitudes who were not Christians. They agree in quoting Scripture as genuine and true. They refer to it as a distinct volume, universally received. They comment upon it and expound it. They refer to it as Divine. Heretics who separated from the great body of the faithful received the narrative of the facts, and differed only on the doctrines which they supposed those facts to embody; and even infidels who denied the faith, founded their denial upon the very facts which our present record contains. So general had a belief of the facts of the Gospel become, that we find Justin Martyr (165) observing that in every nation prayers and thanksgivings were offered to EVIDETCES —HISTORICAL. 107 the Father by the name of Jesus; while only fifty jears later Tertullian states that in almost every city Christians formed the majority. Heathen and Jewish writers, without speaking of the New Testament, and without giving any evidence, there- Heathen fore, of its genuineness, confirm in a general way testimonies. the narratives of the life of our Lord and of his disciples, or incidentally illustrate them. Josephus in his Annals (A. D. 37-93), Tacitus in his History (A. D. 100), Suetonius in his Biographical Sketches (A. D. 117), Juvenal in his Satires (A. D. 128), and Pliny in his Letters (A. D. 103), all confirm the historical statements of the sacred story. Indeed there is no transaction of ancient history that can exhibit more than a fraction of the evidence by which the narrative of the Gospels is sustained. See the passages quoted in Paley, P. i. oh. ii. 170. The following are the principal ecclesiastical Ecclesiastiwriters who prove at once the genuineness and gen- cal writers of first four eral truthfulness of the New Testament: centuries. FIRST CENTURY. Scriptures quoted as genuine uotd Appeauled to by various and authentic, and asa is authority, or as divine: atinct volume. aexponded and con- sects, and by adver4a. tinct volume. mented upon. ri~ mented upon. Barnabas, Epistle belongs to Barnabas. the 2d cent. Hermas, Shepherd, do. Hermas. Clement, Rome, died 100. Clement. Ignatius, flour. 70, died 116. Ignatius. Polycarp, died 166. Polycarp. SECOND CENTURY. Quadratus, 122. Basilides, Alex. 122. Papias, flour. 119, died, 163. Valentinians, Rome, 140. Justin iMartyr, flour. 148, died Justin Martyr. Sethites, Egypt, 140. 165. Dionysius (Cor.), 163. Tatian, flour. 158, died 176. Carpocratians, Alex. 145. Ch. at Lyons, 170. Dionysius. Marcion, 150. Melito, flour. 170. Montanists, 157. Hegesippus, flour. 175. Eneratites, 165. Irenmeus, flour. 176, died 202. Irenmus. Athenagoras, 176. Celsus. Theophilus (Aut.), 178. Theophilus. Th } 93. 108 EVIDENCES-HISTORICAL. THIRD CENTURY. Beriptures quoted as genuine uoted as of Appealed to by variou and authentic, and as a dis- euthortts, or as divian d by adverse tiuct volume. expounded and com- rsects, and by dvers tinct volume. mented upon. ies. Origen. flour. 185-213. Origen. Hermogenes, Carthage, Tertullian, flour. 198, d. 220. Tertullian. 203. Minucius Felix, died 220. Ammonius, Alex. 200-235. Hippolytus, 220, died 250. Clement, Alex. died 217. Clement. Iionysius, Alex. flour. 232. Dionysius Cyprian, Carthage, 200-258. Cyprian. Commodian, flour. 270. Novatian, Rome, 250. Novatians, Rome, 251. Victorin (Germany). Victorin. Sabellians, Egypt, 258. Arnobius, flour. 307. Lucian, died 312. Porphyry, Rome, 262. Lactantius, died 325. Paul of Samosata, AntiEusebius, 270-340. och, 265. Manicheans, Persia, 274. FOURTH CENTURY. Hilary, Poictiers, died 368. Gregory Nazian, 328-359. Apollinarus, Laodic. flou. 362. Athanasius, died 373. Arians, 318. Damasus, Rome, 366. Ephraem, Syrus, died378. Donatists, 328. Gregory, Nyssa, 331-396. Basil (Csesarea), died 378. Julian, Emp. died, 365. Theodore, Tarsus, flour. 376. Cyril (Jerus.), 315-386. Priscillianists, 378. Eusebius, Nico. flour. 335. Apollinarians, $78. Ambrose, Milan, 374-397. Ambrose. Didymus, Alex. 375-396. Amphilochius, Iconium, flou. Epiphanius, Cyprus, 368, 380. d. 403. Palladius, flour. 407. Jerome, 329-420. Jerome. Chrysostom, 344-407. Pelagians, 410. This evidence is sometimes called the historical, and it forms the subject of the first part of Paley's volume. Historical evidence; If its truth be acknowledged, it places an inquirer effect of. in the position- of a contemporary of our Lord, leaving the claims of his religion to be established by other evidence. 171. Admitting the existence of a Being of infinite power and goodness, there are strong probabilities that Evidence; iw elas- He would not leave his creatures in ignorance and sified.. misery; and probabilities no less strong that any communication from him would contain a distinct reference to their condition, and would present analogies to other works of the Creator. These probabilities form the presuzptive evi EVIDENCES CLASSIFIED. 109 dence of revelation, and are discussed by such writers as Ellis, Leland, and Butler. Evidence founded on revelation itself is called positive. In God are attributes of power and of knowledge, of holiness and love. Sometimes the evidences of Scripture are ranged under corresponding divisions, and we speak of the miraculous, the prophetic, and the moral. A message from another, again, is susceptible of a two-fold evidence of truth; viz., credentials supplied by the messenger, and peculiarities or marks in the message itself. The credentials are external, and the marks are internal. In this arrangement prophecy often belongs to both: the prediction is in the message, and the fulfilment either in the Bible or in profane history. The internal evidence, again, is two-fold; according as it is founded (1), on the precepts of the Bible, the character of inspired men, or on the influence of truth in promoting hohness, which is the moral evidence, as it may be called; and (2), on its internal harmony-literary, doctrinal, and analogical-on the adaptation of the message to human wants, or on its consistency with all our holiest conceptions of the Divine character and purpose, which may be called the spiritual evidence; and this is the division to which it is intended tc adhere. 172. It is instructive to notice that each kind of evidence abounds in directly spiritual instruction. Miracles The very prove, at least, that physical nature is not fate, nor evidenceof a merely material constitution of things. Prophecy instructive. proves that things material and moral (both nature and man), are governed by a free and Almighty hand. What were pnce grave questions of natural religion, are thus sealed in the very evidences of the revealed.. The spiritual truth wrapped up, both in prophecy and miracles, and the obviously holy tendency of the moral evidence of the Bible, will be noticed elsewhere. Contrary to what is sometimes affirmed, the devoct 10 110 EXTERNAL EVIDENCE-MIRACLES. study of Christian evidence may become the mea:is of spiritual improvement. Evidence 173. The different evidences, then, of the truth al:,lnged. of Scripture, may be arranged as follows:I. EXTERNAL Evidence: appealing to our senses. 1. DIRECT: as in the miracles of our Lord, John iii. 2; v. 36; x. 37; xiv. 11 Works by Bishop Douglas; Campbell; West; Sherlock; Le Bas. 2. RETROSPECTIVE: as in the connection of Christ with the miracles and prophecies of the Old Testament, Luke xxiv. 26, pc 27: John v. 47. I Leslie; Stillingfleet; Faber; Kidder; Brown; Simpson. 3. PROSPECTIVE: as in the fulfilment of prophecy since the days of our Lord, John xiv. 29. Davison; Newton; Keith. II. INTERNAL: which is either a. MORAL: appealing to our conscience; consisting of the 1. MORAL PRECEPTS of the Bible. Jenyns; Gregory. 2. CHARACTER OF OUR LORD and of the inspired writers. Newcome; Lyttelton. 3. CHARACTER AND LIVES OF THE EARLY CHRISTIANS, and the general influence of truth. Chalmers; Warburton; Ryan; Pliny, etc. b. or SPIRITUAL: appealing to our intellectual perceptions and to our new nature generally. It includes 1. The SCRIPTURAL or LITERARY: or the wisdom and harmony of revealed truth, In its different dispensations.-Alexander. en^ ~ In the various parts of the record.-Graves on the Pentateuch; Paley's Horae Paulinae; Blunt; Birks, etc. With nature. —Butler's Analogy; Chalmers. 2. Thi EXPERIMENTAL. The gospel felt to be adapted to our ~ M vAnts. Pascal; Fuller; Ersxine; Sumner; J. J. Gurney. P. The SPIRITUAL properly so called. The Bible consistent with the character and purpose of God. Gilb. Wardlaw; Aldis; Philosophy of Salvation. EXTERN AL EVIDENCE- MIRACLES. 111 174. The success of the gospel is connected in Scripture, and by all ancient Christian writers, with the posses- External sion (on the part of our Lord) of miraculous power. evidence. Men believed, in the first age at least, because Divine Miraculous works or miracles (facts, that is, which could not have power. taken place from natural causes or without superhuman aid) attested the truth of the message. To these works our Lord repeatedly appealed, as works which none other man did, and as an evidence of his mission. He healed the sick, he raised the dead, not once only, but in many hundreds of cases; for it is said frequently that they brought sick people unto him, and that he healed them all. Matt. iv. 24; xii. 15; xiv. 14; xv. 30; xix. 2, etc.: Mark i. 34; iii. 10: Luke vi. 17; ix. 11. He gave the same power to his disciples, first to the twelve, and then to the seventy. After his departure his Similar apostles received the power of bestowing this mi- rower give raculous gift on all upon whom they laid their disciples' hands; so that many hundreds and perhaps thousands were thus endowed. It is certain that the apostles speak of it as a thing familiarly known, and reckon it among the signs of a Divinely appointed teacher. Indeed (when there was no New Testament) miraculous power seems the necessary evidence of a mission from God. 175. The sufficiency of the evidence which our Lord exhibited in this form was admitted by all, John vii. 31; Effect iii. 2. The effect on those who witnessed the mir- of this evidence. acles, in a teachable spirit, was a deep conviction of his Messiahship, John vi. 14; ii. 11, etc., as the effect of the record of those miracles, and of the doctrines they confirmed, ought to be saving faith, John xx. 30, 31. 176. But did he not deceive the people? How? He introduced his religion among enemies. He wrorght his Did he miracles openly. The senses of men were able to deceive? judge of them. His adversaries narrowly watched his pro. 112 EXTEARNAL EVID7PCE —MIRACLESB ceedings, John ix. And why? He foresaw and foretold his death. He promised his disciples persecution and suffering, and he enforced and practised universal holiness. But was he not himself deceived? Whence, then, the sobriety and holiness of his precepts, the disheartening faithfulness of his warnings, the dissimilarity between his teachings and the expectations of his countrymen? No one mark of enthusiasm is to be found in Him. The predictions of our Lord in this respect were soon fulfilled. Most of the apostles seemed to have sealed their testimony with their blood, and each nobly endured the trial. The following traditions are taken chiefly from ecclesiastical history. They are not all, however, equally authenticated: Matthew suffered martyrdom (by the sword) in Ethiopia. Mark died at Alexandria after being dragged though the streets of that city. Luke was hanged on an olive-tree in Greece. John was put into a cauldron of boiling oil, but escaped death, and was banished to Patmos. Peter was crucified at Rome with.his head downwards. James was beheaded at Jerusalem. James the Less was thrown from a pinnacle of the temple, and beaten to death below. Philip was hanged against a pillar in Phrygia. Bartholomew was flayed alive. Andrew was bound to a cross, whence he preached to his persecutors till he died. Thomas was run through the body at Coromandel, in India. Jude was shot to death with arrows. Matthias was first stoned and then beheaded. Barnabas was stoned to death by Jews at Salonica. Paul, "in deaths oft," was beheaded at Rome by Nero. Does the world furnish any such examples of sincerity and faithfulness? 177. In truth this evidence can be set aside only by supIf miracles posing a miracle greater than all. If Christ were denied, not from God, we have a Jewish peasant changing greater mir-' G adRmustbe the religion of the world, weaving into the story of his life the fulfilment of ancient predictions, and a morality of the purest order, as unlike the traditional teaching of his countrymen as it was superior to the precepts of G6entile philosophy; enduring with most peculiar composure EXTERNAL EVIDENCE-MIRACLES. 113 intense suffering, and inducing his followers to submit to similar privations, and many of them to a cruel death, in support not of opinions, but of the alleged fact of his miraculous resurrection. We have, then, these followers, "unlearned men," going forth and discoursing on the sublimest themes, persuading the occupiers of Roman and Grecian cities to cast away their idols, to renounce the religion of their fathers, to reject the instructions of their philosophy, and to receive instead, as a teacher sent from heaven, a Jew of humble station, who had been put to a shameful death. And all impostors! To receive this explanation of the acknowledged facts is to admit a greater miracle than any which the Bible contains. 178. These remarks apply in a similar way to the miracles of the Old Testament; and the whole may be exa- Leslie's mined by the tests laid down (in Leslie's tract) as tests of miraculous infallible marks of the reality of miraculous appear- appearaluances. 1. Were they such as men's senses could judge of? 2. Were they public? 3. Were public monuments kept up, and some outward actions performed in memory of the events thus publicly wrought? and 4. Were such monuments and observances set up at the very time when the events took place, and were they afterwards continued without intermission? The first two tests render it impossible for men to be deceived at the time, and the last two as impossible for deception to be practised in any subsequent age. If the reader will apply these tests to the miracles of the Bible, and then to the alleged miracles of other teachers, he will see at once the distinction between the false and the true. 179. Prophecies are miracles of knowledge, as miraculous acts are miracles of power. These last generally h Prophe... a bring their own evidence w[h them, while the evi- miracle; dence of the former is gradual and accumulative. The study of prophecy and of its fulfilme;'tt is highly instructive, both for the confirmation of our faith and for the enlightenment of the church. The want of books, which Lord Baooi noted in this department has been largely supplied in 10* 114 EXTERNAL EVIDENCE-PROPHECY, later times, especially by such works as those of Ne vton and Keith. 180. In order that predictions may form part of the eviR dence of Scripture, it is necessary, first, that the Requisites of prophetic event for told be beyond human calculation and evidene. foresight; secondly, that the prediction. be known before the event takes place; and thirdly, that the prediction be fulfilled without an intentional regard to the Divine -purpose on the part of the agent. If prudence could have foreseen the result, the prediction may be but an instance of human sagacity. If the result was not foretold, there is no prophetic evidence. And if the prediction led men to seek its fulfilment, the fulfilment is the result of human contrivance. There are, indeed, predictions to which all these marks do not apply; but such predictions, though useful for other purposes, cannot be regarded as decisive evidence of Scripture truth. 181. Prophetic evidence, it may be noticed, runs through the Bible, and each dispensation has its appropriate Pervades the Bible to predictions. the Flood. Immediately after the fall, we have the promise of a Saviour: in the days of Enoch, predictions of a coming judgment: in the days of Noah, of the flood. -After the flood, prophecy gave a new charter of temporal blessing, and promised a continuance of the seasons to the end of time. In Abraham, it founded the double covenant of Canaan and the gospel, promising to his seed a country, of which he possessed only his burying-place, and to all nations, that in his great descendant they should be blessed.^ It foretold the bondage of Egypt, and promised deliverance. By Jacob, it foretold the future history of the patriarchs and of their descendants.~ During the bondage of Egypt the gift was withheld, but was irenewed at the giving of the law. It then foretold To the giv-. t~e ing of the the coming of a second and mightier prophet, the future dignity of Judah," and the destinies of the Gen. xii. 2, 3; xv. 13. Gen. xv. 14. c Gei, i9 * Dout. xviii. 15. e Num. 23. EXTERNAL EVIDENCE —PROPHEC Y 115 Hebrew people to the end of time:* while the whole of the dispensation foreshadowed in types the great doctrines of the gospel. A pause of four hundred years follows the giving of the law; and a pause of like duration precedes the coming of our Lord. In the days of Samuel, whose prophetic office is distinctly noticed,b it foretold the consequences of the election To d ot a temporal king," the death of Saul,d the appoint- of Solomon. ment and character of David,e the establishment of his kingdom,' the birth and character of Solomon; and afterwards the division of the kingdom,h the overthrow of the idol-altar at Bethel,' and the dispersion of Israel. Contemporaneously we find brief sketches of the nature and future progress of the kingdom of Christ. The prophecies and miracles of Elijah and Elisha occupy an important place in the narrative of the two king- doms' and reach in their evidence, nearly to the days phetic peof Jonah, with whom the series of Hebrew prophets may be said to begin. Amos foretold the destruction of Samaria, and the final dispersion of the Ten Tribes,k as does Isaiah,' who alsb foretells the temporary captivity of Judah by Babylon,m a small and friendly state, and the deliverance of Hezekiah from Assyria, whose forces then surrounded Jerusalem." The most prominent circumstances of the' captivity were all foretold,-the time of its continuance, seventy years," the moral reasons for itP the issues of it, the course of meansa a Dent. iv.; xxviii.; xxxiii. b 1 Sam. iii. 20. ~ 1 Sam. viii. 11-18. d 1 Sam. xxviii. 19. e 1 Sam. xvi. 13, 14. f 2 Sam. vii. 12-17. g I Chron. xxii. 9; see 1 Kings iv. 25. h 1 Kings xi. 34, 40. i 1 Kings xiii. -} 2 Kings i-xii. k Amos ix. 9, etc. l Isa. vii. 6-8.'Isaiah xxxix. 2-6. Isa.. xxvii. o Jer. xxix. 10, etc. P Ezek.xxiv.: Jere. xxx. 1-20: Isa. xxvii, etc. 1.16 EXTERNAL EVIDI NCE-1IPOPHECY. by which it was to terminate. The names of nations scarcely then known, and of a conqueror not yet born, are introduced, and the wkole prediction has given to it the distinctness of history. During the whole period, the prophets pre-signify an approaching change of the Mosaic covenant, give the future history of the chief pagan nations, and complete the announcement of the Messiah and his work of redemption. In the captivity, we have the predictions of Obadiah, of Daniel, and (in part) of Ezekiel. After the captivity, the prophecies of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, cheered the builders of the temple, and point yet more earnestly to the advent of the gospel. Thus it is that prophecy makes its earliest and latest work, preparation for Christianity. The office and work of our Lord are set forth as the beginning and end of the earlier revelation of God. Al bdi- 182. This subordination of prophecy to one great All subordi-,ate to one object deserves closer investigation. end. We know that in fact the religion of the Bible is generally acknowledged among two hundred millions of the human race; and that while other systems indicate speedy dissolution, it continues to extend on all sides, and seems destined to fill the sarth. Little more than eighteen hundred years ago it had not one thousand followers. This fact is itself significant, but becomes doubly so when connected with the Scripture predictions which have been handed down to us. It was distinctly foretold that this mighty change should Thewor take place; that it should be effected by the seed of theMessiah. the womanb (itself an apparently contradictory expression); that it should be in connection with the people who were to spring from Abraham;" that though in connection with a Isa. xiii. 19; xiv. 3; xliv.; xlv.: Jer. xxv. 1: Ezek. ii., xii.; xxiii., etc. Gen, iii. 15. G en. xxii. 18. EXTERNAL EVIDENCE —POPHECYO. 117 them, it would be by means of a new covenant; that not the whole nation, but one out of the nation, was to be author of this change; that he was to be despised and condemned by his countrymen, and though put to death, was to establish a lasting and extensive kingdom.b The ancient books speak with equal clearness of his human and Divine nature;" of his descent from Isaac, not Ishmael; from Jacob, not Esau; from Judah, not from Reuben," the eldest son, or Levi, the father of the priestly tribe; and from David, the youngest of the sons of Jesse.e They mention the time of his coming;' the place and circumstances of his birth;' his offices as prophet, priest, and king;h the scene of his earliest ministry;i his miracles, his sufferings, and his death; his resurrection and ascension;' his bestowment of the Holy Spirit;m and the final and general extension of his truth." These are but specimens of upwards of one hundred predictions generally delivered in clear and explicit language; all referring to the work or person of our Lord, and exclusive of the typical and allusive predictions which in their ultimate application terminate in him. 183. These predictions were most of them delivered at least six hundred years before he appeared, were many of Completethem highly improbable, and even apparently con- ness of these pretradictory, and are all so remarkable as to imply the dictions as exercise of miraculous wisdom and power. A loose general prediction (of some great conqueror, for example) might have been made by guess, but a series of predictions containing many minute and seemingly opposite particulars, Jer. xxxi. 31; xxxii. 40: Ezek. xxxvii. 26: Mic. iv. 1. b Isa. ix. 6; xi. 1: Ezek. xxxiv. 23. c Isa. ix 6. d Gen. xlix. 10. e 1 Sam. xvi. 11: JSr. xxiii. 5. f Gen. xlix. 10: Dan. ix. 24; vii.: Hag. ii. 6-9. g Mic. v. 2: Isa. vii. 14. h Psa. cx.: Zech. vi. 13: [sa. lxi 1. i Isa. ix. 1: Matt. iv. 14. J Isa. xxxv. 5, 6. k Psa. xxii. 16: Isa. liii. Psa. lxviii. 18. "Joel ii. 28. Isa. liii.: ix. 7: Psa. ii. 6; sxju 11.8 EXTERNAL EVIDENCE PROPHECY. all fulfilled in the person of our Lord, could have been given only by Him who worketh all things after the counsel of his own will. How instructive to notice that while no man is the theme The testi of any series of prophetic revelations-not even mony of Moses-the Messiah is the theme of all. When He Jesus the spirit of came he had his sign before him as well as with him. prophecy. It was in the,form and for the purpose which God himself had foretold " by the mouth of his holy prophets, who have been since the world began," Luke ii. 70. 184. Nor are the destinies of other nations overlooked. God gan narevealed to Noah the history of his descendants; Cationsnoticed naan, a servant of servants, as his descendants have in connection with long been; Japheth enlarged and dwelling in the tents of Shem, or Europe master of Asia. To Abraham he revealed the remote judgment that awaited Egypt and the Amorites, and the nearer judgment of Sodom and Gomorrah. Balaam spoke of the Hebrews, of the rise of Christianity, and of the visitations which were to fall upon the Amalekites, the Kenites, and the Assyrians. Moses foretold the rise of the Roman power eight hundred years before its existence. Of Ishmael it was foretold three thousand years ago that his family should dwell in the presence of their enemies; that their bands should be against every man, and every man's hand against them. And to this day they are unsubdued, though Sesostris, and Cyrus, and the Romans, and the Turks have all attempted to conquer them. In the prophets the overthrow of the Persian power by Alexander,a of Babylon, of Tyre,b and of Egypt," is sketched either before those states had risen into greatness or at the time when they were among the mightiest nations. The conquests of the Saracens and of the Turks,d the names of the kingdoms which were to escape their power or to fall under it, a Dan. xi. 2, 4. b Ezek. xxviii. 1-20 c'z-ek. xxix. 4, 15. d Dan. xi. 40, 41. EVIDEXCES —PROPHECY-THE JEWS. 1. 9 the history of Edom,^ of Moab,b of Ammon,e and Pnilistia,d are all foretold with such minuteness and peculiarity as proves that each must have been present to the vision of the prophet. These predictions were given amidst the decay of the Jewish covenant, and were intended to rebuke the pride of the nations, to administer consolation and Objectof pri these proinstruction, and, above all, to lead the thoughts of phecies. men to that kingdom which could not be moved. In the midst of the captivity Daniel numbered and weighed the kingdoms of the earth, and pointed to the dominion of the Ancient of Days. See Davison, p. 303. 185. To these facts it may 1be added that every promise realized in this life, every answered prayer, every Fulfilled act of honored faith, every spiritual blessing ob- promises tailed as the result of spiritual obedience, is a prophecy. fulfilled prediction; while the typical persons and events of the previous economy still further swell the prophetic evidence of the faith, till we have at length a series of prophecies so full and so clear as to defy all explanation short of the inspiration of the Almighty. See on this subject Fleming's Fulfilling of Scripture. 186. To form a more definite idea of these predictions, and of the completeness with which they fulfil the requi- stace Instances of sites of prophecy as an evidence of a Divine revela- fulilment. tion (see ~ 180), the reader may compare Psa. xxii. and Isa. liii. with the Gospels; or he may take the predictions of Lao Pentateuche on the history of the Jewish people, which are referred to by Nehemiah,' and in part repeated in the books of Amos, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. The Pentateuch has been in hostile keeping for more than 2500 years, and all the predictions were known and quoted by other writers 2000 years ago. * Jer. xlix., etc. b Jer. xlviii. c Ezek. xxv. 2-10: 7Zph. ii. 9, etc. d Ezek. xxv. eDeut xxviii. 64, 65: Lev. xxvi. 32, 33. f Neh. i. 8 120 EVIDENCES-PROPHECY. The priority of the prophecy, therefore, to the fulfilment, is in this case undoubted. 187. When the promise was first given to Abraham he was The Jevs. childless: and nearly 200 years afterwards, during which time the promise was often renewed, the family had increased to only seventy souls.b Their preservation and greatness was foretold by Balaamr and Moses, when cuch a result was highly improbable; when the whole nation was under the Divine displeasure, and nations mightier than themselves, and whom they were commanded to exterminate, had combined to destroy them. Isaiah foretold the captivity in the days of a pious king and a prosperous government. Jeremiah's predictions of deliverance were given when utter destruction threatened them in Babylon, and when ten of the tribes had already disappeared.d After the overthrow of Jerusalem, their land became "trodden down of the Gentiles,"o and they were driven from their country. For nearly 2000 years they have been without distinction of tribes, without a prince, without government, or temple, or priesthood, or sacrifice; dispersed, and yet preserved; scattered, and yet kept from mixture; and they are a proverb and a bye-word still. These are events without a parallel, and opposed to all our experience. Man could not have foreseen them, as certainly man has not, of his own purpose, accomplished them. To make the lesson morally complete, the law remains, and the Jews guard the very prophecies wnich their history fulfils; so that they have become not only "' reproach and a taunt," but an "instruction" unto the nations that are round about them (Ezek. v. 15). 188. Their history becomes the more impressive when comTh Edom- pared with that of the Edomites. Both were desites. cended from Isaac. The latter rose earlier into power, were never scattered by captivities, and when Jerusalem was destroyed, they formed a flourishing community. aGen. xv. 2. b Gen. xlvi. 27. c Numb. xxiii. 9. 4 Jer. xxx. 10, 11; xxxiii. 25, 26; xlvi. 27, 28. e Luke xxi. 24. EVIDENCES-PROPHECY-BABYLON. 121 Thirty ruined towns, within three days' journey of the Red Sea, attest their former greatness. Utter desolation, both of the country and of the family of Esau, was foretold, Jer. xlix. 17, 10: Obad. 8, and utter desolation is now their condition. They were distinguished for wisdom; now, the wanderers in Edom are sunk in the grossest folly, and regard the ruinS around them as the work of spirits, Obad. 8. Edom lies in the directest route to India: but none "shall pass through it for ever and ever," and "even the Arabs," says Keith, "are afraid to enter it, or conduct any within its borders," Isa. xxxiv. 10. The people who visit it are described as a most savage and treacherous race, and so the prophet foretold, Mal. i. 4. Its desolation is said to be perpetual, Jer. xlix. 7-22, and travellers state that the whole country is a vast expanse of sand, drifted up from the Red Sea. What human foresight could have foretold destinies so distinct? We may add one or two examples more:189. One hundred and sixty years before Babylon was overthrown, Isaiah delivered his prophecy.. Judea Babyn; was then a powerful kingdom. Persia, the native prophecies. country of Cyrus, was yet in barbarism, and Babylon itself was only rising into notice, its existence being scarcely known to the Hebrews. One hundred years later than Isaiah, Jeremiah prcphesied: and at that time Babylon was " the glory of kingdoms," "the praise of the whole earth." Nebuchadnezzar had enlarged and beautified the city, and through all that region his auth)rity was supreme. Isaiah begins these predictions, foretells the overthrow of the city, calls its conqueror Cyrus by name,a intimating that this was his surname, and not given him at his birth.b He Isa. xliv. 28: xlv. 1. b Isa. xlv. 4. 11 J22 EVIDENCES PROPHECY-NINEVEH. summons people from Elam (Persia,) and Media," tells how the city will be entered, the river dried up, the two-leaved gates left open, and the place taken by surprise during a night of revelry and drunkenness.b Both prophets add, that the place is to be for ever uninhabited, a lair of wild beasts, and a place of stagnant waters.' A century after the first of these prophecies was delivered, they began to be fulfilled. Nebuchadnezzar conquered Judea, and in two independent historians, Herodotus and Xenophon, (the former of whom lived 250 years after Isaiah, and the latter 350,) we have historical proof of the minute accuracy of all the predictions. Herodotus states that Cyrus assumed that name on his accession to the throne, Bk. i. 114. Xenophon notes the miscellaneous character of his army, but specially mentions the Persians and Medes, Cyrop. v. ciii. 38. Both writers have left a careful account of the siege, of the diversion of the river, of the capture of the city, and of the death of the king. Strabo says that in his time. the city was a vast solitude, Lucian affirms, that "Babylon will soon be sought for and not found, as is already the case with Nineveh," c. 16. Pausanias states that nothing was left but the walls, c. viii. ~ 33; Jerome, that in his time it was a receptacle for beasts; and modern travellers (including Sir R. K. Porter), testify to the universal desolation. "It is little better than a swamp, and I could not help reflecting (says one,) how faithfully the various prophecies have been fulfilled." 190. A still larger city, and no less signal as a monument h. of Divine power was Nineveh, a place as ancient as Nineveh. Asshur, the son of Shem, and at one time nearly sixty miles round. This city abounded in wealth and pride. "I am," said she, "and there is none beside me," Zeph. ii. 15. Jonah was therefore sent to foretell her ruin; and though a Isa. xxi. 2; xiii. 4, 5: Jer. ii. 27, 28. b Isa. xliv. 27; xlv. 1: Jer. Ii. 39, 57; 1. 38. Isa. xiii. 20-22; xiv. 23: Jer. li. 37, 38. EVIDENCES-MORALITY. 123 she repeated, yet, within a few years, Nahum was commissioned to repeat the message; a hundred years later still, but fifty years before the city fell, Zephaniah again foretold its overthrow, with the utmost literalness, the account of the prophet, when compared with the narrative of the historian (Diodorus Siculus), reading more like history than prediction. Lucian, who flourished in the second century after Christ, and was himself a native of that region, affirms that it had utterly perished, and that there was no footstep of it remaining. Such is "the utter end" of all its greatness. 191. It is to such facts God appeals. "Who hath declared this from ancient times? Have not I, the Lord?... Look unto me, and be ye saved, all the ends of the cy ire Pod earth: for I am God, and there is none else," Isa. apelsnt xlv. 20, 21, 22. 192. The evidences of Christianity thus far considered, are external and direct, and may be divided into the miraculous and prophetic. A larger branch of evi- ettena dence remains-the moral, the literary, and the po,'LLd spiritual; or, to apply one title to all, the internal. 1 93. If the Bible is not of God, it must be a cunningly devised fable; and the question which internal evi- Limit of dence has to consider is,-which is the more likely man's ability to j ti dge supposition. Though, therefore, it seems at first on internal sight, that we are hardly competent to decide what a revelation from God should be, yet we are competent to decide on this alternative, and to say, whether what is taught in Scripture, is what might be looked for from enthusiasm or impostors. This is a question on which all can judge, though it requires some experience and knowledge of the world, as well as an acquaintance with Scripture, rightly to appreciate it. 194. The first peculiarity of Scripture morality is the importance which is everywhere attached to holiness. 1. Import. Judging from what we know of systems of human'olifes. 124 EVIDENCES-MORALITY. origin, a religion from man would either have spent its force on ritual observance, or have allowed active service on its behalf to make amends for the neglect of other duties. Mohammedanism gives the highest place to those who fight and fall in conflict. Hindooism rewards most the observance of ritual worship. Jewish tradition taught that all Jews were certainly saved. The Scriptures, on the contrary, bring all men into the presence of a Being of infinite holiness, before whom the most exalted human characters fall condemned;" and they declare plainly, that nothing we can say or do in the cause of Christ can make up for the want of practical virtue. Those who have preached in the rame of Christ are to be disowned if they be workers of iniquity,b and the reception of the true faith makes Christian holiness only the more incumbent." 195. The kind of moral duty which the Scriptures teach,is 2. Pecu- not such as man was likely to discover or to apliarity of moral prove. When our Lord appeared, the Romanswers precepts proud of their military glory, and the Greeks of their superior wisdom. Among the Jews a plrisaic spirit prevailed, and the whole nation was divided between opposing sects, all hating their conquerors, however, and the Gentile world at large. An enthusiast would certainly have become a partisan, and an impostor would have flattered each sect by exposing the faults of the rest, or the nation by condemning;heir conquerors. Our Lord came, on the contrary, as an independent teacher, rebuked all error, condemned all the sects, and yet did nothing to court the favor of the people. His precepts, bidding men to return good for evil, to love their enemies, to be humble and forgiving, to consider every i-ac and every station as on a level before God, were acceptable to none, and were yet repeated and enforced with the utmost earnestness and consistency.,Job xl. 4: Isa. vi. 5. Dan. ix. 4, 1Tim. i. 15. b Matt. vii. 22, 23: Luke vi. 46. Cor. v. 11, 12. EVIDENCES-MORALITY. 125' 196. It may indeed be said that men are always ready to eommend a greater degree of purity than they are Not only prepared to practice, and that ancient philosophers aboman wrote treatises describing a much nobler virtue than butccnwas found among their countrymen. This is true, trary to it and if the Jewish fishermen had studied philosophy, it would not have been wonderrul if they had taught a higher morality than men generally practised. But they were "ignorant men,'" and their precepts go not only beyond what men practiced, but beyond what they approved. The gospel is not only better than human conduct, it is often contrary to it. The endurance of suffering, the forgiveness of injury, and the exercise of a submissive spirit, were not only not practiced, they were not admired; and while the gospel teaches these duties, it exhibits them in combination with a spiritual heroism of which the world knows nothing, and which has ever been supposed inconsistent with the patient virtues which the Scriptures enjoin. 197. Add to these facts another (on which Paley has enlarged), namely, that Scripture seeks to regulate the R thoughts and motives of men, and is content with tion of nothing less than a state of heart which refers all our actions to God's will; and it must be felt that the morality of the gospel is not of man. Bad men could not have taught such truths, and good men would not have deceived the people. 198. But there is yet another peculiarity in the morality of Scripture, equally true in itself and striking. 4 e Sin is everywhere spoken of as an evil against God, arity in relation to and everywhere it is not the instrument or human Godandsin. Faith. agent who is exalted, but God alone. The first notion is inconsistent with all heathen philosophy, and the second with the natural tendency of the human heart. "This," says Cicero, "is the common principle of all philosophers, that the Deity is never displeased, nor does he inflict injury on man." De Off. ii. 28. 11* 126 EVIDENCES-s-MORA JITY. In Scripture, on the contrary, sin is represented as an evil and bitter thing, because it is dishonoring to God. Hence the destruction of the Amalekites," of Sennacherib,b and Belshazzar.0 Hence the abandonment of the Gentile world to a reprobate mind.d Hence God's controversy with the Jewse and with Moses. Hence Eli'sg punishment and David's.h Hence the death of Nadab and Abihu,' of Uzzahi and Herod.k Hence also the calamities of Solomon, the division of his kingdom into Israel and Judah, and the captivity and destruction of both.' God alone is honored. The great object of all the writers seems to be to lead men's thoughts to Him. The false teacher gives out that he himself is some great one (Acts viii. 9), but in the Bible it is God only who is exalted. This rule is illustrated in Moses, Dent. i. 31; ii. 33; iii. 3; iv. 32-38; Exod. xviii. 8: Joshua, Josh. xxiii. 3: David, 1 Chron. xxix. 11, 14: Daniel, Dan. ii. 20, 23, 30: Ezra, Ezra vii. 28: Nehemiah, Neh. ii. 12: Peter and John, Acts iii. 12-16: Paul, Acts xxi. 19; 1 Cor. iii. 5; 2 Cor. iv. 7. Creation is represented in the same way as God in nature:m the revolutions and progress of kingdoms as God in history." 199. It is in part with the view of strengthening the feelFaith. ings which these peculiarities produce, that faith is made the principle of obedience and success. In relation to God, faith is the confession of our weakness, and excludes all boasting; and yet, in relation to success, it is omnipotent-a truth as profoundly philosophical as it is spirit. ually important. And yet it is a truth revealed only in the Bible. a Exod. xvii. 16, marg. b 2 Kings, xix. 22-37. e Dan. v. 23. d Rom. i. 21, 28. e Heb. iii. 19. f Numb. xx. 12. g 1 Sam. ii. 29, 30. h 2 Sam. xii. 9 (Ps. li. 4). i Lev. x. 1-3, 10. J 2 Sam. vi. 7. k Acts xii. 23. 1 Kings xi. 3-14: 2 Kings xvii. 14-20: 2 Chron. xxxvi, 16, X.: Luke xix. 42-44: Rom. xi. 20. mPsa. civ. 10: Jer. v. 24: Joel ii. 23, 24: Iatt. x. 29. a Jer. xvii. 7-10: Dan. iv. 35: Jer. xxv. 9. Isa. xliv. 28. EVIDENCES-MORALITY. 127 Rom iii. 27: Eph. ii. 8, 9: 1 Cor. i. 29-31: John xi. 40: Isa. vii. 9. 200. The candor and sincerity of the inspired writers are not less remarkable than their moral precepts, and Candor and are quite incompatible with either enthusiasm or sincerity of scripture. imposture. They denounce the sins of the people. "Ye have been rebellious against the Lord from the day that I knew you," says Moses (Deut. ix. 24), and all later writers give the same view. Judges ii. 19: 1 Sam. xii. 12: Neh. ix. They speak of themselves, and of those whose characters were likely to reflect credit upon thAr cause, with equal plainness. Moses foretold that the Jews would break his law, and that he would be superseded bv a greater prophet. Gen. xlix. 10:. Deut. xviii. 15, 18: Acts vii. 38. He records with all fullness the sins of the Patriarchs, Gen. xii. 11-13; xx., etc.; of his grandfather Levi, Gen. xlix. 5-7; of his brother Aaron, and of his elder sons, Exod. xxxii.: Lev. x.: nor less plainly his own sins, Numb. xx. 12: xxvii. 12-14: Dent. xxxii. 51. In the same spirit the evangelists notice their own faults and the faults of the apostles. Matt. xxvi. 31-56: John x. 6; xvi. 32: Matt. viii. 10, 26; xv. 16; xvi. 7, 11; xviii. 3; xx. 20. Mark and Luke speak no less plainly, Mark vi. 52; viii. 18; ix. 32, 34; x. 14; xiv. 50, 32, 35-45; xvi. 14: Luke viii. 24, 25; ix. 40-45; xviii. 34; xxii. 24; xxiv.11. With equal truthfulness the Scriptures record the humiliation 3f our Lord, his sufferings and dejection. Matt. xxvii. 46: Heb. v. 7. The apostles record without reserve the disorders of the churches which they themselves had planted, and even add that their own apostolic authority had been questioned among them. 1 Cor. i. 11; v. 1: 2 Cor. ii. 4; xi. 5-23; xii. 20. It is thus that simplicity distinguishes the Bible, and forces on the mind the conviction that its authors had no other "object in view than by manifestation of the truth to commend themselves to every man's conscience in the sight of God."-(Lowth on the Study of Scripture.) 201. But no analysis can give a jusl idea of the morality 128 EVIDENCES —MORALITY. Noanalysis of the Bible. It -must be compared in the bulk of it can givef aust with other.teaching. Men have praised maxims dxel its of virtue, or appealed to the moral sentiments of our lencies. nature, or sought to promote holiness by systems of morals. But all these are defective. The common maxims of virtue are mere dictates of prudence, without authority or influence. Our moral sentiments are retiring and evanescent, easily corrupted by the strong passions in whose neighborhood they dwell, and are feeblest when most wanted; and systoms of morals, like all processes of reasoning, depend on the perfection of our faculties, and are too much the subject of disputation to become powerful motives of holy action. All these plans, moreover, are defective in not taking into account our fall, and the necessity of providing for our recovery. Scripture, on the other hand, teaches the Christian to use these helps, only subordinating all to its own lessons. It begins its work with a recognition of our ruin, and an intelligent foresight of its own end; brings the soul into harmony with God and with itself, enlightens and educates the conscience, quickens and purifies the feelings, subjects instincts to reason, reason to love, and all to God; and provides an instrumentality as effective and practical as the truths it reveals and on which it rests are unearthly and sublime. 202. Among the most decisive moral proofs of the Divine The charac origin of Scripture is the character of Christ. It terofOhrist. is a proof, however, rather to be felt than to be described, and its force will be in proportion to the tone of moral sentiment in the reader. Holy and purer minds will feel it more than others, and such as are like Nathaniael, tne "Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile," will exclaim with him, "Rabbi, thou art the Son of God; thou art the King of Israel." Three things are obvious in the history of our Lord.. (1.) The whole narrative is free from panegyric. (2.) The character is wholly unstudied: the story being written by unprac EVIDENCES-CHARACTER. 129 tised authcrs, without learning or eloquence; and, moreover, (3.) the moral character of Christ is unimpeached even by the opponents of the gospels Hi-s apostles appeal to all men's testimony to his morality, as a fact admitted and notorious. His own moral teaching was an appeal of the same kind, for had he been guilty of the practices he condemns, his hearers would have been sure to detect and reproach his inconsistency. That his holiness was admitted generally will appear from the following passages: John vii. 46-51; viii. 46; x. 32: Matt. xxvi. 59; xxvii. 23, 24: Luke xxiii. 13-15: Acts iii. 13, 14: 1 Pet. ii. 21-23. His benevolence and compassion are shown in John iv.: Luke ix. 55; x. 30-37: Mark vii. 26, etc.; x. 13-21, 45-52: Luke xiii. 16; xiv. 12; xxii. 50, 51: Matt. ix. 36, etc.; xviii. 11, etc. His kindness and affection in Matt. xiv. 27-31: Luke xix. 5; xxii. 61: John xi.: xix. 25-27. His meekness and humility in Matt. ix. 28; xviii. 22, etc; v. 1-12: Luke xxii. 24: John xiii. 4. His moral courage, firmness and resignation in Matt. xxvi. 39-46: Mark x. 32: Luke iv. 23, etc.; xiii. 31, etc.; xviii. 29, etc.: John xi. 7; xviii. 4, etc. His sincerity and abhorrence of hypocrisy and courting popularity in Matt. vi. 1-18; x. 16-39; xxii. 18, etc.: Mark xii. 38-40: Luke xi. 44, etc.: John xvi. 1-6. His moderation and the absence of enthusiastic austerity, Matt. viii. 19; xxiii. 23: Luke v. 29-35: John ii. 1, etc.: Mark xii. 17. "The character of Christ (says an eminent writer), is a wonderful proof of the Divinity of the Bible. The Originality *i" ^ Originality Hindoo cannot think of his Brahmin saint, other and beauty of his charthan as possessing the abstemiousness and austerity acter. which he admires in his living models. The Socrates of Plato is composed of elements practically Greek, being a compound of the virtues deemed necessary to adorn the sage. A model of the Jewish teacher might be easily drawn from the writings of the Rabbis, and he would prove to be the very reflection of those Scribes and Pharisees who are reproved in the Gospel. But in the life of our Redeemer, a character is represented which departs in every way from the national type of the writers, and from the character of all ancient nations, and is at variance with all the features which custom, education, 130 EVIDENCES-EFFECTS OF GOSPEL. religion and patriotism, seem to have consecrated as most beautiful. Four different authors have recorded different facts, but they exhibit the same conception, a conception differing from all they had ever witnessed or heard, and necessarily copied from the same original.. And more, this glorious character, while borrowing nothing from the Greek, or Indian, or Jew; having nothing in common with established laws of perfection, is yet to every believer a type of excellence. He is followed by the Greek, though a founder of none of his sects; revered by the Brahmin, though preached by one of the fisherman caste; and worshipped by the red man of Canada, though belonging to the hated pale-race." 203. One point more remains on the morality of Scripture; The inf.u- the effect of its religion on the character of men criptoue Apart from particular facts in support of this onindivid- truth, it is generally admitted that the doctrines uials and society. of the Bible agree with its precepts, and that they contain in their very substance, urgent motives to holiness. It is on this principle that Fuller proceeds in his "Gospel its own Witness,' and Erskine in his "Treatise on the Internal Evidences." See also 1 Peter ii. 12. We confine ourselves, however, to a few facts in illustration of the general truth. The effects of the gospel in the first age are well known, and are incidentally told us in the Epistles. Paul has pointed out to us what occurred at Corinth and Ephesus," and Peter, the effects which were produced in Pontus and Galatia.b In a dissolute age, and under the worst governments, Christians (who had been no better than their neighbors), reached an eminence in virtue which has never, perhaps, been surpassed. Similar appeals may be found in the writings of the early apologists. Clement of Rome (A. D. 100), in his Epistle to the Corinthians, commends their virtues. "' Who," says he, "did ever live among you. that did not admire your sober and 1 Cor. vi. 11: Eph. iv. 19; ii. 1 bI Pet. iv. 3. EVIDENCES-EFFECTS OF GOSPEL. 131 moderate piety, and declare the greatness of your hospitality. You are humble and not proud, content with the daily bread which God supplies, hearing diligently his word, and enlarged in charity." Justin Martyr (A. D. 165), who had been a Platonic philosopher, says in -his Apology, "We who formerly delighted in adultery, now observe the strictest chastity; we who used the charms of magic, have devoted ourselves to the true God; and we, who valued money: and gain above all things, now cast what we have:in common, and distribute to every man according to his necessities."."You (says Minucius Felix to a heathen opponent), punish wickedness when it is committed; we think it sinful to indulge a sinful thought. It is with your party that the prisons are crowded, but not a single Christian is there, except it be as a confessor or apostate." Tertullian,:the first Latin ecclesiastical writer whose works have come down to us, (A. D. 220), makes a similar appeal, and speaks of great multitudes of the Roman empire as the subjects of this change. Origen in his reply to Celsua (A. D. 246), Lactantius, the preceptor of Constantine (A. D. 325), repeat these appeals: and even the Emperor Julian holds up Christians to the imitation of Pagans, on account of their love to strangers and to enemies, and on account of the sanctity of their lives. This influence of the gospel was early seen among ancient nations. In Greece, the grossest impurities had In ociety been encouraged by Lycurgus and Solon. At generally. Rome they were openly practiced and approved. Among nearly all ancient nations self-murder was commended. Seneca and Plutarch, the elder Pliny and Quintilian, applaud it, and Gibbon admits that heathenism presented no reason against it. Human sacrifice, and the exposure of children were allowed, and even enforced. But wherever the gospel came, it condemned these practices, discouraged and finally destroyed them. That it was not civilization that suppressed them is certain, for they were kept up by nations far superior to the Christians in -refinement, and the suppression of them 132 EVIDENCES-INTERNAL AND LITERARY. was always found to keep pace, not with the progress of hu. man enlightenment, but of Divine truth. The relief of distress and the care of the poor are almost peculiar to Christian nations. In Constantinople there was not, before Christianity was introduced, a single charitable building: nor was there ever such a building in ancient Rome. After the introduction of Christianity, however, the former city had more than thirty buildings for the reception of orphans, of the sick, of strangers, of the aged, and of the poor. In Rome there were twenty-five large houses set apart for the same purpose. With equal certainty it can be established that the gospel has abolished polygamy, mitigated the horrors of war, redeemed captives, freed slaves, checked the spirit of feudal oppression, and improved the laws of barbarous nations. "Truth and candor," says Gibbon, "must acknowledge that the conversion of these nations imparted many temporal benefits both to the Old and New World, prevented the total extinction of letters, mitigated the fierceness of the times, sheltered the poor and defenceless, and preserved or revived the peace and order of civil society."' As therefore the providence of God is seen in the preservation of the Bible, so also is his grace in its effects: and those effects bear strong testimony to its Divine origin, 1 Thess. i. 4-10: Gal. v. 22. 204. No work gives a better view of man's need of the Ld gospel than Leland's, On the Advantage and Necessity of a Christian Revelation, shown from the state of religion in the ancient heathen world, with respect to the knowledge and worship of the one true God, a rule of moral duty, and the state of future rewards and punishments. He shows clearly that the representations of Scripture on the state of the Gentiles are literally true, and that idolatry gathered strength among the nations as they grew in refinement; that the ancient philosophers were profoundly wrong in the first a Gibbon's History, chap. 55. For a large collection of similar facts, see Ryan's Effects of Religion, i. 1 3, and App. EVIDENCES-INTERNAL ANi LITERARY, 133 principles of morality; that the best systems were lamentably defective, and that all rules wanted clearness and authority; that as to a future life, most denied it, and that of those who professed to believe, none placed it on grounds satisfactory or rational. 205. On that part of the Scriptural evidence which is called the harmony of revealed truth, it is not possible to Literary enlarge: and the subject has been fully discussed evidence..Harmonies. by various writers. On the agreement between the two Economies, the works of Ir. Kidder, and of Dr. W. L. Alexander, will be found highly interesting. On the agreement between the doctrines and peculiarities of Scripture, and the facts of Nature, the Analogy of Bishop Butler is unrivalled. On the coincidences between sacred and general history, the works of Bryant, Lardner, Gray, Prideaux, Shuckford, and Russell may be consulted with satisfaction. On coincidences of a minute and statistical character, with the geography and natural history of Palestine, ample materials may be found in the works of Harmer, Clarke, and Keith.2i On coincidences between various parts of the record itself, much information may be obtained in the works of Graves, Blunt, Paley, and Birks.a These coincidences are literally innumerable, and are interwoven with the whole texture of Scripture. Some are apparently trifling, as when it is said that our Lord went down from Nazareth to Capernaum; and Dr. Clarke points out the graphic consistency of the phrase with the geography of that region. Others are deeply affecting, as when it is said that blood and water issued from the side of Jesus; and medical authorities affirm that if the heart is pierced or broken, blood a See edition of Paley's Evidences, with Notes, by Birks; also Paley's Horse Paulinse, with Horie Aj ostolicas, by Birks, published by Religious Tract Society. 12 134 INCIDENTS-INTERNAL AND LITERARY. and water flow from the wound.22 Some are critical, as when it is remarked that at no time after the destruction of Jerusalem could any.known writers have written in the style of the books of the Bible: and that at no one time could these various books have been written. They are demonstrably the work of different authors, and of different ages. Some are historical, as when it is noticed that after the time of the apostles all writers applied the name Christian to designate the followers of Christ, a name never applied in the New Testament by Christians to designate one another: the very terms which the apostles employ indicating that the new religion was the completion of the old-" chosen" and "faithful." Some are religious, founded, that is, on the peculiarities of the religious system revealed; as when it is stated that the religion of the New Testament is the only one in which is omitted the one ordinance which would have been natural and acceptable to both Jews and Pagans, namely, the offering of animals in sacrifice: an instructive omission. The effect of the whole is highly impressive, and is of itself a sufficient proof of the substantial credibility of the narrative, and of the honesty of the authors. Some idea of Paley's Horse Paulinme may be gathered from OfScripture an examination of the following passages, it being with itself. premised that the books quoted were written either by different authors, or at different times, and with altogether different purposes. Rom. xv. 25, 26. Acts xx. 2, 3; xxi. 17; xxiv. 17-19 1 Cor. xvi. 1-4; 2 Cor. viii. 1-4; ix. 2. Born. xvi. 21-24. Acts xx. 4. orn. i. 13; xv. 23, 24. Acts xix. 21. 1 Cor. iv. 17-19. Acts xix. 21, 22. 1 Cor. xvi. 10, 11. Acts xix. 21: 1 Tim. iv. 12. 1 Cor. i. 12; iii. 6. Acts xviii. 27, 28; xix. 1. 1 Cor. ix. 20. Acts xvi. 3; xxi. 23, 26. 1 Cor. i. 14-17. Acts xvii. 8: Rom. xvi. 23: 1 Cor. xvi. 15. A single instance may be yet more impressive. Barnabas EVIDENCES —SPIRITUAL. 135 (we are told) was a native of Cyprus, who sold his Barnaba property, and laid the money at the apostles' feet (Acts iv. 36, 37). We are told, also, quite incidentally, that Mark was his nephew (Col. iv. 10). Compare these facts with the following passages (where it is stated that John Mark went as far as Cyprus, his native country, and soon rejoined his mother at Jerusalem, greatly to the dissatisfaction of Paul), and how remarkable the consistency of the whole: 1 Cor. ix. 6, 7: Acts xi. 20, 22; xiii. 4; xv. 37, 39; and xiii. 13. The harmony pervading everything connected with Bari nabas (says Mr. Blunt) is of itself enough to stamp the Book of Acts as a history of perfect fidelity. See Birks' Horw Apostolice, published by the Religious Tract Society, London. Compare in the same way the abrupt termination of the history in Acts viii. 40 with Acts xxi. 8, 9. 206. But in addition to the moral evidence of Scripture, evidence suggested by the morality of the New piritu Testament, the character of our Lord, the candor and sincerity and self-denial of the first Christians, and the moral beauty of Christian principles, as illustrated in the lives of consistent believers, there is evidence directly spiritual. This evidence is partly appreciated by the intellect, but still more by the heart and conscience. So far as it treats of man as the gospel finds him, it appeals equally to all; so far as it treats of man as the gospel forms him, it appeals only to the believer. To the first part of this evidence the apostle refers in 1 Cor. xiv. 23-25; and to the second in Rom. viii. 16: 1 John v. 20. 207. This evidence consists, in part, in the agreement between what the awakened sinner feels himself, and Harmony of what the Bible declares him to be. The gospel Scripture, and the exproclaims the universal corruption of human na- perienceof the sinner. ture. It speaks not only of acts of transgression, but of a deep and inveterate habit of ungodliness in the soul, 136 EVIDENCES-SI RITUAN. and of the necessity of a complete renewal. If this description were felt to be untrue, if man were conscious of delight in submitting his will to God's will, and in obeying commands which rebuke his selfishness and pride, he might at once discredit the truth of the gospel. But when he finds that the description answers to his own state, and that every attempt at closer examination only discovers to him the completeness of this agreement, he has in himself an evidence that this message is true. 208. The second stage of the evidence is reached when a Scripture man finds that the provisions of the gospel are adapted to adapted to his state. He is guilty, and needs parour wants. don. He is corrupt, and needs holiness. He is surrounded by temptation, and needs strength. He is living in a world of vexation and change, and he needs some more satisfying portion than it can supply. He is dying, and he shrinks from death, and longs for a clear revelation of another life. And the gospel meets all these wants. It is a message of pardon to the guilty, of holiness to the aspiring, of peace to the tried, and of life to them that sit in the shadow of death. 209. And whilst there is perfect adaptation to human Harmony f want, no less striking is the agreement between the Scripture description given in the gospel of its results, and perienceof the Christian's experience. The effects of the bethe Christian. lief of the truth are repeatedly portrayed in Scripture. Each promise is a prediction, receiving daily fulfilment. Penitence and its fruits, the obedience of faith and the increasing light and peace which it supplies, the power of prayer, the influence of Christian truth on the intellect, and the heart, and the character, the struggles, and victories, and defeats even of the new life, all are described, and constitute an evidence in the highest degree experimental; an evidence which grows with our growth, and multiplies with every step of our progress in the knowledge and love of the truth. Such insight into our moral being, and such knowledge of the EVIDENCES- EXIRIMENTAL. 137 changes which religious truth is adapted to produce, could never emanate from human wisdom, and they prove that God himself is the author of the book in which such qualities are disclosed. 210. We repeat the caution, however, that this evidence is chiefly of value for the confirmation of the faith of Useful f a Christian, because none else will appreciate or confirma-.. tion of faith. understand it. To such, however, this evidence is so strong as often to supersede every other. To the Christlan, the old controversy between Christianity and infidelity has but little interest; he already feels the truth which evidences seek only to prove; it seems needless to discuss the reality of what he already enjoys; he has the "witness in himself." 211. It may be added, too, that the evidence depends not so much on Christianity, as adapted to our wants, Christianity as on Christianity adapted to promote our holi- ofeltor ness. When Christ appeared, the Jews felt their holness. want of an earthly deliverer. A Messiah who should make the Gentiles fellow heirs, they did not want at all. The system of Mohammed, again, is adapted with great skill to the desires of a sensual, gross-minded, and ambitious people. The Hindoos adhere to a religion that is without evidence, because they find it suited to their tastes. All these cases, however, are very different from the case of Christianity; it came to us not conformed to our natural inclinations, but seeking to conform them to itself; and when this process is begun, then only is its adaptation revealed. Heathen nations sought a religion conformed to their own corrupt propensities; and, on finding such a religion, they embraced and believed it. Pagan systems are adapted to man as he is, and as he desires to be, while yet in love with sin: the gospel is adapted to man as he is and ought to be. Paganism is the adaptation of a corrupt system to a corrupt nature; the gospel is the adaptation of a life-giving system to a nature that needs to be renewed. The first seeks to conform its:2* 138 EVIDENCES SUMMARY. teaching to our tastes; the second to conform our tastes to its teaching. And it is while this latter conformation is proceeding that the believer has the evidence of the truth. When he believes, he has the hope of faith; then comes the hope of experience-experience founded on the sanctifying influencs of the love of God, Rom. v. 2-5. To the physician who is intrusted with the cure of some Analogous mortal disease two courses are open. He may-treat case the symptoms, or he may treat the disease itself. If in fever he is anxious only to quench the thirst of his patient, or in apoplexy to excite the system, his treatment may be said to be adapted to the wants of the sufferer; but it is not likely to restore him. A sounder system treats the disease; and that medicine is the true specific which is adapted ultimately to remove it. The evidence of the virtue of such a specific is, not its palatableness, nor its power of exhilaration, but the steady continued improvement of the health of the patient; an evidence founded on experience, and strongly confirming the proofs which had originally induced him to make the trial. And so of the gospel. It may exhilarate, and it may please the taste; but the evidence of its truth and of its being truly received is its tendency to promote our holiness. 212. What, then, is the reason of our hope? is a question smmary which every inquirer may ask and answer. All evidence the answers of which the question admits, no one intelligible to all. can be expected to give, for a full investigation of Christian evidences would occupy a life-time; but it is easy to give such an answer as shall justify our faith. Christianity and the Christian books exist, and have existed for the last eighteen hundred years. Christian and profane writers agree in this admission. The great Founder of our faith professedly wrought miracles in confirmation of his message, and gave the same power to his apostles. They all underwent severe suffering, and most of them died in testimony of their belief of the truths and facts they delivered. These facts, and the truths EVIDENCES. 139 founded on them, the apostles and first Christians er.braced in spite of the opposing influences of the religious systems in which they had been trained. The character and history of the Founder of the Faith were foretold many hundreds of years before in the Jewish Scriptures. He taught the purest morality. He himself gave many predictions, and these predictions were fulfilled. His doctrines changed the character of those who received them, softened and civilized ancient nations, and have been everywhere among the mightiest influences in the history of the human race. They claim to be from God, support their claim by innumerable evidences, and we must either admit them to be from God, or ascribe them to a spirit of most miraculous and benevolent imposition. Add to all this, that he who receives them has in himself additional evidence of their origin and holiness, and can say from experience, "I know that the Son of God is come, and hath given us an understanding, that we may know Him that is true. We are in him, even in his Son Jesus Christ. This is the true God and eternal life," 1 John v. 20. These facts are not abstruse, but accessible to all, and intelligible to the feeblest. For the candid inquirer, any one department of this evidence will often prove sufficient: no other religious system being founded on miracles and prophecy, or exhibiting such holiness and love. The whole evidence combined is overwhelmingly conclusive. 213. And yet there is, in relation to these evidences, much unbelief both among inquirers and professed Chris- Evidence tians. Among inquirers there is unbelief, for want leaves two of candor and teachableness: a fact which is itself doubt an evidence of the truth of Scripture, and in har- The inmony with the general dealings of God. In common inquier. life, levity, or prejudice, or carelessness will often ead men astray, and even make them incapable of ascertaining what is really wise and true. And Scripture has expressly declared that those who will net, love truth shall not understand it. So deeply iid Grotius feel this consideration, that he regarded 140 EVIDENCES. the evidence of Christianity as itself an evi,ence of the Divine origin of the gospel, being divinely adapted to test men's character and hearts. De Verit, ii. 19. See, also, Dan. xii. 10: Isa. xxix. 13, 14: Matt. vi. 23; xi. 25; xiii. 11, 12: John iii. 19: 1 Cor. ii. 14: 2 Cor. iv. 42 Tim. iii. 13. Among professed Christians, too, there is want of confidence nd the ill the fullness of the Christian evidence, and conrelesIs sequent want of inquiry. Baxter has acknowledged that while in his younger days he was exercised chiefly about his own sincerity, in later life he was tried with doubts about the truth of Scripture. Further inquiry, however, removed them. The evidence which he found most conclusive was the internal; such as sprang from the witness of the Spirit of God with his own. "The spirit of prophecy," says he, "was the first witness; the spirit of miraculous power the second: and now," he adds, "we have the spirit of renovation and holiness." "Let Christians, therefore," he concludes, "tell their doubts, and investigate the evidence of Divine truth, for there is ample provision for the removal of them all." Most of the doubts which good men feel may be thus dispelled. Others, chiefly speculative, may in some cases remain, and are not to be dispelled by the best proofs. Even for these, however, there is a cure. Philosophy cannot solve them; but prayer and healthy exercise in departments of Christian life to which doubting does not extend can; or, failing to solve them, these remedies will teach us to think less of their importance, and to wait patiently for stronger light. Ours is a complex nature, and the morbid excitability of one part of our frame may oftfin be cured by the increased activity of another. An irritable faith is a symptom of deficient action elsewhere, and is best cured by a more constant attention to practical duty. Difficulties which no inquiry can remove will often melt away amidst the warmth and vigor produced by active life. THE BIBLE A REVELATION FROM GOD. 141 CHAPTER III. PECULIARITIES GCF THE BIBLE AS A REVELATION FROM GOD. "A man's love of Scripture at the beginning of a religious course, is such as makes the praise, which older Christians give to the Bible, seem exaggerated: but after twenty or thirty years of a religious life, such praise always sounds inadequate. Its glories seem so much more full than they seemed at'first."-DR. ARNOLD. " To seek Divinity in Philosophy is to seek the living among the dead: so to seek Philosophy in Divinity is to seek the dead among the living."-BAcoN, Advancement of Learning. " The Old and New Testaments contain hbut one scheme of religion. Neither part can be understood without the other. They are like the rolls on which they were anciently written.... It is but one subject from beginning to end; but the view which we obtain of it grows clearer and clearer as we unwind the roll that contains it."CECIL. SEC. 1.-A REVELATION OF GOD, AND OF HUMAN NATURE. 214. There are various aspects in which Scripture may be regarded. The most important is that which represents it as a revelation of God and man: of God in relation to man, of man in relation to God: and of both in relation to the work and office of our Lord. 215. Scripture is a revelation of God, of his character and will. That will is indeed written on the works of Scriptre, his hands, and more clearly on the constitution of revelation of God, and man: but in the Bible alone is the transcript com- of man. plete; and there alone is it preserved from decay. 216. Or with equal accuracy, the whole may be described as the exhibition of human nature, in indiv:duals and in nations under every form of development; holy, tempted, fallen, degenerate, redeemed, believing, rejecting the faith, struggling, victorious, and complete. The Bible begins with man in the garden of Eden, his Maker as his friend; and after a wondrous 142 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RiELIGIOUS TRUTH. history, it exhibits him again in the same fellowship, though no longer on earth, or in paradise, but in heaven: the whole of his forfeited blessedness won back by the incarnation and suffering of the Son of God. 217. More generally still, the Bible may be described as A store- the great storehouse of facts and duties, and of all s irituaf spiritual truth. It gives authentic information on truh. the history of the world, from the remotest-times on which all human writings are silent, or filled with fables; the occasion and immediate consequences of the first sin; the origin of nations, and of diversity of language. We thus trace the progress, and mark the uniformity of those principles on which men have been governed from the beginning, all bearing their testimony to the wisdom and holiness of God, and the mercy of the Divine administration. We trace the progress and development of human nature, and of the plan of redemption: the first, shown in every possible diversity of position, and the second, influencing all the Divine procedure, perfected in Christ, and exhibited in the gospel. In a word, we find all the great questions (whether of fact or duty), which have occupied the attention of the wisest men, settled by authority and on principles which neither need nor admit of appeal. We have given to us the decisions of the infinitely wise God as the ground of our opinions and practices, and his promise as the foundation of our hope. 218. In no part of the Bible, therefore, are these questions inappropriate:Appropriate questions in What does it teach concerning man? or concerneading it. ing God? or concerning the grand scheme of redemption? or concerning the restoration of human nature to its primeval dignity and blessedness? SEC. 2.-THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF SPIRITUAL RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 219. If this view of the subject of the Bible be kept in THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 143 mind,-God in relation to man, and man in relation J'~~ ~ ~~.,~ ~ ~~~ L' ^Scriplure a to God, and Go'nd man in relation to the work rsevelatiton and office of quLord,-one peculiarity of Scripture trl.i on (as to its fulnes) and brevity), will be explained. and salvaIt gives tlhe history of the world, as "God's world," and aslestined to become the kingdom of his Son. It tells As of itb origin, that we may know by what God has done, the 4e ncev'due to him: what is his power whose law this book havealed: whose creatures we are, that we may distinguish hmi from the idols of the heathen, who are either imaginary bing's, or parts of his creation. All the u, uent narrative of the Bible, seems written on the sake prihiple. It is an inspired history of religion (of man i relation to God), and of other things, as it is affected by the < -olatrous nations are introduced, not as independently impor b t, but as influencing the church, or as influenced by it: and thu narrative and prophecy continue from the first transgression, through the whole interval of man's misery and guilt, to a period, spoken of in a great diversity of expressions and under both economies, when the "God of heaven sh-all set up a kingdom that shall never be destroyed." That these historical disclosures supply ample materials for inquiry, and (had the narrative been false), for refutation, and that, as they have never been refuted, their antiquity and extent are strong presumptive evidence of the truth of Scripture is obvious:" but it is the principle of selection, and the clear scope of the whole which are now noticed. To convgey religious truth isclearly theauthor's design. Whatever is revealed must be studied with this fact in view, and whatever iswithheld may be regarded as not essential to the acwmplishment of this purpose. 220. LAt it be remembered, too, that it is God as holy in relation to a man as a sinner, and God and man in A.reveiarelation to Christ as the Redeemer, who form the tihy God' * See these remarks illustrated in Bishop Butler's Analogy, 2d Part. 144 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. great theme of Scripture; and that what is told us has refer. ence to the relation of such Beings. Take, for example, the history of the first sin. The object of thb narrative of the fall is clearly moral. It shows the progress of temp. tation, and directs our thoughts to the Saviour. We mark the conviction of duty, the contemplation of the pleasure which sin may produce, the consequent obtuseness of conscience, and the hope that desire may be indulged and yet punishment be averted; desire becoming intenser, passion stronger, conscience feebler, till at length the will consents and the act is done. Such is all transgression. The moral lesson of the fall is thus complete, though much is concealed. Subsequent portions of Scripture are written on this same principle. In the history of Cain, and in the rapid progress of wickedness, we notice the consequences of sin, and from the Deluge learn how deeply man had fallen. And yet each expression of God's displeasure is so tempered with mercy, as to prepare us for the double truth, that God had provided a Redeemer to restore us to Divine favor, and a Sanctifier to renew us to holiness, and that man needed them both. Hence it is, that amidst all this wickedness, facts are recorded which hold out the prospect of recovery, and even foreshadow the means of securing it. In Abel and Seth, and Enoch and'Noah, we find faith in the Divine promise, and consequent holiness. They " called upon the name of the Lord." They "offered a more excellent sacrifice" than their ungodly neighbors, expressive at once of their obligation and their guilt; they " walked with God." As the world was repeopled, human sinfulness is seen in other forms. Men are scattered over the earth, and ultimately the plan of the Divine procedure is changed. A particular family is made the depository of the Divine will, and its history is given. Of that family, the son of the promise is chosen; and of his sons, not the elder and favorite, but the younger. The history of his descendants is then given with a double reference, first to their own faith and obedience, and then to the coming of the Messiah. There is both an ultimate and an immediate purpose, and both are moral. The institutes of this people illustrate the doctrines of the cross, and we have, moreover, the record of their sins, for our warning, and of their repentance, for our imitation and encouragement. Concerning all these narratives, much might have been told All written us, which is withheld. Difficulties might have been cple. r solved; important physical, or historical, or ethical THE BIBLE A IEVELATION OF RELIGIOXUS TRUTH. 145 questions might have been answered. But we have to seek the solution of these questions elsewhere. Of Assyria, for example, we read in a single passage of the book of Genesis (Gen. x. 11, 12), but not again for 1500 years, till the time of Menahem (2 Kings xv. 19); and of Egypt we have no mention, between the days of Moses and those of Solomon. The early history of both nations is exceedingly obscure, perhaps impenetrably so. But the knowledge is essential neither to our salvation nor to the history of the church, and it is not revealed. In the prophetic Scriptures this peculiarity is equally obvious. They are all either intensely moral, or evan- Soofprogelical, or both. It might have been otherwise, phecy. without injury to prophecy as an outward evidence of Scripture. The gifts of prediction and of moral teaching, might have been disjoined: but in fact they are not. What might have ministered to the gratification of natural curiosity only, is enlisted on the side of practical holiness. The prophet is the teacher, and the history of the future.(which prophecy is), becomes like the history of the past,'the handmaid of evangelical truth and of spiritual improvement. So is it in all that is revealed in relation to Christ. We read of the dignity of his person, but it is with a constant So of Christ. reference to "us men, and.to our salvation." If he is set forth as the Light of the world, it is to guide us into the way of peace; if, as the Lamb of God, it is that he may redeem us by his blood; if, as entering into heaven, it is as our propitiation and intercessor. We call him justly the "Son of God:" he loved to call himself as his apostles never called him, and with a peculiar reference to his sympathy and work, the "Son of man." Scripture, then, is the revelation of religious truth, and of truth adapted to our nature as fallen and guilty. We use it rightly, therefore, only as it ministers to our holiness and consolation. It might have revealed other truth, or the truth it does reveal may be regarded by us only as sublime and glorious. But this is not God's purpose. He has given it for our 13 146 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. insti action, our conviction, oar rectification (or correction), and our establishment in righteousness. All knowledge may be useful, but this knowledge is necessary. "Let it not go, keep it, for it is thy life," Prov. iv. 13. 221. Two practical rules are suggested by these remarks. First. We must not expect to learn anything from Scripture, except what it. is, in a religious point of view, important for us to know. Some seek "the dead among the living," (as Lord Bacon phrased it), and look into the Bible for natural philosophy and human science; others inquire in it for the "secret things" which "belong only to God;" and both are rebuked by the very character and design of the Bible. It is the record of necessary and saving truth, or of truth in its religious aspects and bearings, and of nothing besides: its histories being brief or full, as brevity or fulness may best secure these ends. 222. Secondly. It becomes the Christian to make aspracticaL application of every truth which Scripture reveals. He must believe.and apply the whole. To reject truth is wrong: to deny morality is wrong: and it is equally wrong to disjoin them. It is only as virtue is moulded on truth that it becomes genuine and complete. 223. But though the Bible is not a revelation of science, it Scripture may be expected to be free from error, and to conoet iotoh- tain, under reserved and simple language, much sistent with' science. concealed wisdom, and turns of expression which harmonize with natural facts, known perfectly to God, but not known to those for whom at first the revelation was designed. This expectation is just; and in both respects, the Bible presents a striking contrast to the sacred books of heathen nations. 224. All ancient systems of religion, and all eminent phiAncientand losophers of antiquity, so far as they are known, Scripture maintained notions on science no less absurd than co.slogo. nis- their theology. THE BIBLE A REVELATION CF RELIGIOUS TRUTH. 147 In Greek and Latin philosophy, the heavens were a solid vault over the earth,- a sphere studded with stars, as Aristotle called them. The sages of Egypt held that the world was formed by the motion of air and the upward course of flame: Plato, that it was an intelligent being: Empedocles held that there were two suns: Zeucippus, that the stars were kindled by their motions, and that they nourished the sun by their fires. All Eastern nations believed that the heavenly bodies exercised powerful influence over human affairs, often of a disastroush kind, and that all nature was composed of four elements, fire, air, earth, and water: substances certainly not elementary. In the Hindoo philosophy, the globe is represented as flat and triangular, composed of seven stories; the whole mass being sustained upon the heads of elephants, who, when they shake themselves, cause earthquakes. Mohammed taught that the mountains were created to prevent the earth from moving, and to hold it as by anchors and chains. The "Fathers of the church" themselves teach doctrines scarcely less absurd. "The rotundity of the earth is a theory," says Lactantius, "which no one is ignorant enough to believe." How instructive, that while every ancient system of idolatry may be overthrown by its false physics, not one of the forty writers of the Bible, most of whom lived in the vicinity of one or other of the nations who held these views, has written a single line that favors them. This silence is consolatory, and furnishes a striking confirmation of the truth of their message. 225. The exactness of Scripture statements, and its agreement with modern discovery, is also remarkable. The Scriptures, for example, steak of the earth as a globe, and ao suspended upon nothing, Isa. xl. 22: Job xxvi. 7-10: Prov. viii. 27. In treating of its age, they distinguish between the creation of unorganized matter, and of the heavens and the earth, Gen. i. 1, 2. They give to man a very recent origin, and their accuracy in this respect is attested by the ascertained state of the earth's surface, and by the monuments of antiquity. They describe the heavens as boundless space, not as a solid sphere; and light as an element independent of the sun, and as anterior to it, anticipating the generally received theory Firmamentum, o-Trnp'a. b SUa rtpsv, " ill-starred." 148 THE BIBLE A REVELATION OF RELIGIOUS TRUTIT. of modern inquirers. When they speak of air, they say that God gave it weightp as Galilec proved; and of the seas, that he gave them their measure; a proportion of land and sea, such as now obtains, being essential to the health and safety of both animal and vegetable life. The waters above "the expanse" have an importance attached to them in Scripture which modern science alone can appreciate; many millions of tons being raised from the surface of England alone, by evaporation,:every day. (See Whewell's "Bridgewater Treatise.") When they speak of the human race they give it one origin, and of human language they indicate original identity and subsequent division, not into endless diversities of dialect such as now exist, but rather into two or three primeval tongues; facts which, though long questioned, ethnography and philosophy have confirmed, Gen. xi. 1; x. 32. When they arrest the course of the sun, that is, of the earth's rotation, they stay the moon, too: a precaution which could not have been supposed necessary but on the supposition of the diurnal motion of the earth. When they speak of the stars, instead of supposing a thousand, as ancient astronomers did (Hipparchus says 1022, Ptolemy, 1026), they declare that they are innumerable; a declaration which modern telescopes discover to be not even a figure of speech. "God," says Sir John Herschel, after surveying the groups of stars and nebulae in the heavens, "has scattered them like dust through the immensity of space." And when the Scriptures speak of their hosts, it is as dependent, material, obedient things, Isa. xl. 26, 27. 226. Generally, however, it may be added, Scripture speaks Apparent in relation to physical facts in the language of comexception. mon life, and sometimes that language is not strictly accurate; as in Job xxxviii. 6; ix. 6: Psa. civ. 3: Prov. iii. 20. And the reason is plain.'If strictly philosophical language had been employed, Scripture must have been less intelligible; and besides, such language describing natural facts, not as they appear, but as they really are, would have made all such facts matters of revelation. It must have excited doubts among the ignorant, and prejudice (from the necessary incompleteness of Scripture teaching on such questions,) among the philosophic; destroying, among all, the unity of impression which the Bible seeks to produce. The Bible would have become, in that case, a Divine, though incomplete, hand-book of science: THE BIBLE CONSISTENT WITH ETHICAL SCIENCE. 149 an arrangement as little conducive to the cultivation of a truly philosophical spirit as to the interests of religion itself. 227. Nor less remarkable is the way in which the Bible has noticed abstract questions, or great principles of scripttral ethical science. The laws of our moral nature are ethics consistent with evidently known to the author of Scripture, but experience. they are not formally announced. They are rather involved by implication in the truths or precepts which are revealed. Independent investigation long ago discovered that the heart of man takes much of its complexion from his thoughts, Attention. and that what interests the mind influences the character. In harmony with this law is the doctrine of Scripture, that habitual and believing attention to the truths of Christianity is the great instrument of bringing the mind into holy states. 1 John iv. 10, 16, 19: Gal. ii. 20: 1 Cor. xv. 2: 2 Cor. iii. 18: 1 Tim. iv. 16: Psa. cxix. 9-11: Psa. xix.: 1 Pet. i. 22. "How can man regulate his belief?" is a question which long occupied the attention of thoughtful men. "By attending to evidence, and then by contemplating truth," is the reply of philosophy. And Scripture is in direct harmony with her decision. Faith and affection are both influenced, not by analyzing them, or by violently attempting to strengthen or purify them, but by examining truth and holding communion with the objects that deserve and claim our love. The Bible bids us consider and give heed, assuring, us that earnest, humble consideration will end in faith, and faith be followed by holy and appropriate feeling. Men believe by "giving heed" to truth, Acts viii. 6, 8: Heb. ii. 1.:' Prov. iv. 1-4; ii. 1-9: Mark iv. 24, 25: Acts xvii. 11, 12. Their impenitence is a consequence of their neglect, and their neglect, of a wrong state of heart, 2 Thess. ii. 11, 12: Mark viii. 18: John iii. 19, 20; v. 38, 39: 2 Cor. iv. 3, 4: Hos. iv. 10. Holy affection is influehced by attention and faith, Gal. v. 6: 2 Cor. v. 11: Heb. xi. 7: 1 John iv. 16-18: Rom, vi. 6: Col. i. 22, 23: Josh. xxii. 5. 1i*. 150 THE BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. Scripture embodies these laws and acts upon them adding, however, the significant fact, that where holiness and salvation follow in the train of attention and thoughtfulness, this result is to be ascribed throuhout every part to the grace and blessinof the Divine Spirit. Attention is the gift of the Spirit, Acts xvi. 14: Zech. xii. 10. Faith which follows attention, is his gift, Acts x. 44 (see xi. 17, 18); xi. 21. The clearer understanding of truth, which follows the believing study of it, is his gift, Isa. xlii. 7: Psa. cxix. 18: Luke xxiv. 45: 1 Cor. ii. 14: 2Cor. iii. 16: Eph. i. 17, 18. The holy feeling that follows an attentive and believing study of truth, is his gift, Ez. xxxvi. 27: 2 Thess. ii. 13: 2 Pet. i. 2, 3: Gal. v. 22. SEC. 3.-THE BIBLE A GRADUAL AND PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. 228. Another peculiarity of Scripture is, that it is a gradual and progressive revelation. 229. The truths and purpose'of God are in themselves inIn what capable of progress; but not the revelation of those sense. truths. In nature, the rising sun scatters the mists of the morning, and brings out into light first one prominence and then another, till every hill and valley is clothed in splendor. The landscape was there before, but it was not en. So in revelation, the progress is not in the truth, but in the clearness and impressiveness with which Scripture reveals it. 230. In the beginning, for example, God taught the unity thereve of his nature; while the truth that there is a plulationofGod rality in the Godhead was taught but indistinctly. and the Ho- " ly Spirit. Several expressions in the earliest books imply it, and are evidently calculated to suggest it.* In the later propha Such expressions, for example, as, Let us make man in our image (see Gen. i. 26; iii. 22); and the use of the plural noun, to indicate the true God, with a aingular verb, Gen. i. 1; Psa. lviii. 11 (Heb.): Prov. ix. 10 (Heb.), and several hundred times. The expressions in Numb. vi. 22-27, compared with the New Testa THE BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. 151 ets, the truth comes out with greater distinctness;' and in the New Testament it is fully revealed. In the same way, the work of the Holy Spirit is recognised in the Old Testament, and with increasing clearness as we approach the times of the gospel. It is in the New alone, however, that we have a distinct view of his personality and work.b 281. This gradual disclosure of the Divine will is yet more remarkable in the case of our Lord. The first promise (Gen. iii. 15) contained a prophetic declara- f ist tion of mercy, and foretold his coming and work, though in mysterious terms. The first recorded act of acceptable worship (Gen. iv. 4: Heb. xi. 4) was a type, expressing by an action the faith of the offerer in the fulfilment of the first prediction. There was to be triumph through suffering, and there was to be the substitution of the innocent for the guilty. These promises and types were multiplied with the lapse of time. In the person or worship of Enoch,o of Patriarchal Noah,d of Melchizedek,e and of Job,' there was much period ment benedictior, Isa. vi. 3, 8; xlviii. 16: Jer. xxiii..S 6, are very remarkable. The "angel of the Lord" probably refers in most passages to the Messiah, as the Jewish writers generally maintain, regarding him as an object of Divine worship. See Gen. xvi. 7 and 13, where the incommunicable name of Jehovah is given to him: see, also, Gen. xxii. 11-18; xxxi. 11-13; xxxii. 28-30: Hos. xii. 4, 5: Gen. xlviii. 15, 16: Ex. iii. 2-15; xix. 19, 20; xx. 1; xxiii. 20, 21, compared with Acts vii. 38: Josh. v. 13-15; vi. 2: Judg. xiii. 3-23: Isa. lxiii. 8, 9: Mal. iii. 1. a Isa. ix. 6: Mic. v. 2: Zech. xiii. 7. b Gen. i. 2; vi. 3: Psa. li. 11, 12: Isa. xlviii. 16; 1i.-1: Ezek. iii. 24, 27 Jude 14. i-1 Pet. iii. 20: Gen. viii. 20. Heb. v. 6. Job xix. 25; i.; xlii. 7. 8. 152 TIHE BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. that was typical and predictive: still more in tlie history of Abrahama and his immediate descendants. Under the Mosaic dispensation, other typical acts or persons, and places and things, were instituted, and M~osaic. the design of the institution was most distinctly explained.b Prophecies, also, became more clear and frequent.' Between the days of Samuel and Malachi-a period of more than six hundred years, a succession of prophets apProphetic, pear, who gradually set forth the person and work of the Messiah: they foretell, too, the outpouring of the Spirit, and the general prevalence of the truth,d-points on which the earlier revelation is silent. In the extent of their predictions, the prophets have not gone beyond the first promise which was intended to give hope of complete redemption; but in their clearness, in the detailed account they give of what redemption involved, and what it cost, the difference is most marked; while in the same qualities, the Gospels have gone at least as far beyond the prophets as the prophets have gone beyond the law. 232. It is noticeable, too, that the predictions of the old pIractical economy and its practical doctrines go hand in dotrines hand. The revelation spreads on each point. The light that illuminates the living spring, or the harvestfield of truth, shows with equal clearness the path that leads to them. The law gives Divine precept with more fullness than previous dispensations, and the prophets go beyond the law, occuping a middle place between it and the gospel They insist more fully on the principles of personal holiness: as distinguished from rational and ceremonial purity, and heir sanctions have less reference to temporal promises. he precepts of the law are in the law stern and brief: its penalties denounced with unmitigated severity. In the proGen. xii. 3; xxvi. 4; xlix. 10, etc. b Lev. i. 4; vi. 2-7; xvii. 11. e Numb. xxiv. 17: Deut. xviii. 15: Acts iii. 22, 23 l Pet i. 11: Psa.lxviii. 18: Joel ii. 28: Isa. liii.; Ixi. 11: Zech, xiv. 9. THE BIBLE A PROGRESSIVE WREVELATION. 153 phets the whole is presented in colors softer and more attractive; hues from some distant glory, itself concealed, have fallen upon their gloomy features and illumined them into its own likeness. The law had said, " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart and with all thy strength;" and the extent of this command nothing could exceed. The prophets, however, expound and enforce, and animate it with a new spirit, and direct its application to greater holiness. The rule of life thus becomes in their hands increasingly luminous and practical. 233. The Psalms, again, are a great instrument of piety, and are so far additions to the institutes of legal worship, which contain no specific provision fodeotion 234. If the reader will compare the precepts of the Pentateuch on repentance with those of the prophets on ustrated. the same duty,a or the statements of both on the relation between the Jews, or of the world generally, and Him who came to enlighten the Gentiles as well as his people Israel,b or will mark the increasing spirituality and clearness' of the whole horizon of spiritual truth as the dawn of the gospel day drew on, he will not fail to understand the consistency and progressive development of revelation. In both he will see evidence of the presence of that God who (as Butler expressed it) " appears deliberate in all his operations," and who accomplishes his ends by slow and successive stages, whether they refer to the changes of the seasons, the movements of Providence, or the more formal disclosures of his will. 235. This peculiarity ot Scripture makes it important that the various parts of the Bible should be read in Importance the order in which the Spirit revealed them. A ofchrono. logical archronological arrangement of sacred history, t.he rangement.'Deut. xxx. 1-6: Ezek. xviii.: Isa. lvii. 15, 1E: Psa. xl. 6-8; IL 16, 17. b Isa. lxvi. 21. See especially Jer. xxxi, 31-34. 1594 SUCC]iSIVE DISPENSATIONS. Psalms, and the Prophets, is essential to the complete explanation of the several parts: nor is it less so to a clear and consistent view of the progressive unveiling of the Divine character and plans.a 236. It deserves to be remembered, too, that even when we On other are not contemplating the gradual unfolding of grounds. truth, the study of Scripture chronologically is often essential to a just appreciation of truth. Compare, for example, Paul's first two Epistles with the last, 1 and 2 Thess. with 1 and 2 Tim., as they lie side by side in the English version; and we shall see what changes several years of labor had produced in the apostle's feelings, and in the state of the church. Touching as is the enumeration of the apostle's sufferings, given in ii. Cor. 11, chronological arrangement reminds us that that chapter supplies comparatively little of the evidence we have of his sincerity. It was written before his imprisoment in Judea and at Rome. Two years of imprisonment, shipwreck, another imprisonment, and finally, martyrdom, are to be added to the account. Voltaire ridicules the force of the language in which are predicted (as he thinks) the fortunes of a people whose narrow strip of country did not exceed 200 miles in length. Chronological arrangement would have made his remark the more striking, but it might also have suggested the solution of the difficulty. The prophecy grows most confident and comprehensive when the nation is all but annihilated. Is it likely, therefore, to have had its origin in national vanity, or to have its accomplishment in national revival and success? 237. Sometimes this gradual development of the Divine Variousdis- will is spoken of as successive dispensations:-the ensations. Adamic, the Patriarchal, the Mosaic, and the Gospel: Dispensation meaning the way in which God deals with men, or (in this connection) the truth revealed, the ordinances and subsequent conduct which are enjoined. The ADAMIC dispensation continued only during man's innocency. The PATRIARCHAL lasted more than 2500 years, and the history of it is given in Gen. iii.-Exod. xx. It is aFor a chronological arrangement of the whole of the Bible, see Part II. SUCCESSIVE DISPENSATIONS. 155 so called from the fact, that the heads of families were the governors and teachers of men-(Patriarchs), such as Adam, Seth, Enoch, and Noah, before the flood, and Job, Melchizedek, Abraham, and his immediate descendants after it. They were the depositaries of the Divine will, the guardians of prophecy, and some of them furnished in their history types of our Lord. There were, during this period, but few predictions, though there are distinct intimations of preparation for the coming of the Messiah, as in the distinction between clean and unclean animals, in reference to sacrifice, Gen. viii. 20, in sacrifice itself, and in the covenant with Abraham, Gen. xv. 20. In the Patriarchal dispensation, too, may be traced many of the first principles of the Mosaic. The covenant made with the Jews through Moses-the MosAIC dispensation-lasted for about 1,500 years, and abounds with typical persons, places, and things. The Jewish people were in truth a type, both in their institutions and history. See Lev. vi. 2-9; xvi. 21; xvii. ll: Eph., Heb., and 1 Cor. 10. The GOSPEL dispensation, the great principles of which may be traced in the previous economies, is founded on the facts given in the Gospels, the life and death of our Lord. In the Acts we see truth in action, both among individual believers and in the church; in the Epistles, the doctrines founded on these facts are developed and enforced; and in the Revelation we have in prophetic visions, the history of truth in its struggles with error, and of the church till the end of time. 238. These books constitute the dispensation of the gospel, and with ihem, the development of evangelical truth Develop (so far as the present state is concerned), ends. ewith Sip There may be passages in the Bible, whose full ture meaning is not yet discovered, and which are perhaps "reserved," as'Boyle expressed it, "to quell some future heresy, or resolve some yet unformed doubt, or confound some error that hath not yet a name," or prove by fresh prophetic evidence that it came from God. Scripture, moreover, is like 156 THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE. the deep sea; beautifully clear, but immeasurably profound. There is, therefore, no definable limit to our insight into its meaning. But we are to look for no further revelation: nor are we to regard as developments of Scripture doctrine, the additions of men. Examples of the abuses of this truth it is not necessary to The devel- multiply. Popery is the standing illustration. It mendst pleads for the development of truth out of ScripScripture. ture, and in the church. The blessedness of the dead who die in the Lord, for example, is said on its theory to be the natural germ of saint worship. Christ's presencein the supper is, in the same way, the germ of the adoration of the host, and the salutation of the angel, of the deification of the virgin. But all this is abuse. The gradual development of truth in Scripture, is one thing. An accretion which overlays the truth, is another; and it is for the former only we contend. SEC. 4.-THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE. 239. Nor less instructive is the unity of the sacred volume. It has the first requisite of a great book-a single purpose, and that purpose kept in view throughout every page. 240. This unity is not owing (it will be observed) to the circumstance, that the volume is the work of one N'ot of style, but of doo- author, or of one age. As many as forty different trine. writers (including the authors of smaller portions,) composed it. The style is now history, now song, now arguments or dialogue, now biography, or prophecy, or letters. Deeper than these causes of diversity and sufficiently strong to counteract their influence, must be the secret of this marvellous harmony. It is found, in fact, in the superhuman care of One who is infinite in power and wisdom. ~The entire building which was 4,000 years in rearing, is symmetrical throughout, and must have had a Divine founder, who first planned and then superintended the whole. TEE UNITY OF THE BIBLE. 157 241. Look again, for example, at the uniformly moral purpose of the volume. It is the story of human beings it in relation to God: first of man, as man: then of moral purfamilies: then of a nation: then of the wider society pose. of the church. In all other professed revelations, the writers dwell at length on the origin of the universe (as in the shastras of the Hindoos), or on the physical.theory of another life (as in the pretended revelations of Mohammed), or on topics which cannot even be imagined, to be of any practical importance (as in the fables of the Talmud, the legends of the Romioh church, and the visions of Swedenborg). All that the Bible teaches, on the other hand, refers to God as connected with man, singly or socially, or to man as connected with God: and is moral and practical. It contains no Cosmogony, no mythology, no metaphysics, no marvels which are not moral: no ideal which is not also a reality. In its histories, biographies, prophecies and psalmody, it has but one aim, to knit together the broken relations between God and man, and between man and man-to redeem and sanctify our race. 242. If we look at the doctrines which were believed and taught, we find a unity no less remarkable. Under Of doctrine. every dispensation, the great principles of Christianity have been recognized by all holy men. Religion, "sub ectivel garded, has ever been faith and obedience. And as a system of truth (" objective religion"), it has never changed. From the earliest times we find a belief in the unity of God; in the creation and preservation of all things by Divine power; in a general and particular providence; in a Divine law, fixing distinctions between right and wrong; in the fall and corruption of man; in the doctrine of atonement through vicarious suffering; in the obligation and efficacy of prayer; in direct Divine influence; in human responsibility; and in the necessity of practical holiness. Ofthe law The Law, as given by Moses, abounds in ceremony, and Gospel, and was evidently adapted to the peculiar circum- mannature. stances of one people. The Gospel has but few ceremonies 14 158 THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE. remarkable for their simplicity, and the whole 4 of universal application. But though at first sight sa dissimilar; the two systems are essentially one. They present the same views of God and of man, suggest or plainly teach the same truths, and are adapted to excite the same feelings. One example more: we have in Scripture several successive portraits of human nature; one taken before the deluge, another soon after it: one probably 800 years later, and. preserved in the book of Job; another 500 years later still, by David; a fifth, 500 years later, by Jeremiah; and a sixth, 500 years later still, by Paul. Let the reader compare these pictures with one another and with experience, and he will feel that each description had really the same origin, and that the inspired writers had one purpose-the elevation of our nature byhumiliation and penitene and faith. Gen. vi. 5; viii. 21: Jobxv. 16: Psa. xiv. 2, 3: Rom. i. 19; iii. 243. This unity comprehends doctrines entirely beyond human knowledge. The Bible reveals everywhere Its doctrinesbe- the same God, holy, wise, and good: it speaks of yond human know- his designs in governing the world, and of the final issue of the present struggle between good and evil.* It treats of human nature and of true happiness;b analyzes with matchless skill the secret motives of human action, and points out the. grand source of human misery: subjects which have engaged the thoughts of the wisest men, whose views are as remarkable for their vagueness and variety as are those of the Bible for their consistency and clearness. 244. Two remarks are suggested by these factsFirst. The Bible must be regarded, not as a series of distinct revelations, but as one and indivisible. Doctrines which are clearly revealed in the New Testameent deend for many of their evideances,adyet more for their illustratios,_on the_ Old. The one dispensation is the completion of the other, a Gen. iii. 15: Dan. vii. 14: 1 John iii. 8. bGen. i. 26: Rom. iii. 23: Eccl. xii. 13: Matt v. iii, &c. THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE. 159 The first is the type, or earthly figure; the secind, the heavenly reality. The nature of the "good things to come" may be gathered from " the shadow," as well as from the things themselves. The ancient record, moreover, has many historical and precious associations. It fostered in the ancient church the same graces as are required now. It exhibits holy men strugglin with our temptations. Above all, it must be remembered, that in the history of individuals and of nations, as of the race, there is a time when the delivery of truth, in forms as elementary and, comparatively, rude as those found in the Old Testament, seems to be essential to the spiritual training of character. To this day, it is known that some of the narratives and practices of the old economy give to heathen nations a clearer idea of the Divine holiness, and of human duty, than even the more full disclosures of the new. 245. Secondly. Hence an important test of truth, and of the relative value of truth. If it be said, for example, that the sacrifice and priesthood of Christ are not revealed in the Gospel, or are subordinate truths, we look to the law, or to earlier dispensations; and if it be maintained that in the Gospel there is no priesthood or sacrifice, we have then in the law a series of shadowy observances, without reference or meaning. The blood, the altar, the holy place, the propitiatory intercession, are all types of nothing, and the previous economy is robbed of its significance. If it had significance, but is now abolished, the substitution of the Gospel in its place implies a change in the very principles of the Divine government. Under that dispensation, law was inexorable; now it is yielding and remiss. Then repentance alone was powerless to save, now it is mighty and efficacious. At first, man was pardoned through an atonement, at Iea4, by prerogative. As it is, the mystery is solved. Revelation is a consistent whole. The doctrines of the later manifestation unfold their meaning, and instruct with increased impressive 160 THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. ness and consistency, when studied amidst the patterns of the earlier. SEC. 5 —NOT A REVELATION OF SYSTEMATIC TRUTH OR OF SPECIFIC RULES. 246. Another of the peculiarities of Scripture, no less striling than those named, is the absence of all systematic form in the truths revealed. There is no compend of Christian doctrine, nor are there specific rules on the duties of the Christian life: an omission the more marked, as in the books of most false religions (the Koran and Shastras, for example) the description of the "faith" is most precise, and the minutest directions are given concerning fasts, ablutions, and other points of religious service. 247. This peculiarity is both natural and instructive. In Thisactna- the Old Testament, the earlier part (and much of turalandin- the later) is purely historical. Moral truth transtructive. purely spires exclusively through narrative, and the narrative is fragmentary and concise. God had been in communication with man for more than 2,000 years before he gave "the law." What he had revealed, or how he revealed it, cannot be fully gathered from the record. The very object, indeed, of a large portion of the Bible, seems to be not so much the disclosure of truth, as the embodiment of truth already disclosed. The New Testament, again, was written for those who had received instruction in the Christian faith, and had embraced it. It can hardly be expected, therefore, to contain'regular elementary instruction, or an enumeration of articles of faith. When the Epistles were written, the churches had been formed under Divine teaching and on a Divine model; while the Gospels are clearly historical, and rather imply or suggest religious truth, than systematically reveal it. 248. Religion is objective,'or subjective; a system of holy TH1E BIBLE NOT A. SYSTEM. 161 doctrine, oi;of active holy principles. The first is row truth truth, and the second is piety. In Scripture both is reveald. are revealed; but it is rather in the form of examples, or of incidental illustrations, than of systematic teaching. Let us notice, for example, how the Bible speaks of the character of God, as a moral governor, and of man, Illustrated in God and both as sinful and as holy. man. By the character of God is meant his power, his wisdom, his holiness; and by his moral government, his superintendence of the concerns of the universe on fixed and holy principles. Everywhere, throughout the Bible, his perfections are revealed; but they are revealed in his works. They are never defined or mentioned even, without reference to some practical end. When Abraham, through Sarah's impatience or unbelief, had taken Hagar, hoping to see an early fulfilment of the Dlvine promise, Jehovah rebuked him, and for the first time spoke of himself as the "Almighty God," Gen. xvii. 1. When Israel exclaimed, "My way is hid from the Lord," the answer. was given, "Hast thou not known... that the everlasting God fainteth not, neithe. is weary: there is no searching of his understanding," Isa. xl. 28. Considering his government, we find its principles embodied in facts, or in practical precepts, exclusively. His dispensations are unchangeable like himself. In every nation and age, he that worketh righteousness is approved. He judges according to every man's work.a He controls what-seems most accidental.b He brings about his ends by means apparently trifling or contradictory. He makes evenr the wicked the instruments of his will.d He forgives, and is ready to forgive." He hears and answers prayer. He marks the motives of men, as in the case of Lot's wife, and of Joash.g He chastises those whom he most loves, as in the case of Moses, of David, and of Hezekiah.h He Deut. x. 17: 2 Chron. xix. 7: Rom. ii. 11: Gal. ii. 6 Eph. vi. 3 Col. iii. 25: 1 Pet. i. 17. Jer. xxxviii. 7-13: Acts xvi. 23. c 1 Sam. ix. 3, 15, 16: Judges vii. 13-15. d Neh. xiii. 2: Acts ii. 23. e Dan. ix. 24: 2 Chron. vii. 14. f 2 Chron. xxxiii. 12, 13: Gen. xxiv. 12. g Gen. xix. 26: 2 Kings xiii. 9. h Numb. xx. 1l: 2 Sam. xxiv 11, 15: 2 Chn. xxxii. 25 14*.. 162 THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. preserveth the righteous, and aone that trusteth in Him shall be desolate.a Man is set before us in lights equally instructive. If we would analyze and describe our sinfulness, we may find scoffing infidelity in the antediluvians;b envy in the brethren of Joseph, and in Cain; malice in Saul;d slander in Doeg and Ziba;c contempt for Divine teaching in Korah and Ahab;f covetousness in Achan and Balaam, in Gehazi, and Judas;g ambition in Abimelech and the sons of Zebedee;h pride in Hezekiah and Nebuchadnezzar.* To set forth the inconsistencies of human nature, it shows us, in Ahithophel, the friend and the traitor;J in Joab, the brave soldier and faithful servant,k yet "a doer of evil," and one who opposed God's appointment and sided with Adonijah;' in Jehoram, a destroyer of the images of Baal, who yet cleaved to the sin of Jeroboam;m in Herod, reverence for John, and a spirit of hardened disobedience;n in Agrippa, belief of the prophets, and a rejection of the gospel; in many of the chief rulers, a faith in Christ, combined with a readiness to join in the sentence of the Sanhedrim, that he was "guilty of death."P We see the power of self-deceit in David and Balaam;q of prejudice, in Naaman, in Nicodemus, in the people of Athens and of Ephesus;r of habit, in Ahab, who humbled himself before Elijah, and yet returned to his idols;' and in Felix, of whom we read that he trembled once, though we never read that he trembled again.t The danger of ungodly connections is seen in the antediluvians and Esau, who married with those who were under the curse of God;u in Solomon;v in Jehoshaphat's connection with Ahab (through Athaliah);t and in Ahab's connection with Jezebel;x of worldly prosperity in Re. hoboamy and Uzziah.2 a 1 Sam. xvii. 37: Phil. iv. 12,18. b Jude 14, 15. c Gen. iv. 5; xxxvii. 11. d I Sam. xviii. 28, 29. e I Sam. xxii. 9: 2 Sam. xvi. 1. r Numb. xvi. 3: 1 Kings, xx; xxii. g Josh. vi. 19, etc. h Jud. ix. 1-5: Mark x. 35. i 2 Kings xx. 13: Dan. iv. 30. J Psa. Iv. 13: 2 Sam. xvi. 15. k 2 Sam. xii. 28; xxiv. 3.' 2 Sam. iii. 27-39. n 2 Kings iii. 1-3. n Mark vi. 16-20. o Acts xxvi. 27, 28. P John xii. 42: Matt. xxvi 66, q 2 Sam. xii. 5-7: Numb. xxxii. r 2 Kings v. 11, 12: John iii.: Acts xvii. 18; xix. 28. 9 1 Kings xxi. 27; xxii. 6 t Acts xxiv. v Gen. vi. 1-3; xxvi. 34. t Neh. xiii. 25, 28. w 2 Kings viii. 18-26. x 1 Kings xxi. 2 Chron. xii. 1. a 2 Chron. xxvi. 16. THE BIJE E NOT A SYSTEM. 163 If we seek for the exhibitions of Christian excellence, again, we have it not defined, but illustrated: faith in Abraham;a patience in Job;b meekness in Moses;c decision in Joshua;d patriotism in Nehemiah;e friendship in Jonathan.f In Hannah, we have a pattern to mothers; in Samuel, and Josiah, and Timothy, to children;h in Joseph, and Daniel, to young men;i in Barzillai, to the aged;J in Eliezer, to servants; in David, to those under authority;' in our Divine Lord, to all of every age and in every condition, whether of duty or of suffering. To make the truth taught in these examples (except in the last) complete, we must trace the evidence of their weakness. They failed in the very parts of their character which were strongest. Abraham through fear,m Job through impatience," Moses through irritability ard presumption.o If we attempt, again, to ascertain from Scripture what Paley has called the "devotional virtues" of religion, veneration towards God, a habitual sense of his providence, faith in his wisdom and dealings, a disposition to resort on all occasions to his mercy for help and pardon, we shall find them rather illustrated than defined, embodied, that is, in character and example, and not in propositions; the whole adapted with admirable skill, and by the very form they assume, to our wants. It is this presence in Scripture of men like ourselves, that brings it home to our business and bosoms. There is felt to be something human in it, as well as Divine. It meets us at every turn. We feel as we look, that it has a power which like th eof a good portrait, is fixed upon us turn where we will., See Miller's Bampton Lectures, p. 128. a Gal. iii. 7-9. b James v. 11. c Numb. xii. 3. d Josh. xxiv. 15. e Neh. i. 4; v. 14. r 1 Sam. xix. 2-4, etc. 1 Sam. i. 27, 28. h I Sam. iii.: 2 Chron. xxxiv. 9: 2 Tim. iii. 15. i Gen. xxxix. 9. i 2 Sam. xix. 34, 35. k Gen. xxiv. I 1 Sam. xxiv. 6-10, etc. m Gen. xx. 2. Job. iii. 1. o Dent. xxxii. 51. p Paley has some adnirable remarks, applying these principles to the character (given in Scripture) of our Lord. "Evidences," p. 231. Religious Tract Society's ed. q Besides answering this moral purpose, it is worthy of remark that the style of Scripture, consisting of figures and specific examples, at 164 THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 249. W"hat an essential quality in a volume designed for all S ripture countries and for every age! If articles of faith, thence or minute rules of practice had been given, they all cun- must have been retained for ever, and with them tries. the heresies and errors which they were intended to condemn. Either they must have been very general, and therefore useless for their avowed purpose, or they must have been so minute as not to be practicable in all countries, and comprehensible by all Christians. The Koran, for example, places the utmost importance on the offering of prayer at sunrise and sunset: a rule which proves that the religion of the false prophet was never designed for Greenland or Labrador, where for several months the sun never sets. A summary of doctrine, too, perfectly intelligible to a matured Christian, might be nearly all mysterious to the converted Hottentot. 250. And even if such a summary could have been made Comparison generally intelligible, its effects upon the minds of and reflec- Christians would have been disastrous. They would tion important. have stored their memory with the very words of the Creed, without searching the rest of Scripture. There would have been no room for thought, nocall for investigatio and no excitement of the feeling or improvement of thh eart The creed being, not that from which the faith is to be learned, but the faith itself, would be regarded with indolent and useless veneration. It is only when our energies are roused and our attention awake, when we are acquiring or correcting, or improving our knowledge, that knowledge makes the requisite impression upon us. God has not made Scripture like a garden, "where the fruits are ripe and the flowers bloom, and all things are fully exposed to view; but like a field, where we have the ground and seeds of all precious things, but wherel nothing can be brought to maturity without our industry;" "singular terms,' is the kind of diction least impaired by translation. See Whateley's Jihet., part. iii. chap. ii. 1 2. Moref's Mystery of Godliness. THE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 165 Ror then, without the dews of heavenly grace. "I find in the Bible," says Cecil, "a grand peculiarity, that seems to say to all who attempt to systematize it, I am not of your mind.... I stand alone. The great and the wise shall never exhaust my treasures: by figures and parables I will come down to the feelings and understandings of the ignorant. Leave me as I ambut studyme incessantly." 251. Even good men, too, have undue preferences. If all truth of the same order were placed together in All truths Scripture, men would read most what they most and duties loved, to the neglect of what may be as important terwo though less welcome. But as truth is scattered throughout the Bible, we learn to think of doctrine in connection with duty, and of duty in connection with the principles by which it is enforced. 252. These facts rebuke the system of the Romish church: she condemns the study of the Bible, fostering NotTheolo. man's aversion to the investigation of truth, and,blbtt te his indolent acquiescence in what is ready prepared studied. to his hand: a propensity against which the very structure of the Christian Scriptures seems designed to guard. They suggest, too, a lesson to those who regard the Bible as influential only when made a treasury of intellectual truth. Systematic Divinity, founded upon the Bible, is perhaps the last perfection of knowledge, but not necessarily of character. A man may be drawn to the sacred page by its pictures of Divine goodness, and may love it with a return of affection for all its mercy, or of hope for its promises, or may feed his soul with its provisions, or direct his life by its counsel, and yet do nothing to systematize its doctrines, or at all understand the technical phrases of theological truth. This life of deyotiQn, with its acknowledgment of Providence, and imitation of C st, is the chief thing: combined with systematic thinking, it makes a man profoundly holy and profoundly wise; but without the systematic thinking there may be both holiness and wisdom. 166 tHE BIBLE NOT A SYSTEM. 253. They suggest a third lesson. Systematic catechetical treatises on doctrin.e are of use, chiefly in defining Scripture the book for or preserving: unity of faith; but must not be rethe young. garded as the instruments of religious training, or as the store-houses of effective knowledge. They address the intellect only, and that, too, in logical forms, without narrative, or example, or feeling, or power. They contain no patterns of holiness; no touches of nature. Use them, therefore, in their right place; but remember that the Divine instrument of man's improvement is that book which abounds in examples of tenderness, of pity, of remonstrance; which gives forth tones and looks, and words, at once human and Divine, ever the same, and yet ever new-the Bible. [On the subjects of this section, see "Errors of Romanism traced to their Origin in Human Nature," and "Essays on some of the Peculiarities of the Christian Religion," byArch. bishop Wh4tely.] INTERPRETATION-STUDY, 167 CHAPTER IV. ON THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. " Man can weary himself in any secular affair, but diligently to search tle Scripture is to him tedious and burdensome. Few covet to be mighty in the Scriptures, though convinced their great concern is enveloped in them."-LOCKE, Commonplace Book, Pref. "The generality of Scripture hath such a contexture and coherence, one part with another, that small insight into it will be gained by reading it confusedly. Therefore, read the whole in order."-DR. FRANCIS ROBERTS. "The tropical sense is no other than the figurative sense. As we say in language derived from the Greek, that a trope is turned from its literal or grammatical sense, so we say in language derived from the Latin, that afigure is then used, because in such cases the meaning of the word assumes a newform. Thesame opposition, therefore, which is expressed by the terms literal sense and figurative sense, is expressed also by the terms grammatical sense and tropical sense."-MARSH, Lectures, Part iii. SEC. 1.-ON THE NECESSITY OF CARE IN THE STUDY OF SCRIPTURE. 254. The importance of carefully studying the Bible with every accessible help may be gathered from the cir- Script res cumstances connected with the preparation of the needstud, y fromithe cirs sacred books. vumsiances in whichy They were written by different writers, of every theyTwere degree of cultivation, and of different orders- ritro priests as Ezra, poets as Solomon, prophets as different Isaiah, warriors as David, herdsmen as Amos, statesmen as Daniel, scholars as Moses and Paul, fishermen, "unlearned and ignorant men," as Peter and John. The first author, Moses, lived 400 years before the siege of Troy, and 900 before the most ancient sages of Datesand Greece and Asia, Thales, Pythagoras, and Confucius; places. and the last, John, 1,500 years later than Moses. The books were written in different places; in the centre of Asia, on the sands of Arabia, in the deserts of Judaea, ia 168 CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH THE BIBLE WAS WRITTEN. the porches of the temple, in the schools of the prophets at Bethel and Jericho, in the palaces of Babylon, on the idolatrous banks of Chebar, and in the midst of the western civilization; the allusions, and figures, and expressions, being taken from customs, scenery, and habits, very different from each other, and from those of modern Europe. Some of the writers, as Moses, frame laws; others sketch J fve differ- history, as Joshua; some compose psalms, as David; ent purpos- or proverbs, as Solomon. Isaiah writes prophecies; es, and ad- dssdiffer- the evangelists, a biography; several of the aposent characters. ties, letters. Whole books, and parts of books, refer to the heathen, as in Isaiah and Nahum; while parts are addressed to the Jews only: one Gospel was intended for Hebrew converts and another for Gentiles. The Epistles to the Corinthians are / addressed to men who had little respect for authority, and were unwilling to be bound, except by the fewest possible ties. The Epistle to the Galatians is addressed to those who wished to bring their converts under the bondage of the law. That to the Romans addresses (in part,) the pharisaically selfrighteous; the Epistle of James, the nominal and careless professor. The time, the place, the employment and previous history, the character and aim of the various writers, and even the position of those they addressed, all need to be considered; as these circumstances must have exercised an influence, if not upon the thoughts embodied in the language of Scripture, yet upon the language itself. 255. The importance of a careful study of Scripture will Scripture yet more appear, when we consider the difficulty of,e(,Stdy, communicating to men, and in human language, any lrom imperlection of ideas of religious or spiritual truth. language. r e of anl 256. Most of the language which men employ in Use of analogy in men- reference to spiritual things, is founded on analogy tal science. or resemblance. This is true of all language which speaks of the mind or of its acts; and especially of the lan ANALOGICAL LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 169 guage of early times. In the infancy of races, language is nearly all figure, and describes even common facts by the aid of natural symbols. The very word " spirit," means in its derivation, "breath." The mind is said to see truth, because the act of the mind by which it is perceived, bears some resemblance to the act of the eye. To "reflect," is literally to bend or throw back, and so to look round our thoughts. "Attention" is a mental exercise, analogous to the stretching of the eye in the examination of some outward object. It is the necessity of man's state, that scarcely any fact connected with the mind, or with spiritual truth, can be described, but in language borrowed from material things. To words exclusively spiritual or abstract, we can attach no definite conception. 257. And God is pleased to condescend to our necessity. He leads us to new knowledge by means of what is already known. He reveals himself in terms pre- I viously familiar. If he speak of himself, it must be in words originally suggested by the operations of the senses. If he speak of heaven, it is in'figures taken from the scenes of the earth. We say that God "condescends to our necessity." This is true: but it might be said with as much truth, that God having stamped his own image upon natural things, employs them to describe and illustrate himself. "The visible world is the dialplate of the invisible." Spiritual thoughts were first embo-. d.ed.in -at.url.symbols; and those symbols are now employed to give ideas of spiritual truth. To the devout man, especially, the seen and the unseen world are so closely blended, that he finds it difficult to separate them. The world of nature is to him an emblem, and a witness of the world of spirits. They proceed from the same hand. In his view, Earth Is but the shadow of heaven, and things therein, Are each to other liik,..... It is impossible to avoid the conviction, that many of the 15 170 EXPRESSIONS TAKEN FROM MAN. figures of the Bible have originated in such a hAbit, and are the offspring of exquisite taste and devout piety. Nor is it only from the nature of spiritual truth, or from the marvellous connection which subsists between material and spiritual things, that the inspired writers employ the language of figure. Such language is often most appropriate, because of its impressiveness, and beauty. It conveys ideas to the mind with more vividness than prosaic description. It charms the imagination, while instructing the judgment, and it impresses the memory, by interesting the heart. 258. (1.) Sometimes, for example, common things are associated in Scripture with what is spiritual. Common things sug-. gestreli- God dwells in "light." He sets up his "kingdom." giousterm. Heaven is his "throne." The Christian's faith is described in the same order of terms. He " handles" the word of life. He "sees" him who is invisible. He "comes" to Christ, and he "leans" upon him. 259. (2.) Sometimes the Bible, borrowing comparisons from ourselves, speaks of God as having human affections, and performing human actions. Hands, eyes, and feet are ascribed to God; and the meaning is, that he has power to execute all such acts, as those organs in us are instruiental in effecting. He is called "theP Father," because he is the creator and supporter of man, and especially because he is the author of spiritual life. He "lifts up the light of his countenance" when he manifests his presence and love (Psa. iv. 6), and " he hides his face " (Psa. x. 1) when these blessings are withheld. In Gen. vi. 6, it is said, " It repented the Lord that he had made man," i. e., he had no longer pleasure in his work, so unpleasing and unprofitable had man become by transgression. In Gen. xviii. 21, he says,' I will go and see," to imply that he should examine the doings of men before he condemned them. In Jer. vii. 13, he says, "I spake unto you, rising up early and speaking," to imply the interest he felt in their welfare, and the care he had taken to instruct them. In Dan. iv. 35, it is said "he doeth according to his will," i. e., not capriciously, but independently of men, and so as justly to require our entire submission. EXPRESSIONS TAKiN FROM JE ~ISR RITES. 171 It may be observed generally, that though there is some analogy between the love and wisdom, the knowledge and holiness, which we ascribe to God, and those same faculties in men, there is a great difference between them. The faculties in God are infinitely more noble, though there is enough of resemblance in the expressions of each, to justify the application of the same terms. Two remarks, in reference to the employment of this analogical language, are important. 260. (1.) The figures which are used in speaking of spiritual truth are not used, as in common description, to give Such terms'an unnatural greatness or dignity to the objects they do not ee' describe. The things represented have much more truth. of reality and perfection in them, than the things by which we represent them. It is so in all such language. The mind weighs arguments, and that action is more noble than the mechanical habit from which the expression is taken. God sees much more perfectly thsn the eye: and the light in which he dwells is very feebly represented by the material element to which that name is applied. When it is said that the church is the bride of Christ, the earthly relation is but a lower form of the heavenly; in the same way as earthly kingdoms and earthly majesty are but figures and faint shadows of the true. The figurative language, then, which we are compelled to employ when speaking of spiritual things, is much within the truth, and never beyond it. 261. (2.) It is a necessary result of the employment of such language, that figurative expressions are sometimes often used used in different senses. in dferent senses. If God is said, for example, to repent, and to turn from the evil which he had threatened against sinners, and in other places it is said that God is "not a man, that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent" (Numb. xxiii. 19), in the first it is meant that God changes his dealings with sinners when they change: and in the second, that there is no fickleness or untruthfulness in him. In Psa. xviii. 11, God is said to mke "darkness his secret place," and in I Tim. vi. 16, he is said to dwell in light. In the first case, darkness means inscrutableness, and in the second, light means purity, intelli 172 EXPRESSIONS TAKEN FROM JEWISH RITIS. gence, or honor. In Exod. xxxiii. 11, it is said that God "spake unt^ Moses face to face," and in ver. 20 I.e declares that no man can see hi' face and live. In the first passage, the expression means to have intercourse without the intervention of another; in the second, to have a. full and familiar sight of the Divine glory. The same word (it has been remarked) expresses in Hebrew "to bless" and "to curse," and this dissimilarity of meaning has excited:surprise. The word originally means "to bend the knee," and that act was equally appropriate in asking a favor for others and in denouncing them. 262. (3.) It may be remarked, further, that the Bible often speaks of spiritual truth in terms suggested by the Facts of Jewish his- facts of Jewish history, or by rites of Divine institory. tution. The idea of holiness, e. g., for which in its Christian sense the heathen have no w6rd, was suggested to the Jews by means of a special institution. All animals, common to Palestine, were divided into clean and unclean. From the clean, one was chosen without spot or blemish: a peculiar tribe, selected from the other tribes, was appointed to present it; the offering being first washed with clean water, and the priest himself undergoing a similar ablution. Neither the priest, nor any of the people, nor the victim, however, was deemed sufficiently holy to come into the Divine presence, but the offering was made without the holy place. The idea of the infinite purity of God was thus suggested to the mind of observers, and holiness in things created came to mean, under the law, "purification for sacred uses;" and under the Gospel, freedom from sin, and the possession, by spiritual intelligences, of a "Divine nature." The demerit of sin and the doctrine of an atonement were taught in words taken from equally significant rites. The victim was slain, and its blood (which was the life) was sprinkled upon the mercy seat, and towards the holy place; and while the people prayed in the outer court, they beheld the dark volume of smoke ascending frm the sacrifice, which was burning in their stead. How plainly did this suggest that God's justice was a consuming fire, and that the souls of the people escaped only through a vicarious atonement! The ideas thus suggested were intended to continue through all time, and we find them often expressed in terms borrowed from these-ancient institutions. Under the law, again, the priests were clothed in white linen, and dressed in splendid apparel. Expressions taken from these customs wre hence employed to indicate the purity and dignity of the redeemed. FIGURATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 173 The whole of Jewish history is in the same way suggestive of spiritual truth and of analogous expressions. Men are the "slaves" of sin. Their road is through the "desert." They cross the " Jordan " of death. They enter the " rest" that remains for the people of God. They have their "forerunner:" their prophet: their priest, who is also called in prophecy after the days of Saul, their king. 263. (4.) It may be remarked again, that many of the ex. pressions of the New Testament are employed in Mnyrms senses entirely unknown to the common writers of used in new senses. the Greek tongue. The New Testament term for humility meant, in classic Greek, raeanspiritedness, and though Plato has used the word once or twice, to indicate an humble s D r1 t gis n hf,6' -a'n u,"nusual m-eaing L De Leg. iv. The Greeks-had no virtue under that name, and even Cicero remarks, that meekness is merely a blemish. De Off. iii. 32. Grace in the sense of Divine unmerited favor: Justification as an evangelical blessing: God as a holy, self-existent merciful Being: Faith as an instrument of holiness, and essential to pardon: all these terms are used in Greek, and in aill versions of the New Testament, with peculiar meaning. To us all, they are old words in a new sense. All language exhibits similar changes: "calamity" meant originally, in the language from which it is takon, the loss of standing corn (calamus): "sycophant" meant figinformer, and "sincerity," without wax, alluding to the practice of the -potter in concealing the flaws of his vessels: but in Scripture, such changes are unusually numerous. Happily, however, there need be no misapprehension concerning the terms which are thus employed, as Scripture itself has defined the ideas they convey, sometimes by a reference to the old dispensation, sometimes by a formal or indirect explanation of the terms themselves, 264. It may aid the reader in interpreting Scripture, to know how the various figures which our condition Figures compels us to use in speaking of spiritual truth, are classified. classed and named by grammarians. A knowledge of the names is not essential, but a knowledge of the differences on which the classification is founded may often prove so. 265. When a word, which usage has appropriated to one thing, is transferred to another, there is a TROPE or' figure and the expression is trope, e. figure, and the expression is tropical or figurativG..15*) 174 ALLEGORICAL NARRATIVES. I.f,4however, the first signification of a word is no longer t sed& the tropical sense becomes the proper one. The Hebrew word "to bless," for example, meant originally "to bend the knee," but it is not used in Scripture with that sense, and therefore "to bless" is said to be the proper, and not a figurative meaning. When there is some resemblance between the two things to which a word is applied, the figure is called a METAPHOR, as i Judah is a lion's whelp," Gen. xlix. 9. " I am the true Vine," John xv. 1. When there is no resemblance, but only a connection between them, the figure is called SYNECDOCHE: as when a cup is used for what it contains, 1 Cor. xi. 27: or as when a part is put for the whole, " my flesh" for " my body," in Psa. xvi. 9. When the connection is not visible, or is formed in the mind, as when the cause is put for the effects, or the sign for the thing signified, the figure is called METONYMY, as in John xiii. 8, "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me," where by wash is meant purify' or cleanse. Sometimes the figure is explained in Scripture itself, as in 1 Pet. iii. 21, where baptism is explained as there meaning "the answer of a good conscience toward God." All the foregoing figures refer to single words. The following refer to several words, as they make a continued representation or narrative. 266. Any statement of supposed facts which admits of a Alegories literal interpretation, and requires or justly admits classified a moral or figurative one, is called an ALLEGORY. It is to narrative or story what trope is to single words, adding to the literal meaning of the terms employed a moral or spiritual one. Sometimes the allegory is pure, that is, contains no direct reference to the application of it, as in the history of the prodigal son. Sometimes it is mixed, as in Psa. lxxx., where it is plainly intimated (ver. 17) that the Jews are the people whom the vine is intended to represent. When the allegory is writte-n in the style of history; and- i ALLEGORICAL NARRATIVES. 175 confined to occurrences that may have taken place, Parables, it is called a PARABLE. When the allegory contains statements of occurrences, which, from their very nature could not have happened, it is called a FABLE. (Judges ix. 6-21: 2 Kings xiv. 9: 2 Chron. xxv. 18.) When the resemblances on which an allegory is founded are remote and abstruse, it is called a RIDDLE. Nothing, however, need be said of Scripture riddles, as their hidden meaning is always explained. (Judges xiv. 14: Prov. xxx. 15-21.) When the resemblance between two persons or things is represented, not in words, but in some action or object, the object or action, which has, so to speak, the double meaning, a literal a spiritual one, is called a TYPE. It is a double representation in action, as an allegory is a double representation in words. When the act or thing which is represented is present, or past, or near at hand, the act which represents it is called a SYMBOL, and is said to be symbolical. Baptism is thus an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace; and the bread we eat in the holy supper, and the wine we drink, are symbolically the body and the blood of Christ. (See, also, 1 Kings xi. 30: 2 Kings xiii. 14-19: Jer. xxvii. 2-8; xiii. 1-7; xviii.. 2-10.) Some things, as the Passover, are both symbols and types. They commemorate one event, and they prefigure another. Language drawn from types and symbols is subject to the same rules as ordinary figures of speech.:267. Tropical, or figurative, then, is a general term, applied to words or single expressions, and includes meta- ate Figurative phor, synecdoche, and metonymy; allegorical, again, and allegorical. is a general term, applied to continuous narrative, and is used whenever the narrative (whether it be a riddle, or fable, or parable, or common history) has, or receives, a double meaning. Typical refers to an action with a double meaning, and gsnerally relates to something future; symbolical refers 176 STUr Y NEEDED. to actions with a double meaning, and relates generally to something past or at hand. 268. These figures of speech, it may be noticed, are not common in peculiar to the language of the Bible. They are alllanguage. found in all languages; but, as they are most common in those which are most ancient, and are necessary to enable us to speak impressively or intelligibly even, of spiritual truth, they are very frequent in Scripture. To comprehend parts of Scripture, therefore, and to avoid error in interpreting it, it is specially important that we should understand them. 269. Let, then, these various facts be combined. Scripture was written by different persons, at remote periods, Summary.... in distant countries, amidst manners and customs altogether unlike our own, on subjects of the greatest extent and variety-civil, ecclesiastical, historical, prophetic; the latter, especially, requiring terms both precise and ambiguous, and the whole expressed in dead languages, and in terms to a great degree analogical and figurative. Be it remembered, also, as we have seen, that the grand theme of Scripture extends through all time, involving truths and precepts (the former both physical and moral), with which our reason and experience are but little conversant; that it is not confined to time, but includes in its connections both worlds; that all its disclosures are comprehended in a narrow space, and treated with much brevity; and it will at once be clear how much learning is needed to make these things plain. There is, in fact, in Locke's definition of theology, a literal truth. It is the direction of all knowledge to its true end, the glory of the eternal God, and the everlasting welfare of the human race. SEC. 2.-OF THE SPIRIT IN WHICH THE BIBLE SHOULD BE STUDIED. "God has determined that Divine things shall enter through the heart into the mind, and not through the mind into the heart. In Divine SPIRIT OF STUDY. 177 things, therefore, it is necessary to love them, in order to know them, axd we enter into truth only through charity."-PAscAL (Pt. i., ~ 3). " He who has not believed will not experience, and he who has not "experienced cannot know."-ANSELM. "The theologian must himself believe the doctrines which he studies. Without this moral qualification, it is impossible to obtain a true insight into theological truth.'-THOLUCK (Lectures on Methodology, Bibl. ReP., 1844). "An inward interest in the doctrines of theology is needful for a Biblical interpreter. The study of the New Testament presupposes as an indispensable requisite, a sentiment of piety and religious experience. The Scripture will not be rightly and spiritually comprehended unless the Spirit of God become himself the interpreter of his words; the angelus interpres to open to us the true meaning."-HAGESBACE. "Pectus est quod facit theologum."-NEANDER'S Motto. 270. The first place is due, when we speak of the study of the Bible, to the exercise of a humble and devout Teachable mind. It becomes us, first of all, to cherish the spirit habit of earnest and reverential attention to all it reveals, and to seek that inward teaching of the Holy Spirit which God has promised to them that ask him. This is, perhaps, not strictly a rule of interpretation, but it is essential to the application of all rules. An analogous truth is admitted in relation to every other subject of inquiry. To appreciate true poetry, there must be a poetic taste. The study of philosophy requires a philosophic spirit. An inquirer into the processes of nature needs, above all, to be imbued with the temper of the inductive system which Bacon taught; nor should this truth be questioned when it is applied to the study of the Bible. 271. Men need Divine teaching, not because of the peculiar difficulty of Scripture language, nor because of the Origin of incomprehensibility of Scripture doctrine-for the this need things most misunderstood are the things which are revealed most clearly-but because, without that teaching, men will not learn, nor can they know those truths which are revealed only to those who feel them. When Christ appeared, the light shone in the darkness, and the darkness comprehended it not. Unholy affection had surrounded the mental eye with the very opposite of clear, "dry light," and had impaired the organ itself. Blindness of heart produced ignorance; and alienation 178 SPIRIT OF STUDY. "from the life of God" was at once the cause and Whence and how the aggravated effect of an "understanding darkupplied. ened," Eph. iv. 18. The source of this teaching is clearly revealed: Christians are "all taught of the Lord;" and he who gave to the Ephesian Church " the spirit of wisdom and revelation," was "the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of glory," Eph. i. 17. The means of securing this teaching is equally revealed. "The meek will he guide in judgment, the meek will he teach his way." He that is willing to do His will" shall know of the doctrine, whether it be of God," John vii. 17. "If any of you lack wisdom, let him ask of God.. and it shall be given him." A child-like docility, an obedient heart, a dependent and prayerful frame, are evidently essential to the successful study of Divine truth. "Bene orasse est bene studuisse," is, therefore, an aphorism, subordinately, indeed, of Luther's, but really of God's. 272. It is necessary, however, in order to complete this truth, to add, that the spirit of God does not comA teachable spirit dis- municate to the mind.of even a teachable, obedient,.covers only revealed and devout Christian, any doctrine or meaning of Scripture which is not contained already in Scripture itself. He makes men wise up to what is written, but not beyond it. When Christ opened the understanding of his apostles, it was "that they might understand the Scriptures," Luke xxiv. 45. When he opened Lydia's heart she attended to the things that were spoken by Paul: David prayed that God would be pleased to open his eyes, that he might behold wondrous things out of the Divine law, Psa. cxix. 18. "The Bible, and through the Bible," indicates, therefore, at once, the subject and the method of Divine wisdom. Whatever is taught contrary to it, or in addition, or without its aid, is to be ascribed to the spirit of darkness, or to ourselves. 273. This first principle of Bible interpretation is taken This order from the Bible itself. It occupies the same place, 9anctiored too, in the teaching of our Lord, who, in his first recorded discourse, assured Nicodemus that "ex RULES OF INTERPRETATION-FIRST RULE. 179 cept a man be born again, he cannot see"-can neither under. stand the nature nor share the blessedness of-" the kingdom of God," John iii. 3. Compare, also, 1 Cor. ii. 14: 1 Cor. xii. 8: 1 Cor i. 21: 1 John ii. 20, 27: 2 Cor. iv. 1-6: 1 Pet. ii. 1: James i. 21: Psa. xxv. 4, 5; cxix. 12, 1S: 2 Tim. iii. 13, etc. SEC. 3.-OF RULES OF INTERPRETATION. "Strict grammatical analysis, and the rigid observance of exegetical rules, lead to the same views of truth as are entertained by the theologians, who bring to the study of the Bible strong sense and devout piety." -ToLucK. " The various controversies among interpreters have commonly led to the admission that the old Protestant views of the meaning of the sacred text are the correct views."-WINER. " He that shall be content to use these means, and will lay aside the prejudices... which many bring with them to every question, will be honored to gain an understanding of Scripture; if not in all things, yet in most; if not immediately, yet ultimately."-WHITAKER (Disput. of Scrip., p. 473). "The most illiterate Christian, if he can but read his English. Bible, and will take the pains to read it in this manner, will not only attain all that practical knowledge which is essential to salvation, but, by God's blessing, he will become learned in everything relating to his religion in such a degree that he will not be liable to be misled, either by the refuted arguments, or the false assertions of those who endeavor to engraft their own opinions upon the oracles of God." —HORSLEY. 274. Whether words are used literally or tropically, the first rule of interpretation is to ascertain the sense in which general usage employs them. As all the usage of language. writers of the sacred Scriptures wrote or spoke to be understood, we must interpret their language as we interpret the language of common life. They tell us, for example, that " there is none that doeth good;" figuratively, that "all flesh has corrupted his way;"b affirming the same truth in two different forms. They state that repentance is necessary to forgiveness; and that both repentance and firgiver ess are the gifts of Christ.d All the great doctrines of the GosRom. iii. 12. b Gen. vi. 12. elsa. lv. 7. d Acts v. 31. 180 FIRST RULE-HEBRAISMS. pel are stated in language equally simple and decisive: the existence and perfections of God; the unity of Jehovah, of God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit; the fall of man; the corruption of human nature; our moral responsibility; redemption through the atonement of Christ; the renewal of the heart by the influence of the Holy Spirit; the freeness and sovereignty of Divine grace; the progressive holiness of Christians, and their final and eternal blessedness. If language have meaning, these doctrines are taught in innumerable passages of the Bible, and in terms incapable of mistake. 275. Simple, however, as this rule is, it is often broken in This rule the interpretation of the Scriptures. violated. Origen, for example, reading that Abraham married Keturah, in hib old age, and learning that Keturah meant, in Hebrew, "sweet odour," and that "sweet odour" is specially applicable to such as have the fragrance of righteousness in their character, thought that one most important meaning must be, that in his old age Abraham became eminently holy. 276. A kindred error changes the plainest history into fable, and teaches us to regard, the whole of the miracles of Christ as common occurrences, obscurely described. On this principle, Scripture history means nothing that is definite, or it means anything which a vivid fancy can imagine it to mean. In either case, the meaning is not in the Bible, but in the mind of the inquirer. 277. But while, as a general rule, we are to understand the words of Scripture in their common sense, there are Hebraisms. some peculiarities which need to be noticed. Being translated from the Hebrew with great literalness, the English version often employs the idioms and expressions of that tongue, and those are to be understood, not according to the English, but according to the Hebrew idiom. (a.) The Jews, for example, frequently expressed a qualifying thought by the use, not of an adjective, but of a second noun, a hov ex- practice which may be traced in the Hebrew Greek of the pressed. New Testament. "Your work of faith, and labor of love, and patience of hope," means, "your believing work, and loving labor, FIRST RULE — EBRAISMS. 181 and hopeful patience," 1 Thess. i. 3. So in Eph. i. 13, the " Spirit of promise" means the "promised Spirit." It must be carefully noted, however, that the second noun is not always to be regarded as an adjective. Thus Rom. viii. 21, " the glorious liberty," should rather be " the liberty of the glory," [i.. the glory mentioned in verse 18j. (b.) It was a common idiom of the Hebrew to call a person having a peculiar quality, or subject to a peculiar evil, the child or son of that quality. Tn 1 Sam. ii. 12, Eli's sons are called "sons of Belial," that is, of wickedness. In Luke x. 6, a " son of peace," means a person of gentle and attentive mind, disposed to give the gospel a willing reception. In Eph. v. 6-8, " children of disobedience," and " children of light," mean respectively, disobedient and enlightened persons. So Matt. xxiv. 15: Mark xiii. 14: Romn. vii. 24: 1 John iii. 10: Jas. ii.:4: Heb. i. 3: Rev. iii. 10. In some of these passages, however, the idiom is, perhaps, emphatic. (c.) Comparison, again, is very peculiarly ex- Comparison pressed in Hebrew. To love and to hate, for example, is a Hebrew expression for preferring one thing to another. Thus it is said in Luke xiv. 26, " If any man come to me, and hate not his father;" for which we find, as in Matt. x. 37, " He that loveth father more than me." The same expression is used in John xii. 25: in Rom. ix. 13: in Gen. xxix. 18, 30, 31: and in Dent. xxi. 15. Comparison is sometimes intimated by the use of adverbs of negation. Thus in Gen. xlv. 8. "not you sent me hither, but God;" it was God rather than you. So Ex. xvi. 8: 1 Sam. viii. 7: Prov. viii. 10: Hos. vi. 6: Jer. vii. 22, 23. So in Mark ix. 37, "Whosoever shall receive me, receiveth not me, but him that sent me;" not so much, or not only me, but him. So in Matt. v. 39: Luke xiv. 12: John v. 22, 30, 45; vi. 27: Acts v. 4: 1 Cor. i. 17: Eph. vi. 12: 1 Thess. iv. 8. (d.) Plural nouns are sometimes used in Hebrew to imply that there are more than one, though it may be to Purals one only that reference is made. how useet 16 182 FIRST RULE-HEBRAiSMS. Gen. viii; 4; xix. 29: Judges xii. 7: Neh. iii. 8: Matt. xxiv. 1, where "his disciples" means one of them: Mark xiii. 1: Matt. xxvi. 8, and John xii. 4: Matt. xxvii. 44: Mark xv. 32, and Luke xxiii. 39: Luke xxiii. 36, and Matt. xxvii. 48. In some of these instances, however, all or several shared in the sentiment, John xiii. 4. "Garments," i. e., one of them, the upper; see Mark v. 27, 30 (original). (e.) The names of parents, or ancestors, are often used in Names Scripture for their posterity. Names of ancestors, etc. Thus in Gen. ix. 25, it is said, "Cursed be Canaan," i. e.; his posterity. This curse, it will be remembered, did not affect those of his posterity who were righteous; for both Melchizedek and Abimelech were Canaanites, as was the woman who came to Christ, and whose daughter was healed, Gen. xiv. 18-20; xx. 6: Matt. xv. 2228. In the same way Jacob and Israel are often put for the Israelites, as in Ex. ii. 24: Psa. xiv. 7: 1 Kings xviii. 17, 18. (f) The word "son" is sometimes used, by a Hebraism, Son. ((common, indeed, to nearly all languages), for a remote descendant. The priests are called the sons of Levi. Mephibosheth is called the son of. Saul, though he was the son of Jonathan, 2 Sam. xix. 24: so Gen. xlvi. 22. Zechariah, the grandson of Iddo (Zech. i. 1), is called his son, Ezra v. 1. "Son" is thus used for any descendant, as "father" is used for any ancestor, 1 Chron. 1. 17. "Brother" is used in the same way for any collateral relation. It is thus applied by Abraham to Lot, who was his nephew.' Brother. Brother In one instance, too, the descendants of a man who married a daughter of Barzillai are called, from the name of their maternal ancestor's father, the children of Barzillai.b In the same way, Jair is called the son of Manasseh, because his grandfather had married the daughter of one of the heads of Manasseh. Mary is also thought to have descended from David in this way; so that our Lord was David's son, not only through his reputed father, but by direct descent through his mother. a Gen. xiv. 16; xxix. 12, 15: so the word is probably used in John vii. 3: Gal. i. 19. b Ezra ii. 61: Neh. vii. 63. FIRST iaULE -EBRAISMS. 183 278. A knowledge of these last rules of speech will often correct apparent contradictions. Athaliah, for ex- Apparent ample, is called in 2 Kings, viii. 26, the daughter of ttadic. Omri, and in ver. 18, she is called the daughter of corrected Ahab. She was really Ahab's daughter, and Omri's granddaughter. See, also, 1 Kings xv. 10, and 2 Chron. xiii. 2, and 1 Chron. iii. 15, compared with 2 Chron. xxxvi. 9, 10. 279. There are other peculiarities, semi-Hebraisms, which need to be named. (a). Some numbers in Hebrew are used for an aitriers: se:indefinite number. of nunbers. "Ten," for example, means "several," as well as that precise number, Gen. xxxi. 7: Dan. i. 20. "Forty" means "many." Persepolis is called in Eastern language, "the city of forty towers;" though the number is much larger. This is probably the meaning in 2 Kings viii. 9, where Hazael is said to have brought as a present to Elisha forty camels' burden of the good things of Damascus. This is probably the meaning, too, in Ezek. xxix. 11, 13. "Seven" and "seventy" are used to express a large aid complete, though an uncertain number, Prov. xxvi. 16, 25: Psa. cxix. 164: Lev. xxvi. 24, etc. We are commanded, for example, to forgive till seventy times seven, to indicate that, if our brother repent of his sin, there must be no end of our forgiveness. The seven demons cast out of Mary of: Magdala indicate her extreme suffering, and, perhaps, her great wickedness. (b). The Scriptures sometimes use a round number when not perfectly accurate. From Numb. xxv. 9, and 1 Cor. x. 8, we learn that between 23,000 and 24,000 were slain by the plague. The first passage mentions 24,000, and the second 23,000. In Judges xi. 26, 300 years is put for 293. See Josh. iv. 19: Numb. xxxiii. 3: and compare xiv. 33: Judges xx. 46, 35: ix. 5, 18, 56. (c). Occasionally, in Scripture, verbs denoting simple being or action are used, when only a declaration is intended, or even a mere supposition that the act is or verb of will be done, or regarded as done. action. 184.FIRST RULE-PRO! TR NAMES. In Lev. xiii. 3, 13, for example, where the priest is sai i to cleanse the leper; i.e., he declares him to be clean. The letter killeth; that is, declares death as a consequence of sin, Rom. v. 20: Phil. iii. 7 See, also, Rom. iv. 15; vii. 9; 2 Cor. iii. 6. So, in prophecy, the speaker is said to do what he only foretells, Jer. i. 10: Ezek. xliii. 3: Isa. vi. 10. (d). In interpreting the words of Scripture, it needs to be Use of pro- noticed, that the proper names are used very pecuper names. liarly. Different persons have often the same names. Pharaoh, (or ruler, from Phre, the sun) was the general name of the kings of Egypt from the time of Abraham till the invasion of Egypt by the Persians, as Ptolemy was the common name of their kings after the death of Alexander. Abimelech (meaning my father, the king) seems to have been the common name of the kings of the Philistines; Agag was the name of the kings of the Amalekites; as was Benhadad (the son of the sun) of the kings of Damascus. Among the Romans, Augustus Csesar was the common title of their emperors. The Augustus mentioned in Luke ii. I was the second of that name. The Caesar who reigned when Christ was crucified was Tiberius. The emperor to whom Paul appealed, and who is called both Augustus and Caesar, was Nero, Acts xxv. 21. The Egyptian and the Philistine kings seem to have had, like the Romans, a proper as well as a common name. We read, for example, of Pharaoh Necho and of Pharaoh Hophra; and the Abimelech mentioned in Psa. Lxxiv. is called Achish in 1 Sam. xxi. 11. In the New Testament, several very different persons are known under the common name of Herod. Herod the Great, as'erodwo he is called in profane history, was he who slew in his old age the young children at Bethlehem. It was he who rebuilt and decorated the Temple, and enlarged Caesarea. He was notorious for his jealousy and cruelty. On his death, the half of his kingdom (including Judaea and Samaria) was given to his son Archelaus; most of Galilee was given to his son Herod the Tetrarch, or king, Luke iii. 1: Matt. xiv. 9; and some other parts of Syria and Galilee to his third son, Philip Herod. It was Herod the Tetrarch who beheaded John, and mocked our Lord in his last sufferings. His conduct towards Herodias, his niece and sister-in-law, ended in his being banished to Gaul. The dominions of both Herod and Philip were ultimately given to his nephew, the brother of Herodias, Herod Agrippa, who is called in FIRST RULE —TROPER NAMES. 185 Scripture, Herod only. In the end, he possessed all the ter'itory in Palestine which had belonged to his grandfather, Herod the Great. He was the murderer of the apostle James, and died m'serably and suddenly at Cosarea. His son was Herod Agrippa, called in the New Testament Agrippa only. It was before him that Paul was brought by Festus. The character of this man was very different from that of his father, and a knowledge of the fact that they were not the same man is essential to a clear understanding of the history. Different places have often the same name. Cesarea is the name of two cities; one called CGesarea Philippi, in Galilee; the other on the shore of the Mediterranean. The one mentioned throughout the Acts of the Apostles was the port whence travellers generally left Judaea for Rome. Antioch, in Syria, again, is the place where Paul and Barnabas commenced their labors, and where the followers of Christ were first called Christians. The Antioch of Acts xiii. 14, and of 2 Tim. iii. 11, is in Pisidia. There is a Mizpeh ("watch-tower") in Mount Gilead, where Jephtha resided. where Jacob and Laban made their covenant, Gen. xxxi. 49: Judges xi. 34; a Mizpeh of Moab, 1 Sam. xxii. 3, perhaps the same as the previous; a Mizpeh of Gibeah, where Samuel resided, and where Saul was chosen king, 1 Sam. vii. 11; and there is also a.Mizpeh in the tribe of Judah, Josh. xv. 38. Sometimes the same name is applied to a person and to a place. Magog, for example, is the name of a son of Japheth, and it is also the name of the country occupied by a people called Gog, probably the Scythians, or, as they are now called, the Tartars, Ezek. xxxviii.: Rev. xx. 8. The Turks have sprung from the same stock. The same persons and places have sometimes different names. The father-in-law of Moses, for example, is called Hobab and Jethro, Judges iv. 11: Ex. iii. 1. Reuel was perhaps his wife's grandfather, though called her father, Ex. ii. 18. Levi is the same as Matthew. Thomas and Didymus are the sair., person; the werds meaning a twin. Thaddeus, Lebbeus, and Judas, are all names of the apostle Jude. Sylvanus, Lucas, Timotheus, are Latin forms of Silas, Luke, and Timothy; the last three belong to our translation, not to the original, 16* 186 FIRST RULT- PROPER NAME. Horeb and Sinai are names now and anciently apiplied to different peaks of the same range of mountains; and both names are sometimes applied to the whole range. Cesarsea (of Galilee) was called Laish, and then Dan, 1 Kings xii. 29 Judges xviii. 29. The Lake of Gennesareth was anciently called the Sea of Cinnereth, afterwards the Sea of Galilee, or the Sea of Tiberias, Matt. iv. 18: Jonn xxi. 1. The modern Abyssinia is called Ethiopia, and sometimes Cush; the latter name, however, being applied generally to Arabia or to India; hence, probably, Chusistan. Greece is called Javan and Greece, Isa*. lxvi. 19: Zech. ix: 13. Egypt is called Ham and Rahab, Psa. lxxviii. 51: Isa. li. 9. The Dead Sea is called the Sea of the Plain, from its occupying, or adjoining, the plain on which the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah once stood; the East Sea, from its position in relation to Jerusalem; and sometimes the Salt Sea, 2 Kings xiv. 25: Gen. xiv. 3. The Nile is called in Scripture Sihor, Josh. xiii. 3, but more commonly the River; both names, however, being applied also to other u treams. The Mediterranean Sea is sometimes called the Sea of the Philistines, who resided on its coasts; or the Utmost Sea; or, more commonly, the Great Sea, Ex. xxiii. 31: Deut. xi. 24: Numb. xxxiv. 6, 7. The Holy Land is called Canaan; the Land of Israel, of Judoea; Palestine, or the Land of the Shepherds; and the Land of Promise, Ex. xv. 14: I Sam. xiii. 19: Isa. xiv. 29: Heb. xi. 9. 280. The careful recognition of the different application of proper names is of great moment, especially in reconciling apparent contradictions in sacred Scripture. Ahaziah, for example, the son of Jehoram, is called Azariah andJehoahaz, 2 Kings viii. 29: 2 Chron. xxii. 6; xxi. 17. Jehoahaz, the son of Josiah, is called Johanarn and Shallum, 2 Kings xxiii. 30: 1 Chron. iii. 15: Jer. xxii. 11. Jehoiada, the priest, is called Johanan and, probably, Barachias, 2 Chron. xxiv. 20: 1 Chron. vi. 9: Matt. xxiii. 35. The meaning of all these names is similar. Uzziah is called Azariah; Nathaniel, Bartholomew. Ill such instances, the different names have often the same meaning. 281, It is obvious, however, that a word has often various xTULES OF INTERPRETATION- -SECOND RULE. 187 eenses, each of which is sanctioned by general seconde rule: usage, usage. We need, therefore, a second rule of inter- as iduenced by pretation; to fix the meaning of a word, it is therest of the sennecessary to mark the meaning of the other words tenee. with which it is connected in the sentence; i. e., we must ascertain the sense in which general usage employs it in its particular connection. FAITH, for example, sometimes means the gospel (of which faith in Christ is the great doctrine), as in Gal. i. 23, "he now preacheth the faith which once he destroyed." And so in illust'ations. 1 Tim. iii. 9; iv. 1: Acts xxiv. 24. It means, again, truth or faithfulness, as in 1Rom. iii. 3, "shall their unbelief make the faith of God without effect?" And so in Titus ii. 10 (orig.), and probably in Gal. v. 22. It means, further, in one passage, proof of evidence, Acts xvii. 31 (Gr.) It means a conscientious conviction of duty, as in Bom. xiv. 23; or, most comprehensively, that exercise of the mind and heart which receives spiritual and Divine truth (Heb. xi.); or, more specifically, the repose of the mind and heart in the work of Christ as the ground of our pardon and the means of our holiness (Rom. iii. 28). FLESH means sometimes what is tender and teachable, as in Ezek. xi. 19, " I will give you a heart of flesh;" where it is opposed to a heart of stone. It means, also, human nature, without any reference to its sinfulness, John i. 14: Brom. i. 3; ix. 3; or, more commonly, human nature as corrupt and sinful, Rom. viii. 5: Eph. ii. 3. Another meaning is, all that is outward and ceremonial in religion, as distinguished from what is inward and spiritual, as in Gal. vi. 12; iii. 3; where it refers more especially to the ceremonies of the Mosaic ritual (compare Phil. iii. 3). SALVATION means in some places outward safety and deliverancSe as in Ex. xiv. 13: Acts vii. 25 (orig.); or healing, as in James v. i5; where, in the case of a sick Christian, the prayer of faith is said to save, i.e., heal, the sick. Its more common meaning, however, is in reference to spiritual blessing; when it sometimes i:cludes justification for as much of our salvation as is completed on earth; as in Eph. ii. 8: Luke i. 77; or, more frequently, the whole of the blessing which Christ has secured for believers, beginning with forgiveness, and ending in eternal glory, Rom. xiii. 11. Sometimes it means simply the Gospel, as in Heb. ii. 3, where it is said to be "spoken by the Lord, and confrmed unto us by them that heard him." In the same way, BLoor is used in Scripture with teveral meanings 188 SECOND RULE-FIGURATIVE LAN'Ot &GE. God "hath made of one blood all nalions of men," Acts xvii. 26, i. e. they have a common origin or nature. To give the wicked blood to drink, is to place in their hands the cup of death. In Matt. x-xvii. 25, "His blood be on us, and on our children," means, the guilt of having put him to death: " his death" (that is, the guilt of it) be upon us. In Rom. v. 9, the Christian is said to be justified by the blood of Christ; and in Heb. ix. 14, the blood of Christ is said to "purge our consciences from dead works." The robes of the redeemed are made white in the blood of the Lamb. In these passages, the blood of Christ means his "obedience unto death," "the offering of himself" on the cross, the ground of our justification, the instrument and motive of our holiness. The general meaning of the word GRACE is "favor." As applied to God, it means the unmerited favor exercised by him towards men, as in 2 Tim. i. 9, "According to His own purpose and grace." It means, moreover, all the different gifts of that grace: justification, as in Rom. v. 15; strength and holiness, as in 2 Cor. xii. 9, " My grace is sufficient for thee;" and eternal glory, I Pet. i. 13. The "word of his grace" is the Gospel, in Acts xiv. 3. So in Heb. xiii. 9, it means doctrines of the Gospel, and not meats or rites. In nearly all these passages, the meaning of the words is fixed by the position in which they stand. The general ideas which the words suggest are defined by their particular connection. 282. The rule which thus helps us to select, out of the many Rule p meanings of a word, the single meaning which is liedate appropriate to the place, helps us also to determine gurative language. whether the word is used literally or figuratively. If, on reading the sentence, it is found that the words, in their proper sense, involve a contradiction or an impossibility, it becomes plain that there is a figure of speech. In 1 Pet. ii. 5, for example, Christians are called "living stones." Ia Rom. xiii. 12, they are exhorted to "put on the armor of light." In 1 Pet. i. 13, they are said " to gird up the loins of their mind." In all these passages, the connection of each word shows it to be figurative. Taken alone, it may be figurative, or it may be literal; but in its present connection, the literal interpretation would be incongruous., Thus, again, the washing which the apostle states Christians to have received (1 Cor. vi. 11) is clearly figurative; for it is "by the Spirit of our God." The command of our Lord, "Let: the dead brry their dead" (Matt. viii. 22), must be understood figuratively, and mea s, let the worldly-minded THIRD RULE CON EXT. 189 attend to worldly concerns. The words of Christ, " This is my blood," are figurative; the literal interpretation of them being repugnant to reason and Scripture. In the use of figurative language, the inspired writers seem to have selected their expressions on the principle Natureof of resemblance. figurative language of What is grand in nature is used to express what is digni- Scripture. fled and important among men: the heavenly bodies, mountains, stately trees, designating kingdoms, or those in authority; the lower ground, the branches, and the earth generally, designating the mass of the people. Political changes are represented by earthquakes, tempests, eclipses, the turning of rivers and seas into blood, Jer. iv. 23-28: Isa. xiii. 10, 13: Matt. xxiv. 29: Acts ii. 19. Things which have a fertilizing influence, as dew, showers, streams, are used to represent spiritual blessings, Isa. xxv. 6: John iv. 13, 14. The qualities of animals are referred to in figurative expressions; beasts and birds of prey being emblems of oppressors. A horn signifies power, Dan. viii. A rod, the exercise of power in chastening. Light and darkness express joy and sorrow, knowledge and ignorance, prosperity and adversity, holiness and sin.a Marriage often denotes a covenant with God; adultery, the violation of that covenant by idolatry. A vineyard often denotes a church; if it bear wild grapes, it is unfruitful; if its enclosures are broken down, it is afflicted or corrupt, Isa. v. 1-7. This rule will not determine, in all cases, whether words are to be understood literally or figuratively; but it will go far to decide in most. Other rules will be found noticed below 283. But, while the words employed, or their connection in the sentence, will often suggest the meaning, it is Thirdrule: sometimes necessary to look beyond the words, and the context even the sentence, to the context; and there we find284. (1.) Words and passages explained in the language of the inspired writers themselves, sometimes by definitions. and sometimes by examples; sometimes by expressions which limit the meaning. Esther viii. 16 Isa. v. 20: Psa. xcvii. 11: Eph. v. 14. 190 THIED JtULE-CONTEXT. In Heb. xi., for instance, FAITH is first duscri )ed, and th3n illustrated. It is said to be a confident e:pectati in of things hoped for: a perfect persuasion of things not seen: ani then examples are given of both parts cf the definition. In Noah, it was perfect persuasion of the truth of God in regard to the Deluge. In Abraham it was confident expectation of the fulfilment of the promise made to himself, and to his seed. If the Divine word speak of mercies, faith hopes for them; if of things purely spiritual and future, faith believes in them. Perhaps no passage illustrates better than this the difficulty of making a good translation; and the wisdom of God in giving us a Bible of examples, rather than of definitions. The word "substance" is a literal translation of the original; and means, whatever stands under and sustains all that is attached to it, whether subjects or qualities, No one word could have expressed more completely the idea of the original: and yet it is not clear. In Heb. i. 3, the same word is translated "person," and in 2 Cor. xi. 17, "confidence" (of boasting): and both translations are correct. The full idea is that of well-founded or confident expectation. Faith is therefore, as to things hoped for, a thing on which real or substantial confidence may rest. It is, moreover, the evidence of things not seen. The full idea here, again, is, such evidence of things not seen as' silences doubt and refutes opposition; or rather, it is the conviction which such evidence produces. All this extent of meaning is found in the original words: but no one word can express it. If the Bible were made up of definitions, a translation without a paraphrase would be impossible. We may well feel thankful, therefore, that it is a book of examples chiefly: and that it illustrates its principles rather in the lives of believers than in logical and abstruse terms. PERFECTION, again, is defined in several parts of the Bible. In Psa. xxxvii. 37, it is used as synonymous with uprightness or sincerity, a real unfeigned goodness: and this is its general meaning in the Old Testament, 1 Chron. xii. 33, 38. In the New Testament it means either the possession of clear and accurate knowledge of Divine truth, or the possession of ALL the gra( es of the Christian character, in a higher or lower degree. The first is the meaning in Heb. v. 14, where strong meat is said to belong "to them that are of full age (marg. perfect): even to those who by reason of use have their senses exercised to discern both good and evil." So in 1 Cor. ii. 6: Phil. iii. 15. The second is the meaning in James i. 4, where "perfect" is defined as "entire, wanting nothing." In 2 Pet. i. 5-7, the graces which make up the perfect Christian are enumerated. THIRD RULE CONTEXT. 191 In Eph. iii. 4 5, MYSTERY is dcfined by example, as the truth, that the Gentiles should be partakers of tlh promise in Christ by the Gospei. THE coutSE OF THIS WORLD, means man's natural state and life, as. opposed to the kingdom of Christ: it is the outgoing of the spirit that worketh in tho children of disobedience. In Gal. iv. 3, the expression, the ELEMENTS OF THIS WORLD is used and is explained in ver. 9, 10, of the same chapter. See, also, Ileb. ii 5; vi.5: 1Cor. x. 11. Not unfrequently the meaning is limited, or explained by the context, even in simple narrative. Compare Gen. vi. 19, 20; vii. 2, 3, where pairs, and the number of pairs are spoken of respectively: so from Gen. xlviii. 8, 10, we gather that Jacob's blindness was partial. From Exod. vi. 3, and Gen. xiii. 4, (Heb. Jehovah), it may be concluded that the faithfulness of Jehovah in giving effect to his promises, was not revealed to the Israelites till the Exode. From Exod. ix. 6; ix. 20, it is clear that "all," means all, with specified exceptions. The Levites spent five years on probation, before fully entering upon their office, hence Numb. iv. 3; viii. 21. Modify in the same way, Numb. xiv. 30, by Josh. xiv. 1: and Josh. xi. 19, by xv. 63. 285. (2.) Sometimes, where there is no formal definition, the meaning is made clear by the use of some analo- Words ex gons or similar expression-; or by the use of opposite plaied by ones. or opposite expresIn Gal. iii, 17, the " covenant with Abraham" is explained sions. as the promise which God made to him. In Rom. vi. 23, the meaning of the word death (the wages Examples of sin), is gathered from the opposite: "the gift of God is eternal life, through Jesus Christ our Lord." In Col. ii. 7, the expression, "rooted and built up in Christ," is explained as meaning, "established in the faith." In Rom. iv. 5, it is said, that "to him that worketh not, faith is counted for righteousness;" the expression "worketh," being explained in several places in the same chapter. In ver. 2, the phrase is "justified by works." From the same verse we learn that it means the contrary of "believing in Him that justifieth the ungodly." So in James ii. 14, the faith that cannot save, is the faith that spends itself in words, and not in deeds. It is a faith'hat is without obedience: it is a faith such as devils feel (ver. 19), and t is not such as Abraham felt (ver. 23). To 192 THIRD RULE-PARALLELISMS. be "justified by works," therefore, expressly includes in Paul, the rejeetion of Christ as the Saviour of the guilty, and an adherence to the whole covenant; while the "works" of which James speaks imply faith in Christ. The same truth is taught by our Lord in John iii. 36; where it is said, " He that believeth on the Son hath everlasting life: and ho that believeth not the Son shall not see life:" where the word "believeth not" is in the original, "is not obedient to;" showing, as Doddridge well observes, that the faith to which the promise of eternal life is annexed, is a principle of unreserved obedience. In 1 John iii. 9, it is said, "Whosoever is born of God doth not commit sin." But, on comparing this expression with other parts of the Epistle, we find that to commit sin, means " to walk in darkness," i. 6:'to keep not the commandments," ii. 4: "to hate his brother," ii. 9: "to love the world," ii. 15: expressions that bespeak settled habit; a habit alien to the spirit of a Christian. 286. To this class of expressions belong the parallelisms or Words ex- metres of the original Scriptures, in which one plained by part of a sentence answers more or less accurately parallelSns. to another. Sometimes the parallelism is SYNONYMOUS OR GRADATIONAL, Synony- giving precisely the same thought,- or the same noUSgorgra- thought with some addition. dational. The first Psalm is a bea:-tiful instance of this gradual extension of thought: Blessed is the man That walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, Nor standeth in the way of sinners,. Nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful. [lie gradations are obviousWalketh-has casual Counsel-has public Ungodly- negativeintercourse. resort. ly wicked. Standeth-has close Way-chosen path. Sinners - positively intimacy. wicked. Sitteth-has perma- Seat-habitual rest- Scornful profanely nent connection. ing place. wicked. Similar instances may be found in Psa. xxiv. 3, 4: Isa. lv. 6, 7. Prov. xvi. 32, is an instance of the synonomous parallel. He that is slow to anger is commended, not because he is listless or indifferent, but THIRD RULE- -PARALLELISMS. 193 because he "ruleth his own spirit"; the one expression defining the meaning of the other. Occasionally these parallelisms extend over whole chapters, or over books of Scripture. In this case the similarity of thought needs to be traced with some care. Thus in Psa. cxxxii., Ver. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, is answered by ver. 12. Ver. 7,.. " by ver. 13. Ver, 8,.. " by ver. 14. Ver. 9,... " by ver. 15, 16. Ver. 10,.. " by ver. 17, 18. In Psa. cxxxv. 15-18, there is a similar instance. An attention to these parallelisms is often necessary to bring out the meaning of Scripture. In Luke xii. 47, 48, for example, the comparison of the expression, "he who prepared not, neither did according to his will," with the expression, "he that did commit things worthy of stripes," suggests the reason that acts of omission, in spite of knowledge, are to be punished with many stripes, while sins of commission, without knowledge, are to be punished with few. Sometimes the Parallelisms are ANTITHETIC, containing opposite terms, and sometimes opposite sentiments. Antithetic. In Prov. x. 7, for example, it is said that" the memory of the just is blessed"; where the meaning of the word "memory" is fixed by the following line: "but the name of the wicked shall rot." "Name" and "memory" are synonymous. In Prov. xi. 24, the scattering which tends to increase, is not the scattering in which extravagance may indulge, but the exercise of a wise generosity: for the following clause opposes it to the withholding of more than is meet, which tends to poverty. In Hosea xiv. 9, it is said, "The ways of the Lord are right, and the just shall walk in them: but the transgressors shall fall therein:" where the just are obviously the obedient. Other kinds of metrical parallelism are also frequent in Scripture: but as they are parallelisms of construe- Construction only, (called, therefore, SYNTHETIC or CONSTRUC- tive. TIVE,) and refer only to the form of the sentence, it is not necessary here to notice them. Psa. xix. 7 —11: Psa. cxlviii. 7-13: Isa. xiv. 4-9, are instanceas 17 194 INTERIRETA'-ION-CON.rEXT. 287. (3.) Very often the meaning is decided by the general Wordsex- reasoning, or allusions of the context. lained by (a.) Sometimes the meaning is defined by the the reasoning or al- allusions of the context: and the words are to be hltsions. taken in a limited sense. In Psalm vii. 8, for example, David prays, "Judge me, O Lord, according to my righteousness;" i. e., according to his innocency, in reference to the charge of Cush, the Benjamite. He often uses the same expression with similar limitations. The word "righteous," or "more righteous," is even applied to wicked meu: as in 1 Kings ii. 32, and in 2 Sam.iv. II. In the second instance, Ishbosheth is said to be righteous (though he had opposed what he knew to be God's promise in reference to David), merely to imply that he had done no injury to his murderers. The same phrase is applied to Sodom and Gomorrah, because they were less guilty than Jerusalem, Ezek. xvi. 52. The counsel of Ahithophel is called good, and the conduct of the unjust steward wise, not because they were absolutely so, but because they were likely means of accomplishing the ends of each. In John ix. 3, it is said, "Neither hath this man sinned, nor his parents." The meaning is simply, that his blindness was not the punishment of any particular sin. In James v. 14, the elders of the church are commanded to anoint the sick, and to pray over him; "and the prayer of faith shall save him." The church of Rome founds on this one passage the doctrine of extreme unction, which they say is to save the soul of the dying. But from ver. 15, 16, it is plain that by "save" is meant "heal." So that, whatever this practice implied, it was to be observed, not with the view of saving the soul, but in the case of one already a Christian, with the view of restoring his health. Op(osit (.) The context, or general arrangement of a stnse some- passage, may even prove that words are to be untenied. derstood in the very opposite of their usual sense. In 1 Kings xxii. 15, " Go, and prosper" was spoken ironically, and meant the reverse. In Numb. xxii. 20, "Rise up, and go" appears from ver. 12, 32, to imply " If, after all I have told you, your heart is set on violating my command, do it at your own risk." The use of this form of speech may be seen in 1 Kings xviii. 27: Judg. x. 14: Mark vii. 3: I Cor. iv. 8. INTERPRETATION-CONTEXT. 195 288, The general reasoning of the various tass~.ges of Scriptures is, commonly, sufficiently plain to indiIn reasoncate the meaning of the words employed. Great ing of attention, however, needs to be paid to the use of criptrees parentheses and of particles; the particles connect- aned iporting different oranches of a sentence, or argument, ant. together, and the parentheses withdrawing from the direct line of argument the words which are included in them. The latter interrupt the grammaticalconstruction of the sentence, and the former perfect, or complete it. 289. When the parenthesis is short, it creates no difficulty, and can scarcely be said to interrupt the reasoning, Parenas in Phil. iii. 18, 19: Acts. i. 15. When it is long, these. it seems to embarrass the argument, and often ends in the repetition of the words of the preceding clause. Eph. iii. 2 to iv. 1 (first clause) is all in parenthesis; so in Phil. i. 27 to ii. 16, and perhaps iii. 2 to iii. 14. In the first and last of these cases, "therefore" is an evidence of the end of the parenthesis. The parenthesis is often indicated in the argumentative parts of Scripture by the use of the word "for:" as in Rom. ii. 11-16, or 13-16: 2 Cor. vi. 2: Eph. ii. 14-18. 290. Attention to particles is often important. THEN, for example, is often emphatic; sometimes as an rtic adverb of time, as in Mal. iii. 4, and 16. And again in 1 Thess. iv. 16, " The dead in Christ shall rise first. Then, we which are alive, and remain, shall be caught up together with them in the clouds." It is not said here that th, dead in Christ rise before the rest of the dead, but that the dead rise before the living are changed. But it is much oftener used as an equivalent for therefore. THEREFORE, itself, generally expresses an inference or conclusion from what precedes: but it sometimes indicates that the sentence has been interrupted by a parenthesis, or is repeated: and means "As I before said," or " to resume." Matt. vii. 24 (see ver. 21): 1 Cor. viii. 4 (see ver. 1): Mark iii. 31 (see ver. 21): John vi. 24 (see ver. 22): Gal. iii. 5 (see ver. 2). THROUGH means sometimes "by means of:" as in John xv. 3. "Through the word I have spoken unto you:" and sometimes "for the sake of," 196 INTERPRETATION-CONTEXT. Rom. v. 1; or "in the midst of," as in Gal. iv. 13. Now is some times an adverb of time: sometimes it means "as the ease is," contrasting ar. actual with a supposable one, John xviii. 36, where "then" means "in that case," and asserts the consequence; Luke xix. 42: Heb. viii. 6 (ver. 4). "RATHER" means "on the contrary," Rom. xi. 11; xii. 19: Eph. v. 11. The comparison implied in the modern use of the word is expressed in Scripture by " and not." See ~ 277 (c). 291. The connection is sometimes obscured through the use Other of a covert dialogue; objections, responses, and resources of diffculty in plies not being distinctly marked. the connec~tion. See Rom. iii. 4, etc., where we have a dialogue between the apostle and an objector. Isa. lii. 13; liii. 54, a dialogue between God, the prophet, and the Jews. Psa. xx; xv; xxiv; cvii, are responsive. The abruptness of transition in historical narrative, and especially in prophecy, creates difficulty. Different, and often distant events are joined in what seems to be the same paragraph. Frequently a difficulty arises from the fact that the conclusion of an argument is omitted, or a premise is suppressed, or an objection is answered, without our being told what the objection is. The Epistle to the Romans furnishes examples of all these difficulties. Rom. iii. 22-24; viii. 17, 18; ix. 6: chapters iii. and iv. 292. Attention to the context is of great moment in ascer. Context taining the meaning of the figurative language of itepreto Scripture, and in determining whether the language figures, iS figurative or literal. That the expressions are figurative is sometimes stated or implied, and then the meaning is appended. Sometimes it is necessary to look to the general argument or allusions of the passage. In 1 Pet. iii. 21, the baptism which saves us is Defined. It is "not the putting away of the filth of the flesh, but the answer of a good conscience towards God." "To bear one's sin" is a figurative expreseicn, meaning to suffeo the punishment of it. Hence the synonymous INTERPRETATION-SC( PE. 197 expressions to be cut off, and to die, are connected witF it. Exod. xxviii. 43: Lev. xix. 8. In Hosea iv. 12, and elsewhere (especially in Ezekiel), a sp'rit of lasciviousness is said to have drawn the Israelites astray; but then it is immediateiy added, " They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, and burn incense upon the hills;" to show that it is spiritual unfaithfuinefs of which the prophet is speaking. When Christ said " He that eateth me, even he shall live by me," John vi. 57, the Jews misunderstood his meaning, but he had himself already explained it: for in the same discourse he had repeated the truth in literal terms, "He that believeth on me hath everlasting life." This text is understood literally by most Roman Catholic writers; though our Lord expressly gave it this figurative interpretation; and the ordinance of the Supper, to which they suppose it to refer, had not then been instituted, and was entirely unknown to his hearers. In Matt. xxvi. 28, Christ calls the wine his blood: and again, in ver. 29, he calls the same cup the fruit, of the vine: implying, that his first expression was figurative. The expression in 1 Cor. iii. 15, " He himself shall be saved, yet so as by fire," is the passage in Scripture generally quoted in favor of the popish doctrine of purgatory. Attention to the context will show that the whole is figurative. The wood, hay, stubble, which man may build on the foundation, are expressions confessedly figurative. The foundation itself is figurative, and means Christ; and the expression "so as by fire," must be understood in a sense consistent with the general argument of the passage. Similarly figurative expressions may be seen in I Cor. v. 8: Matt. xvi. 6, 12. See also Isa. li. 1: Eph. v. 32, where the union of Christ and his church (and not marriage) is spoken of as the mystery. 293. When the words, the connection of the sentence, and the context, fail in removing all ambiguity, or in Fourth rule giving the full meaning of the writer, it is then of interprenecessary that we look at the scope or design of eralscope. the book itself, or of some large section, in which the words and expressions occur. The last preceding rule touches this; and, indeed, all the rules of interpretation glide by degrees into one another. 294. Sometimes the scope of a section, or of the scope book itself, is mentioned. smetioed In Rom. iii. 28, for example, St. Paul tells us that the conclusion to 1-7* 198 INTERPRETATION-SCOPE. which his reasonings, up to that point, had brought him: namely, thaI man is justified by faith, without the deeds of the law. The principal conclusions of the Epistle to the Ephesians are stated, the'first doctrinal in ii. 11, 12, that the Gentiles were no longer aliens; the second practical in iv. 1-3, exhorting Jews and Gentiles to exercise the spirit and temper which become their new relation. Subordinate conclusions are expressed in iii. 13; iv. 17, 25; v. 1, 7; vi. 13, 14, where the words "therefore," or "wherefore," generally indicate the lesult of each successive argument. The design of the Proverbs is told us in i. 1-4, 6; of the Proverbs. Gospels in John xx. 31; of the BIBLE itself in Rom. xv. 4: The Bible. 2 Tim. iii. 16, 17. 295. The design of some parts of the Bible can be gathered Design only from the occasions on which they were written. gathered from the The 90th Psalm was probably written by Moses, at the n time when God sent back the children of Israel to wander Psalms in the wilderness. The scope of Psa. xviii., xxxiv., iii., li., is illustrated by their inscriptions. The Psalms which are headed "Songs of Degrees," cxx.-cxxxiv., were probably sung by the Jews while making their annual journeys to Jerusalem. Many of the verses will be seen to have additional meaning from the knowledge of this fact. The Epistles to the Colossians, the Ephesians, and the Galatians, were all written to illustrate the peculiar doctrines of the;p. Colossians, Ep. Gospel, and to answer the misrepresentations of the JudaiEphesians zing teachers of the church. Many expressions will be exEp. Gaalatians. plained by a reference to the Acts of the Apostles, and especially to the 15th chapter, where we have the history of the whole question which these Epistles discuss. 296. The great means, however, of obtaining a knowledge sco e gath of the scope of the various books of the Bible, or of.eredfrom particular passages, is the repeated and continuous repeated study of study of the books themselves. When once this Scripture. ~ knowledge is gained, it will throw great light on particular expressions, and illustrate other parts of the Bible in a way both instructive and surprising. To understand the precept of our Lord, Matt. xix. 17, "If thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments," we look to Examples. the scope. An inquirer, proud of his own righteousness INTERPRETATION-SCC Pi:. 199 asks what he must do to obtain eternal life, and our Lord refer him to the law, to rebuke and humble him. The subjects of the predictions, Isa. i-xxxix., are generally indicated. The subjects of subsequent chapters are less marked, and the connection can be traced only by repeated perusal. When traced, it throws light upon the meaning. Chapters li.-lv., for example, form one prophecy; li. 1-8 containing an earnest, thrice-repeated appeal to the people to hear-verses 1, 4, 7: li. 9-iii. 12 contains an earnest appleal to God and to Zion-verses 9, 17; lii. 1: lii. 13-liii. 12 is a gloriouc. description of the work of the Messiah, and forms the centre of tle prophecy: liv. describes the results of his work on the destiny of the church; and lv., on the destiny of the world. 297. Sometimes it is difficult to tell whether the immediate scope of the passage, or the general scope of the Scope of book, is to be regarded.pas, sornetilms In Luke xv., for example, there are several parables ad- different. dressed to the Pharisees, who complained that our Lord received sinners: and among those parables is that of the prodigal son. It is certain that the scope of the Gospel of Luke is to exhibit and reconmend the Gospel to the Gentiles:.and the question arises, who is meant by the elder son, and who by the younger? Some say the Pharisee and the sinner; others say the Jew and the Gentile. The first interpretation is sanctioned by the scope of the context; and the second by the general scope of the Gospel. It will be seen that both interpretations are consistent and probable. A due regard to the scope of the parables is of great importance. It has been doubted whether the " rest" (or the keeping of a rest or Sabbath, as it may be translated;) spoken of in Heb. iv. refers to the literal Sabbath, to heaven, or to the peace which the Gospel brings, ending however in eternal life: a question that can be decided only by the argument. Comp. verses 3, 9, 10. In the same Epistle, the description of Melchisedec as without descent has created some difficulty. It will be noticed, however, that the apostle is comparing his priesthood with that of Christ; and it is said, that both are alike in this, that they are equa!ly without succession; and so differ from that of Aaron. The limited, and not the universal meaning of the words, is therefore the only or. required by theargument. In the same way, if we need further light on the apparent contradiction between St. Paul and St James, we look at the scope of theie Epistles. That to the Romans is designed to prove, that by the per 200 INTERPRETATION-SCOPE, Comparison formance of the duties of the law, n: man is justified, of the scope of Epistles because his obedience is imperfect. he object of the preCntil Epistle of James is to prove that no man can be justicontradic- fied by a faith which does not tend to holiness. If these ons. designs be kept in view, it will be found that the apparent contradictions cease. The object of the first Epistle of John is defined in chap. ii. 1, as similar to the object of the Epistle of James. The scope of the Romans, as compared with the scope of the Galatians, explains an apparent contradiction between these Epistles. In the one, the observance of days is allowed, Rom. xiv. 5. In the other, it is forbidden, Gal. iv. 10, 11. The permission is given to Jewish converts who had a tender conscientious scruple about setting aside the precepts of the law in which they had been trained. The prohibition is addressed to Gentile converts, who supposed that the cross could not save them, but through circumcision. Their observance of days was owing to that feeling, and therefore condemned. 298. The most comprehensive rule of interpretation yet Fifth rule remains. Compare Scripture with Scripture; comparison "things spiritual with spiritual," 1 Cor. ii. 13. It with other 1arts sof is by the observance-'of this rule alone that we become sure of the true meaning of particular passages; and, above all, it is by this rule alone that we ascertain the doctrines of Scripture on questions of faith and practice. A Scripture truth is really the consistent explanation of all that Scripture teaches in reference to the question examined; and a Scripture duty is the consistent explanation of all the precepts of Scripture on the duty examined. It is in studying the Scripture as in studying the works of God. We first examine each fact or phenomenon, and ascertain ius meaning; and then classify it with other similar facts, and attempt to explain the whole. Such explanation is called a general law. 299. The importance of studying Scripture in this way is Importance strikingly manifest from the mistakes of the Jews. of this conm " We have heard out of the law" (said they) "that parison. Christ abideth forever," Isa. ix. 7: Dan. vii. 14, "and how sayest thou the Son of man must be lifted up?" INTERPRETATION-PARALLEL PASSAGES. 201 The everlasting duration of his kingdom was often foretold; but that he should be lifted up and cut off, though not for himself, had been foretold too, Isa. liii.: Dan. ix. 26. A comparison of these passages would have removed the ground of their objections. 300. (1). Sometimes we compare the WORDS of Scripture with one another, with the view of ascertaining Paralelism their meaning. of words. David, for example, is called in 1 Sam. xiii. 14, and in Acts xiii. 22, "a man after God's own heart:" and the question has been asked, whether this expression is meant to exhibit David as a model of perfection. On referring to 1 Sam. ii. 35, however, it will be found that the phrase is again used, "I will raise me up a faithful priest, who shall do according to that which is in mine heart:" and this suggests the primary meaning; namely, that David, especially in his public official conduct, should fulfil the Divine will, and maintain inviolate the laws which God had enjoined. Flom the Psalms and history, we gather that David was also an eminently devout man, but it was in reference to his kingly office, primarily, that this description was given; however applicable it may also be to the general spirit of piety which David evinced, and to the unfeigned penitence which he manifested after having been betrayed into sin. In reading Gal. iii. 27, we find the expression " As many as have been baptized into Christ have put on Christ:" and we Put on turn to Rom. xiii. 14; and there find, that to put on Christ. Christ, is opposed to making provision for the flesh; and then again to Col. iii. 10, where the same phrase of "putting on" the new man, implies renewal in knowledge after the image of the Redeemer, (ver. 12,) kindness, humbleness, meekness, and, above, all, charity, the bond of perfectness. In Gal. vi. 1', the apostle says, " From henceforth let no man trouble me," (by such calumnies, as if I were a friend of the ceremonial law); "for I bear in my body the marks of the Lord Jesus." We turn to 2 Cor. iv. 10, where we find a similar phrase "bearing about in the body the dying of the Lord Jesus:" and, turn ing again to 2 Cor. xi. 23-27, we gather that these marks of the Lord Jesus, were simply the scars of his sufferings for Christ; not (as some interpreting the passage literally have supposed,) the marks or stigmata of the cross. 202 INTERPRETATION-PARALLEL PASSAGES. The comparison of the words of Scripture is often essential Importance to the right understanding of Scripture truth, of compar- especially in reference to proper names. son in refer- ence to names. In Psa. cvi., for example, it is said, " They made a calf in HOREB:" i. e., as appears from Exod. xxxii., in the very place where God had taken them into covenant, and immediately after they had pledged themselves to renounce all idolatry. In Numb. xxii. 24, we have an account of the character of BALAAM: and his position as a prophet makes us question at first whether he M as not a good man, though greviously mistaken. On turning to the New Testament, however, we find the question decided. The apostle Peter tells us that covetousness was his snare. The apostle Jude classes him with Cain and Corah: and in Rev. ii. 14, we are told that it was at his suggestion that Balak threw a temptation in the way of the children of Israel, which caused the destruction of 23,000 of them in one day. 301. A close attention to Scripture will show that there are Verbal par- at least three kinds of verbal parallels. First, allelisms of threekinds. where the same thing is said in the same words, as Ex. xx. 2-17: Deut. v. 6-18: Psa. xiv.; liii.: Isa. ii, 2-4: and Micah. iv. 1-3. Here one passage may be used to prove the accuracy of the other, or the occasion or application of the passage may throw light on the passage itself. Isa. vi. 9, 10, is referred to, for example, six times in the New Testament, and a comparison of all the passages will illustrate the text. Secondly, where the same facts are narrated in similar and some identical words, as in Exod., Lev., and Deut.; Sam., Kings, and Chron.; and in the Gospels. In this case, plain expressions illustrate difficult ones. One passage explains or modifies the other, as in Matt. ii. 1, and Luke ii. 1-4. Thirdly, where the words or idioms are used in different connections; "sound doctrine," for example, is an expression used in 1 Tim. i. 10; vi. 3: 2 Tim. i. 13; iv. 3; Tit. i. 9; ii. 1, 2, 8: and from a comparison, it will be seen that the phrase means, the grand simple doctrines of the Gospel, as opposed to subtlety, and as sanctifying in their influence. In reterence to such cases, the signification of words, in a passage INTERPRETATION-PARALLEL PASSAGES. 203 where it is fixed by the connection, should be applied to interpret passages where there is nothing that can fix it. In Rom. vii. 18, the word " flesh" means a natural unholy state, as is ascertained from chap. vi:i. 8, etc. Sometimes the phrases employed, though in themselves alike, are used in altogether different senses, as in the following passages: John i. 21: Matt. xi. 14: John v. 31; viii. 14 Acts ix. 7; xxii. 9: Luke i. 33: 1 Cor. xv. 24. Apparently different expressions are thus harmonized. God's offer, for example, of seven years' famine, 2 Sam. xxiv. 13, includes the three preceding years during which that calamity had continued, 2 Sam. xxi. 1. In 1 Chron. xxi. 11, 12, there is no reference to the preceding famine, and the offer is therefore of three years only. So 2 Sam. xxiv. 24: 1 Chron. xxi. 25. 302. In considering verbal parallelisms, two general rules are important. Ascertain, FIRST, the sense which Cautionsin the words to be examined bear in other parts of uingpvethe same author, and then in other writings of the ismssame date, and then throughout the Bible. The meaning of words often changes; and all writers do not use the same word in the same sense. And, SECONDLY, no meaning can be admitted from an apparently parallel passage, if that meaning is inconsistent with the context, or with the reasoning of the author. In the Epistles to the Romans and the Galatians, for example, "works," when used alone, means the opposite of faith, namely, the performance of legal duties as the ground of salvation. In James, the expression always means the obedience and holiness which flow from faith. In the one case, works are inconsistent with salvation; in the other, they are essential to it. But it is impossible to explain the one by the other. So, in John i. 1, the term " word" cannot be explained by 2 Tim. iv. 2, where the same term is employed, but in a different sense. The "word" means the Gospel in Timothy, but that meaning cannot be applied to 204 INTERPRETATION-PARALLEL PASSAGES. the passages in John, so as to give any consistent sense to the context. 303. (2). Sometimes we compare the facts or doctrines of Pranllelism Scripture in order to gain a complete view of of ideas. Scripture truth. This is the parallelism of IDEAS, and not of words only. If, for example, we wish to know whether, in the Lord's supper, the cup is to be received by all the faithful, or only by tne priest, we turn to Matt. xxvi. 27, and we find the command, "Drink ye all of it." And if it be asked whether "all" means the apostles only, or all in its most comprehensive sense, we turn to 1 Cor. xi. 28, where the same topic is treated of. There we find that in each case (six in all) the eating of the bread and the drinking of the cup are mentioned together, and enjoined on all Christians indifferently. The charge given to all is, "Let a man examine himself; and so let him eat of that bread, and drink of that cup." If we are investigating the meaning of Matt. xvi. 18, "Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church," and desire to know its meaning, we turn to 1 Cor. iii. 11, and find that the only foundation of the church is Christ. In the sense, therefore, of being the foundation on which the salvation of the church is to rest, the passage in one sense of it is at variance with other parts of Scripture. We turn, again, to Acts ii. 41, and to Acts x., xv. 7, and we find that Peter's preaching was the means of the first conversions, both among Jews and Gentiles. His labors, therefore, commenced the building, and in this sense he might be the foundation of the church. Or the statement may refer to Peter's confession, as Augustine and Luther held, and then the parallel passages are Gal. i. 16: John vi. 51: 1 John iii. 23; iv. 2, 3. The most important rule in reference to this order of parallelism is, that a passage in which an idea is exs(lre must pressed briefly or obscurely is explained by those ed lvwhat in which it is fully or clearly revealed; and that is plain difficult and figurative expressions are explained by such as are proper and obvious. The doctrine of justification by faith, for example, is explained briefly in Phil. iii. 9, and fully in the Epistles to the Romans and the alatians. "A new creature" is a figurative expression, used in Gal. vi. 15, and is explained in chap. v. 6, and in 1 Cor. vii. 19. INTERPRETATION-ANALOGY OF FAITH. 205 The charity spoken of in 1 Pet. iv. 8, is "brotherly love," and it is said to cover "a multitude of sins;" not because it extinguishes them and so justifies the sinner, but (as shown in Prov. x. 12) because it quenches contention and strife. 304. When any passage is explained by a reference, not to any one or more texts, but by a refe ence to the Parallelism general tenor of Scripture, it is then said to be f thef interpreted according to the ANALOGY, OR RULE OF faith. FAITH. We have examples of this kind of reference in Gal. v. 14, and again in 1 Cor. xv. 3-11, where the apostle states the facts and doctrines connected with the death and resurrection of Christ, and then proceeds to prove other facts and doctrines from them. This analogy of faith is called in the Bible, " the Scriptures," 1 Cor. xv. 3, 4; "all the law," as in Gal. v. 14; eningof and "the mouth of all the prophets," Acts iii. 18. this term. " The analogy of faith" is the expression used by the apostle Paul, in Rorn. xii. 6, where he exhorts those who expound the Scriptures (or prophesy) to do it according to the proportion or analogy, the measure or rule of faith. The expression, therefore, is identical with "the whole tenor of Scripture;" and the doctrine which is founded upon it is taken from all the texts relating to one subject, when impartially compared; the expressions of each being restricted by those of the rest, and the whole explained in mutual consistency. (1). God is set forth in Scripture, for example, as a Spirit, omniscient, and holy, and supreme. All passages, E Examples. therefore, which seem to represent Him as material, local, limited in knowledge, in power, or in righteousness, are to be interpreted agreeably to these revealed truths. (2). If, again, any expositor were to explain the passages of Scripture which speak of justification by faith as if it freed us from obligations to holiness, such an interpretation must 18 206 INTERPRETATION-PARALLEL PASSAGES. be rejected, because it counteracts the main Resign and spirit of the Gospel. (3). In Prov. xvi. 4, it is said, "The Lord has made all things for himself: yea, even the wicked for the day of evil." The idea that the wicked were created that they might be condemned, which some have founded upon this passage, is inconsistent with innumerable parts of Scripture (Psa. cxlv. 9: Ezek. xviii. 23: 2 Pet. iii. 9). The meaning therefore is, as determined by the analogy of faith, that all evil shall contribute to the glory of God, and promote the accomplishment of his adorable designs. 305. It is thus that philosophy interprets natural appearl ances. When once a general law is established, General laws applied particular facts are placed under it, and any apin this way in natural pearance that seems contradictory is specially exphilos. amined; and of two explanations of the apparent anomaly, that one is selected which harmonizes best with the general law. 306. The use of the parallel.passages of Scripture in deterParallel- mining whether language is figurative or literal is isms applied to of great moment. God, for example, often repre-'gures., Examples. sents himself as giving men to drink of a cup which he holds in his hand: they take it, and fall prostrate on the ground in fearful intoxication. The figure is used with much brevity, and without explanation, in some of the prophets." In Isa. ]i. 17-23, it is fully explained, and the meaning of the image becomes clear. The intoxication is desolation and helplessness, more than can be borne; and the cup is the fury (or righteous indignation) of Jehovah. In reading Acts ii. 21, we find it said, that "whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord shall be saved;" and the question may be asked, What is meant by calling upon the name of the Lord? Matthew tells us, that "not every one that saith Lord! Lord! shall enter into the kingdom of ~H'ahunm ii. I' Hab. ii. 16: Psa. lxxv. 8, etc. INTERPRETATION —PARALLEL PASSAGES. 207 heaven:" so that the passage is not to be understood in its literal and restricted sense. On referring to Rom. x. 11-14, and ] Cor. i. 2, we find that this language, which is quoted from the prophet Joel, implied an adtnission of the Messiahship of Christ, and reliance on the doctrines which he revealed. 307. It is obvious that, while the figurative meaning of a word has generally some reference to its literal meaning, it must not be supposed to include in the Fiirobnot figurative use all that is included in' the literal; pardtoo similitude in some one respect, or more, being sufficient to justify the metaphor. Christ calls his disciples his sheep, and the points of comparison are, clearly, his affection for them, his care over them, and their confidence and attachment to him. Common sense discovers and limits the application of the terms. Christ himself is called, with smaller limits, the Lamb, with specia. relation to his character and sacrifice. So sin is called in Scripture a debt; atonement, the payment of a debt; pardon, the forgiveness of a debt. But we must not hold these terms so rigidly as to maintain that, because Christ died for man's sin, therefore all will be finally saved; or that, because he has obeyed the law, therefore sinners are free to live in sin. Men are dead in sin, but not so dead as to be free from the duty of repentance; nor are they guiltless if they disregard the Divine call. These principles are sufficiently obvious when applied to passages which contain figures founded upon material objects. They are even more important, though less easy, when applied to passages which contain figures taken from human nature or common life. More errors, probably, have arisen from pushing analogical expressions to an extreme than from any other single cause; and against this tendency the sober, earnest student of the Bible needs to be specially apon his guard..0,. To ascertain, therefore, the meaning of any passage of 208 INTERPRETATION-SUMMARY. Summary Scripture, whether the words be employed fguof these rules. ratively or literally, we mast ask the following questions: What is the meaning of the terms? If they have but one meaning, that is the sense. If they have several, we then ask, Which of those meanings is required by other parts of the sentence? If two or more meanings remain, then, What is the meaning required by the context, so as to make a consistent sense of the whole? If, still, more-than one meaning remains, What then is required by the general scope? And, if this question fail to elicit but one reply, What then is required by other passages of Scripture? If, in answer to all these questions, it is found that more than one meaning may still be given to the passage, then both interpretations are true; and we must fix on the one which best fulfils most of the conditions, or must look elsewhere for some further guide. 309. It is important to observe that, whether the language These rules we examine be figurative or literal, and whether it required in be used in history or in prophecy-in allegory or interpreting the words of in plain discourse-these rules are equally applicaall parts of ap Scripture. ble. There is not one rule for tropes, and another for words in their proper sense; nor is there one rule for interpreting the words of the parables of Scripture, and another for interpreting the words of its historical statements. It is true that in history or narrative we expect to find words used in their literal sense; while in poetry and allegory the figurative may be expected to predominate. We apply, however, the same rules, needing some, indeed, more in one case than in the other; but still taking the sense which the words express, as that senss is defined and limited (if it be so) by the whole of the sentence, by the context, by the scope of the writer, and by other parts of the Bible. Nor is it less important to observe that these rules are Andofoom- required not only in interpreting Scripture, but in monlife. interpreting all language that is used in the intercourse of life. APPLICATION OF RULES. 209 SEC. 4.- OF THE UTILITY AND APPLICATION OF RULES IN INTERPRETATION. It must have occurred to the reader that, underneath the rules of interpretation which we have given, there are some general principles common to all language, which regulate the application of them. Those principles it is important to state, as they both justify the rules we have given and aid us in applying them. 310. To perceive the meaning of most parts of the Bible which teach the fundamental truths of the Gospel, Scripture it is only necessary to know the subject and the generally language employed. If the Bible be in our own tongue, and we understand what the topic is of which it treats, the meaning will generally be plain. No instance can be given in Scripture of an obscure passage concerning which a man may rationally suppose that there is any doctrinal truth contained in it, which is not elsewhere explained. The great advantage of rules of interpretation is not to discover the meaning of plain passages of Scripture, rul Use of rules. but to ascertain the meaning of such as are ambiguous or obscure. Yet, as on many points of importance we need to compare Scripture, in order to ascertain and prove its meaning, and as such comparison is itself part of our discipline, promotes our holiness, and is adapted to unfold the treasures of Divine truth, it is of great moment that the humblest Christian should understand these rules and apply them. Revelation is to be the study of our lives, and it is plainly the will of God that all the resources of learning, industry, and prayer, should be employed in the search. So dependent is man for his knowledge of the Divine will upon the motive and temper of his inquiries, and A devou' the teaching of the Spirit of God, that a prayerful Spi'it. and humble Christian, with few advantages, will often gain a 1^~ 210 APPLICATION OF RULES. more accurate and extensive acquaintance with Scripture thar one of higher mental attainments, but of feeble piety. The exercise of a teachable and prayerful spirit, therefore, is among the most important principles of Biblical interpretation. The true meaning of any passage of Scripture is not every True mean- sense which the words will bear, nor is it every lug of sense which is true in itself, but that which is inwords. tended by the inspired writers, or in some cases by the Holy Spirit, though imperfectly understood by the writers themselves. The sense of Scripture is to be determined by the words: a true knowledge of the words is the knowledge of Is the sense. the sense. The meaning of words is fixed by the usage of language. Fixed by Usage must be ascertained, whenever possible, from usage. Scripture itself. The words of Scripture must be taken in their common Common meaning, unless such meaning is shown to be inomeanng consistent with other words in the sentence, with preferred the argument or context, or with other parts of Scripture. Of two meanings, that one is generally to be preferred which was most obvious to the comprehension of the hearers or original readers of the inspired passage, allowing for those figurative expressions which were so familiar as to be no exception to this general rule. The meaning attached to the words of Scripture must alMeaning ways agree with the context. When the common muwittaee meaning is inconsistent with the context it must be text. abandoned, and such other meaning adopted -as fulfils the requirements and conditions of the passage, and can be proved to be sanctioned by usage, either in common writers, or in the Bible. Scope use- The scope of a passage, or the reasoning of the wen it writer, can be employed to determine which of two xe senses is to be ado d o, the scope or reason meaning. senses is to b e adopted on, as the sc& e or reason. STUt f OF ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES. 211 ing is clear; nor will the scope fix the meaning, unless a particular meaning is required by the scope. The parallel passage that fixes the meaning of words must either contain the same words used in a somewhat Parallel similar sense, or it must evidently speak of the same passages thing, or of something so similar as to afford occasion for comparison. No doctrine founded upon a single text belongs to the analogy of faith. The analogy of faith is chiefly of use Analogy of in teaching us to reject an interpretation which is quires evenot Scriptural. If both the supposed meanings of raltexts. apassage are consistent with this analogy, the rule cannot be applied, so as to decide the meaning. In contro- Is useful in versial reasoning, this rule is only applicable on the, Cinter supposition, that the doctrine to be applied for the pretation. purpose of interpretation is admitted to be Scriptural. If it is not admitted, we cannot apply it in the interpretation of a disputed text. 311. Theology is the whole meaning of Scripture, or it is the sense taught in the whole of Scripture, as that The sense sense is modified, limited, and explained by Scrip- of Scripture and theoture itself. Scriptural theology is not one thing, logy one and the meaning of Scripture another. It is a consistently interpreted representation of the statements of the Bible, on the various facts, doctrines, and precepts, which the book of God reveals.'SEC. 5.-APPLICATION OF THESE RULES TO THE STUDY OF THE ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES. "As I shall not exact the study of the original Scriptures from those whose want of parts or leisure dispenseth them from it; so I cannot but discommend those who, wanting neither abilities tor time to range through I know not how many other studies, can yet decline this: and who, sparing no toil nor watches to put it out of the power of the most celebrated philosophers to deceive them in another doctrine, leave thesnelves obnoxious to thie ignorance, fraud and partiality of an in-' See Prefas. 212 ST'UDY OF ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES. terpreter, in that of salvation; and thereby seem more shy of taking any opinions upon trust than those in whose truth or falseness, no less than God's glory, and peradventure their own eternal condition, is concerned. Methinks those who learn other languages should not grudge those that God hath honored with speaking to us, and employed to bless us with that heavenly doctrine that comes from him, and leads to him."-BOYLE. "The habit of reading the Scriptures in the original throws a new light and sense over numberless passages."-CECIL, Remains, p. 199. 312. The rules of interpretation which have been applied Previous in the previous section to the English version, are Previous zn ]tiles appl- equally applicable to the study of the original cable to study of Scriptures. The importance of such study is obvioriginal Scriptures. ous, from the fact that all versions are more or less accurate as guides t t the meaning of the inspired writings. On referring to Sec. 6, Chap. I., it will be seen that. the meaning of particular words, the connection of arguments, and the significance of parallel passages, are all liable to be obscured in even the best translations. 313. In studying and explaining a living language, we determine the usage by a reference to our expressions in But others needed, common life; but in the case of the languages of because original lan- the original Scriptures, we are dependent for a Scripture knowledge of their meaning almost entirely upon not soken. books: grammars, lexicons, and versions are our authority, and for most purposes their authority is sufficient. 314. But in saying that our knowledge of the meaning of Wedepend dead languages rests upon authority, an expression for meaning is employed which it is important to explain; we on authorities. speak of the authority of law, and of the authority of a witness, or of a manuscript, but the word is used in these two cases in very different senses. By the authority of law, Authority is meant its rightful power; by the authority of a testimony. witness is meant his testimony, which we deem to be more or less credible in relation to the question in hand. Now it is in the second sense only that we speak of the authority of lexicons. A good lexicon has great weight attached to it, because it professes to give both carefully examined ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES-GRAMMARS. 213 meanings of the words it contains, and also a summary of the evidence upon which those meanings rest. If we doubt its explanations, we either examine other lexicons, from the dayd of Hesychius (A. D. 400) downwards, if the word be Greek, or examine the passages where the word is found, and then weigh for ourselves the evidence they supply. Whenever, therefore, we have to interpret a Divine precept addressed to us in a dead tongue, we ascertain the meaning of the precept through the medium of human authority, i. e., testimony; we obey the precept because it has the authority of God. This difference of the two meanings of the word is important. If, then, there be reason to question the meaning given to a word or phrase, in any lexicon or grammar, we proceed to investigate that meaning for ourselves, and various plans may be adopted. 315. 1. We may consult other authorities, grammars or lexicons. We may turn (if the phrase be Hebrew) Hebrew to the grammar and lexicon of the earlier Hebrew Lexions writers, Juda Chajug (1040), and Jona ben Gannach Grammar. (1121), preserved in manuscript, in the Bodleian library; to the grammar of Moses Kimchi (12th century), or to the grammars and lexicons of his brother, D. Kimchi, or of Elias Levita, all of which have been published. We may examine the grammar and lexicon of Gesenius, the founder of the modern empirical school of Hebrew, or the grammar of Ewald, the founder of the scientific school, or the concordance of Fiirst, and the Hebrew works of his pupil, Delitzsch,the founder of the historical school; the first, making great use of examples, and a moderate use of the Arabic and cognate tongues, the second, investigating too exclusively the philosophy of the language; and the third, the founder of historical investigation, and applying Sanscrit to the interpretation of Hebrew, For a knowledge of cognate dialects, we may turn to the Pentaglot of Schindler (Ham. 1612), the Heptaglot of Castel (Lon. 1669), to Hottinger's grammar of Ieb., Chald., Syr., 214 ORIGINAL SCRI PTURES-VERSIONS. and Arab., (1649), or to the Hebrew grammars (Institutiones, 1737, Origines Hebrsea3, 1723), of Schultens. 316. In the case of the Greek language we may use either Greek a general Greek grammar, that for example, of eions Buttman, or of Matthise, or of Jelf, and a general Grammars. lexicon, Stephens' Thesaurus, for example, or the hand-lexicon of Liddell and Scott, or we may use a Hellenistic or New Testament grammar and lexicon. Winer's grammar is rich in the illustration of New Testament idiom; and Schleusner's lexicon is invaluable from the light it throws on the New Testament, from the version of the LXX. The lexicons of Bretschneider, and of Robinson, are also well known and highly useful.23 317. 2. We may examine the versions of the Bible. They Versions. give the translator's views of the meaning of the Versions. words of Scripture, The first, in value for purposes of interpretation, are the Origen and fragments of Origen and Jerome, both of whom Jerome. took great pains to ascertain the exact meaning of the original Scriptures. Next to these are the Greek versions. The LXX, however, X. alone remains in a perfect state: it is of great value, but often fails to be of service in difficult passages, from the freeness of the translation," the carelessness or ignorance of the translators,b and the want of fixed rules of translation. Next in value are the Targums (~ 17, Note VIII.): and inferior to these, the comments of the Talmud and Targums. the Notes of the Masoretes. (~ 119, Part II). Isa. i. 21; iv. 4; xlii. 1: Exod. vi. 12, 30 Deut. xxxii. 8; xxxiii. 2: Numb. xii. 8;- Exod. xviii. 7. b Esth. vii. 4: Lev. xix. 26: Psa. lxxviii. 69: Exod. xiv. 2. Compare Numb. xxxiii. 7: Isa. xxiii. 1, 10, 14: Ezek. xxvii. 12; xxxviii. 13: compared with Isa. ii. 16; lx 9: (See fu;'ier illustrations in Carpzov's Critica Sacra, New Testament p. 513.) ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES-VERSIONS. 215 Ainsworthl;n the Pentateuch, and Gill's Commentary, throughout, generally give the interpretations of the Targums, etc., whenever they are impoortant. Last of all among the ancient versions are the Peshito and the Vulgate. The former is, on the whole, Pehito well translated, but not unfrequently disfigured by and additions and omissions. The latter is lessened in v value, from the fact (which Jerome acknowledges) that it was translated hastily, that he retained many of the old renderings, though deeming them inaccurate, from a desire not to offend the popular ear (Preface to Pent., and Commentary on Eccl.), from the very free use which has been made of the LXX, and also from the general inaccuracy of the modern Vulgate text. The portions of the Vulgate translated by Jerome are better helps to interpretation as well as for the settlement of the Hebrew text, than the other books which belonged to the Old Italic versions. Of modern versions the merits are very various. Latin versions made by?romanists are generally ex- Modern tremely literal, and often obscure: such are the sions. versions of Pagninus (1528), Arias Montanus Ro'nns (1584), Cajetan (1639), and Malvenda 1650). Some (as the version of Clarius) are founded on the Vulgate, which they merely correct. Houbigant (1753) gives an elegant version of his amended Hebrew text. The New Testament has been translated by Erasmus and Sebastiani. Among Protestants, Munster (1534) gives an intellig;ble version from the Hebrew preferable to the versions of Pagninus and Montanus. He follows, however, the same text, and does not widely differ in principles of translation from those authors. Leo Juda (1543-4) began another version of the Hebrewand LXX, which was published by Bibliander, the New Testament being added by others. This version ib both free and faithful. 2a6 ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES-VERSIONS. Castaljo (1573) gives a version from the original, in which he studied to give the sense in elegant classical Latin. It is wanting, however, in simplicity and force. The version of Junius and Tremellius (1590) is deemed by M. Poole among the best. They expressed the article by the demonstrative pronoun. The version of the Osianders, like that of Clarius, is founded upon the Vulgate. The version of Schmidt (1696) is extremely literal, and that of Dathe (177399) remarkable for fidelity and elegance. The New lTestament of Beza is highly esteemed. Among modern versions into vernacular tongues, that of vernacular Luther is one of the best (1517-30). It is the Luther's, basis of the Swedish (1541), the Danish (1550), the etc. Icelandic (1584), an early Dutch version (1560) and the Finnish, with its cognate dialects (1642, etc.). A GermanSwiss translation was also made by Leo Juda (1525-29), and, in 1667, a new or revised version for the same church was published at Zurich. Luther's version was also revised and published by the Zuinglians in. 1679. The Scriptures were translated into French by R. P. Olivetan (1535), with a considerable number of references from the LXX placed in the margin. This version was corrected, chiefly as to the language, by Calvin (1540); again, by Bertram, Beza, and others (Geneva, 1588); and has since, from time to time, undergone other alterations of the same sort; the revision of Ostervald is best known. A French version by Beausobre and L'Enfant (1718) was published at Amsterdam, and is highly esteemed for its accuracy. By order of the Synod of Dort, a version was made into the D Dutch language, in place of a version made from Luther's, which had been used till then. This version was printed in 1637, and is highly valued for its fidelity. There are two versions of the Old Testament into Spanish; Spanish. the one made by a Romanist (Reyna), Basle,.1569, ORIGINAL SCRITTUEES-ETYMOLOGY. 217 and the other by a Protestant (Valera), Amsterdam, 1602. They are founded chiefly on the Latin version of Pagninus, and the second partly on the Genevan-French Bibles. There are also three Spanish versions made from the Vulgate (1478, 1793-4, 1824). The best Italian version is that of Diodati (afterwards translatedjinto French), 1607. It follows both the LXX and the Hebrew, and is free, accurate, and clear. In opposition to the vernacular versions of Protestants, Popish versions have been made into nearly all the preceding languages, generally from the Vulgate. 318. All these versions, however, and especially the earliest of them, are inferior to a good modern lexicon. Their value Most of them were made under peculiar influences forinterpretation. and amidst many difficulties. A modern lexicographer has larger helps, a more certain text, and the very apparatus which these versions themselves supply. So that, not to excel with all these advantages on his side would prove him to be incompetent or careless. 319. 3. In further investigating the meaning, we may seek for help from the words THEMSELVES, their I'elp'from etymology, the analogy of speech, and the meaning the words ~~ */~ * ~,~ ~ * ~,~ -~ \~ themselves. of similar words in cognate dialects. 320. (1.) Etymology traces the progress of the meaning of words, the changes of form which they undergo, and points out the significance of their several Etymology. parts. It often gives the true meaning, explains the allusions of the context, and accounts for the rendering of ancient versions. In Genesis, the "firmament" should be translated "expanse," contrary to the Septuagint, Vulgate, and English; the root meaning to beat or spread out. The Hebrew phrase for "making a covenant," refers to the stroke that smote the victim, whose death confirmed it. i aq, a priest, is so called, from #ie kst that he attends to sacred 19 218 ORIGINAL SCRIPTRES —-ETYMOLOGY. things, or because he sacrifices to God, pa& prew, in the sense of &v.s So facere, for sacrificare, Virgil Ec., iii., 77, and ~ir' asa, for "offer,' Lev. ix. 6, 16: Numb. xxviii. 24. The original word for "minister," in I-Ieb. viii. 2, means, in classic Greek, one who performs a public work at his own cost; or, regarding the whole phrase as a Latinism (Antistes Sacrorum), it indicates that our Lord presides over the worship of the church, and presents it acceptably through his intercession. The Hebrew word for "to make atonement" ( i3 kipper) means, properly, to "cover over" sin, or expiate; and, secondarily, to propitiate, i. e, to remove the displeasure of another in relation to it. The corresponding word in the LXX and New Testament (i4hxan) means, first, to propitiate, and secondarily, to atone for. Both ideas are involved in each word, and are sometimes fully expressed The Greek word for "to sacrifice" (gUsv) means, in Homer, to burn wine or food in the fire as an offering, and in later writers, to sacrifice, properly so called. From this double meaning we have two sets of Greek words, the one referring to the slaying of victims, &u6, &uo-%, and the other to the sweet odors, or incense, which were offered to God (-uctact, thus), and sometimes both ideas are combined, Lev. iv 31: Eph. v. 2. Hence, also,,ue- is used to translate two different Hebrew words, meaning, respectively, to sacrifice and to burn sweet incense, 1 Sam. iii. 14: 2 Chron. xxv. 14; xxviii. 3: Jer. i. 16; xliv. 5. Nearly all the names in HIebrew are significant, and a knowledge of their meaning throws light upon the context. The prophecies of Jacob concerning his sons refer in a great degree to their names, Gen. xlix. compared with chaps. xxix, xxx. See also Ruth i. 20: Gen. iv 16. So the meaning of Prov xxv. 21,-22, and Rom. xii. 20, "heap coals of fire," is explained by the fact, that nr, chatha, means, etymologically, to apply fire, and thence to soften. The rendering of the LXX and Vulgate in Psa. vii. 14, etc., is owing to their translating etymologically, and so elsewhere, iyo'osit is an etymological translation of the Hebrew word.'.n.r, heezin, Lev. xiv. 52, as rpIyEs, t7, 5j, shillesh, Dent. xix. 3. " To stir up," in 2 Tim. i. 6, means, in the Greek, to blow.fire into a flame, uvY p7,v. In the use of the English version, of course, etymology is allowable as a guide to the sense only when the etymology of the English corresponds with the etymology of the original: Gospel, for example, = -vayyfAso, crucify =-v- fow; prey ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES-ANALOGY. 219 determine = wpoopi',; mediator, /^EOTr; = intercessor, one who acts for another especially to produce harmony between parties. It is an important principle, that etymology doer not of itself fix the meaning, except where usage is either doubtful or silent; and it is always, from the changes of meaning which words undergo, an uncertain guide. l21. (2.) ANALOGY fixes the meaning of one form of a worC from the known meaning of the similar form of anAnalogy other word, or of one word from the meaning of some opposite er corresponding one. If, in reading Hebrew, for example, we meet with a noun ending in (w), we may conclude, from the general meaning of that ending, that it is probably an ordinal number or a patronymic: if we meet with a verbal noun beginning with (7), it indicates probably an act, or the place where some act is performed; such being, for the most part, the meaning of this preformative. Commonly, the Hiphil forms of verbs are causative of the Kal, as.=X, yatsa, "to go out," and in Hiphil, "to bring out;" A'l, abl ad, "to perish," and in Hilphil, "to destroy." If, therefore, we meet with a verb in Hilphil, we may look for a causative meaning. The exceptions to this rule are only apparent. The Hiphil forms of the Old Testament the LXX found it difficult to translate without a paraphrase, and hence that version sometimes uses a neuter verb in an active sense, Gen. ii. 9; iv. 11; xix. 24: Numb. vi. 25; xxxiv. 17; and the New Testament, as may be supposed, often employs the same form for the same purpose. Matt. v. 45, literally, "he rises,"'"he rains;" i, e., "he causes to rise," and "causes to rain." 1 Cor. iii. 6, "increased;" i.e., "gave the increase." Luke xi. 53, not "they began to speak off hand," or "to silence," but rather, "they caused Christ to speak off hand;" i. e., "they provoked him to speak." 2 Cor. ii. 14, literally, " to triumph," or " to lead captive," as in Col. ii. 15; rather, as in the English, " to cause to triumph." That "folly" means sin in Gen. xxxiv. 7: Deut. xxi. 21: Josh. vii. 15: 2 Sam. xiii. 12, may be gathered from the fact that "wisdom" means, in various parts of Scripture, "uprightness" or "piety." Matt. vi. 2, 5, 16, ar-,covrtVU rov tiuo- has been translated,'they hinder, or fail of their reward" (Gerard), and a&rXcu is used in the sense of abstaining flrm; roX,g, aowever, the noun, means a receipt in full, 220 ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES-COGNATE LANGUAGES. and hence the phrase may be taken to mean, " they have their reward:' that is, "all they will ever get." In Matt. vi. 11, iroviowy has been variously rendered; it does not occur in the LXX, and is a very rare word. It has been translated "necessary for our subsistence" (Vulgate), "suitable for our subsistence" (Macknight), "sufficient for the morrow, or for future life" (Grotius): the meaning, however, is fixed by. an analogous expression: Wtplouioov means more than enough, and as mi often indicates equality or adaptedness, imso-ov means "just enough," a translation which agrees with the context. 322. (3.) We may compare the words in Scripture with Usage in the same words in cognate languages. The value cognate of cognate languages, though sometimes underrated, has been exaggerated. By modern lexicographers they are applied within proper limits, and are of use chiefly when ancient versions differ, and where we have not, in Hebrew, materials sufficient for defining the meaning of terms. (a). They give the roots of words; the derivatives of which alone are found in Scripture, and thus aid to a consistent meaning.'Ui, Ethan, for example, is a somewhat rare word, translated "mighty stream" (i. e., ever-flowing), Amos v. 24: "mighty waters" (ever-flowing), Psa. lxxiv. 15: "strength" (constant flowing), Exod. xiv. 27: "strong" (durable), Micah vi. 2: "mighty" (prosperous), Job xii. 19: so Numb. xxiv. 21: Jer. xlix. 19. The Arabic root means "to continue running;" then, "to cotinue" generally, i.e., "to endure;" then, "to be inexhaustibly rich:" hence the apparently contradictory meanings of the texts in which the derivative is found. (b) They fix meanings which might otherwise have been only conjectural. _b, balag, for example, occurs four times in Hiphil: Job. ix. 27, "comfort myself:" x. 20,'take rest:" Psa. xxxix. 13, "recover strength:" Amos v. 9, "that strengtheneth," the versions are altogether uncertain. The Arabic root means "to shine like the dawn;" "to be, or to render, clear and serene;" and that sense meets the requirements of all the passages. In the same way, many of the plants and minerals mentioned in Scripture are identified. (c). They discover the primary meaning of roots whose secondary ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES-CLASSICAL USAGE. 221 senses only are found in Scripture, though the primary throws light on some texts.'^, gadhal, for example, means "to be great," but, in Arabic, "to twist," and so, "to make great or strong;" hence a noun formed from it means "fringes," Dent. xxii. 12; " twisted thread," or " chain work," 1 Kings vii. 17. Another noun, similarly formed, means "brawniness," Exod. xv. 16; and the verb is used in its primitive sense in Job vii. 17, "to struggle," or "wrestle;" English, "magnify." So p], Tsadak, means "to be just;" in Arabic, to be "stiff," "inerorable," "unbending:" hence, in Isa. xlix. 24, "the lawful captive" ought to be "the captive of the inexorable ones;" see ver. 25. (d) They explain idiomatic phrases, the true sense of which cannot otherwise be determined. See on all this paragraph Gerard's "Institutes." These last examples are taken chiefly from Schultens. A large number may be found also in the Lexicon of " Gesenius." In applying these principles to the New Testament, there are modifications of them which are rendered necessary by the nature of the Greek tongue, the large critical apparatus we already possess in classic authors, and the connection through the LXX between the New Testament and the language of the Old. 323. 4. In the case of the New Testament, we may seek the meaning of its words and phrases in classic J~~~~~~~~~~~~authors.I Classic authors. usage. arlnt'-r, which commonly means "faith," is used in the sense of proof, Acts xvii. 31; so Aristotle, Polyb. iTry),Yhocut means, by itself, "to announce," and so "to promise:" followed by certain nouns, it means to " profess" (1 Tim. ii. 10). The word is regularly used for professing an art or science, Diog. Laert., Proem. 5, 12: Xen. Mem. i. 2, 7. sraLpd, in composition, often means in the Greek Testament "by the way," Rom. v. 20; or "secretly," Gal. ii. 14. Jude 4; a usage found in classic authors, Polyb., Herodian, Plut. TrO ixtahQdxv uMpo0, Luke xv. 12, is a legal phrase, indicating the.share which fell to a man as heir; the use of the word here shows how completely the prodigal son was estranged from all filial feelings. irz/ wv xxue, Mark xiv. 72 "when he thought thereon," rather, ^n~ 222 ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES —JOSEPHUS. "having rushed out;" and so it agrees with Matthew and Luke.24'^ev r i ao-6wVie, John v. 5, is classic Greek-for "to be ill;" so'hat, when these words are translated "there was a sick man thirty-eight years old" (Paulus), the rendering is contrary to Greek usage. The apparently incomplete sentences in Luke xiii. 9: xix. 42: xxii. 42 (Gr.), are all good Greek; the custom being, frequently, to omit the apodosis (or conclusion) of a sentence after si or iav, when the meaning is clear, Raphel. Bos, Elsner, KYPKE, Grotius, Wolf, WETSTEIN, RAPHEL, have largely illustrated the phraseology of the New Testament from classic sources; Kypke and Raphel from particular authars, and the rest from classic authorities generally. 324. 5. Or we may turn to the works of Josephus and Usagin Philo, which in this respect are not unimportait. Josephus and Philo. pu.mT-pi/,0 means, etymologically, to hang up in the air; but it is used both by Philo and Josephus for "to be of doubtful mind," as in the New Testament. r;nwdtlv, literally, to "hit under the eyes" (Luke xviii. 5: 1 Cor. ix. 27), means, generally, "to harass," "to afflict.". is;f/pia, Luke i. 5, translated " course," means the daily service of the temple, which was discharged by bands of priests in rotation (Jos.). xpio-t (judgment), Matt. v. 21, was the name given to the court of seven magistrates, who had the power of punishing small offences (Jos.). cKi-'vmIt (the renewal), John x. 22, is the term used by Philo as appropriate to express the feast of the Dedication held on the 25 Kisleu; as vYesra is the fast connected with the day of Atonement, 10 Tisri. Acts xxvii. 9. All these phrases, and many others, are peculiar to Jewish writers. For ample illustration, see Ott. (Excerpta ex F. Josepho), Krebsii (Obs. ex F. Josepho), and Loesneri (Ob. ex Philone). 325. 6. Especially useful shall we find a reference to Semitic languages, including the Hebrew, from Use of Hebrewin ex- which, indeed, many New Testament phrases are plaining ew Testa- taken. ment phrases. Hebraisms may be seen in Heb. i. 2, ldw-y==t5-, olam;,epiv often =- f5, shalom, "all blessing," Mark v. 34: Luke vii. 50; "peace to you being the Hebrew form of " salutation," as wpyv is te ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES-GLOSSES. 223 Greek, Jas. i. 1: sometimes apa'vy is used in the Greek sense for peace, Luke xiv. 32, and sometimes in the Christian sense, eom. ii. 10 Luke6 xix. 42: oxsicox -8i (f-fO), "to acknowledge the qualities CG anol'ther;' so as " to praise," Matt. xi. 25: 7ropsui-cu6, to indicate a "mode of life:' ei, after verbs of swearing, = not, Mark viii. 12: Heb. iv. 3, 5: *Ava7')X. means " straits, calamity," Luke xxi. 23: 1 Cor. vii. 26; ic royv oiitvsC, rcuvs ceiwav =_ " for ever." " to taste death," Matt. xvl, 28: heaven, for God, Dan. iv. 23: see 22: Matt. xxi. 25: Luke xv. 21: *4oi'hn/AstiXpivy means in classic Greek, "to confound, or mix;" in the LXX;t is "to interpret, or explain," Gen. xl. 8, and hence, I Cor. ii. 3,' expounding spiritual things by spiritual, or to spiritual.";r rio aiTr =. tm, ya3:hdav, "togeher," Matt. xxii. 34: Acts i. 15 3 8am. ii. 13; xi,. 10. ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES-TlE IXX. 225 iw pcet or = "no flesh shall," _= -5, kol lo, Exod. xii, 15, 43: sometimes the LXX use the classic phrase, oc oW0?/c, Exod. x, 15. The LXX translate ni;1n, in the sense of "sin offering," Tro'ri; &aCp1;its, Lev. xviii. 25: ro rp' &atgrl~tc, Lev. v. 8:: TO rrbp a/epr/s, Lev. viii. 2: hia-ocos, Ezek. xliv. 27, and hence the use of these phrases in the New Testament. On the other hand, it may be noticed, that i^nRX-, chatath, means both " an act of sin" and " a sinful disposition," as does adp&r~i. The New Testament has no distinct phrase corresponding to the Latin "vitium," which is the act, and "vitiositas," which is the disposition. Compare "a sin" and " depravity."'0o gy,;jswc "the coming one," is the LXX translation of various passages, which refer to our Lord, and hence it is applied fiequently in the New Testament to him, Luke iii. 19: H-eb. x. 37: not "shall come," but "is coming," or "is to come," Rev. i. 8. The New Testament also abounds in Hellenistic constructions: nouns absolute for example, Rev. i. 4, 5; ii. 20; iii. 12: unusual governments, adj. with gen. cases, where good Greek requires no prep., John vi. 45; and the contrary, Matt. xxvii. 24: aro in the sense of "by" or "because," l, min),Matt. xi. 19; xviii. 7; Gal. i. 1; 2 Cor. iii. 18; Acts xxii. 11. 328. The reference to Hellenistic.usage, may, however, be carried to an extreme: & xaooaV^, for example, has been translated "mercy" in Rom. iii. 25, 26: and the rendering is defended by an appeal to the LXX, where it is used for t)n, chesedh. The LXX, however, itself corrects this translation. Nine times in the Old Testament, it is so used: but seven of these are in the Pentateuch, and many hundred times, i. e.,/ nearly always, it translates righteousness (p,; Tsedek). 329. Perhaps we may best illustrate the connection between the Hebrew, the LXX, and the New Testament, Rules apby explaining the meaning of the various Greek plied to explain reconwords applied in Scripture to the work of our ciliation, etc. Lord; reconciliation, propitiation, expiation, atonement, redemption, satisfaction, substitution, and salvation. (a.) Looking into the English New Testament, we find "reconciliation," and "reconcile" in several passages, in all of which (except one,) 226 THE LXX-ATONEMENT, ETC. the Greek word is some form of dxa-cur, " to produce a change between parties" (when, for example, they have been at variance): in turning to the LXX, we find this word never used in this sense at all, nor have the many passages in the Old Testament, which speak of "making reconciliation," any verbal reference to these passages in the New Testament. The idea is involved in several passages, but it is never expressed by this word, nor by any single word. " To turn away anger," "to restore to favor," "to accept," are the common expressions; generally forms of rnl, ratsa, and JcTOv, Isa. lvi. 7; lx. 7: Jer. vi. 20: Lev. xix. 7. Hence the important conclusion, that in the word of the New Testament translated "reconcile," there is reference only to the change or effect produced by some measure of mercy, and not to the nature of that measure itself: it describes merely the change produced in our relation to God, his moral sentiment of displeasure against sin (called his " wrath") is appeased, and the sinner's enmity and misgivings are removed. That there is this double change, may be gathered from the following passages, Heb. x. 26, 27: Rom. v. 9: Heb. ix. 26, 28: 2 Cor. v. 18-20: Eph. ii. 16: 1 Cor. vii. 11: Col. i. 20, 21. (b.) In one passage, however, Heb. ii. 17, we have in Greek another word IAtho-cuct, translated also " make reconciliation." Its meaning may be gathered from an examination of the passages in the Old Testament, in which it occurs. It is, in fact, the constant rendering of a word translated in the English version, "to make reconciliation," or "to atone for," Lev. vi. 30; viii. 15: Ezek. xlv. 20: Dan. ix.'4, etc. (c.) But it would excite surprise, if this were the only passage in the New Testament where this phrase is found. It occurs again, in fact, in Rom. iii. 25: 1 John ii. 2; iv, 10, but in each of these passages it is translated PROPITIATION, a word which does not occur in the Old Testament. EXPIATION, again, does not occur in the New, and but once in the Old, Numb. xxxv. 33; it is the same word, however, as is translated elsewhere, "to make reconciliation," or "to atone for." ATONEMENT, itself, does not occur in the New Testament, except in Rom. v. 11, and there it has no connection with the Old Testament phrase, but is the same word as is translated "reconciliation" in the first sense above indicated —achange, that is, of state, between parties previously at variance. (d.) Thus far, therefore, the result is clear. Reconciliation and atonement are, in all the New Testament, except Heb. ii. 17, translations of the same word, and mean the state of friendship and acceptance into which the Gospel inbroduces us. "Reconciliation," in the sense in which it is used in Heb. ii. 17, and " atonement," in the uniform THE LXX-ATuNEMENT, ETC. 227 sense of the Old Testament, "propitiation" in the New Testameat,and "expiation" in the Old, are all different renderings of one and the same Hebrew and Greek words 5, kipper, and litaxo/ at, in some of their forms. These words, which may be regarded as one, have two senses, each involving the other. They mean to appease, pacify, or propitiate, Gen. xxxiii. 20: Prov. xvi. 14: Ezek. xvi. 63; and also to clear from guilt, I Sam. iii. 14: Psa. lxv. 3: Prov. xvi. 6: Isa. vi. 7, etc. In propitiation, we have prominence given to the first idea, in expiation, to the second; in atonement, we have a distinct reference to both. (e) The thing which atones, propitiates, or expiates, is called in Greek, Jih^/^c, {aci:!, and Uxrptv, all translations of two derivates of the Hebrew word >5 (tbas, kephurim, and ~, kopher), i. e., price or covering. (f.) The use of xv'rpoy for Jo, introduces another form of expression, "redemption." This word, as a noun, always represents in the New Testament, xvTpe, or adcaxUrpsr. Both are descriptive of the act of procuring the liberation of another, by paying some xv'rpov or awroYct, i. e., "ransom," or "forfeit," and hence always in the New Testament, of the state of being ransomed in this way. These words mean (1,) to buy back, by paying the price, what has been sold, Lev. xxv. 25, and'(2,) to redeem what has been devoted, by substituting something else in its place, Lev. xxvii. 27; Exod. xiii. 13: Psa. lxxii. 14; Psa. cxxx. 8: Isa. lxiii. 9. The price paid is called xrTpov, (Matt. xx. 28: Mark x. 45,) vTrrTrpyo, (1 Tim. ii. 6,) the Hebrew terms being rnb., Geulla, and -15, Phidyon, answering precisely to xUrpov and A3, which again answers to ixMucOru. In 1 Tim. ii. 6, this ransom is said to be Christ himself. "Redemption," therefore, is generally a state of deliverance, by means of ransom. Hence it is used to indicate deliverance from punishment or guilt, Eph. i. 7: Col. i. 14; sanctification, which is deliverance from the dominion of sin, 1 Pet. i. 18; the resurrection, which is the actual deliverance of the body from the grave, the consequence of sin, Rom. viii. 23; completed salvation, which is actual deliverance from all evil, Eph. i. 14; iv. 30: 1 Cor. i. 30: Tit. ii. 14. Once it is used without reference to sin, Heb. xi. 35, and perhaps in Luke xxi. 28. (g.) Another word, translated "redemption" ( and the secondary mea-'n of;Xa;-^t l, is an act which provides for the removal of sin, and ca esls the obligation to punishment. Atonement, giving proAinence to both, and meaning expiation and propitiation combined. Christ's atonement is said to be by substitution, for he suffered in our stead, and he bears our sin; and it is by satisfaction, for the broken law is vindicated, all the purposes of punishment are answered with honor to the Lawgiver, and eventual holiness to the Christian. Its result is reconciliation (xaiuexxcet ); the moral sentiment of justice in God is reconciled to the sinner, and provision is made for the removal of our enmity; and it is redemption, or actual deliverance, for a price, from sin in its guilt and dominion, from all misery, and from death. Salvation is also actual deliverance, but without a distinct reference to a price paid. Atonement, therefore, is something offered to God; redemption or salvation is something bestowed upon man: atonement is the ground of redemption, and redemption is the result of atonement (Isa. liii. 4-9, 10, 12). The design of the first is to satisfy God's justice, the design of the second to make man blessed; the first was finished upon the cross, the second is in daily operation, and will not be completed, in the case of the whole church, till the consummation of all things. Dan. ix. 24: Eph. iv. 30. In studying the Hellenisms of the New Testament; and tracing their connection with the Old, the Nov. Test. Graec., Editio Hellenistica. Lond. 1843, will be found of value; it consists of the New Testament 20 230 ORIGINAL SCRIPTURES-CONCORDANCES. text, and illustrations from the LXX of the phraseology of every verse For further helps, see below ~ 331. 330. These illustrations and remarks refer chiefly to the meaning of words. Other rules of interpretation have been already illustrated-the words in connection with the sentence, the context, the scope, and parallel passages-and are the same, whether we be interpreting the original or a version and do not need further illustration. They apply with equal force to the study of the original Scriptures. 331. In reference to parallel passages, it must be remembered that verbal parallels in a version are available only when the version is strictly accurate, and that comparison and investigation of the original must be made through the medium, not of a translation, but of the original itself. The importance of this remark may be seen in ~ 329, where the use of the English version, even on the important subject of the work of Christ, will certainly mislead, the New Testament itself not translating uniformly, and still less agreeing in its translation with the corresponding expressions of ibe Old. Happily, this difficulty, which to an English reader would have been a few years since insuperable, is to a great degree removed by the helps mentioned below. For the study of Hlebrew verbal parallels, the best Concordance is Fiirst's: for New Testament Greek, Bruder's. To ascertain the usage of the version of the LXX, and to compare it with the New Testament, consult the Concordance of Trommius, which gives the Greek word, with the passages in which it is found, arranged under the different He brew words, of which it is the translation: a second table in the same book gives the Hebrew word first, with its different Greek renderings. The student will also obtain very considerable help from the "Eiglishman's Greek Concordance," which gives the Greek words of the New Testament, with their English renderings; and from the "Englishman's Hebrew Concordance," which gives the same information for the Hebrew Scriptures. The second tables in each give the English word and its various Greek and Hebrew representatives. Taylor's Concordance is formed on the same plan. Wilson makes the English word the basis of his Concordance, gi ing the Hebrew representatives. The plan THE GREEK ARTICLE. 231 of the Englishman's Greek and Hebrew Concordances, however, is the more useful. A comparison of the New Testament Greek and the LXX can be made only through Trommius and Bruder, or by the help of the Lexicon of Schleusner, or the Thesaurus of Biel.' 32. The peculiarities of the Greek tongue are nowhere more instructive or beautiful than in the use of the Usage of article: and as the rules in reference to it afford Greek. important help in interpreting Scripture, it -nay be convenient to give them. 333. The Greek language has but one article, the definite; the indefinite is expressed in the New Testament ticle. by rm,, "a certain;" very occasionally by a and a participle, crsew^, "a sower;" or generally by the omission of the definite article. The general idea involved in the use of the definite article, both in Greek and in English, is, that the object to Gen which it is prefixed is familiar; but the grounds of idea of the deftinite familiarity are different, as are, in some respects, article. Farmiliarity. the usages of the two tongues. Familiarity arises from different causes. (a.) When things are in themselves well known, or are regarded as present to the senses. Origin of this fanii1. The names of persons well known generally take the liarity. article; but because they are well known, their names also Different dispense with it. Hence'Jo-our and o'Jmows: see Matt. i. 1-16; ii. 16, 19. On the first mention of a name the article is generally omitted. The names of persons not well known also take the article when mentioned a second time, 2. If the proper name is followed by a description which has the article, the name is without it unless the person is very eminent. "John the Baptist" is the common form. 3. Objects present to the parties concerned have the article attached to their names, Matt. xxvi. 23, in the dish. John xiii. 26, the sop. Mark xi. 5, loosing the colt. 1 Thess. v. 27, this epistle. Matt. xiii. 27, these tares. Hence the nominative, with the article, to express the vocative. Eph. v. 22: Heb. i. 8. 4. The possessive pronoun, in Greek, with a noun, takes the article; not my will-the will of me-but "the thy will" be done. 232 THE GREEK ARTICLE. The second and third of these rules are in accordance with English usage, the others are not. We can say, indeed, the Christ; but then Christ is not a name, but a description, and means "the anointed." (b.) Familiarity may arise from something in the context, as from 1. Previous mention, Luke ii. 16, the child: in verse 12, a child.'John iv. 43, after the two days: verse 40, two days. The English adopts this rule whenever it can be adopted without violating another. 2. Implication in some preceding expression, Mark ii. 4, the roof, verse 1, Luke xv. 4, the ninety and nine; one out of a hundred being lost. Luke xi. 38, before the dinner or meal: verse 37, to dine with him. Matt. i. 24, from the sleep, in which he had a dream, verse 20. Matt. x. 12, into the house, i. e., where they receive you, verse 11: Acts xx. 13: 2 Thess. ii. 11: see 9, 10. 3. Association, when the noun, without being implied in anything previously expressed, is connected with it. John xxi. 8, came in the small boat, i. e. of the fishing vessel: see verse 3. So Acts xxvii. 16: Luke xi. 7: John xiii. 5: Mark iv. 38: Acts xx. 9, the window, the only one of the chamber; Acts xxi. 26, 27, until the offering, and so throughout referring to the law on vows. The article thus rendered necessary by the context is often to be expressed by the possessive pronoun, "putting his (Gr. the) hands upon him," Acts ix. 17. The difference between Greek and English rules will be seen-from the examples. (c). Familiarity arises from something neither mentioned nor suggested, of which there are several kinds. 1. Abstract nouns generally take the article, and always when they are personified. 1 Cor. xv. 26, death (o 3.) John vii. 22, 23, circumcision. 1 Cor. xi. 14, nature, Matt. xi. 19: Phil. iii. 3. Numbers in the abstract ('ro y, unity, the state of being one), and the infinitive used as a noun, belong to this class,'roi'orag = believing. This usage is not frequent in English. 2. Nouns representing objects in nature which exist singly, and entire natural substances, generally take the article. Matt. v. 18, heaven and earth: xxiv. 29, the sun. Mark xiii. 28, summer (= the hot season); light; salt; water. Generally, we omit the article in these cases, whenever, at least the use of it would indicate some particular thing, rather than the universal substanre. THE GREEK ARTICLE..233 3. Words indicating entire species, either of animals or objects, generally take the article. Matt. vi. 1, men, as men: vii. 6, dogs, as dogs. Matt. x. 16, serpents. Luke xxi. 29, fig-tree. James iii. 4, (the) ships. The omission of the article would indicate that the statement made is true only of some, and not of the class as a whole. The English generally omits the article in these cases. 4. Whole classes of agents generally take it. Matt. x. 10, the laborer. Matt. xviii. 17, the publican. Matt. xxv. 32, the shepherd. 5. Many words in all languages express ideas familiar to classes of readers, and properly take the article; and generally it is best to retain it, even in a translation, though the translation be not quite clear. Matt. xvii. 24, Tra',ge;Ca, the half-shekel temple-tax: xxi. 12, the doves used, viz., in the temple service. John xviii. 3, X o-rzpx, the detachment on duty. John i. 21, art thou the prophet. Luke xxi. 8, C KaIE, the time (so long expected). I Cor. iii. 13, the day shall show it, Heb. x. 25, rc Torv a- =- for ever, to eternity, Matt. xxi. 19: Mark xi. 14: John iv. 14. So; on6J, that way, i. e. the Gospel, Acts ix. 2: xix. 9, 23; xxiv. 22: so in proverbial expressions, Matt. xxiii. 24, the camel, the gnat: so o ogioc = the mountain district of Gallilee, or of Palestine, Matt. xiv. 23, Mark iii. 13. x;,yys, the precipice (surrounding the lake), Matt. viii. 32.ro rx -Aoy, Matt. xiii. 2: Mark iv. 1, the vessel generally used by our Lord and his apostles. -;xiM, the house to which he resorted when at Capernaum, Matt. xiii. 1, 36: Mark ix. 33. For obvious reasons Luke and John, the former writing for those who knew nothing of Palestine, and the latter writing after the whole aspect of the country had been changed, never use these latter expressions. 334. The exceptions to these rules are numerous, Exc: Ong but easily classified. classiii.. (a). Generally, it may be said that it is often dis- where intrinsic pensed with where the intrinsic meaning is so clear meaning is that perspicuity is not affected by the omission. clear. Proper names are often without it, 1 Cor. iii. 22. Abstract nouns are often without it. Certain principal objects of nature are without it, Matt. xiii. 6: 1 Cor xv. 41: 2 Pet. iii. 10: James i. 6. Superlatives and ordinal numbers take it or are without it, Mark xv. 33: Matt. xiv. 25; xxii. 38. So to a certain extent in English. (b). Nouns n)t in themselves definite are often without it, 20* 234 THE GREEK ARTICLE. Where itis especially if in very common use. In these cases, clear from usage or they are made definite by the context, or usage, context. and are unambiguous. ftarthuJC means, in classic Greek, a king; ao rtx~UC alone, the Persian king; and in later Greeek, srXiuN' itself has that meaning. So, in the New Testament, 6e& is applied, without the article, to God, and xg~ts to Jehovah, both in the New Testament and in the LXX, 1 Thess. ii. 5. see verse 10: see Matt. x. 28, 37. (c). Nouns used adverbially, i. e., with prepositions, often Nouns sed dispense with the article. adverbially. John i. 1: Rom. viii. 4. 335. An accurate application of these rules will solve many difficulties, and is essential to the right understandApplied. ing of portions of Scripture. In Matt. i. 17, for example, it is said that all the generations from Abraham to David are fourteen. Probably the article here refers rather to the generations just enumerated. In Rom., vo/6cr, without the article, refers to any revelation or written rule of moral duty;'0 vo4zc', either to the Mosaic law, or to some law just named. 336. A very striking use of the omission of the article is n o to call attention to the idea in the anarthrousOmission of article. unarticled-word. Heb. i. 1, 2, of old, God spake by the prophets, now by one who is Son, is vl': so vii. 28. 1 Cor. xiv. 4, one man-a church. John iii. 6, that which is born of the flesh (article) is flesh (no article). Rom. xi. 6, grace (article) is no longer grace (no article), vii. 13. 337. In the collocation of words, the following rules are Rules on important. the colloca- (a). When two or more words are connected, and tion of words. are descriptive of a single object, or of objects regarded as single, the article i: prefixed (as in English) to the first only. THE GREEK ARTICLE. 235 Matt. xii. 22, the blind and dumb. Luke xi. 28, he thtrt heareth and keepeth. Joht vi. 40: Rom. ii. 3: 1 John ii. 4: Eph. v. 20. (b). Nor is the article repeated, when a single class of things or qualities is described, by an enumeration of its parts. Eph. iii, 18, what is the breadth and length, etc., describing the extent. Matt. xx. 19, to mock (article), and scourge, and crucify-the sufferings. So Acts viii. 6: 1 Cor. xi. 22. (c). Nor when the words used express one idea, though a complex one. Phil. ii. 17, upon the sacrifice and service of your faith. 2 Cor. xiii. 11, the God of love and peace (not and of peace), 2 Pet. i. 10. (d). Nor when two or more persons make one agency, or a single act is directed against two or more objects. Matt. xvii. 1, Peter (article), and John, and James, Luke xix. 11: Acts iii. 11; xvii. 15. (e). On the contrary, the article is repeated when distinctness is given to each of the things named. Matt. xxiii. 23: Tit. iii. 4, the goodness and the philanthropy of God our Saviour appeared. (f). And when the words employed are not descriptive of a single object, or of what is regarded as such. Heb. xi. 20, Isaac blessed rTO'IKx and orv'H~i'. 2 Thess. i. 8, to those who know not... and to those who do not obey. (g). Apply these rules to explain the following. Tit. ii. 13: 2 Thess. i. 12: Eph. v. 5: 1 Tim. v. 21: 2 Examples. Pet. i. 11: Jude iv. 338. The doctrine of the Greek article was first formally examined in modern times by Granville Sharp; Literature afterwards, at greater length, and with more accu- of the y, bG Dr. Middleton, soe of whose conclusions, art racy, by Dr. Middleton, some of whose conclusions, cle. 236 EXTERNAL HELPS-THEIR VALUE. however, have been overthrown by more recent investigation. The above rules are in harmony with such of Middleton's as have stood the test, and are most of them taken substantially from Winer's " Idioms," and fiom Green's " Grammar of the New Testament Dialect," 1842. SEC. 6. OF THE USE OF EXTERNAL HELPS IN THE INTERPRETATION OF THE BIBLE. "The Bible resembles an extensive garden, where there is a vast variety and profusion of fruits and flowers, some of which are more essential or more splendid than others; but there is not a blade suffered to grow in it, which has not its use and beauty in the system. Salvation for sinners is the grand truth presented everywhere, and in all points of light. but the pure in heart sees a thousand traits of the Divine character, of himself, and of the world; some striking and bold, others cast as it were into the shade, and designed to be searched for and examined."-CECIL, Remains, (p. 198.) 339. Thoroughly to understand the Scriptures, to harmonize apparent contradictions, to gather up all the truth it contains, and sometimes even to enable us to select out of several meanings the one which is most consistent with the Divine will, it is often necessary to seek some external or collateral help. We need to know the opinions and ideas prevalent among the people to whom the various parts of Scripture were addressed; facts of general history, of chronology, of natural history, of geography, and especially the manners and customs of Eastern nations. 340. The estimation in which these external helps have Estimation been held, has been singularly subject to depreciain which tions in some cases, and to excess in others. With such helps are held. many they are the chief study, and it is thought that no one is qualified to understand the Bible until he is in a position to use them. By others they are despised. The first class forget that these helps are of value chiefly in confirming a sense, which is already discovered, or in expounding less important texts; the statements of Scripture on all knowledge essential to salvation, being, when compared with one another, abundantly plain. The second forget that these EXTERNAL HELPS-OPINIONS AMONG THE JEWS. 237 helps are often needful to determine the sense when it remailns dcubtful, and that if we neglect them, much of the significance of Scripture in particular passages, many of them impressive, is concealed 341. (1.) Some knowledge of the ideas and opinions pre-,valent among the people to whom the inspired writings were addressed, or among surrounding nations, is often important. At the time, for example, when our Lord appeared, there was a general expectation among the Jews of the coming of the Messiah, and his reign was called, "the world to come," eaven.f "the heavenly Jerusalem,"a "the kingdom of heaven," or "of God "b To enter that kingdom was to become his disciple. The Jews had very erroneous conceptions of its nature; and it was necessary that our Lord should correct them. This he does in the teaching of himself, and his apostles. The nature of the kingdom of God must be learned; therefore, from the New Testament: and the fact (which we learn from external sources) that the name was given by the Jews to the reign of the Messiah, completes our knowledge and confirms the interpretation. "He is born again," was the Jewish description of a proselyte; and this use of the expression confirms the common interpretation of the -language of our Lord, John iii. "To bind and loose," meant among the Jews, as Lightfoot has shown, to forbid as unlawful, and to allow as lawful (as "bound not to" is still used among us). Hence the true explanation of Matt. xviii. 8: (Wetstein). The precepts of the sermon on the Mount become more impressive from the following facts. The Pharisees held that the thoughts of the heart are never sinful (See Matt. v. 28); the Scribes, that the gifts which Jewish worshippers were required to place upon the altar, expiated all offences which were not aIr-enable to the Judge, (ver. 24). All maintained, says Maimonides, that oaths by heaven or by earth, might be taken collusively, and had not the solemn obligation of oaths in which the name of God occurred (v. 34). It was also maintained (Buxtorf,) that the prayer which is long shall not return empty (6, 7). 342. The chief sources of information on the opinions of the ~ Schoetgenii, Horse Heb. i., Diss. v., chap. vi bSee Lyall's Propsadia Propheica, p. 270. 28. OPININS AMONG THE IEATHENS. ancier.t Jews, are the Targums and the Talmud. - Next in importance is the Sohar of R. Simeon ben Joshai, who fourished early in the second century. This book is held in the highest veneration, and is the foundation of the Cabbala. See Part II., "Intro. to the Gospels." Its subject is the coming of the Messiah, and the events foretold concerning his reign. It illustrates both the meaning of Scripture, and the unbelief of the Jews, that the sense which was put upon the several prophecies quoted by the apostles in the New Testament, is the same (with two or three remarkable exceptions,) as had been put upon them by the Jews generally. All the Psalms, for example, and all the predictions of Isaiah quoted in the New Testament, are applied by the authorities just named to the Messiah. And yet in a Messiah, who so remarkably fulfilled them, they do not believe. The student will find the views of Jewish authors largely quoted in the Hoern Hebraicma of Lightfoot and Schoetgenius; in the commentaries of Dr. Gill and Koppe, and in the notes of Wetstein's Greek Testament. 343. It is important to observe, however, that while a Caution. knowledge of the opinions held in early times may often suggest the original meaning of the words employed in Scripture, that meaning is only an auxiliary help in ascertaining their Scripture use. "A regenerate man," meant to a Jew, a proselyte; one made a Jew by circumcision or baptism. But it is plain that though this use of the term accounts for the adoption of it by our Lord, and to a great extent even explains its meaning, yet the true and complete meaning can be gathered only from Scripture itself. 344. A knowledge of the religious opinions of the nations by whom the Israelites were surrounded, is also often useful. Among the Egyptians, for example, a lamb or kid was an object, of veneration, and the male, as the representative of Ammon, was worshipped. The 6lague of Egypt N ere all inflicted on objects of Egyptian wor EXTERNAL HELPS-HISTORY. 239 ship, and thus they became a rebuke to idolatry, as well as an evidence of Divine power. At solemn festivals the Phtenicians ate of the raw flesh of their offerings; part of it they roasted in the sun, and part was sodden for magical purposes, the intestines being used for divination, and the fragments for charms and enchantments. All these practices were forbidden to thb Jews, and though no doubt other solemn lessons were taught by the burning of the victim in the fire, it was also intended to teach them to avoid the ritesof the heathen. See also Lev. xix. 28: Lev. xi. 11: Psa. xvi. 4: Jer. xliv. 17, 18. Among the ancient Persians it was held that there were two deities, ofequal power, Ormuzd and Ahriman. Jehovah, in his address to Cyrus, claims authority over them both. "1 form light and darkness -peace and evil," Isa. xlv. 7. Many who had embraced the oriental philosophy became Christians, and attempted to blend their former tenets with the doctrines of Christ. Some of then (the Gnostics, for example,) held the opinion that there were several emanations of the Godhead, called the Word, the Life, the Light, etc.: and it is supposed that the apostle John refers to their opinions in John i. 1-18, where he claims all those titles for our Lord-. From their principles, many of them deduced a loose morality, and others justified the imposition of unreasonable austerities. To the speculative opinions of those sects are opposed such passages as these, 1 John i. 1, 2, 7; ii. 22, 23; iv. 2, 3, 9, 14, 15; v. 1-5, 9-20; and to their practice, 1 John i. 5, 6; ii. 2, 6; iii. 4-10; v. 18, 21. The deeds of the Nicolaitanes were probably of the same order, Rev. ii. 6. In Europe, the Greek philosophy was most prevalent, and the Greek character showed its tendency in subtle disquisition. Two only of the Grecian sects are mentioned in Scripture the Epicureans and the Stoics. The first held that God took no concern in the affairs of the universe, but dwelt in some distant region: and the second held that he was the soul of the world. They agreed, however, in maintaining that the Greeks were superior to all other nations. The apostle Paul rebuked both, Acts xvii. 18-32, alternately correcting their errors, and revealing to them the great doctrines of the resurrection, and the atonement of Christ. A knowledge of their views explains his appeal, rebukes "reserve" in the exhibition of the Gospel, and illustrates the simplicity and dignity of truth. The Divinity of our Lord, and the inutility of the ceremonial law, are both taught in the Epistles of Paul. It is a confirmation of this view that the Ebionites, who observed the law, and maintained the 240 EXTERNAL HELPS- TSTORY. simple humanity of Christ, rejected those Epistles, and received only a mutilated copy of the Gospel of Matthew. Wilson, p. 283. Many of the discourses of our Lord contain special reference to the views of the various Jewish sects. The reader will find those views noticed at length in the introduction to the Gospels. 345. Here, again, a caution is needed. The errors referred ut to in the passages which are thus made clear by this knowledge were often local and temporary. They generally sprang, however, from some deep-seated tendency of human nature, and are apt to show themselves under different forms; and the refutation of them, given in Scripture, always embodies truths of permanent and universal application. 346. (2.) A knowledge of ancient profane history often aids in the study of the Bible. InGen. xlvi.,it is said, "every shepherd is an abomination to, the Egyptians." This fact explains the assignment of the land of Goshen (on the extreme border of Egypt,) to the Israelites; an arrangement which preserved them from too intimate a connection with the Egyptians: and it is itself explained by the investigations of Dr. Hales, and Mr. Faber. They tell us, from a fragment of Manetho's, that about the year 2159, B. C., Egypt was invaded by a band of Cushite shepherds from Arabia, who after many years of cruel domination, were expelled by the general revolt of the princes of Upper Egypt, and then withdrew to Palestine (the land of shepherds,) and are known in Scripture as the Philistines. This event, which occurred some time before the commencement of Joseph's administration, accounts for the suspicion with which the Israelites, coming from the same quarter, were received, and for the abhorrence in which their occupation as nomade or wandering shepherds was held. It may be added, that while Egyptian archeologists, Champollion, Rosellini, and Wilkinson, agree in this view of a shepherd invasion, Hengstenberg has thrown doubts upon the whole of this part of Manetho's narrative, though without sufficient reason. See Tables of Egyptian Chronology (Part II.) It is instructive to remark, that the history of Assyria and the antiquities of Egypt, which were once the favorite resort of infidelity, now EXTERNAL HELPS-HISTORY. 241 supply some of the most decisive external evidences of the truth of Scripture. So, again, the best commentary on Dent. xxviii., and on our Lord's. prophecy of the destruction of Jerusalem, is found in the history of the Jewish wars by Josephus. He was himself a Jew by birth, born at Jerusalem, about A. D. 37, and was an eye witness of the siege of that city. The truth of his narrative is confirmed both by contemporary writers, and'by the testimony of the Emperor Titus. Matt. ii. 2, 3, is explained by the fact, that there was a general impression at that time throughout the East, that a great prince was about to appear and govern the world, Tact. Hist. i. 5: Suet. Vit. Vesp c. 4. In Matt. xxiv. 15, 16, our Saviour warns his disciples to quit Jervsalem before the siege began; and profane history teli us that they profited by his instructions, for before the city was surrounded by the Roman armies, they retired to Pella, on the eastern side of the Jordan. The rest spoken of in Acts ix. 31, is explained in contemporary history. It must not be ascribed to the conversion of Saul, for the persecution continued three years after; but to the circumstance, that at that time (A. D. 40,) Caligula attempted to set up his statue in the Holy of Holies. The consternation of the Jews at this threatened profanation diverted their attention from the Christians, and so " the churches had rest." In Acts xvii. 16, Athens is said to be "full of idols" (margin)..Elian (A. D. 140,) calls it the altar of Greece, and Pausanias, another historian (A. D. 170,) tells us that this city had more images than all Greece besides. All antiquity agrees in representing it as the seat of Grecian learning, and as the school of the world. How instructive is this combination of secular enlightenment and gross idolatry! The nobleness of Paul's conduct in his address to Felix (Acts xxiv 25), is evident even upon the surface of the narrative. Josephus tells us that Felix was notorious for oppression, and that he had been living in adultery with Drusilla, the wife of the late king of Edessa. Paul neither defended himself, nor attacked the vices with which Felix was chargeable; but with admirable tact he reasoned on the virtues of righteousness and temperance, and on the solemn truth of future judgment. Felix had no excuse for interrupting him, and yet it is evident that he felt his appeals. 347. (3.) Ecclesiastical history is also of value in interpreting Scripture: sometimes by supplying Jacts on which 21 242 EXTERNAL HELPS-HISTORY. the sacred writers are silent; sometimes by giving the history of opinion in the church itself. We learn, for instance, that before the destruction of Jerusalem, and Lb within thirty years of the death of otir Lord, the Gospel the apos- had been preached in Macedonia and Syria, by Jude; in t Ie s. Egypt and parts of Africa, by Mark, Simon and Jude; in Ethiopia, by the Eunuch of Candace, and by Matthias; in Pontus, by Peter; in the territories of the seven churches, by John; in Parthia, by Matthew; in Scythia, by Philip and Andrew; in Persia, by Simon and Jude; in Media, by Thomas; in Italy and Greece, by Paul. In most of these regions, churches were formed about the same time. So rapidly did the seed of the kingdom spring up and fill the earth, Mark xvi. 15-20. 348. The history of the sound opinions of good men, and of the origin of erroneous ones, is also of great moment. In a letter still extant, drawn up by the Christians of Smyrna, and giving an account of the martyrdom of Polycarp, they say, in reply to an accusation of the Jews, that they were ready to worship Polycarp instead of Christ, "This is impossible, for Christ only is, or can be, the object of worship: to him alone we offer adoration: and the martyrs (they add,) are objects only of gratitude and love." The Fathers of the first three centuries all deliver the same doctrine in relation to our Lord; and "hence (adds Eusebius,) the hymns and psalms written from the beginning by the faithful, celebrate the praises of Christ, and attribute Divinity to him," Eccl. Hist. v. c. 27, 28. Matt. xxviii. 17. The duty of all classes to search the Scriptures, is clearly implied in various passages of the Bible: and it is interesting to know that the early writers of the church enforce this duty in the strongest terms; Chrysostom and Jerome, and Origen and Agustine, all agree on this question. They even affirm, that the cause of the evils of their times, is to be found in the fact " that the Scriptures are not known." (See Q 144.) 349. These opinions are not authority, but they are evidence. These They prove that the interpretation now attached opinions not authori- to the passages of Scripture, which speak of these t evi- truths, is such as commended itself to the judgment a 2 Tim. iii. 15: John v. 39: Acts xvii. 11, 12. Luke xvi. 29: Matt. xxii. 29: John xx. 30, 31: 2 Pet. i. 19. 1 Thess. v. 27. Rev. i. 3. EXTERNAL HELPS-CHRONOLOGY. 2i3 of good men, who had peculiar facilities for ascertailing the meaning of the inspired volume. 350.- Nor less important is the history of erroneous opinions on questions of truth. We first read, for example, of the title of universal Bishop (at Rome,) A. D. 606; of the canonical authority of the Apocrypha, and Vulgate, and traditions as articles of faith, at the Council of Trent, in the 16th century; of the use of the Latin tongue in worship, to the exclusion of the vernacular in the 7th century (666). Transubstantiation was first taught in the 8th century. In the 11th, the Lord's Supper was mutilated by the establishment of communion of one kind. In the 12th, the doctrine of Seven Sacraments was first taught. The doctrines of the meritorious virtue of penance, of purgatory, and prayers for the dead, date no earlier than the 7th century, and were not positively affirmed till the year 1140. The power of granting indulgences was not claimed by the Popes till the 12th century. Auricular confession was first enjoined by the 4th Lateran Council, in the 13th century. The celibacy of the clergy as universal and compulsory, was ordained at the end of the 4th, and was confirmed by Gregory VII. at the end of the 11th. Col. ii. 23: 2 Thess. ii. 7-12. 351. The comparatively recent origin of all these errors is not authoritative against them, but it is evidence of the meaning of the Bible. It proves that Popery is a novelty, and that its Dogmas were not taught by those who lived nearest to the times of our Lord, and who had most facility for ascertaining the meaning of Scripture. 352. It is an important canon in reference to the help which we thus receive from history, that the his- Such historical fact which is gathered only from profane tofry ripor ecclesiastical writers, is not part of the Bible. ture. It may embody a truth which is taught in Scripture, and then we believe that truth, because it is found there: or it may explain a Scripture statement, but without being itself anywhere revealed. In that case, we believe it according to its evidence, but never as a truth taught of God. 353. (4. )A knowledge of the order of events, and of the intervals between them, is essential to an understanding of 244 EXTERNAL HELPS-CHRONOLOGY. parts of Scripture: and such knowledge is supplied by chronology, the science of computing and adjusting the epochs and periods of time. It illustrates the depravity of human nature, for example, to know that in the second generation from Adam, all flesh had so corrupted its way, that it repented the Lord that he had made man. It is an aggravation of the guilt of Sodom and Gomorrah, that when they became so utterly wicked, their progenitor Noah had not been dead a hundred years. The judgment against the house of Eli, in Shiloh, was first executed in the death of his sons, but it was not completed till eighty years afterwards, in the forfeiture of office by Abiathar, (1 Kings ii. 26, 27). God visits surely though slowly. The sin that most dishonored David's character was committed when he was fifty years of age. An instructive illustration of the power of temptation, and the inefficiency of even long religious experience to preserve the Christian. From 2 Kings xxiii. 13, we learn that the places built to Ashtaroth remained till the days of Josiah, or for 350 years: Solomon probably died penitent, and yet the consequences of his sin were felt for several generations. The earliest of the apostolical Epistles, is the First Epistle to the Thessalonians, and it contains a special direction that the Epistle. should be read to the churches. This direction, given at such a time, shows that this class of writings is part of the canon of Scripture. The date of the Epistle to Timothy, A. D. 64, nearly thirty years after the conversion of St. Paul, adds great weight to his declaration, that he was the chief of sinners. He never ceased, it is plain, to cherish a deep sense of his sinfulness. We may measure our progress in holiness by the degree of our humility, 1 Tim. i. 15. Some commentators have supposed that 2 Cor. xi. 25, refers to the events recorded in Acts 27, but in fact, the Epistle was written before those events took place. The man of sin, mentioned in 2 Thess. ii. 3, has been referred by Grotius, and others, to Caligula; but the Epistle was not written till twelve years after his death. The precept of Peter, 1 Pet. ii. 17, " Honor the king," derives additional force from the fact, that the tyrant Nero was then emperor of the Roman world. An examination of the 5th chapter of Genesis, will show that Noah might have received the account of the Creation from Adam, through CHRONOILOGY-ERAS. 245 inms on!y, or from Lamech his own father. l.amech was 56 years contemporary with Adam, and 100 years with Shem. Shem was contemporary -or several years with Abraham and Isaac. The communication from Adam to Isaac may only have been through Lamech and Shem. So easy is it to account for the transmission of Divine truth from the earliest riimes More than 4000 years elapsed between the time of the first promise and its fulfilment. more than 400 between the promise given to Abraham, and its accomplishment under Joshua: and not less than 400 between the prophecy of Malachi and its fulfilment in John the Baptist. "A thousand years are with the Lord as one day:" though the promise tarry long, we are to wait for it. This knowledge is eapecially important in interpreting prophecy, both to enable us to ascertain the event foreProphecy. told, and to perceive the accomplishment.. The meaning of Isa. xxxvii. 22-34, is lxert, for example, by a reference to chapter xxxvi. The former is a prediction of a remarkable deliverance from impending danger, adid thl latter points to Hezekiah and Sennacherib, as the persons in whoU the prediction was fulfilled. 354. In the chronology of all nations some remarkable date is fixed upon, from which they begin their computations. Christians reckon from the birth of Christ, ChronolPoA. D. The Romans reckoned from the foundation of their city, A. U. C. The Greeks by Olympiads, the first of which dates 776 years before Christ, about 55 years before the captivity in the days of Uzziah. These points are called epochs or eras, though the former is the more usual term. The following are the chief: The Grecian year of the world from - Sept. 1, B. C. 5598. The era of Constantinople, ecclesiastical and civil - - - - - Apr. 1, Sept. 1, B. C. 5508. The Jewish era, ecclesiastical and civil, A. M. - Apr. Sept. B.C. 3761. The era of Abraham, or Eusebian era Oct. 1, B. C. 2015. The era of the destruction of Troy - June 12, or 24, B. C. 1184, The era of Solomon's temple - - May, B. C. 1015. 21* 246 CHRONC LOGY-:-RAS. The Olympiads, 01. - - -lew Moon of Midsummer, B. C. 776. The Roman era (the Consular year from Jan. 1), A. U. C. - -Apr. 21, B. C 753. The era of Nabonassar - - Feb. 26, B.C. 747. The era of the Seleucida - - Sept. 1, B. C. 312. The Pontifical and Constantinopolitan era -- Jan. 1, Sept. 1, B. C. 3. The common Christian era, A. D. - Jan. 1, A. D. 1. The Hegira, the Mohammedan era - July 16, A.D. 622. The Persian era - - - - June 16, A. D. 632. 355. As several remarkable events are recorded in Scrip. ture, each of general or of national importance, there are various divisions of sacred chronology. The Jews reckon from the Creation (A. M.), from the Flood, from the Exode, Numb. xxxiii. 38: 1 Kings vi. 1; or from the building of the temple, 2 Chron. viii. 1. The first epoch begins with the Creation, and ends at the Flood. Its duration can be gathered only from Scripture, by summing up the ages of the patriarchs on the birth of the son whose name is placed on the record (not always the eldest), see Gen. v.' This number amounts, according to the common Hebrew text, to 1656 years; according to the Samaritan text to 1307; and according to the Septuagint, to 2262, or to 2256 years. In the English version, the dates ascertained from the Hebrew text are generally used, and the adjustment of them which is adopted is the one which was completed by Archbishop Usher, slightly modified by Biahop Lloyd. CHIRONOLOGY-PERIODS. 2'il WhencePeriod. Usher. Septii- Josephus. taken. i. agnt. by iales. Gen. v. 1. 1. From the creation to the flood. 1,656 2,262 2 256 Gen. XL 10-32: 2. From the flood to the call of xii. 4. Abraham........ 427 1,207 1,062 Gen. xxi. 5; xxv. 3. From the call of Abraham to 26; xlvii. 9, 28. the Exode....... 430 425 445 1 Kings vi. 1.. 4. From the Exode to the foundation of Solomon's temple.. 479 601 621 5. From the foundation of Solomon's temple to the restoration of Cyrus... 476 476 493 6. From the restoration of the Jews to the birth of our Lord. 536 637 634 4,004 5,508 5,411 The modern Jews reckon the age of the world at the coming ef Christ 3,760; 244 years less than Usher. 356. The difference between the LXX and the Hebrew in these chronological statements, will be seen in part from the following tables; the origin of the differences being easily explained. To six of the patriarchs before the Flood, the LXX gives an additional hundred years, on the birth of his son. It also adds six years to Lamech, though in the corrected text of Josephus, those six years are taken off. Immediately after the Flood, the LXX adds 100 years to the ages of the six first patriarchs. It inserts, also, as does Luke iii. 36, the name of Cainan, making him 130 years old on the birth of Salah; and it calls Serug eighty years old instead of thirty. The total difference, therefore, in the second period is 780 years... The Samaritan text agrees with the LXX in this period, except that it omits Cainan. Before the Flood it reckons 1307 years. The difference in the date of the third period arises from the fact, that the chronology founded on the LXX reckons Abraham's call as given in Haran, while Usher and the English version regard it as given five years before in Ur (Gen. xii. 1. See also Acts vii. 2, 3). 248 CHRONOLOGY-DIFFERENT SYSTEMS. I. From the Creation to the Deluge. Proof. Hebrew. Septuagint. Sam. \ Years. Years. Years. Gen. v. 3 Adam lived.... 130 and begat 230 130 " 6 Seth lived... 105 " 205 105 " 9 Enos lived... 90 " 190 90 " 12 Cainan I. lived.. 70 " 170 70 " 15 Mahalaleel ived. 65 " 165 65 " 18 Jared lived... 162 ~ 162 62 a 21 Enoch lived. 65 ~ 165 65 " 25 Methuselah lived. 187 " 187* 67 " 28 Lamech lived... 182 " 188t 53 Gen. vii. 11 Noah at the Deluge. 600 years. 600 600 1656 2262 1307 Josephus makes the total 2256, agreeing in Lamech with the Hebrew, and else. where with the LXX. * Some copies, 167. f Jos. 182. II. and III. From the Deluge to the Exode. Proof~ Hebrew. Septuagint. Sam. Years. Years. Years. Gen. xi. 1( ShemF afer the 2 and begat 2 2 " 12 Arphaxed lived. 35 " 135 135 LXX, andl Luke iii. 36 Cainan II. lived.... 130 &begat Gen. xi. 14 Salah lived.... 30 andbegat 130 130 16 Heber lived.... 34 " 134 134 " 18 Peleg lived.. 30 " 130 130 " 20 Reu lived..32 132 132 " 22 Serug lived..... 30 " 130 130 " 24 Nahor lived... 29 " 79 79 Gen. xi. 26,) 32;en xii. 3Terah lived.... 130 " 130 130 Gen. xii. 4 Abraham lived. { 75andhadthe } 75 75 " xxi. 5 " after that lived 25 and begat 20 20 " xxv. 26 Isaac lived... 60 " 60 60 " xlvii. 9 Jacob aged.,.. { Egypt } 130 130 Exod. xiii.' 40,41: Septualint. Israelites in Egypt. 215 years. 215 215 (?) See Numb. xxvi. 59. 857 1637 1502 The Exode therefore occurred A. M. 2.513 8899 2749 or B. C. 1491 L _~__~~ CHRONOLOGY-TIMES OF THE JUDGES. 249 The differences in the fourth period are not owing s,) much to various readings, as to the authenticity of one passage, and the meaning of others. Nor is the subject free from grave difficulties. Usher makes the fourth period 480 years (479 years 16 days), taking as his guide 1 Kings vi. 1. If the reading of that passage is correct, the question is decided. But there are strong doubts concerning it. The LXX indicates by various readings the uncertainty of the text. In 2 Chron. iii. 2 (the parallel passage), there is no date. Josephus, Theophilus, and others who have left systems of chronology, seem to have been ignorant of this computation, which is first mentioned in the.4th century by Eusebius, and he does not adopt it. St. Paul, again, seems to assign 450 years as the time from the division of Canaan "till Samuel" (Acts xiii. 20), and if so, the whole period must have been 579 years at least.* Usher, however, supposes the 450 years to refer to the time between the birth of Isaac and the entry upon Canaan: a somewhat forced construction. Josephus mentions for the whole period 592 years (Ant. viii. 3, 1); 632 (x. 8, 5); and 612 (xx. 10, 1); and Dr. Hales supposes his true reckoning to be, after obvious corrections, 621 years. Petavius reckons 519 years; Greswell, 549 years; Jackson, 579 years; Clinton and'Cunningham, 612 years. In turning to the history in Judges, and reckoning up the periods named, the questions raised by these different views are not solved, Six servitudes are mentioned, extending over 111 years; and fourteen Judges (not including Joshua, Eli, or Samuel), extending over 279 years, or 390 in all: adding to this number 46 and 83 as in the note %, we have an entire period of 519 years. But here are various elements of uncertainty. Are these servitudes and judgeships to any extent contemporaneous. Usher thinks they are. Hales, supposing that Judges ii. 18 applies to all, concludes that they are not. Again, nothing is told us of the length of Joshua's government, or of the government of the Elders, who survived him, except in the case of Othniel, his son-in-law. Nor, further, is it clear whether Eli was a political ruler, or simply a civil judge, as Usher describes him. If the latter, a viz In the wilderness, and till the land was divided 46 years. Judges to Samuel - 450 Xaul 40: David 40: 3rd Sol. 3 - - 83" 679 250 CHRONOLOGY-THE LXX. lie is not to be reckoned chronologically among the Judges. And lastly, we cannot gather from Scripture what time elapsed between the death of Samson and Saul. Eli judged Israel forty years, but Usher makes him a contemporary of Samson, and not his successor. He reckons between Eli's death and Saul's election twenty-one years: though Samuel could hardly have been, in that case, "old and grayheaded" (1 Sam. xii. 2). Eusebius reckons Eli at forty, and includes Samuel in Saul's reign, while Josephus reckons fifty-two years for Eli and Samuel; Hales allowing for them seventy-two. Clinton supposes St. Paul's reckoning to end with the beginning of Samuel's judgeship, and adds for that thirty-two years. On the whole, therefore, it may be said, that if we set aside the reading in 1 Kings vi. 1, and are uncertain of the precise meaning of Acts xiii. 20, we have not materials for solving the difficulties which this fourth period involves. The dates of the fifth and sixth periods nearly agree, and are gathered, the first from Scripture, and the second almost wholly from profane authors. 357. The comparative claims of these systems are not easily settled. The longer chronology, is by many, considered to be best entitled to confidence; and among other reasons for the following:1. The Hebrew is deemed the more likely to have been altered, as, for some time after the Christian era, its use was very much confined to the Jews (and chiefly to the more learned amongst them), who had a motive for shortening the period between the creation and the birth of Jesus, in order to make it appear that the time which their expositors had fixed for the appearance of the Messiah was not yet passed; whilst, on the other hand, no motive so strong can be supposed to have existed on the part of the Jewish translators of the Septuagint: nor could there have been an opportunity to alter the Greek version after it was made; for it was in extensive circulation, and in constant public use, both among Jews and Christians. 2. The length of time assigned by the Septuagint, the Samaritan text, and Josephus, to the period between the deluge and the birth of Abraham (about 1100 years), is deemed more consistent with historical facts than the shorter time assigned by the Hebrew (about 350 years), which appears insufficient for the great multiplication and extended dispersion of Noah's descen.dants over immense tracts of country, extending from Dadia and Assy ra to Ethiopia, Egypt, and Greece; and for the estab CHRONOLOGY-LXX AND HEBREW. 251 lishment of the organized and powerful monarchies of Babylon, Nineveh, and Egypt; besides the lesser chieftaincies of Canaan, which seen to have been founded by descendants of Ham, after the expulsion of earlier settlers. 3.'The longer chronology appears to bring the age of each patriarch, on the birth ot his eldest son, into better proportion to the gradually diminished length of human life. Those who adhere to the shorter computation urge, principally, the following considerations:1. The general accuracy of the original Hebrew text, which was preserved by the Jews with most jealous care. 2. The facilities afforded by the shorter chronology for the safe and rapid transmisson of revealed truth in the earliest ages; Lamech being contemporary both with Adam and with Shem, whilst Shem was contemporary with Abraham. 3. The coincidence (at least, within, a few years) of the date fixed for the creation with a remarkable astronomical epoch, when the major axis of the earth's orbit coincided with the line of the equinoxes. 4. The objection drawn from the shortness of the interval between the deluge and the birth of Abraham, compared with the apparent populousness of the earth, is more than met by the increase of mankind in newly-peopled districts in modern times, and by the fact, that the Hebrew text gives at least as many generations as the LXX; while, on the supposition that men generally married as early as the ages assigned in the Hebrew text, it implies a larger population. On the whole, therefore, the longer chronology is not established; and, without accepting all the reckonings of Usher, we may safely deem it to be as probable as any opposite system. 358. In addition to all the difficulties created by facility of mistake in copying figures, and consequent different readings, there are difficulties in chronology which arise froim different modes of reckoning. The principal eras begin, as we have seen, in different months. Many nations have two or more modes Origin f of reckoning the beginning of the year itself, civil, these ais *.~~~'.~~'-~ c ~ereparities ecclesiastical; civil, consular; and above all, the year of chronology does not agzte with the year of actual 252 CHRONOLOGY-DISCREPANCIES. time. The Julian year, for instance, consisted of 365 days, 6 hours, which was 11 minutes, 9 seconds too much. From A. D. 1, to A. D. 1836, therefore, the Julian year would be 14days in advance. The Council of Nice, however, struck out 21- days, and in 1582, Gregory XIII. corrected the Calendar, by ordering the 5th of October to be called the 15th, thus disposing of 10 days more. In ENGLAND, the 3d of September, 1751, was reckoned as the 14th, and in 1800, the usual 29th of February was omitted. We therefore have corrected accurately the overreckoning of the Julian era, so that from A. D. 30, to A. D. 1836, is, within a few hours, exactly 1806 years. Other eras are more erroneous than the Julian, and it is Different obvious that the absence of the necessary correcel'Is. tions in each, must give rise to many errors. Other peculiarities of reckoning add further to our difficulties. (a). Jewish historians, for example, speak of the reign of a king Di t which is continued through one whole year and parts of Different' mnodes of two others as a three years' reign. It may be two years recloning. and ten months, or it may be one year and two months. (b). They sometimes set down the principal number, the odd, or smnalller number, being omitted; as in Judges xx. 35: see ver. 46. (c). As sons frequently reigned with their fathers in ancient monarchies, the time of the reign of each is sometimes made to include the time of the other, and sometimes to exclude it. Thus Jotham is said to have reigned sixteen years, 2 Kings xv. 33; and yet, in ver 30, mention is made of his twentieth year. For four years he seems to have reigned with Uzziah, who was a leper. So 2 Kings xiii. 1. 10: 2 Kings xxiv. 8, compared with 2 Chron. xxxvi. 9. A similar principle explains Dan. i. 1: Jer. xxv. 1: Nebuchadnezzar being king with his father when Jerusalem was besieged. This peculiarity of reckoning has been applied, with great advantage, to explain the chronological tables of Egypt and other eastern countries. (d). It not unfrequently happens that different modes of reckoning are adopted in reference to the same transaction. See Gen. xv. 13, and Gal. iii. 17; Moses, speaking of 400 years from HOW TO FRAME 1 SYSTEM. 253 the birth ot Isaac to the Exode; Paul, of 430 years from the call of Abram to the giving of the law, which occurred three months after the Exode. See Exod. xii. 40. The same remark applies to other numbers. In Gen. xlvi. 26, 27, it is said that all the souls that went with Jacob into Egypt (not including his sons' wives) were sixty-six, or (adding Jacob, Joseph, and his two sons) seventy. In Acts vii. 14, it is said that Joseph sent and called Jacob and all his kindred, seventy-five persons. This last includes the nine wives of Jacob's sons (for Judah's and Simeon's wives were dead, and Joseph's was already in Egypt). These nine, added to the sixty-six, make the seventy-five mentioned in the Acts. These passages were long supposed to involve a contradiction. Comparing Ezra ii. and Neh. vii., we find that 42,360 persons returned from Babylon, of whom the numbers of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah, and of the priests, are given. The numbers in Nehemiah amount to 31,089; in Ezra, to 29,818. Add to Nehemiah's number 494 names, mentioned only in Ezra; and to Ezra's, 1,765 names, mentioned only in Nehemiah, the results agree-31,583. The difference, 10,777, represents the number of persons belonging to other tribes. This apparent discrepancy was long regarded as an objection to the narrative. In reference, generally, to these apparent. contradictions, it becomes us rather to suspect our own ignorance than the writer's accuracy. No passage can appear more contradictory than Ezek. xii. 13, and yet it was literally fulfilled: Zedekiah did not see Babylon, though he died there. In framing a chronological system, two rules are of great value. 1. Ascertain important epochs, and reckon onwards or upwards from them. The epoch of the birth of our Rlesfor Lord is of course the centre point of all modern sfrvminga chronology, and of much of ancient. The year of Chronology, the Council at Jerusalem, or of the death of Herod, is the key to the chronology of the Acts: as the date of Paul's conversion is the key to his Epistles. The return from the captivity, the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and the building of the first temple are all (reckoning upwards from A. D. 1) epochs of Old Testament History. Clinton, in different parts of his Fasti, has well illustrated this rule. 22 254 EXTERNAL HELPS-NATURAL HISTORY. 2. Wherever practicable, test chronological conclusions by astronomical facts. The Jewish Passover, for example, was commenced on the day preceding that on which the moon was full, between the 18th of March and the 16th of April. As the moon can be eclipsed only at the full, the day of the Passover for any year will be the day preceding any eclipse that occurs between those dates. The Passover day was the 14th of Nisan, and reckoning backwards we ascertain the first day of each year Fifty clear days after the 14th of Nisan came Pentecost: and 177 clear days from the full of the moon of Nisan-six lunations that is-came the feast of Tabernacles. The Great Day of Atonement was five days earlier, the 10th of Tisri. Mr. Greswell applies this rule to confirm his chronology. Supposing the date of our Lord's crucifixion to be April 5th 30, A. D., he reckons that an eclipse mentioned by Dion must have occurred August 1st, 45, A. D., and another by Pliny, April 30th, 59, A. D." Pingre's tables, based on astronomical calculations, show that eclipses did, in fact, take place on these days. Recorded eclipses may be found in Pingre's tables, and in Playfair's Chronology. See also Hales's Chronology, i., p. 74. Tables have also been framed for correcting errors consequent upon the difference between the chronological and astronomical year. 359. (5.) Many of the allusions and expressions of Scripture can be explained only by the aid of knowledge of natural history. In Psa. xcii. 12, for example, it is said that "the righteous shall flourish like the palm," and the habits of this tree beautifully illustrate the character of the righteous. The palm grows not in the depths of the forest, or in a fertile loam, but in the desert. Its verdure often springs apparently from the scorching dust. " It is in this respect," says La-'Mr. Greswell's reasonings on these facts, however, are not very complete. He fails to supply the links which connect the dates of the eclipses with the date of the crucifixion of our Lord. NATURAL HISTORY. 255 borde, " as a friendly lighthouse, guiding the tr. veler to the spot where water is to be found." The tree is remarkable for its beauty, its erect aspiring growth, its leafy canopy, its waving plumes, the emblem of praise in all ages. Its very foliage is the symbol of joy and exultation. It never fades, and the dust never settles upon it. It was therefore twisted into the booths of the feast of tabernacles (Lev. xxiii. 40), was borne aloft by the multitude that accompanied the Messiah to Jerusa-'lem (John xii. 13), and it is represented as in the hands of the redeemed in heaven (Rev. vii. 9) For usefulness, the tree is unrivalled. Gibbon Says that the natives of Syria speak of 360 uses to which the palm is applied. Its shade refreshes the traveler. Its fruit restores his strength. When his soul fails for thirst, it announces water. Its stones are ground for his camels. Its leaves are made into couches, its boughs into fences and walls, and its fibres into ropes or rigging. Its best fruit, moreover, is borne in old age, the finest dates being often gathered when the tree has reached a hundred years. It sends, too, from the same root a large number of suckers, which, in time, form a forest by their growth (Judges iv. 5). What an emblem of the righteous in the desert of a guilty world It is not uninstructive to add that this tree, once the symbol of Palestine, is now rarely seen in that country. Another beautiful tree found in Palestine, and also an emblem of the Christian, is the cedar. " The righteous shall grow like the cedar." This tree strikes its roots into the cloven rock. Like the palm, it loves the water; and if the wells near which it grows are dried, it withers, or ceases to grow. As its roots stretch away into the mountains, its boughs are spread abroad. Like the palm, it is an evergreen; though used to wintry weather, it is always covered with leaves. Its bark and leaves are highly aromatic, and the "smell of Lebanon" has become a proverb for fragrance. The cedar is sound to the very core. It adorns the mountain's brow, and then does service in the temple. After living a thousand years, it preserves all it touches, and gives beauty to the lintels and ceiling of the house of the Lord. Such is the character and influence of a resolute and consistent Christian! In Dent. xxxii. 11, God is said to have taught Israel as the eagle trains her young. When the eaglets are old enough to fly, she stirs up her nest, separates its parts, and compels the young birds to fly to some neighboring crag; she then flutters over them, teaching them to move their wings and to sustain and guide themselves by their movements. Finding them weary or unwilling, she spreads her wings. takes her brood upon her back, and soars with them aloft. In order to exercise their strength, she then shakes them off; and when she perceives that their pinions flag, or that an enemy is near, she darts beneath Lhem 256 EXTERNAL HELPS —NATURAL HISTORY. with surprising skill, and at once restores their strength, or places her own body between her young and the danger that threatens them. The eagle is the only bird endowed with this instinct, and the whole of her procedure is suggestive of inetructive lessons in relation to the dealings of God. In the history of ancient Israel, and in the history of the church, it is found that He weans his people from their resting. place-in Egypt, in the world, and in their own righteousness —by means of affliction: He stirs up the nest. By -the example of good men, by the exhibition of his perfections, by the life and character of his Son, he flutters over them; while his promise and Spirit sustain their hearts, and make their happiness and safety as sure and unchanging as his own. In mountainous countries like Palestine, the ass, or mule, was often preferred for domestic uses even to the horse. Asses are consequently enumerated among the riches of Abraham and Job, Gen. xii. 16: Job xlii. 12. Mephibosheth, the grandson of Saul, rode upon an ass; as did Ahithophel, the prime minister of David; and as late as the reign of Jehoram, the son of Ahab, the services of this animal were required by the wealthy. The Shunammite, for example, a person of high rank, saddled her ass and rode to Carmel, the residence of Elisha, 2 Kings iv. 8, 24. In later times, however, and even from the reign of Solomon, the paces of the horse began to be regarded as more stately and noble, Solomon himself introduced a numerous stud of the finest horses — horses of Arabia; and after the return of the Jews from Babylon, their great men rode for the most part on horses or mules. It soon became, therefore, a mark of poverty or of humility to appear in public on an ass, and this was the impression generally prevalent in the time of our Lord. (Compare Zech. ix. 9 with Matt. xxi. 45). The Hebrews employed both the ox and the ass in ploughing the ground, Isa. xxx 24; xxxii. 20; but they were forbidden to yoke them to the same plough, partly because of their unequal step, and partly because the animals never associated happily together. This prohibition was perhaps intended to suggest the impropriety of an intercourse between Christians and idolaters in social and religious life; but it was also intended in the first instance, and chiefly, to protect the animals from cruel treatment. Issachar is compared to an ass; and vigor and bodily strength are suggested by the comparison. It is said also that he should bow his shoulder to bear, and prefer the yoke of bondage to the difficult issues of war, and inglorious ease to just freedom, Gen. xlix. 14: a prophecy fulfilled in the history of that tribe, who submitted successively to the Phoenicians on the one hand, and to the Canaanites on the other. NATURAL HISTORY, 257 The tail of the Syrian sheep is much larger than in otl.er breeds. In a sheep weighing seventy pounds, the tail will often weigh fifteen; and it is deemed the most delicate part of the animal. Hence, in the religious ritual of the Hebrews, the priest is commanded to take the ram and the tail (or the rump, as it is called in our version, Lev. iii. 9), and present them in sacrifice to Jehovah. Both were to be placed on the altar, to indicate the completeness and the value of the offering... In its domesticated state, the sheep is a weak and defenceless animal. It is therefore dependent upon the shepherd both for protection and sup-port. To the disposition of these animals to wander from the fold, and thus to abandon themselves (in a country like Judma) to destruction, there are many touching allusions in Scripture, Psa. cxix. 176: Isa. liii. 6.... The Eastern shepherd calls his sheep, and they recognize his voice and follow him. His care of them, and their security under his protection, are beautifully set forth in John x. 11. It is plain that a knowledge of their habits is essential to a right appreciation of the imagery of Scripture. The lion is remarkable for courage and strength. If he retreats from an enemy, he retreats with his face towards him. After he has killed his victim, he tears it in pieces, and devours it with the utmost greediness, Psa. xvii. 12. Hos. xiii. 8. The young lion subsists, according to ancient naturalists, by hunting, and seldom quits the deserts; but when he has grown old he visits more frequented places, and becomes more dangerous to man. This fact explains the language of God by Hosea. " I will be unto Ephraim (or the ten tribes) as a great (or old) lion," most therefore to be dreaded; "and to the house of Judah as a young lion," chap. v, 14. In accordance with this prophecy, Ephraim was driven into a distant land, where this tribe suffered a protracted exile, while Judah retained its position for 133 years longer, and was then carried into captivity for the shorter term of seventy years.... One of the coverts of this animal was in the low ground in the neighborhood of the Jordan, which, like the Nile, overflows its banks every spring. At that season, therefore, the coverts were laid under water, and the wild beasts were all driven to the hills, where they often committed great ravages, Jer. xlix. 19. "Like a lion from the swellings of Jordan," thus became a proverb in Judaea, which comparatively recent discovery has enabled us to understand. The eneigy of the Gospel in striking terror into the hearts of the impenitent, and in imparting comfort to the church, is compared to the roaring of the lion, Joel iii. 16. The savage disposition of the lion is sometimes referred to, and then always in a bad sense. In 1 Pet. v. 8, Satan is compared 22* 258 BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. to a lion, and the enemies of the church generally are represented under the same.ame, Ia. v. 29. Many other expressions and figures are borrowed from natural history. The "oil" of the olive berry soothes pain, and, by closing the pores of the body against noxious exhalations, promotes health. It was thought peculiarly successful in counteracting the effect of poison, and hence it is often used to describe the power of the Gospel. Its medicinal properties (see James v.) made it of great commercial value: hence it'is said that "he that loveth oil shall not be rich." The "myrrh" and "balm" (or balsam) of the East are strongly aromatic gums, which flow spontaneously or by means of incision from the trees, and were in great request as articles of commerce. The balm of Gilead, Jer. viii. 22, was deemed a very valuable medicine, and the expression is often used figuratively to indicate any great remedy or restorative. The habits of the ant, of the locust, of the camel, of the dove, are all interesting, but they are generally sufficiently known, or are referred to with sufficient minuteness in the Scriptures themselves. 360. Since the English Bible was completed, our knowledge of Eastern botany especially has largely increased; and as the force of the imagery of Scripture frequently depends upon a knowledge of the plants which are named, we append a table of all the plants referred to in the Bible, with such a description as will enable the reader to identify them. In some instances the results are rather conjectural than certainly accurate, but these are few, and even in these there is no doubt as to the general accuracy of the renderings proposed. The table is drawn up from various documents, and chiefly from the very elaborate articles on this subject, prepared by Dr. Royle, for Kitto's Biblical Cyclopsedia. Almond is the name of two trees mentioned in Scripture; the one, Luz, translated "hazel," Gen. xxx. 37, is the wild almond (Boch. Jer. Iosenm.), and the other Shaked, the cultivated almond. The flowers are like the bloom of the apple-tree, at first rose-colored, and then white. It is hence a symbol of old age, Eccl. xii. 5, and from its early blossoming, of any sudden interposition, Jer i. 11: Numb. xvii. 8: Gen. xliii. 11. AblZug, or Algum, is not known. Sandal wood which is yellow or white, and fragrant, answers the descrption given I Kings x. 11, BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 259 12. The name given in 2 Chron. ii. 8 is probably an error of the transcribers, see 1 Kings x. 11, and 2 Chron. ix. 10, 11. Aloes, properly lign-aloes, must be carefully distinguished from the aloe, which emits no agreeable odor, see Psa. xlv. 8: Numb. xxiv. 6. This tree is still known in India by the name of Aghil, and inl Europe as the Eagle-tree (Aquilaria). The wood is highly odoriferous, and the tree is said in Eastern tradition to have been one of the trees of Paradise. The wood was very costly, and was used to impart fragrance to the linen in which dead bodies were wrapped, John xix. 40. Heb. Ahalim. Anise, or Dill, occurs only in Matt. xxiii. (are)ov). It is anherb of small value. Its seeds are aromatic and carminative, yielding an oil much used in fatulency. Apple of Scripture is perhaps the quince, which is in the East more highly scented and much sweeter than in Europe (Cels. Ray); or it may be the citron, a rich golden-colored fruit, Prov. xxv. 11: Joel i. 12: Cant. ii. 3, 5; vii. 8. Heb. Tappuach. [But see Bib. Dic.] Bay-tree occurs only in Psa. xxxvii. 35, and is the laurus nobilis (?) an evergreen with an agreeable spicy odor. Heb. Ezrach [Native]. Bean occurs in 2 Sam xvii. 28: Ezek. iv. 9, anl is rightly translated. There are various species, but not widely different from each other. Heb. Pol. Box-tree of the East is the same as that of Europe, though in the East it grows wild and large, Isa. xli. 19; lx. 13. It is specially adapted to mountainous districts and a calcareous limestone soil, like Lebanon. Heb. Teashur. Briers.-The thorny plants of Palestine are very numerous, and Rabbinical writers say that as many as twenty-two words are used in Scripture to express this species.' The particular plants indicated by these words are generally not known, but they are nearly all thorny and useless. Brier, t^.:pl, Barkanim, Judg. viii. 7, 16, some thorny, prickly plant. Rosen. translates "flails." C, Chedek, Prov. xv. 19, "thorns," and Mic. vii. 4, "a brier," a species of nightshade, Solanum spinosum (Royle). iiq, Ez. xxviii. 24: -, Isa. Iv. 13: -it., Isa. xxxii. 13; and everywhere else in Isa. except Iv. 13; thorny plants not now known, Heb. Sillon.: Sirpad: Shamir. Bramqbll, Judg. ix. 14, 15, etc., tlpY properly thorn., which se; rin, thorn or thistle, which see. 260 BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE, Nettle, Prov. xxiv. 31: Job. xxx. 7: Zeph. ii. 9, 5nn., Charull Royle thinks wild m lstard. It is destructive to other vegetation; common to the East, and known by the name of Chardul, or in English, Curlock. The nettle is probably the plant mentioned in Isa. xxxiv. 13: Hos. ix. 6: Prov. xxiv. 31 (CjTi, Kimmosh), where it is 80 translated. Bush (n, Roaws), Exod. iii. 2: Deut. xxxiii. 16. The Greek word means bramble: and the Rubris tanctus is common in Palestine. Pococke thinks the hawthorne the more probable. Heb. Sene. Thistles ( G~), Gen. iii. 18, TrgsAosm in LXX and New Testament,-Matt vii. 16: Heb. vi. 8: a common prickly plant spreading over the ground. Tribulus (nri), probably a thornbush, Job. xli. 2: Prov. xxvi. 9: Isa. xxxiv. 13. Thorns, a general name, rin, Ii rl, P', Y.:], t:.e &. (pricks), e.te, = Gr. a'uv x in the LXX, and in Matt. vii. 16 xiii. 7, 22; xxvii. 29: John xix. 2, 5. All these words are translated thorns, and there is nothing in the terms to lead to a more minute knowledge of the species to which they refer: another name is -:!, Atad, Judg.ix. 14, 15: Psa. Iviii. 9, translated "bramble," probably a kind of buckthorn. It puts forth long, slender, thorned switches, and is by many supposed to be the thorn with which Christ was crowned, Zizyphus Spina Christi. Thorns, thistles, and brambles are to this day very numerous in Palestine. The common bramble and the holy bramble (Rubris sanctus) abound: and thistles cover large tracts of ground, and grow to a prodigious size; among others, travelers mention the white Syrian thistle, with the Egyptian or purple variety, and the musk-scented thistle (Carduus mollis). Calanus, or Sweet Cane, Exod. xxx. 23: Cant. iv. 14: Eze. xxvii. 19: Isa. xliii. 24; Jer. vi. 20. This plant is found in Asia and Egypt, though the most fragrant are said in Jer. to come from a far country. Dr. Royle thinks that a species found in the Himalayas (and which he calls Andropogon Calamus aromaticus) best answers the description of Scripture. It was one of the ingredients of the anointing oil of the Sanctuary. Heb. Kane. Csmphire, old English for Camphor, is probably the henna (Gr. Kupros) of the East: a very fragrant shrub, with flowfrs growing like those of the lilac The leaves form a powder used for dyeing BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 261 the nails and eyebrows, both in Syria and Egypt, Cant. i. 14; iv. 13. -Heb. Kopher. Cassia, Exod. xxx. 24: Eze. xxvii. 19, an inferior kind of cinnamon. The bark yields an essential oil, leis aromatic than cinnamon, but in larger quantities and of a more pungent taste. Heb. Kida Cedar, the name probably )f the pine-tribe of trees, and especially of the noblest of the tribe, the cedar of Lebanon. The Hebrew word was probably used with the same extent as the English, hence we have the red, or pencil cedar, which is a juniper, and indeed the cedar of the Pentateuch (Lev. xiv. 4, 6) was probably a juniper, which tree is common in the desert of Sinai. Heb. Erez. Chestnut-tree, Gen. xxx. 37: Eze. xxxi. 8, probably the plane, one of the most magnificent of trees. Those of Assyria were especially fine, see Eze. xxxi. 8. Cinnamon, Ex. xxx. 23: Prov. vii. 17: Cant. iv. 14: Rev. xviii. 13, the bark of the laurus kinnamomum. The plant is found in India and China; but the best kind is from Malabar and Ceylon. Cockle, Job. xxxi. 40, perhaps the English plant so called: but more probably a species of night-shade (Solanum nigrum), or Aconite. The plural of this word is translated "wild grapes," Isa. v. 2: the nightshade referred to grows largely in the East, and the Arabic name resembles the Hebrew. The fruit, is narcotic and poisonous. Heb. Boshah. [A stink-weed.] Coriander, an umbelliferous plant, yielding a fruit (called seed) the size of a pepper-corn, globular and grayish. It is common in the south of Europe, in England, and America. The fruit is used by distillers, etc., as a good stomachic, Exod. xvi. 31: Numb. xi. 7. Heb. Gad. Cucumber, Numb. xi. 5: Isa. i. 8; rightly translated. The plant is called kissa by the Arabs, and is extensively cultivated in the East. Heb. Kishuim. Desire, Eccl. xii. 5. The word so translated is generally regarded as the caper plant (common in Syria), which yields a pungent pickle, stimulating to the appetite. The flower-buds, and in some species the unripe pod, in others the berry, are used for this purpose. Heb. Abiyona. Doves-Dung, 2 Kings vi. 25, is perhaps the chick-pea, a vetch common in the East. The same name is still applied in Arabic to the dung of pigeons, and to these peas (Bochart, Taylor). Some suppose that the root of a wild-flower, the star of Bethlehem, is the article here mentioned. Heb. Dibhyonim. [But see First's Heb. Lex.] JEbony, Eze. xxvii. 15, wood greatly prized for its color and hardness 262 -BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. It'is the heart-wood of a date-tree which grows in great abund. ance in the East, and especially in Ceylon. Heb. Hobhnim. Fig-tree, Arab. teen: properly translated: a native of the East; with broad shady leaves (1 Kings iv. 25). The fig sprouts at the vernal equinox, and yields three crops of fruit. The first ripening about the end of June, having a fine flavor, and generally eaten green (Jer. xxiv. 2). The o hers are often preserved in masses or cakes, 1 Sam. xxv. 18, etc. Heb. Teena..Fir-tree (Sj>., Berosh) is frequently mentioned in Scripture, 2 Sam. vi. 5: Cant. i. 17, etc., and probably includes various trees of the pine tribe. Some regard the cypress and juniper as the true representatives of Berosh; others the cedar, and others the common pine. All are found in Palestine: and as cedar and fir constantly occur together in Scripture, they probably include the whole genus. Flax (nr j, Pishta, once translated tow, Isa. xliii. 17, more properly a wick): the common plant, so called, used to make linen, cord, and torches; extensively cultivated in Egypt and Syria. Gr. xvosy, Matt. xii. 20. rt, Shesh, translated fine linen and silk, was probably the hemp plant, in Arabic hasheesh, yielding an intoxicating drink (whence assassin), now known as the bang of the East. The plant is cultivated in Persia, Europe, and India. Two other words are translated linen in the English version, -!. Bad; Ew, Butz, the former is used in the Pentateuch, etc., and is probably the linen made from flax; the latter is used only in Chron. and the Prophets, and is probably cotton cloth, a product not mentioned till after the captivity: it is generally translated fine linen, and was probably of finer fibre than the flax. The isuoso of the New Testament was probably linen. In the LXX, vuoo-~c translates both words. The word cotton does not occur in Scripture, but the Hebrew name (Karpas) is found in Esth. i. 6, where it is translated green. The cotton plant seems not to have been known in Palestine before the captivity. The cotton is the lining of the seed pods, and is gathered by hand as the pods ripen and burst. Flag (translated meadow in Gen. xli. 2, 18), Job. viii. 11, probably any green herbaceous plants of luxuriant growth. Heb. Achu. Filches, i. e., vetches, occurs only in Isa. xxviii. 25, 27, and is probably a species of Nigerla. The.,eds are black, and are used in the BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 263 East; like carraway seeds, for the purpose of imparting to food an aromatic, acrid taste. Hob. Ketzach. Galbanum, Ex. xxx. 34 only, a very powerful and not very fragrant gum, exuded by a shrub belonging to the family of Umbelliferae (Bubon Galbanum). It was used in preparing incense. Garlick, Numb. xi. 5 only. This plant is now known by the name of eschalot, or shalot, and is common in Europe (Allium Escalonium, i. e., of Ascalon). Herodotus states that it was supplied in large quantities to the laborers engaged in the erection of the pyramids. Heb. Shum. Gopher is mentioned only in Gen. vi. 14. Probably a tree of the pine tribe, perhaps cypress (Bochart, Celsius), which is very abundant in Assyria. Heb. Gopher. Gourd, Jonah iv. 6-10, is now generally admitted to be the Palma Christi, or castor-oil plant. It is of yery rapid growth, with broad palmate leaves, and giving, especially when young, an ample shade. The oil is obtained from the seeds of the tree. Gourd, Wild, 2 Kings iv. 39. The wild cucumber, whose leaves are like those of the vine, but of a poisonous quality and bitter taste. Heb. Kikayon and Pakuoth. Hemlock, Hos. x. 4: Amos. vi. 12, translated "gall" in Dent. xxix. 18: Lam. iii. 19. Tremellius and Celsius.regard hemlock as the true meaning: others think it a general name for any bitter herb (Royle). Hob. Rosh. [Poppy (Gesen.); poppy, poison (Fiirst.)] Hyssop, Exod. xii. 22, etc., either marjoram, a small shrub, its leaves covered with soft wooly down, adapted to retain fluid; or the thorny caper (Royle), which grows wild in Syria, and is possessed of detergent properties. Arab. Asaf. Heb. Ezov. Husks (KLpTrL), Luke xv., the pods (probably) of the Carob-tree, a tree which is called St. John's Tree, is-of middle size, the fruit consisting of flat pods, six inches long and an inch broad. The seeds are hard, bitter, and useless, but the pods are used for feeding swine. The tree is common in Spain, and its pods were the chief food of the horses of the British cavalry there in 1811, 1812. Juniper, 1 Kings xix. 4, 5: Job xxx. 4: Psa. cxx. 4, is probably the Spanish broom. The wood of this tree burns with a remarkably light flame, giving out great heat: hence coals of juniper in Psa. cxx. This fact is noticed by various Eastern travelers. Leeks (' a, rrpavc), Numb. xi. 5. The word so translated is rendered grass, 1 Kings xviii. 5: herb, Job. viii. 12: and hay, Prov. xxvii. 25. It properly means anything green. But it is translated leeks 264' BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. in these passages by most of the versions; and the plant has been known (and indeed worshipped) in Egypt from very early times. Lentiles, a kind of pulse from a small annual, and used for making soups and pottage. It is of the color of chocolate (reddish brown), and is compared by Pliny to the color of the reddish sand around the pyramids. Wilkinson (Anct. Egypt) has given a picture of lentile-pottage making, taken from an ancient slab, Gen. xxv. 34: 2 Sam. xvii. 28. Heb. Adashim. Lily, this word is probably applicable to several plants common in Palestine. In most passages of Scripture where the word is used there is reference to the lotus, or water-lily of the Nile. This species was eaten as food: the roots, stalks, and seeds are all very grateful, both fresh and dried. Hence the allusion to feeding among lilies. The "lily of the valley," i. e. of the water-courses, belongs also to this species, Cant. ii. 2, 16; iv. 5, etc. The flower was worn on festive occasions, and formed one of the ornaments of the temple, 1 Kings vii. 19. Heb. Shushan. The lily of the New Testament (xpivov) is the scarlet martagon lily (Lil. Chalcedonium), a stately turban-like flower. It flowers in April and May; when the sermon on the Mount was probably delivered, and is indigenous throughout Galilee. It is called in the New Testament the "lily of the field," Matt. vi. 28. Mallows, only in Job xxx. 4, is possibly what we understand by the name. It is still used by the poor as a common dish. It is probable that a kind of salt-wort (orache)-is meant; so Bochart and Dr. M. Good. Heb. Malluach. Mandrakes, Gen. xxx. 14, 16: Cant. vii. 13, Atropa Mandragora, a plant like lettuce in size and shape, but of dark green leaves. The fruit is of the size of a small apple, and ripens in wheat-harvest (May). It is noted for its exhilarating and genial virtues. Melon, Numb. xi. 5. The gourd tribe, to which cucumbers and melons belong, are great favorites in the East, and abound in Egypt and India. There are different kinds,-the Egyptian (Cucumis Chate), the common water-melon, etc., all of which are probably included in the Scripture name. Heb. Abattichim. Millet, Eze. iv. 9, the panicum miliaceum of botanists, a small grain, sometimes cultivated in England for feeding poultry, and grown throughout the East. It is used for food in Persia and in India. Iab. Dochan. Mulberry, in the New Testament Sycamine-tree, Luke xvii. 6, (very different from the Sycamore, which is a kind of fig), is the mulbwry of Europe, very common in Palestine. The word translated BOTANY OF SORIPTUIRE. 265 mulberry in 2 Sam. v. 23, 24: 1 Chr. xiv. 14, 15, possibly means poplar. The rustling of its leaves answers the description given in these passages. The same word occurs in Psa. lxxxiv. 6, and is there regarded as a proper name (Baca), but most of the versions translate it "weeping:" Valley of Baca equalling "vale of tears." [It is uncertain what tree is intended.] Mustard ('[acrr) is either a species of the plant known in England under this name, which has one of the smallest seeds, and is itself among the tallest of herbaceous plants, or the Salvadora Persica, a shrub or tree, whose seeds are used for the same purpose as mustard (Royle, Irby). Mdyrrh is the representative of two words in Hebrew, of which the first - (,e' spvye) is properly translated, Exod. xxx. 23: Psa.xlv. 8, etc.: Mark xv. 23, 36. It is a gum exuded by the Balsamodendron -M~yrrha, and other plants. It is highly aromatic and medicinal, and moderately stimulating. The Greeks used it to drug their wine. The shrub is found in Arabia and Africa. F-, Bedholaoh, Gen. ii. 12: Numb. xi. 7, is probably a gum, still known as bdellium. The gum exudes from more than one tree, and is found in both India and Africa. -, Lot, is properly labdanum. It is a gum exuded by the cistus, and is now used chiefly in fumigation, Gen. xxxvii. 25; xliii. 11. Other similar gums mentioned in Scripture are: Balm (-):), Gen. xxxvii. 25: Jer. viii. 22. It is probably the nalm or balsam of Gilead (the Hebrew of which word, however, p.:, is generally translated spice, or sweet odors). This tree is common in Arabia and Africa. The gum is obtained in small quantities, and is highly aromatic and medicinal. Frankincense (,:.) is a gum taken from a species of Storax and is highly fragrant. It was employed chiefly for fumigation, and was largely used in the service of the temple. It was regarded as an emblem of prayer, Lev. ii. 1: Psa. cxlv. 1, 2: Rev. viii. 3, 4. Heb. Lebona. Spicery (1i3), Gen. xxxvii. 25; xliii. 11, is a kind of gum, perhaps taken from the tragacanth tree. Heb. Necoth. Stacte (tu3) occurs only in Exod xxx. 34, and is another gum, not now certainly known. Celsius thinks it an inferior kind of myrrh. Heb. Neteph. Myrtle grows wild in Palestine, and reaches the height of twenty feet. Its leaves are dark and glossy, and its wild flowers highly aro23 266 BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. matic. Its branches were used at the Feast of Tabernacles, Neh. viii. 15: Isa. xli. 17-19. Heb. Hadas. Nard, Mark xiv. 3 (b3, nerd, translated spikenard in the Old Testament), the plant Nardostachys jatamansi, from which a delicious and costly perfume is made. The root and the leaves that grow out of it have the appearance of spikes, hence the name (stachys spike), Cant. i. 12; iv. 13, 14: John xii. 3. Nut is the translation of two Hebrew words. 1~:n^. Botnim, Gen. xliii. 11, the pistachio-nut tree, well known in Syria and India, but not in Egypt; and A, Egoz, the walnuttree, which is called in Pers. and Arab. " gouz," Cant. vi. 11. Oak ( Gi.), Gen. xxxv. 8: Isa. ii. 13; vi. 13; xliv. 14: Eze. xxvii. 6: Hos. iv. 13: Amos ii. 9: Zech. xi. 2. In other passages where the word "oak" is found, some different species of oak is probably denoted. The oak is not common in Palestine, (?) nor is the English oak (Q. robur) found there. Oaks of Bashan are still of large size; but they are chiefly either the evergreen oak (Q. ilex), the prlicklycupped oak (Q. Valonia) or the Kermes oak (see Scarlet Oak). Heb. Ellon. Elah. [But see "The Land and Book," i. p. 374.] Olive, an evergreen, common from Italy to Cabul. The unripe fruit is preserved in a solution of salt, and is used at desserts; when ripe, it is bruised in mills, and yields an oil of peculiar purity and value. Both the oil and the tree were used in the feast of tabernacles. In Judaea it was an emblem of prosperity, Psa. lii. 8; and in all ages it has been an emblem of peace. The wild olive (Rom. ii. 17, 24) was probably a wild species of the Olea Europcea. It was a common mode of grafting, in Italy, to insert a branch of the wild olive on the stock of the cultivated plant (Columella). Heb. Zaith. Oiion, a plant well known in this country and in the East. In hot climates it loses its acrid taste, and is highly agreeable and nutritious,. Numb. xi. 5. Heb. Betzal. Palm, or date-tree, Arab. tamr., is one of the most valuable Eastern trees, Exod. xv. 27. It flourished especially in the valley of Jordan (hence Jericho, the City of Palm Trees) and in the deserts of Syria (Tamar =Palmyra). It was considered characteristic of Judsea, being first met with there by nations traveling southward from Europe. Heb. Taman. Pomegranate ("grained apple"), a tree of great value in hot climates. Its fruit is globular, and as large as a good sized apple. The interior contains a quantity of purple or rosy seeds, with a sweet BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. 267 juice, of a slightly acid taste, 1 Sam. xiv. 2. The tree is not unlike the common hawthorn, but larger. It is cultivated in North Africa, and throughout Asia, Hag. ii. 19: Dent. viii. 8: Cant. viii. 2: Joel i. 12. Heb. Rimmon. Carved pomegranates were placed on the capitals of the columns of the temple. Poplar, Gen. xxx. 37: Hos. iv. 13, is either the white poplar or the storax-tree. The latter yields the fragrant resin of frankincense. Either tree answers the description given in Genesis and Hosea. In the former, the LXX translate storax, and in the latter, poplar. The version of Genesis is the more ancient and authoritative. Heb. Libneh. Aeed, of the East, is a tall, grassy plant, consisting of a long, hollowjointed stem, with sharp-cutting leaves. The plant grows on the banks of rivers and in moist places, 1 Kings xiv. 15: Job. xl. 21: Isa. xix. 6, 7; xxxvi. 6: Ez. xl. 5: Matt. xi. 7, and was used for measuring, fishing, walking, etc. A small kind was used for writing, 3 John 13. This reed is very abundant in the marshes between the Tigris and the Euphrates. Heb. Kaneh. Rose, Cant. ii. 1: Isa xxxv. 1. Though the rose was known in Syria, and one species (the Damask rose) takes its name from Damascus, it is not mentioned in Scripture; the word so translated being (as its name implies) a bulbous-rooted plant. It is probably the narcissus, which is found throughout Syria, and is both very fragrant and beautiful. Heb. Chavatzeleth. Rue, only in Luke xi. 42, is the common garden-plant so called. Its leaves emit a strong and bitter odor, and were formerly used medicinally. Rush, Isa. ix. 14, translated also "hook," Job xli. 2: and bulrush, Isa. lviii. 5, ought to be translated reed, or rush, in all these passages. tj (Gome), translated, also, bulrush, Exod. ii. 3: Isa. xxxv. 7, xviii. 2, is the Egyptian papyrus, which belongs to the tribe, not of rushes, but of sedges. It grows eight or ten feet high.. The stem is triangular and without leaves, but is adorned with a laic, flocculent, bushy top. The plant was used for making boats, sails, mats and ropes; the stem itself yielding the celebrated paper of Egypt. The plant was found all along the Nile, near Babylon and in India. Heb. Agmon. [Now very rare in Egypt.] Saffron, pfxsc, part of the yellow crocus, Cant. iv. 14. The stigmas and style of the flower formed this fragrant perfume, which was used to flavor both meat and wine, and as a powerful stimulative 268 BOTANY OF SCRIPTURE. medicine. It is very common throughout Asia, and derives its English name (saffron) from the Arabic " zafran." Scarlet oak, of Palestine, is not mentioned in Scripture, but the insect living upon it is mentioned (a_:, Tolaath), Exod. xxv. 4: Lev. xiv. 4, 6, etc. The tree is the kermes (hence crimson), or quercue coccifera (holm-oak), and the insects, a worm (vermes, hence vermillion), seem to grow on the branches, and were long thought to be vegetable excrescences of the tree itself. These insects are a lively red, and formed in early times the common scarlet dye. This was superseded in part by the Tyrian purple, and in later times by cochineal, the product of another insect (Coccus cactus), indigenous to Southern and Central America. Shittah-tree, the acacia, or Egyptian thorn, Exod. xxv. 5, etc. The stem is straight and thorny, the bark is a grayish-black, the wood very light and durable, and therefore well adapted for a moveable structure like the tabernacle. All this species bear flowers, and are remarkable for their fragrance and beauty. Soap, of Scripture, Jer. ii. 22: Mal. iii. 2, was a carbonate of soda, obtained from a kind of salt-wort. The ashes of this species of plants is called in commerce barilla, and is used in the manufacture of glass. Probably the carbonate of potash (pearlash), which is obtained by burning poplar and other plants, is included under this name. Heb. Bor, or Borith. Sycamore, 1 Kings x. 27: Psa. lxxviii. 47, etc., erroneously translated by the LXX v-ua jivo (see Mulberry). In its leaves it resembles the mulberry, but is really a fig-tree, bearing a coarse, inferior fruit (Ficus sycamorus). It is lofty and shady (Luke xix. 4), with wood of no great value (1 Kings x. 27: 2 Chron. i. 15). The mummy-cases of Egypt were generally made of it. This tree must be distinguished from the English sycamore, which is a kind of maple. Tares ('dvrt), Matt. xiii. 25, the Lolium temulentum, a kind of darnell, or grass, resembling wheat. It impoverishes the soil, and bears a seed of deleterious properties. Teil-tree, Isa. vi. 13, is probably one variety of the genus oak and not the turpentine-tree (Pistachia terebinthus). The word so rendered is translated elsewhere elm, Hos. iv. 13, and oak, Gen. xxxv. 4. The Pist. ter. is smaller, and yields a kind of turpentine of agreeable odor and taste. Heb. Ela. [" Land and Book," i. p. 373]. Thyine-wood (Rev. xviii. 12) was in great demand among the Romans, who called it thya, or citron-wood. It grows only in the neigh EXTERNAL HELPS-MINERALOGY. 269 borhood of Mount Atlas, in Africa, and yields the sanderach rosin of commerce. It is highly balsamic and odoriferous. Vtin(e (G, Gephen, a"irAxoc) Gen. ix. 20, etc., a well-known tree, and highly esteemed throughout the East. The vines of Eshcol, and of Sorek, were especially celebrated. The vine was grown on terraces on the hills of Palestine, Isa. v. 1: Micah i. 6, or elsewhere on the ground, Ezek. xvii. 6, 7. Sometimes it formed an arbor, 1 Kings iv. 25: Hos. ii. 12, propped up and trained. A noble vine =men of generous disposition, Jer. ii. 21; Isa. v. 2. A strange, or wild vine== men ignoble and degenerate, Deutj xxxii. 32: Gen. xl. 9, 10, etc. srtlow, Psa. cxxxvii: Isa. xliv. 4, was well known in Judea, and one species, the weeping willow, is the Salix Babylonica. (rS:) Tsaphtsapha, Ez. xvii. 5, is probably the Egyptian willow (Salix - Egypt). trormwood, (rnag, Laana, c4iYv&o, "root of bitterness," Deut. xxix. 17: Rev. viii. 10, 11, an emblem of trouble. There are various species of this tribe (Artemisia), of which the English plant (A. absinthium) is a specimen. There are several kinds found in Judoea, all of which are exceedingly bitter. The wormwood of commerce consxrss of the tops of the plants, flowers, and young seeds, intermixed. 361. For the same reason (~ 360), we append tables of the minerals mentioned in Scripture. They will be found to throw light on several passages. 1. EARlTHS AND OTRER MINERAL SUBSTANCES. Bitumen, or asphalt. translated slime, is an earth-resin, abounding in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea and elsewhere. It was used as cement, Gen. xi. 3, as it still is in Zante and in some parts of the East. Pliny states that the Egyptians used it for making the papyrus boats of the Nile water-tight: (see Exod. ii. 3). Heb. Chamar. Brimstone, or sulphur, a mineral found in a natural state, and obtained by art from pyrites and various rock formations. It is found la Palestine in both states, Gen. xix. 24, 25: Psa. xi. 6: Ezek. xxxviii. 22: Isa. xxx. 33; xxxiv. 9: Rev. xiv. 10. Heb Gophrith. Naphtha is also found in Palestine, and is, with the foregoing, highly combustible. -The word occurs only, or rather, this earthoil is mentioned only in Theodosius's version of part of Daniel..23 270 MINERALOGY-STONES AND ROCKS. Clay, an unctuous earth, used in making earthenware, Isa. xxix. 16: xlv. 9: Jer. xviii. 4, 6, and, when mixed with sand,-then called mud-for building, Job iv. 19. tgta, Tit (properly dirt), has also the meaning of clay in Isa. xli. 25. Earth has three reiresentatives in Hebrew: 2-N, Eretz, =the earth, habitable and uninhabited; li-;a. Adama, properly, red earth, cultivable land, and sometimes the whole earth; mp, aphar, dry T T earth, or dust. There are also words for very fine dust (Dent. xxviii. 24: Nahum i. 3), and a dust particle, or atom (Isa. xl. 15). Clods of earth have three names, Job vii. 5; xxi. 33: Joel i. 17, _Nitre (soda), natrum, ~th, Nether, a mineral alkali, (as.', Borith, translated soap, is a vegetable alkali), found ip a natural state in Egypt, etc. It occurs only. Jer. ii. 22. and in Prov. xxv. 20. Vinegar (any acid) makes it emit a disagreeable odor, and destroys its qualities; hence the last passage. Salt abounds in Palestine. The Dead Sea is strongly impregnated with it. The salt-valley of 2 Sam. viii. 13: 1 Chron. xviii. 12: Psa. lx., is a large plain, still existing, south-west of the Dead Sea. The salt-pits of Zeph. ii. 9, were probably such as are still dug in the borders of the Dead Sea, into.which the water runs, and where a thick crust of salt is soon deposited. Figuratively, salt expresses permanence, friendship, payment or support, sterility; pure, salutary, healthy influence; preserving from decay. Hence a covenant of salt, 2 Chron. xiii. 5: Rosenm. on Lev. ii. 13: Ez. iv. 14, marg.: Psa. cvii. 34 (because nothing can grow in a soil covered with salt, Jer. xvii. 6: Judg. xix. 45): Col. iv. 6 (where it refers to apposite pure discourse): Matt. v. 13: Mark ix. 50. Heb. Melach. Sand abounds in Palestine, and is often used as a comparison, to express abundance, extensiveness, weight, etc. Heb. Chol. 2. STONES AND ROCKS. Alabaster, (from the Coptic, the whitish stone) of the moderns, is a kind of gypsum: among the ancients the word was applied to a box, made of a kind of onyx (Pliny, lib. xxxvi. chap. i ), Matt. xxvi. 7: Mark xiv. 3: Luke vii. 37. Pliny sKates that it was much used for perfumery boxes, as it still is in Egypt. Chalk-stones, Isa. xxvii. 9, lime-stone, the chief material of the hills of Syria and Palestine. It is hard and whitish; sometime fyellow or gray. Heb. Gir. MINERAIOGY-PRECIO US STONES. 271 Crystal (Elek. i..-22: Job xxviii. 17) means literally in Hebrew and Greek, ice, a transparent, glass-like stone, of the flint family, Rev. iv. 6; xxii. 1. Heb. Kerach, Gabhish. Flint, Dent. viii. 15: xxxii. 13: Psa. cxiv. 8: Isa. 1. 7: Job xxviii. 9, translated also rock. The rocks of Sinai, to which in Deut. viii., the word is applied, are granite, porphyry and green-stone, and such rocks are no doubt intended. Heb. Chalamish. Lime ('i>, Sidh, Isa. xxxiii. 12: Amos ii. 1, translated plaster, Dent. xxvii. 2, 4), is more properly gypsum, which was more suitable foi the purpose named in Deut. xxvii. Lime, or gypsum, was early used for plastering, Dan. v. 5. Marble (t, Shesh) is limestone of a close texture. The name in Iebrew means whiteness and this was probably the common color, 1 Chron. xxix 2: Esther i. 6 Cant. v. 15. It. is very common in Arabia and Persia. Josephus states that the second temple was rebuilt by Herod with white marble, either from Arabia, or, possibly, from the hills of Syria. Rock (^., Tsur) is the generic name. High, precipitous rocks, fit for refuge, are called Y., Sela, Judges xv. 8, 11: 1 Sam. xiv. 4: Psa. xviii. 2.'tone ().-, Even), is generic. The Hebrew has distinct names for pebbles and gravel, 7n"S,'S. 3. PRECIOUS STONES. Agate, a common compound mineral, of flint and various gems, so called from the river Achates, in Sicily (Pliny), Exod. xxviii. 19; xxxix. 12. The word in Isa. liv. 12: Ez. xxvii. 16, is different (-~,.). A similar Arabic word means vivid redness, and the stone referred to is probably the oriental ruby. Amethyst, a kind of blue transparent quartz, sometimes purple or grayish; supposed by the Greeks to have the power of driving away drunkenness, hence its Greek name; by the Hebrews, of procuring dreams (:x, Chelem, a dream), Rev. xxi. 20. Beryl, Tarshish stone, or chrysolith, properly, a gem of yellow gold lustre, sometimes verging to yellow green, Exod. xxviii. 20; xxxix. 13: Cant. v. 14: Ezek. i. 16, etc.: Rev. xxi. 20: see Onyx. Car"'uncle (flashing as lightning); the word so translated is rather the oriental emerald (yuiagtqh&), a beautiful green, of different shades, Exad. xxvii,. 17: Ezek. xxviii. 13: so LXX: Jos. 272: MINER-ALOGY —I-PtRECIOUS STONES. Other words are used in Isa. liv. 12, meaning "sparkling stones." Carbuncle is derived, etymologically, from carbo, a glowing coal. See Emerald. Diamond, t,?, Yalialom, and.ntS, Shamir. The first is the Onyx a kind of chalcedony, of Various tints. When red, called sardonyx (see Sardius); reddish gray, chalcedonyx; tawny, memphitonyx. This gem, the onyx, was semi-transparent (like the human nail, hence its name), and was much used for cameos and seals, Exod. xxviii. 18 -Ezek. xxviii. 13. The second is found Jer,:xvii. 1 (also Ezek. iii. 9: Zec. vii. 1I translated adamant), and probably means emery, an aluminous mineral, very hard, used for polishing glass. Emerald, rather, carbuncle, under which name several brilliant red stones were included, especially the ruby, garnet, etc. Exod. xxviii. 18: Ezek. xxviii. 13. Jasper, an opaque gem, of various tints, green, red and yellow, Exod. xxviii. 20: Ezek. xxviii. 13: Rev. iv. 3; xxi. 11, 18, 19. Ligure, hyacinth, or jacinth, a transparent gem, orange-yellow-red, found in Ceylon and India, Exod. xxviii. 19. Rev. xxi. 20; ix. 17. Onyx, probably the beryl or chrysoprase, Gen. ii. 12: Rev. xxi. 20 (i. e., a leek-green stone), generally transparent, and a pale green color, Exod. xxv 7. Ezek. xxviii. 13 Sapphire, a transparent gem, generally sky-blue, and very hard; hence the floor of the throne of God in heaven is compared to it, Exod. xxiv. 10: Ezek i 26: Rev xxi. 19. The sapphire of the Greeks was our lapis lazuli, the same color as the Scripture sapphire, but much softer. Sardius, ( 1, Odem, red stone), properly, cornelian (a carne), a fleshcolored gem, of the chalcedony family. It abounds in Arabia, and was found largely at Sardis, in Lydia, Exod. xxviii. 17: Ezok. xxviii. 13: Rev. iv. 3; xxi. 20. Topaz, a yellow gem, with red, gray or green tinge, found in South Arabia. Hence the topaz of Cush; an island of the Arabic Gulf being called Topaz island (Diod. Sic. Pliny), Job xxviii. 19: Exod. xxviii. 17: Ezek.. xxviii. 13: Rev. xxi. 20. The descriptions in Revelation, it will be noticed, are closely connected with those in Exodus, and in Ezekiel. 4. METALS. Amber Egek. 1. 4, 27; viii. 2, properly, a metal composed of coppor MINERALOGY-METALS. 273 and gold. Electron, which is used by the LXX to translate it, meant amber, and also a similar composition (Pliny). The corresponding Greek word is found in Rev. i. 15, "fine, shining brass." Antimony, or stibium, occurs in the Hebrew, but is translated pamt (viz., the eyes), literally, with antimony, 2 Kings ix. 30: Jer. iv. 30: Ezek. xxiii. 40. The verb is 5U', Kachal, to color with al-kohol, a fine black powder made from the metal. The name (i. e.,'a, al-kohol), was ultimately applied (in Europe) to the purely spirituous part of liquors. The stones of Jerusalem are said to be set in stibium, "fair colors," Isa. liv. II. [See Bib. Die., word Paint.] Copper, (not brass): the former word is derived from Cyprus, where it was largely found. Brass is copper mixed with zinc or tin. In early times copper was generally used instead of iron. Wherever the word steel occurs in our version, the original is copper. There is ample evidence from classic and Egyptian authorities that copper was extensively used, and it is said that the Egyptians had the art of tempering it. It was employed in making bows, and arms of all kinds. The columns of the temple, 1 Kings vii. 13-21, the bath, or sea, in the priests' vestibule, the forks used in sacrifice, the mirrors, were all of this material, Exod. xxxviii. 8: 2 Kings xxv. 13. The "copper shining like gold," Ezra viii. 27, was probably a mixture of the two metals. See Amber. Gold,(^,fi, Segor, try, Kethem, properly, what is barely concealed; ~n. Charuts, what is strongly lustrous; A, Paz, pure gold; and fi;, Zahab, gold itself, its mineral name) is found pure, and in combination with silver or iron. The Jews obtained their gold chiefly from Sheba and Ophir, both in Arabia, 1 Kings ix 28 Psa. xlv. 9. At present no gold is found there, but ancient writers (Artemid. Diod. Sic.) affirm that it was formerly found in considerable quantities. The places named in Dan. x. 5, and 2 Chron. iii 6, are not known. Beaten, or perhaps alloyed (Ges.) gold, is mentioned in 1 Kings x. 16, 17. Gold and silver were sometimes purified by fire, Prov. xvii. 3; lead, antimony, salt, tin, and bran, being used for this purpose. Gold ornaments were early used. The first mention of gold money is in David's age, 1 Chron. xxi. 25. Iron was largely found in Syria, even in the earliest times, Deut. viii. 9. Instruments and tools were made of it, Numb. xxxv. 16: Deut. xxvii. 5. Copperis called in Jer. xv. 12, "northern iron." The tribe,elebrated in ancient times for making it were called Chal+. 274 EXTERNAL HELPS —~- ANNERS AND CUSTOMS. bes, and resided near the Black Sea. Hence Jer. description: and its Greek name. Another name for steel (,5, Palda. from the Arabic), is translated.torches, Nahum ii. 4: steel scythes. See Copper, Lead is first mentioned, Exod. xv. 10. Before quicksilver was known it was used to purify silver. Hence several expressions, Jer. vi. 29: Ezek. xxii. 18. In Amos vii. 7, a weight of lead, or plummet, is mentioned. The word is the Arabic for lead (X3, Anak). Ore of gold or of silver has in Hebrew a separate name. It means, properly (Arabic similar), something broken off. It is variously translated in our version. Heb. ^:, Betzar. Silver ( K3, Keseph, literally, as in Greek, white metal) is found native and combined with sulphur and acids. It often lies in veins, Job xxviii. 1, and was purified by lead and heat (see Lead). Lead and silver combined is called silver dross; the separated silver, purified silver, Psa. xii. 6. It was brought (among other places) from Spain, Ezek. xxvii. 12: Jer. x. 9. In very early times we find it in use, Gen. xxiii. 15, 16. Many utensils were made of it, Gen. xliv. 2: Exod. xii. 35: Numb. vii. 13; x. 2. The earliest mention of it as money is in Gen. xx. 16. The shekels were not coins, however, but pieces weighed out; see Gen. xxiii. 16: so even in the days of Jeremiah, Jer. xxxii. 9. The first coinage in Palestine was in the days of the. Maccabees: see p. 286. The word rendered pieces of silver in Josh. xxiv. 32, is, properly, a kesitah, i. e., a piece equal to four shekels, as Gesenius gathers from Gen. xxxiii. 19, and xxiii. 16. Tin is first mentioned, Numb. xx'xi. 22. Later, the Tyrians imported it from Tarshish, Ezek. xxvii. 12: a leveling instrument of tin is mentioned, Zech. iv. 10. This word is also used for a refuse of lead and silver (see Lead), in Isa. i. 25. For further information on the foregoing, consult Rosenmuller on the mineralogy of Scripture, and Gesenius's Lex. 362. (6.) A knowledge of the manners and customs of the Jews is of great service in interpreting Scripture. 363. HABITATIONS. (a.) The founders of the Israelitish nation were a tent-dwelling people. Tents were invented before the deluge, and seem naturally associated with pastoral ife, Gen. iv. 20. The first tents were covered with skins, MANNERS —ABITATIONS. 2, Ex. xxvi. 14, but the coverings of most of those mentioned in Scripture were of goat's hair, spun and woven by the women, (Ex. xxxv. 26): hence their black color (Sol. Song i. 5): tents of linen were used only occasionally for holiday or travelling purposes. The early tent was probably such as is still seen in Arabia, of an oblong shape, and eight or ten feet high in the middle. Sometimes a person of consequence had three or four tents; one for-himself, another for his wives, a third and fourth for his servants and strangers, Gen. xxiv. 67; more commonly, however, a very large tent was divided by curtains into two or three compartments. The Ioly Tabernacle was formed on this model, Ex. xxvi. 31-37. (6.) Of huts, the intermediate erection between the tent and the house, we read but little in Scripture. Jacob seems to have used them to shelter his cattle (Gen. xxxiii. 17), and we find them in later times erected in vineyards to protect those who watched the ripening produce (Job xxvii. 18: Isa. i. 8). (c.) The Israelites probably saw good houses in Egypt; on entering Palestine, however, they occupied the houses which their predecessors had built, and afterwards constructed their own on the same model. Domestic architecture must have made progress during the monarchy. Solomon's palace, built by the aid of Phcenicians, no doubt suggested improvements. Jeremiah (xxii. 14) indicates some grandeur in building, and in the days of our Lord, the upper classes, at all events, had gathered instruction from the rules even of Grecian art. 364. (a.) The houses of the poor in the East, were generally built of mud, and thus became appropriate images of the frailty of human life. The walls were easily broken through, and the houses as easily destroyed (Job xxiv. 16: Ezek. xii. 5: Matt. vi. 19.) (b.) The houses of the rich were of a different order. They had generally four sides, of which one fronted the street, having only a door, and one or two small windows above. The door opened into a porch, and the porch led by a side door into a waiting-room, and the waiting-room into a four 276( MANNERSIHABITATIONS. sided court, open at the top, and surrounded by the inner walls of the house. Covered walks often running along by the walls on the ground-floor, while above them was a gallery of the same dimensions. Opposite the passage leading from the waiting-room into the court, was the guest-chamber (Luke xxii. 11), where the master received visitors, and occasionally transacted business. The roof was flat, surrounded on the outside by a breast-work or battlement; and on the side next the court, by a balustrade of lattice-work. The stairs to the roof, and to each story of the building, were generally in a corner of the quadrangle nearest the entrance, so that each visitor ascended to the roof, and to each of the rooms, without passing through the rooms below. In summer, the people slept on the roof; and at all times it was used as a place of devotion, of mourning, and of rest. At the Feast of Tabernacles tents were erected here, and during festivals or public rejoicings, the guests often assembled in the square below, which was sometimes covered. These facts explain the following passages and many others: Deut. xxii. 8: 1 Sam. ix. 25: 2 Sam. xi. 2: Isa. xxii. 1: Acts x. 9: Mark xiii. 15: Mark ii. 4. (c.) The doors of eastern houses were double, and moves on pivots: they were secured by bars (Deut. iii. 5: Judges xvi. 3), of wood, or of metal, Isa. xlv. 2. Ancient locks were merely wooden slides, secured by teeth or catches, Sol. Song v. 4. The street-doors, as well as the gates of towns, were adorned with inscriptions taken from the Law (Deut. vi. 9). The windows had no glass, but were latticed: in winter they were covered with thin veils, or with shutters having holes sufficient to admit light, 1 Kings vii. 17: Sol. Song ii. 9. (d.) No ancient houses had chimneys, though holes were sometimes made, through which the smoke escaped, Hos. xiii. 3. In the better class of houses, the rooms were warmed by charcoal, as is still the practice in the East (Jer. xxxvi. 22): John xviii. 18. (e.) The articles of household furniture in use in the East, MANNERS —DESS. 277 have always been few and small. In sitting rooms, little chairs or seats, and sometimes tables appear, Mdark xiv. 54. The seat was either a rug or mat, on which the people sat cross-iegged, or with their knees bent under them, or a legged sea, such as chairs and stools (1 Kings ii. 19: 1 Sam. i. 9. Prov. ix. 14: Matt. xxi. 12). The beds consisted generally of mattresses and quilted coverlets; sheets, blankets and bedsteads were not known, though on the house-tops a settee of wood, or a legged frame of palm branches was used, on which to place the bed (Psa. cxxxii. 3: Amos vi. 4.) (/.) The common domestic utensils were of earthenware, or of copper, and a few were of leather: they consisted of pots, kettles, leather bottles, plates, cups, etc.; lamps fed with olive oil were used for giving light at night,and were of earth or of metal: in the houses of the rich they were placed upon stands, called candlesticks, and those had occasionally branches for several lamps (Gen. xv. 17: Ex. xxv. 31-40). A lanm was always kept burning at night (Job xviii. 6: Prov. xx. 20.) (g.) The towns of Palestine were small in size, but very numerous. Jerusalem, Samaria, and afterwards CEesarea, seem to have been the only exceptions: from the want of temples and public buildings (except at Jerusalem), they must have had but a mean appearance, the streets being exceedingly narrow, dull, and unpaved. Even in the time of Moses, those towns had many of them high walls (Numb. xiii. 25-33), and gates implying walls are mentioned as early as the days of Abraham (Gen. xix. 1). At the gates most of the public business was transacted (Gen. xxiii. 10, 18: Dent. xxi. 19: Ruth iv. 1): there also the markets were held so long as the business of the Israelites was confined chiefly to the sale of their produce, or flocks (2 Chron. xviii. 9: Neh. viii. 1, 3); but afterwards, they had in the large towns, bazaars, or covered streets of shops, such as are now usual in the East. 365. The DRESS of the Jews consisted commonly of two garments: the one a close-bodied frock or shirt, generally with long sleeves, and reaching to a little Dre' 24 278 MANNERS-DRESS. below the knees, though later to the ankle; and the other, a loose robe of some yards in length, fastened over the shoulders and thrown around the body. Within doors, the first dress only was often worn. It was regarded, however, as a kind of undress, in which it was not usual to pay visits, or to walk out. Hence persons clothed in it alone, are said in Scripture to be naked (Isa. xx. 2, 4: John xxi. 7: John xiii. 4) or to have laid aside their garments. The sleeves were generally sufficiently long to cover the hands, and were used during visits of ceremony to conceal them. On occasions when great or continued effort was required or implied, the arm was " made bare," and the sleeve tucked up or removed, Isa. lii. 10: Ezek. iv. 7. The outer garment (a kind of mantle or plaid), sometimes served as a covering by night, or as a bed (Deut. xxiv. 13.: Exod. xxii. 27). The Israelites on leaving Egypt, folded their kneading troughs in it. Prophets and others wrapped it round their heads as an expression of reverence or of grief (1 Kings xix. 13: 2 Sam. xv. 3Q; Esth. vi. 12), or sometimes as a protection from the rain or wind. When gathered around the middle of the body, the garment is called the lap (2 Kings iv. 39); when gathered around the shoulders, the bosom (Psa. lxxix. 12: Luke vi. 38). A considerable part of the wealth of Eastern nations consisted in these garments, which were easily exchanged, and were often given and worn as expressions of affection and respect, Gen. xlv. 22: 2 Kings v. 22. For a single shirt, the wealthy classes sometimes substituted a shirt of fine linen, and an outer one of coarser material, the cnantle being worn as an additional garment. The beauty of these garments consisted not in their shape, which never varied, but in their whiteness, Eccles. ix. 8, and they were torn or rent in token of sorrow or repentance, Gen. xxxvii. 34: Job i. 20. The inner garment was made of either linen or cotton, the outer garment generally of wool, or of wool and hair. The art MANNERS-DRESS. 279 of embroidery was evidently somewhat known, Exod. xxxv. 35: Judges v. 30; and one family seems to have been pecaliarly famous in the manufacture of fine linen, 1 Chron. iv. 21. White, blue, and various shades of red and purple, were the favorite colors for clothes, and no others indeed are mentioned in Scripture. Around the shirt, or inner garment, a girdle was sometimes worn, made of leather, fastened with clasps, 2 Kings i. 8, or of muslin, wound in many folds around the waist, Jer. xiii. 1: Matt. iii. 4; and still more commonly around the mantle. To have the loins girt in this way was especially necessary in travelling, or when engaged in strenuous effort of any kind. In the girdle a knife or sword was sometimes carried, or in the case of literary men, an inkhorn and pens, 2 Sam. xx. 8: Ezek. ix. 2: other valuables were often put into it too, 1 Sam. xxv. 13: 2 Sam. xviii. 11: Matt, x. 9 (Greek). Drawers were a part of the dress of the High Priest, and were, perhaps, used in later times by the people generally (Exod. xxviii. 42). They were worn next the person. The feet were covered with sandals, consisting of soles of leather, or of wood, bound to the foot by thongs or latchets (Matt. iii. 11). In transferring property, or in passing to the next of kin any personal obligation, it was customary to deliver a sandal (Ruth iv. 7) as in the middle ages, a glove. To throw a shoe or a sandal over a country was a symbol of possession (Psa. lx. 8). To remove the sandals was an expression of reverence (Exod. iii. 5: Dent. xxv. 9): the operation being often performed by servants. To loose or to carry them was a familiar symbol of a servile or degraded condition, Mark i. 7: Acts xiii. 25: Matt. iii. 11 Isa. xx. 4. Stockings were never in use, and the mass of the people went altogether barefoot, except in winter, or during a journey. The neck was generally left bare, and very frequently the head; when covered, it was protected among the higher classes by a kind of turban, and among the common people by a piece of cloth confined by a fillet around the brows: in 280 CUSiOMS FOOD AND MEALS. the case of women, this turban was connected with a veil covering the upper part of the person. The Israelites allowed the hair of the head and beard to grow; the former was occasionally cut, and the partial use of the razor in trimming the beard was not unlawful. Baldness was rare, and was despised, 2 Kings ii. 23: Isa. iii. 24: Jer. xlvii. 5. The beard as the sign of manhood was much respected; to shave it, to spit upon it, to pull it, even to touch it, except as a salutation, was a gross insult (2 Sam. x. 4-6: I Chron. xix. 3-6: Isa. vii. 20), and for a man to neglect or maltreat his own beard, was a sign of madness or of extreme grief (1 Sam. xxi. 13: 2 Sam. xix. 24: Isa. xv. 2). 366. All the Easterns generally, and the Israelites, were Food and simple and plain in their FOOD, which consisted meals. largely of bread, fruits, honey, milk, butter, and cheese. Meat was but little used, animal food being in some degree restricted by the law, which allowed the flesh of no beasts to be eaten, but such as chewed the cud and parted the hoof, nor any fish but such as had both fins and scales-(Lev. xi. 1-28). It was in this general way that the hog was forbidben, but as it was commonly eaten in the East, this application of the prohibition of the law attracted more attention than the rest. Blood and fat, the large lobe of the liver, and the kidneys were also forbidden. Poultry was used but sparingly, pigeons and the common fowl being the only domestic birds kept in Palestine, except the "fatted fowl" provided for the tables of Solomon and Nehemiah (1 Kings iv. 23: Neh. v. 18). Eggs are only twice mentioned as articles of food. Though fish with fins and scales were allowed, it does not seem that much use was made of this indulgence: the operations of fishing were clearly well known, however (Job xix. 6: Isa. li. 20: Job xli. 1: Isa. xix. 8): fish-ponds are mentioned in Sol. Song (vii. 4): fish were even brought by the Phoenicians across the country, from the Mediterranean to Jerusalem (Neh. xiii. 16), and one of the gates of the city, CUSTOMS-FOOD AND MEALS. 281 called the Fish-gate, seems to have been appropriated as the place of sale (2 Chron. xxxiii. 14: Neh. iii. 3). Among insects, it may be noticed, that locusts were permitted to be eaten, Lev. xi. 22, and were a common article of food in the East, Matt. iii. 4. Bread was not baked, as with us, in loaves, but in cakes, rolls, and large thin biscuits, each family baking its own, and that daily. The modes of baking were various; the thicker roll or cake was baked upon the heated hearth; the thin bread upon metal plates, or around the sides of earthenware vessels, or of a pit in the floor, Gen. xviii. 6: Lev. ii. 2, 4, 5. This work, like that of grinding corn, was at first performed by the wives and daughters of families, Gen. xviii. 6: 2 Sam. xiii. 6, 8: Jer. vii. 18; but was in time abandoned in some cases to servants, 1 Sam. viii. 13. The bread in common use needed not to be cut, but:was broken, Isa. Iviii. 7: Lam. iv. 4: Matt. xiv. 19. The Jews had generally two meals a day; one in the morning, between the third and sixth hours, and the other, their principal meal, about the eleventh hour, or five o'clock, in the cool of the day. At this meal the guests all reclined on their left sides, on couches placed around a circular table. In this posture, the head of one guest approached the breast of his neighbor; upon whose bosom, therefore, he was said to lean. Hence Christ told John who was to betray him, without the other disciples hearing his description, John xiii. 23: Prov. xxvi. l5. The feet were stretched out from the table, and were of course first reached by any one entering the room (Luke vii. 38). Hence it is said that the woman who washed our Lord's feet stood behind him. This practice was borrowed from the Persians: in earlier times, the Jews probably used seats, or sat, as is the present custom in the East, around a table raised only a few inches from the ground. The food was taken by the hand, without aid of knife or fork, and hence the practice of washing before and after meals, Mark vii. 5. In very early times, each guest had his own 24* 282 CUSTOM S-TAXATION. portion, Gen. xliii. 34; see 1 Sam. i. 5: but later, all ate from the same dish. The ordinary beverage taken, not during the meal, but afterwards, was water, or wine diluted with water. A common acid wine diluted in this way, is called in our English version, vinegar, and was the usual drink of laborers and soldiers, Ruth ii. 14: Matt. xxvii. 48. This was what the soldiers gave our Lord when he cried "I thirst." The beverage previously offered him, vinegar and gall, or wine and myrrh, Matt. xxvii, 34: Mark xv. 23, was given to persons about to be executed, in order to stupify them. Our blessed Lord refused to drink it. In full consciousness he "endured the cross, despising the shame." The beverage with which each guest was supplied, was in ancient times handed to him in a separate cup, ready mixed by the host: and hence the word cup is frequently used to signify a man's lot or portion, Psa. xi. 6: Isa. li. 22: Matti. xxvi. 39. "Mixed wine," in the English version, was not wine and water, but wine made stronger by spices, Prov.'xxiii. 30. "Strong drink " including a very inebriating liquor, made from dates and various seeds, Lev. x. 9: 1 Sam. i. 15. Not unfrequently, precious oils were used at banquets for anointing the guests, Psa. xxiii. 5; xlv. 7: Amos vi. 6. Christ was thus honored by the woman, Matt. xxvi. 7. -She broke the box or-jar, in proof of the purity of the oil; the neck being sealed, to show that it was an imported perfume, Mark xiv. 3. The principal meal being in the evening of the day, was generally called supper. The light and joy within the house on such occasions, were often employed to represent the happiness of heaven, while the darkness without, the "outer darkness," was employed to shadow forth the misery of the lost, Matt. viii. 12. 367. The system of TAXATION employed in Palestine before the days of the Romans is not clearly defined. The Revenue andtaxa, royl revenue, however, consisted in part in preents,-1 Sam. x. 27 xvi. 20: 2 Chron. xvii. 6:; i CUSTOMS-TAXATIC N. 283 the produce of the royal flocks, 1 Sam. xxi. 7: 2 Chron. xxvi. 10; xxxii. 28, 29; in lands and vineyards, either confiscated or reclaimed from a state of nature by the sovereign, 1 Kings xxi. 9-16: 1 Chron. xxvii. 28; in tribute, probably a tenth of the income of the people, 1 Sam. viii. 15; xvii. 25 (see Gesenius); in the plunder of conquered nations, 2 Chron. xxvii. 5; and in payments imposed upon merchants passing through the territory, 1 Kings x. 15. Later still we find, probably in the place of some of the above, a toll and a tax on articles of consumption, corresponding to our excise, Ezra iv. 14, 19, 20. Both these were of Persian or Assyrian origin. Of the system of taxation prevalent in the time of our Lord, we have more accurate information. Soon after Judaea was reduced to a province of the Roman empire, an enrolment was made of the names and fortunes of the citizens, and on this enrolment was founded a capitation "tax or tribute." This tax was laid by the magistrates of each city. It occasioned much division of opinion in Judsea, and gave rise to more than one insurrection, Acts v. 37. Our Lord was urged to identify himself with its advocates or opponents, Matt. xxii 17. The tax was paid to collectors, either in Roman money (the denarius, or penny), or in Grecian (the drachma). If paid in the latter, however, the coin had to be changed by the traders, or "money-changers," as Roman money only was received at the Roman treasury. Tin DF)i.NIus (penny) of TIBERIUS, wituh the "image" of the Emperor, and the" snsper. scription," Tiberius Caesar Augustts, son of the Divine Augustus On the obverse he is seen as "Pontifex Maximus." Such coins must have profaned " the Treasury," and hence the necessity for money-changers. -Besides this census or head tax, there were custom duties, or taxes on exports and imports, Matt. ix. 9. These were fixed by law, and were levied by revenue farmers through 284 CUSTOMS-MODES OF RECKONING. their seivants. These servants are called Publicans in the New Testament, and the farmers of the revenue, Chiefs of the Publicans. This system of farming the revenue proved a strong temptation to the Publicans, who were generally unpopular. The third public tax in Judsea was the half shekel required by the law to be paid by every Jew into the temple treasury. It was always paid in Jewish money, and by all Jews, even by those who lived out of Palestine. The money-changers who sat in the temple, procured this Jewish money in exchange for Greek and Roman coins, Matt. xxi. 12:: John ii. 16. This tax was regarded as paid to God: when, therefore, our Lord intimates to Peter that the children of kings are exempt from tribute, He implied that He himself was the son of the Father, Matt. xvii. 26. This distinction between the different kinds of taxes is always preserved in the original of the New Testament, and generally in the English translation. 368. A knowledge of the MODES OF RECKONING employed by Weights the Jews will often aid us in gathering lessons from andmoney. Scripture, and is sometimes essential to an intelligent interpretation of Scripture language. The following are tables of the weights, measures and money mentioned in the Bible. They are taken from Arbuthnot's work, s quoted by Home. 369. (1.) Jewish weights reduced to English troy weight: lbs. oz. pen. gr. The gerah, one-twentieth of a shekel....................0.................. 0 0 12 Bekah, half a shekel.................................................................. 0 6 0 The shekel.............................................................................. 0 0 10 0 The maneh, 60 shekels............................................. 2 6 0 0 "he talent, 60 maneh, 3,000 shekels................................... 125 0 o CUSTOMS-WEIGHITS A D MEASURES. 285 870. (2.) Scripture measures of length reduced tc English measure. - g.ft. in. A digit, Jer. lii. 21.............................................................................. 0 0912 4 [ A palm, Exod. xxv. 25.............................................................. 0 3-648 12 1 3 { A span, Exod. xxviii. 16................................................... 0 10-944 24 6 1 3 A cubit, Gen. vi. 15.................................................... 1 9-883 96 1 241 6 2 A fathom, Acts xxvii. 28....................................... 7 3-552 144 1 36 1 12 1 6 1 1-5 J Ezekiel's reed, Ezek. xl. 3-5........................ 10 11-328 192 1 481 161 81 21 1-3 1An Arabian pole........................... 14 7104 1920 480 1160 80 1 20 1 133 10 I Measuring line, Ezek. xl. 3......... 145 11-04 371. (3.) The long Scripture measures: Eng. miles. paces. ft. A cubit....................................................................................... 0 0 1824 400 J A stadium, or furlong, Luke xxiv. 13.............................. 0 145 4-6 2000 6 1 *A Sabbath day's journey, Acts i. 12..................... 0 729 3-0 4000 1 10 j 2 An eastern mile, Matt. v. 41............................ 1 403 1-0 120001 301 6 3 1 A parasang................................................ 4 153 3'0 96000 240 48 1 24 8 A day's journey................................ 33 172 40 ~,L^............. 33 172 4'0 * So called because this was the distance between the tabernacle and the extreme point of the camp. 372. (4.) Scripture measures of capacity for liquids, reduced to:English wine measure: Gal. pints. A caph.................................................................................................. 0 0625 1-3 1 A log, Lev. xiv. 10................................................................... 0 0-833 5-3 4 A.....................................0 3-333 16 121 3 Ahin, Exod. xxx. 24................................................. 1 2 32 24 6 1 21 A seah................................................................ 2 4 96 1 721 181 61 3 1 Abath, or ephah, I Rings vii. 26: John ii. 6... 7 4 960 1 7201180 1601 201101 Akor, or homer; Ezek.xlv.14: Isa.v.10.... 75 5 373. (5.) Scripture measures cf capacity for things dry, reduced to English corn measure: Peck. gal. pints A gachal.................................................................................... 0 0 01416 20 1 A cab, or chcenix, 2 Kings vi. 25: Rev. vi. 6.......................0 0 2-8373 36 1-8 1 An omer, Exod. xvi. 36; xxix. 40...........................0 0 61 1201 6 1 3-3 1A seah, Matt. xiii. 33.................................... 1 0 1 3601 18 1 10 1 3 An ephah, Ezek. xlv. 11......................... 3 0 3 18001 90 J 50 15 51 Aletech, Hos. iii. 2........................... 16 0 0 3600 1180 100 30 1 10 2 1 A homer, or kor, Numb xi. 32 32 0 0 ____________________{__ Hos. ii.2........................... 286 CUSTOMS-WEIGHTS AND MONEY. 874. (6.) Jewish money, and its value in English coin: ~. s. d. A Gerah, Exod. xxx. 13................................................................ 0 0 1'2687 10 A bekah, Exo 1. xxxviii. 26.............................................. 0 1 1-6873 20 2 1 *A shekel, Exod. xxx 13: Jsa. vii. 23: Matt.xvii.27 0 2 3-375 1200 1 1201 50 I A maneh, or minah Hebraica, Luke xix. 13.... 5 14 0-75 60000 1 6000 1 3000 | 60 A talent............................................. 342 3 9 A solidus aureus, or sextula, was worth......................................... 0 12 0-5 A siculns aureus, or gold shekel, was worth.................................. 1 16 6 A talent of gold was worth............................................................ 6475 0. 0 *First coined by Simon Maccabseus, 1 Mac. xv. 6. In the preceding table, silver is valued at 5s. and gold at 41. per oz. In ancient times, gold and silver were much scarcer than now, and therefore of higher relative value. A shekel would probably purchase nearly ten times as much as the same nominal amount will now purchase. 375. (7.) Roman money mentioned in the New Testament, and its value in English money: ~. s. d. far. A mite (X.rrOV or taw'ptyo), Mark xii. 42........................................ 0 0 04 A farthing (oSpdavrst), Mark xii. 42................ about 0 0 0 1l A penny, or denarius (Saplov), Matt. xxii. 19.................................. 0 7 2 A pound, or mina......................................................................... 3 2 6 0 The Grecian drachma in common use was of about the same value as the denarius. The Persian daric is the first coin mentioned in Scripture, and is the most ancient history makes known to us. It was rather heavier than a guinea. See 1 Chron. xxix. 7; Ezra ii. 69: Neh. vii. 70-72, where the word is translated dram. 376. Many passages may be explained by these Tables. From Table 3, we learn that the Sabbath day's journey was less tharn a mile. How suggestive of the sacredness of the day, when everything approaching to bodily fatigue was forbidden! From Table 6, we learn to admire the noble disinterestedness of Elisha. Naaman offered him 6,000 pieces, or shekels, of gold, or more than ten thousand pounds. This was the temptation-under which Gehazi fell, and yet it did not excuse his guilt. The same Table illustrates strikingly the unreasonableness of an unforgiving spirit, and the aggravations of our own CUSTOM —MODES OF RECKONING. 287 guilt. The debtor, who threw his fellow-servant into prison because he owed him a hundred pence, about 31., had himself been forgiven 10,000 talents, or, if these were silver, upwards of three millions sterling. How clearly does it illustrate the prophecy of Isaiah, " He was despised and rejected of men," to find that Judas betrayed our Lord for thirty pieces of silver, oI 31. 10s. 8d., the price paid for a slave when killed by a beast. From Tables 4 and 5, we learn tl-e displeasure of God against covetousness. "Ten acres of vineyard (says the prophet) shall yield one bath, and the seed of an homei shall yield an ephah," Isa. v. 10. That is, one acre of land shall yield less than a gallon of wine, and nine-tenths of the seed shall perish. Unfaithfulness and irreligion are real folly. The fear of the Lord, is, in all senses, the beginning of wisdom. 377. The Jewish mode of reckoning time was peculiar. They had two years: the sacred and the civil. The Time and sacred began in March or April (according to the modes of moon), the month of deliverance of the children of Israel from Egypt; and the civil in September or October, the commencement of seed-time.* The prophets use the former; those engaged in civil and agricultural concerns, the latter. The year was divided into twelve lunar months, with every third year, a thirteenth. Till the return from captivity, these months had no separate name, except the first, which was called Abib (the month of " the green ears of corn"), or Nisan, the month of "the flight," Esth. iii. 7. (See Exod. xii. 33: Heb.) After the captivity, Babylonish names were employed. The natural day was from sun-rise to sun-set (as with the Romans), and was divided (after the captivity) into twelve The Rabbins say that the year began in March, as did the Roman year, and in September; but the probability is, that in earlier times it began with the new moon of April and October respectively. See Jahn, Archai logia Bib., {103. 288 CUSTOMS-MOInES OF RECKONING. hours of unequal length. The civil day (the day used in common reckoning) was from six in the evening to six in the next evening; differing in this respect from the Roman civil day, which, like ours, was from midnight to midnight. This was divided again into night and day of equal length. The night was divided, in very early times, into three watches. The first (Lam. ii. 19) till twelve o'clock; the middle till three in the morning (Judges vii. 19); and the morning watch till six (Exod. xiv. 24). In the time of our Lord, however, the night was divided, as among the Romans, into four watches, of three hours each (Mark xiii. 35); the third of which was called cock-crowing (Matt. xxvi. 34). The day, properly so called (from six in the morning till six at night), was divided into twelve hours, of which the third, the sixth, and the ninth, were devoted to the public services of worship. This division is still retained among the Jews. In very early times, and till the Babylonish captivity, the day was divided into the following parts: The break of day. Mid-day at 12 o'clock. The morning. The cool of the day, from 3 The heat of the day, from 9 o'clock till 6. o'clock till 12. And the evening. From the sixth hour (or twelve o'clock), till the close of the day, was called evening. This part of the day was divided into two portions, called evenings, Exod. xii. 6. Levit. xxiii. 5 (original). 378. These distinctions explain several passages. About the eleventh hour the husbandman said to the laborers, " wb stand ye here all the day idle?" (Matt. xx. 6.) With us, the eleventh hour is not yet noon: with the Jews, it was about an hour from sunset.... Peter's reasoning is rendered forcible by these facts. It is (said he) but the third hour of the day (nine o'clock), Acts ii. 15, the time of the morning sacrifice, before which time the Jews did not eat or drink. On the day of the crucifixion there was darkness over all the land from the sixth to the ninth hour, i. e., from twelve o'clock to three. The passover was always kept at the full moon: this darkness, there CUSTOMS-MISCELLANEOUS. 289 fore, could not have taken place in the ordinary course of nature from an eclipse of the sun.... It was at the ninth hour, Jesus cried with a loud voice, and shortly afterwards (or " between the evening," the time of offering the customary sacrifice) he expired.... John says that Pilate brought Jesus forth to the people at the sixth hour (John. xix. 14), probably reckoning from midnight, the commencement of the Roman civil day. After the overthrow of the Jewish state, the adoption of the civil day of Europe and Egypt for reckoning was the more natural. It was at the fourth watch of the night, or about dawn, that Jesus went to the disciples on the sea. He had spent the whole night, therefore, in prayer, Mark vi. 48. The highest praise was bestowed upon the servant whom his Lord found watching in the second or third watch, i. e., from nine till three, Luke xii. 38. It is to be observed, that the Jews and other Orientals generally speak of any part of a day, or of a period of time, as if it were the whole. Thus Jesus said, "After three days I will rise again," Matt. xxvii. 63; though he was in the grave only a day and a half, from sunset on Fri day to the earliest morning on Sunday.'He intimated, also, quoting from Jonah, that he would be in the grave three days and three nights, i. e., part of three separate civil days; day and night meaning a day of twenty-four hours, Matt. xii. 40: 1 Sam. xxx. 12, 13. In the same way, a week is called eight days in John xx. 26, as it often is in German. 379. There are many other customs referred to in Miscelaneous cusScripture on which it is impossible to enlarge. toms. Opulent Jews, for example, in ancient times, had their children taught some mechanical art, to prepare them for any reverse of fortune; and so St. Paul received a liberal education, and learned tent making, Acts xviii. 3. At the time of the passover the people of Jerusalem preparedprivate rooms, in which any stranger might celebrate the feast; and hence Christ sent Peter and John, without any scruple, to seek an upper room for this purpose, Mark xiv. 15. In ancient Rome, children were adopted at first privately; then the adoption was ratified by a public act; and the children so adopted became the heirs of their foster parents. Hence, in Rom. viii., Christians 25 290 CUSTOMS-MISCELLANEOUS. are said to be adopted, and yet to wait for their adoption, even the redemption of their bodies; i. e., for their public recognition at the coming of the Lord, ver. 23. The common salutation in the East was a kiss; sometimes upon the beard (2 Sam. xx. 9), sometimes upon the cheek: the kiss of respect and homage was upon the brow (Gen. xxvii. 26: Exod. iv. 27: Sam. x. 1: Psa. ii. 12: Acts xx. 37).... In meeting, the Jews used many ceremonies, and persons charged with urgent business, therefore, were forbidden to salute by the way (2 Kings iv. 29: Luke x. 4).... The usual greeting was, " Peace be with thee," (Judges xix. 20: 1 Sam. xxv. 6): other forms may be seen in Ruth iii. 10; ii. 4: Psa. cxxix. 8. Persons paying visits to a superior generally brought presents (Prov. xviii. 16: Job xlii. 11). Kings and princes also made presents as marks of distinction (Gen. xlv. 22, 23: Esther viii. 15: 1 Sam. xviii. 4). Not to wear garments thus given was a great affront (Matt. xxii. 11, 12). An insult was shown by maltreating the beard, by spitting in the face, by putting men to degrading employments (Judges xvi. 21: Lam. v. 13), by clapping the hands (Job xxvii. 23), by casting contempt upon a man's mother (1 Sam. xx. 30: 2 Sam. iii. 39; xvi. 10; xix. 22), by dishonoring the dead (Jer. xxvi. 23; viii. 1; xvi. 5, 7). In the earliest times there were no inns like ours, and travellers generally waited in the street, or at the gate, till invited to some house (Gen. xix. 2: Judges xix. 15-21). In the time of our Lord there were places of accommodation where lodging was provided, but where each guest brought his own provisions, fuel and bed. In the stable of such an inn, there being no room in the lodging apartment, the Saviour of the world was born. Places of a similar kind, probably without resident occupants, were found upon the main roads even in the days of the patriarchs (Gen. xlii. 27; xliii. 21: Exod. iv. 24). Both are still found in the East; the former called khans, and the latter, caravanseras. When a person died, his relations rent their garments from head to foot; a smaller rent being made by spectators: hired mourners often added to the expressions of grief by their lamentations and music (Jer. ix. 17, 18: Matt. ix. 23: Acts ix. 39). Embalming was common, though, except in Egypt, the process seems to have consisted of little else than anointing the body with odoriferous drugs and wrapping it in linen. The funeral followed death within twenty-four hours; the body not being placed in a coffin, but closely wrapped from head to foot on an open bier, and so borne to the place of burial, which was always, except in the case of kings and distinguished men, at some distance from the city. For the poor, there was a common burial grouid; but fami CUSTOMS —MISCELLANEOUS. 291 lhet ad often their sepulchres in their own fields or gardens. There was no particular ceremonial at the grave, but the day was concluded by a funeral feast (2 Sam. iii. 35: Hos. ix. 4). Mourning was expressed afterwards by rent clothes and sackcloth; sometimes by a shrouded face, and sometimes by dust sprinkled upon the head (2 Sam. iii. 31; xix. 4: Job ii. 12). The graves were generally dug in the rocks, with niches all round, each holding a corpse (Job x. 21, 22; xxxiii. 18: Psa. lxxxviii. 6: Isa. xiv. 9-19; xxxviii. 10: Ezek. xxxii. 18). Crucifixion was the punishment of slaves only, or of those upon whom it was intended to fix the deepest ignominy. It was not a Jewish punishment, nor was it inflicted upon a Roman citizen. Thus Christ was delivered to the Gentiles, and numbered with the wicked in his death, Matt. xx. 19. At the feast of tabernacles, the people (" on the last day of the feast") drew water from the spring of Siloam, which issued from a rock near the temple. Part of this water they drank amidst joyful acclamations; the people singing the words of Isaiah, "With joy shall they draw water from the wells of salvation," and the rest they poured on the evening sacrifice: see John vii. 37. In the time of our Lord it was the common practice for the kings of Syria to visit Rome, to obtain the confirmation of their title from the emperor and senate, or to court their favor. Herod the Great went to Augustus for this purpose, and his sons visited Rome. They went, as our Lord expresses it, " to receive a kingdom and to return," Luke xix. 12 This practice explains the incidental allusions to the custom in many of the parables; and it gives an indirect proof of the truth of the gospel. The bottles of the ancients were not of glass, but of skins, and hence they shrank in the smoke (Psa. cxix. 83) and burst, if new or fermenting wine were placed in them, Matt. ix. 17. When a person charged with crimes against the State was tried in ancient times, the citizens who tried him voted for his acquittal by dropping a white stone into the box, and for his condemnation, by dropping a black one. Our Lord, therefore, is said to give unto him that overcometh a white stone (Rev. ii. 17). Many customs were connected in ancient times with sealing; the seal, generally a signet-ring bearing the name of the owner, preserved the object, Job xiv. 17, and secured privacy, Isa. xxix. 11. It gave authority and completeness to documents, Neh. ix. 38: Esther viii. 8: Dan. vi. 9, 13, 17; or it marked the object as the peculiar property of him whose seal was placed upon it, 2 Tim. ii. 19: Born. iv. 11: Rev. vii. 2, & 292 GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. 380. (7.) A knowledge of geography, under its twofold division of historical and physical, is of great use in the study of Scripture. 381. The Bible directs us to the high parts of Armenia and Thelandsof the fertile plains between the Tigris and the Euphrathe Bible. tes, as the first settlement of mankind after the flood. The pride and idolatry of Shinar dispersed them; Shem and his descendants occupying the,peninsula between the Black Sea and the Indian Ocean; Ham, Africa; and, after some time, Japhet, Europe, and part of Asia. Going south-westward from Ararat, we come to Mount Lebanon in Palestine, and have around us "the lands of the Bible." Looking southward from this position, we have on our left, far over the Syrian desert, the Euphrates and the Tigris, which, taking their rise in Armenia, run into the Persian Gulf, and, as they flow, inclose the country called Mesopotamia (" between the rivers"). On the banks of these rivers men first formed societies; on the Euphrates rose the city of Babylon, and on the Tigris, th'e city of Nineveh. Between the Euphrates and the table-land, east of Jordan, is Arabia Deserta; southward, Arabia Petrea (the rocky), with Petra as its capital; southward still, and reaching to the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf, is Arabia the fruitful, whence (or through which) came the gold and spice of Eastern story. 382. Returning to Lebanon, and looking (still to the south) on the region below us, we find Palestine, having on its northern seaboard Phoenicia (the coast of Tyre and Sidon), and, on its southern, Phi istia. Looking northward for a moment (sup- posing that we stand on Hermon, where Libanus and Antilibanus seem to join), we find two ridges of hills running through the whole of Syria, Libanus and Antilibanus, till they are lost in Asia Minor; the district they inclose is Ccele-Syria, (or the hollow Syria), called also the Plain of Lebanon; its capital Baalbec, the city of the sun. Looking southward, again, we find these ridges running through the whole of Palestine, till the left-hand ridge is lost in the Red Sea, and the GEGORAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. 293 right-hand ridge in the peninsula of Sinai, the scene of the wanderings of the Israelites during forty years. To the west of this latter region we find Egypt. 383. Immediately beneath us, on the left, we have the city of Damascus, ever famous for bigotry and fruitfulness; on the right, we have the blue tideless waters of the Mediterranean, connecting the traffic of Europe with the marts of the East; and in succession, Cyprus, Crete, Malta, and Sicily"the isles of the sea." If now we carry our eye in a line with our right hand, we enter Asia Minor, whose various provinces are mentioned in the Acts. Running westward, and crossing the AEgean Sea, we come to Hellas, or Greece ("Achaia"), having Macedonia on the north, and Thrace on the northeast. From Macedonia, Illyricum stretches away in a northwest line. Crossing the Adriatic, we land at Brundisium, in Italy, whence we proceed over the Appenine Hills to Rome, on their western side: Thence we may travel by land over the Alps, or, by sea, through the Gull of Genoa, to France (Gaul); and from France, over the Pyrenees, to Spain, and proceeding southward, come to "Tarshish." We thence sail along the northern coast of Africa till we reach Carmel and Lebanon again. Still occupying our position on Mount Hermon, and looking southward, we find on our left, beyond Jordan, the high lands of Gilead and the pasture-grounds of Bashan. The whole country is beautiful and verdant. The valleys, says Buckingham, are filled with corn and olives, and the hills are covered with vines. See Numb. xxxii. 1-4. Here, to the south, were the territories of Ammon, Moab, and Edom. 384. Between the ridge of hills which runs through this district, on the east side of the river, and the ridge alley of of Lebanon, which also runs southward on the west the Jordan. side (under the names of the mountains of Naphtali, of Ephraim, or Israel, and the mountains of Judah), lies tke valley of the Jordan; containing the lake of Gennesareth (or sea of Galilee), the Jordan itself, and the Dead Sea. The 294 GEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. whole length of the Jordan with windings, is about 200 miles; the width of the sea of Gennesareth is from eight to ten. Compare Matt. xiv. 23 with John vi. 19. Westward of this range of hills, and between it and the sea, is the district of Tyre, the plain or valley of Sharon, and the country of the Philistines. Southward, " as thou comest to Gaza," it is desert; so that the sea-board plain ends in the desert of Gaza; the centre, or plain of the Jordan, in the desert of Sinai; and the district beyond Jordan in the deserts of Edom. Isa. xxxv. 2: Cant. ii. 1. 385. Looking, again, to the district nearer to us, it is not difficult to mark a triangular valley opening to the sea at Mount Carmel, one of the terminations of the mountains of Israel,the mountains of Naphtali, or of Galilee, and another part of the same range, the mountains of Gilboa, forming the other Valley of sides. This valley has been balled successively the Esdraelon. plain of Esdraelon, of Jezreel, and of Megiddo. The river Kishon, that "ancient river," flows through it into the "Great Sea," not far from Acre, Judges iv. 13; v. 21. The little town of Nazareth lies among the hills to the north. This valley was the scene of the victory of Deborah and Barak, of Gideon, of the Philistines in their last battle with Saul, of Ahab over Benhadad, and of the Egyptians over Josiah. Here the Assyrians and Persians, the Crusaders and Saracens, the Egyptians and Turks, the Arabs and Franks, have fought; and it was on this battle-field of nations that Bonaparte gained one of his victories just before he was compelled to relinquish Syria. Mount Tabor rises on the north side of the plain. Judges iv. 12-24: 1 Sam. xxxi.: 1 Kings xx.: 2 Kings xxiii. 29. 386. If we trace in this way the history of particular places mentioned in Scripture, we shall find the exercise highly interesting and instructive. Between Jerusalem and Beersheba, and about twenty miles from each place, lies one of the oldest cities in the world, now iEOGRAPHY OF SCRIPTURE. 295 occupied by some 6,000 Arabs-the city of Hebron. Hebron Here lived Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; here they received the promise and the seal of the covenant, and here, they and their wives were buried. In the days of the spies it was inhabited by the sons of Anak. Joshua destroyed it, and the place was given to Caleb. When rebuilt, it became one of the Levitical cities. Here David was anointed king over Israel; here Abner was assassinated; here Absalom established his head-quarters during his rebellion; and over one of the pools of Hebron (several of which still remain), David hung up the assassins of Ishbosheth. Numb. xiii.: Josh. x. 37; xiv. 13: 2 Sam. ii. 11; iii.:27; xv. 7,12. About twenty miles eastward of Jerusalem, and accessible only by a lonely and dangerous road (the Bloody Jericho. Way as it was called in Jerome's days), lies the city of Jericho. Within sight of its walls the manna ceased. In the days of Joshua it was overthrown, and a curse was pronounced upon who should rebuild it, a curse fulfilled 520 years afterwards upon Hiel. In the time of Elisha, it was a school of the prophets. Here Herod the Great died. Once the city was visited by our Lord, when he lodged with Zaccheus. 1 Kings xvi. 34: 2 Kings ii. 4, 5: Matt. xx. 29, 30. Between Jericho and the Jordan lay the town of Gilgal, where were erected the twelve stones taken from the river when the Israelites passed over. Here Gilal Samuel offered sacrifice, held his yearly courts, and recognised Saul as king. And here was one of the schools of the prophets. In the days of Ahaz, however, it was the seat of idolatrous worship, and an object of execration by the prophets. The place where the children of Israel had renewed their covenant with God, and whence he had so often gone up with their armies, thus became defiled with idolatry, Josh. iv. 19: Hos. ix. 15. If we trace the history of Shiloh, the place chosen by Joshua 296 GEOGRAPYY-PALESTINR. for the tabernacle, and where it remained for more Shiloh. than 400 years, till the days of Eli, we shall have in brief a history of many a favored and afterwards rejected city, Josh. xviii. 1-10: Judges xxi. 19-23: 1 Sam. chaps. i.-vi.: 1 Kings xi. 29; xii. 15; xiv. 2, etc.: Psa. lxxviii. 60: Jer. vii. 12-14; xxvi. 6. The peculiar feelings with which Jacob must have visited Beershebsa where he offered sacrifice (Gen. xlvi. 1), may be gathered from Gen. xxxi. 33; xxii. 19; xxvi. 23-25. It was already endeared to him by many holy associations. A brief notice of Palestine will throw light upon several passages, both of the Old and New Testament. PALESTINE 387. ITS NAMES.-It is called the world,' the earth, or the land. Hence Solomon is said to reign from the Its names. It river (Euphrates) to the end of the earth, Psa. lxxii. In the person of Christ these words have a still larger fulfilment. The country which lay to the south of Judaea, was Arabia, and at its extreme border (from the sea) was the city of Sheba, or Saba. And hence the queen of Sheba is said to have come from the uttermost parts of the earth to hear the wisdom of Solomon. The country was early inhabited by the descendants of Canaan, the grandson of Noah (Gen. xi.) It was thence called the land of Canaan. From the descendants of Jacob, it was called the land of Israel. From the fact that the tribe of Judah occupied it almost alone after the captivity, it was called Judsea (Psa. lxxvi. 1). From the covenant into which God entered with Abraham and his posterity, it was called the land of promise, Gen. xii. 7; xiii. 15: Exod. xv. 14: Heb. xi. 9. And from the Philistines or Pali (shepherds), who inhabited its southern coasts, Palestine. Luke ii. 1: ects xi. 28, Luke iv. 25; xxi. 26: James V 17. GEOGRAPHY-PALESTINE. 297 The land of God, Lev. xxv. 23; the holy land, Zech ii. 12, are also terms employed in Scripture. It must be observed, however, that the limits of the country to which these names were given, have varied at different periods. ITS EXTENT AND DIVISIONS.-The whole-land of Israel, from Dan to Beersheba, was in length equal to the dis- Its extent tance between London and York, or about 200 and divisions. miles, and in its widest parts was less than the distance between York and Liverpool, or about ninety miles. For seven centuries after the dispersion, it was occupied by the Canaanites, who divided it among ten nations. They afterwards dwindled to seven, Gen. xv. 18-81: Deut. vii. 1; of whom the Amorites were the most powerful, and their name is sometimes used for the whole, Gen. xv. 16. The Philistines, Moabites, Midianites, Ammonites, and the children of Amalek and Edom were residing, when the Israelites entered Canaan, in its immediate vicinity, and some of them within its borders. Joshua divided the country into twelve parts, giving one to each tribe, Ephraim and Manasseh being reckoned anmng the tribes, and Levi having his portion among the rest. In the North, dwelt Asher, Naphtali, Zebulon, and Issachar: afterwards Galilee of the Gentiles, and Galilee proper In the Middle, Ephraim, and half of Manasseh; afterwards Samaria. In the South, Judah, Benjamin, Dan, and Simeon; afterwards Judea. Beyond Jordan, Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh; afterwards teraea, etc. Under the reign of Solomon, the kingdom was greatly extended, and the distinction of tribes became less marked. The whole of his territory was therefore derided afresh into twelve districts, each under its own officer (1 Kings iv. 7-19). On the death of Solomon, ten tribes revolted from his son Rehoboam, and formed the kingdom of Israel, of which Sychar or Shechem was the capital. The other tribes of Benjamin and Judah, with parts of Dan and Simeon, formed the 298 GEOGRAPHY-PALESTINE. kingdom of Judah, whose chief city was Jerusalem. This division ceased, however, on the subversion of the kingdom of Israel, by Shalmaneser, the Assyrian, after it had continued for 254 years: and the country fell successively into the hands of the Assyrians, the Greeks, the Jews (under the Maccabees), and the Romans. In the time of our Lord, it was divided into five provinces. 1. Galilee, which included most of the scenes of his personal ministry, and whence most of his disciples were chosen, Isa. ix. 1: Matt. ii. 22, 23: Luke iv. 14: Matt. xxvi. 69; xxviii. 7, 16. This district was despised by the Jews because of its distance from Jerusalem, its connection with the Samaritans. and the impurity of the dialect spoken by the people, Mark xiv. 70. 2. Samaria, which included the middle division of the kingdom, and separated Galilee from Judaea, John iv. 4. 3. Judaea, which was nearly co-extensive with the ancient kingdom of Judah. 4. The district of Peroea (or beyond Jordan), which included Abilene, where Lysanius was tetrarch, Luke iii. 1, Trachonitis, Iturea, or Auranitis,a Gaulonitis,b Batanea, the ancient Bashan, but less extensive, Peraea proper (between the Arnon and the Jabbok), where John was beheaded, and Decapolis (or the district of the ten cities). 5. Idumea, a province which was added by the Romans. It comprised the extreme south parts of Judaea, with a small part of Arabia. After some time, the Idumaeans became mingled with the Ishmaelites. 388. In later times, these divisions have undergone various Later di- changes. In the fifth century, the country was divisions. vided into three parts: Judaea and Samaria; Galilee and Trachonitis; Permea and Idumaea. In the time of the Crusades, episcopal sees were established in the principal cities. Under the modern Turkish authority, the whole country is divided between the pachaliks, or governments, of Acre and Damascus. 1 Chr~n. i. 31, (from Jetur.): Ezek. xlvii. 16, 18: Hauran. b Josh. xx. 8. GEOGRAPHY PALESTINE. 299 389. It will facilitate the study of Sacred Scrip- Stateas to ture to have a distinct idea, both of the divisions government) in of the country and of the changes of the government the days of our Lord. in the time of our Lord. Herod the Great reigns from B.C. 37 to B.C. 3, over Judmea, Galilee, Trachonitis and Samaria, Idummea. Peraea Proper. Iturna. Revenue, 40t talents (about Revenue 200 talents. Revenue, 100 talents. one million sterling). These he bequeaths to his These he bequeaths to his These he bequeaths to son, 0on, his son, Archelaus, who is banished, Herod Antipas. who be- Philip Herod (John iv). and the province is put headed John. under procurators, of whom one of the chief was Pontius Pilate, A. D. 7 to 36 Herod Antipas banished Philip dies (37). (dies 36). (40). Jierod Agrippa (grandson of Herod) made king of the whole (Acts xii.) A. D. 41-44. Herod Agrippa dies, A. D. 44. Roman Governors. I Agrippa (son of H.AgripFadus Alexander. pa), tetrarch of Trachonitis, is made tetrarch of Felix (4th Governor). Galilee also. Paul pleads before him at Csesarea Festus (5th Governor). (Acts xxv. 26). Cios OF HEROD THE GREAT. Very rare. From Akerman's "Numismatic Illustrations of the New Testament." On the left hand cut is a helmet, a star, and two olive branches: on the reverse, a tripod flaming altar, with the inscription "of King lierod," and numeral letters, "the third year," of his reign. 390. The physical appearance of the country is rermarkably broken and mountainous. The higher peaks of Leba- Physical non and of Sinai (which lie about 400 miles apart) appearance. rise to a height of nearly 10,000 feet above the Mediterranean. 300 GEOGRAPHY-PALESTINE. The Jordan springs from the sides of the former, and at the lake of Tiberias its level is 750 feet below the Mediterranean. At the Dead Sea, the depression has increased to 1,312 feet; and, as the depth of that sea is 1,350 feet, we have, altogether, a more remarkable change of surface than is to be found in any part of the world. From the plain of Esdraelon the hills to the south continue gradually rising, till at Jerusalem we reach a height, above the surface of the Dead Sea, of 3,900 feet. In the hill country of Judah (south of Jerusalem) they reach a still greater height: eastward, the country falls rapidly, so that Jericho, which is but twenty miles from Jerusalem, is 3,406 below it: so accurate is the description given in the Bible, Luke x. 30: John vii. 10: Acts xxiv. 1. Compare Gen. xxvi. 2: xlvi. 3. Many of these mountains abound in caverns. Their sides afford large sheep walks (Amos i. 2), and the plains which are found on the summits of some are covered with corn. In the crevices of the rocks, and wherever was any depth of earth, the olive flourished, and the fig. The vales were most luxuriant and fruitful, and the very deserts were formed chiefly of extensive pasture-land, unfit for the plough, but rich in grass and timber. The products of all climes were thus found in Palestine, and upon the same range of hills were often growing the fig and date of the tropics, with the oak and fir of the temperate zone. A climate all soft and sunny would have injured the robust industry and manly character of the people: a country all rugged and mountainbus would have driven them into alliance with their heathen neighbors. Mountai-ls, which grew olives and wheat; the snow-covered heights of Lebanon, and the hot deep valley of Jordan-pasture and tillage-all seem to have been adapted to the circumstances of the chosen people, and to have answered the description of the Bible-" a good land, a land of brooks of water, that s.pring out of the valleys and hills." 391. In the time of David, the population was probably four or five millions (see 2 Sam. xxiv. 9), or between 400 and GEOGRAPHY-JERUSALEM. 301 500 to every square mile; a proportion such as is now found in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The Pout present population of Syria, which is four times the size of the kingdom under David, is about a million and a half.' Even this population seems sustained with difficulty, and a great part of the country is completely barren. Its former fertility is ascribed in Scripture to the special blessing of God, and its present barrenness to " the heat of his great anger:" see Lev. xxvi. 3-5: Deut. vii. 12-14; xi. 8-15; xxviii. 1-12, compared with Dent. xxix. 23-25; xxviii. 16-24, 38-42. 392. The capital of Judaea was Jerusalem. Its name in the days of Abraham was Salem,b and it was called Jebus when Israel obtained possession of the Holy Land." Its Jewish name was perhaps suggested by these facts, and means the possession, or home of peace. Part of the city belonged to Benjamin, and part to Judah. The foundation of the whole is a high rock, with four heads or hills, and with a steep ascent on every side except the north. A deep valley surrounds three sides, and beyond the valley are still higher hills; so that the city is not easily visible till the traveller is near it. The soil is very stony, and the country around is dry and barren. The extent of the city differed at different times. It was largest at the time of its final overthrow by Titus. It then included Zion, Acra, Moriah, and Bezetha. Zion was on the south-eastern side of the city, and immediately north of it was Acra. Zion was the higher of the two; the part of Jerusalem which was built upon it was called the upper city, and the part built on Acra, the lower. They were divided by a high wall, first erected by David, who resided on Mount; Zion. Zion is now the site of an English Protestant church. Moriah (where it is supposed Abraham was about to oiler Isaac, when the angel stayed his hand) lay to the east of Acra, and was the site of the temple. The valley between it and Dr. Bowring's Report. b Gen. xiv. 8.' Josh. xv. 8. d Psa. cxxv. 2. 2.6 302 GEOGRA1I Y-JERUSALEM. Acra was nearly filled up that access to the temple might be more easy. With Zion, Moriah was connected by a bridge and terrace. It is now the site of the mosque of Omar. To the north was the hill Bezetha, which Agrippa joined to the city. The whole circumference of the walls was about four miles and a half. 393. The name of the temple is applied in the English Scriptures not only to the place appointed for Divine worshipthe sanctuary and the holy of holies-but to the courts and buildings connected with it. The first temple had been erected by Solomon. It retained its original splendor only thirty-four years, when Shishak, king of Egypt, took it, and carried away its treasures. After undergoing repeated profanations, it was finally plundered and burned by the Chaldoeans under Nebuchadnezzar, B. C. 584, 2 Kings xxv. 13-15: 2 Chron. xxxvi. 17-20. The second temple was erected by Zerubbabel, but with greatly diminished glory, Ezr. iii. 12; and was profaned by Antiochus Epiphanes, who erected an image of Jupiter on the altar of burnt offering, B. 0. 163. In this condition it remained for three years, when Judas Maccaboeus purified and repaired it, B. C. 160, 1 Macc. 162. About sixteen years before the birth of Christ (i. e., B. C. 20), the repairing, or gradual rebuilding of this temple was undertaken by Herod the Great. For nine years and a half he employed 18,000 workmen upon it, and spared no expense to render it equal in magnitude and splendor to the original structure. After his death, the Jews continued to ornament and enlarge it; so that, at the beginning of the ministry of oar Lord it was still unfinished, though forty-six years had elapsed since Herod had collected his materials and commenced the work, John ii. 20. The whole pile was constructed of hard white stones, of very great size, and was surrounded by a wall of very great height. When Titus took Jerusalem, he wished to preserve the temple; but his most strenuous efforts were unsuccessful and the whole was destroyed by fire GEOGRAPHY-JERUSALEM. 803 on the same day, and in the same month, in which the first temple had been burned by Nebuchadnezzar, 15 Lois (August), A. D. 73. It contained no ark or mercy-seat-no shekinah — no sacred fire, first kindled from heaven, nor Urim and Thummim-no prophetic spirit, as did the first temple-but it had been rendered "more glorious" through the presence and teaching of Him who was the Desire of all nations (Hag. ii. 9). But let us enter within these stupendous walls by one of the eastern gates, "the gate Beautiful." We are now in the outer court, the court of the Gentiles, and can walk around; each side is 250 yards long. Here is a market; salt, incense, and cattle-all used in sacrifice-are here on sale. Here also are the money-changers; and here, or perhaps within one of the next inclosures, is the treasury. Before us, but raised a few feet, and separated by a low wall or partition, is the court of the women. On these pillars, which run along the whole of the wall, we may read inscriptions, warning Gentiles and unclean persons not to enter on pain of death. See Eph. ii. 13-14. An ascent of fifteen steps leads us into the inner, or men's court; and in these two courts, called collectively the court of the Israelites, the people prayed, while the priest was offering incense within the sanctuary, Luke i. 10. In the corners of this square are rooms appropriated for the purification of lepers and for the use of Nazarites. Within the court of the Israelites is the court of the priests, who only are permitted to enter it. A flight of twelve steps leads into the temple itself. In entering, we pass through the portico, where are suspended the votive offerings of devout worshippers: see Luke xxi. 5. Here also are the rooms where the Sanhedrim used to assemble, till the frequent occurrence of violence rendered it necessary for them to hold their meetings in the outer inclosure. From this porch we enter the sanctuary, or holy place, and st;.! in front of us is the holy of holies, concealed by a double veil, which, at the crucifixion of our, Lord, was rent in two, 304 GEOGRAPHY-JERUSALEM. to indicate that the way into the holiest was made manifest and accessible to all by the one Mediator, Jesus Christ, Heb. x. 19-22. The holy of holies was twenty cubits square (from thirty to forty feet), and was entered but once a year, on the great day of atonement, Lev. xvi. 2, 15, 34: Heb. ix. 2-7. Here, on the destruction of Jerusalem, Titus found the golden candlestick, the table of shew-bread, and the sacred trumpets, which had been used to proclaim the year of jubilee. The arch of Titus has preserved the images of these relics, and it is still among the evidences of the truth of the Bible. But let us leave the temple. Here at the north-east corner Tlle Seep was the sheep-market, and adjoining was the Pool miarket etc. of Bethesda. At the market the sheep were sold for the temple-service, and in the pool they were washed before being delivered to the priests. At the north-west corner of the temple wall was a strong fortress, built by Herod the Great, called Antonia. It was connected by a flight of steps with the temple-courts, and was guarded by a Roman garrison. It was from this place that the tribune with his soldiers ran to quell the tumult, which the Jews raised in consequence of Paul having (as they supposed) taken Trophimus within the sacred precinct of the temple. Here it is probable that Pilate resided, whenever he came from Caesarea to Jerusalem. This fortress was therefore the Praetorium where the supreme judge held his court of justice, John xviii. 28, 33; xix. 9: Matt. xxvii. 27, orig. Before the Praetorium was a raised pavement, called Gabbatha, and on it stood the tribunal, or seat of judgment. This pavement was constructed that the Jews might have their causes decided without entering the Praetorium, and thus becoming defiled. When Pilate examined Jesus apart from the Jews, he was within the Praetorium: when in their presence it was on the raised pavement. There Pilate condemned him. In the Pretorium the soldiers mocked him, Matt. xv. 16. Probably to produce compassion in the minds of the Jews, Pilate again brought him to the pavement, and when Jesus was GEOGRAPHY-JERUSALEM. 805 finally delivered to them, he was conducted through the gate of justice (west of the temple) to Calvary, which was just without the walls, and there they crucified him. 394. On the night of our Lord's betrayal, he seems to have been taken from Gethsemane, to the house of Annas (on Acra), thence to the house of Caiaphas, on Mount Zion, thence to the Praetorium, thence to the palace of Herod, in Bezetha, thence again to the Praetorium, and then lastly to Calvary. 395. To the east of Jerusalem lay the Mount of Olives, with the valley of the Brook Kedron between them. This valley has been for more than 3,000 years, and is to the present day, used as a burial-place. This is called in the Old Testament, the valley of Jehoshaphat, Joel iii. 2. 396. Southward was the valley of Hinnom (Gehenna), where the Jews had once worshipped Moloch, and offered to it in sacrifice their own children. When Josiah recalled them to the worship of the true God, the valley was made the receptacle for the filth of the city, and for the bodies of criminals who had been executed, 2 Kings xxiii. 10: 2 Chron. xxviii. 3. To consume these substances, fires were kept continually burning, and hence the place was used as an emblem of future punishment, Matt. v. 22. On the south declivity of the valley, lay the Potter's-field, afterwards called, from the circumstances of its purchase, the field of blood. 397. At the destruction of Jerusalem, more than a million of the Jews perished, and 97,000 were taken prisoSubsequent ners. About sixty years afterwards, the Jews who history of Jerusalem. had begun to gather around their ancient home, were all banished, their return prohibited on pain of death, and the aite of the temple ploughed up. Several hundred years afterwards, the city was again rebuilt. In 614 the Persians captured it, and 90,000 Christians were slain. In 637 it was taken by the Saracens, who kept it till 1079, when the Turks became its masters. It is still a large city, with about 20,000 inhabitants, but trodden down of thle Gentiles, a' by" word and? reproach." 26* 306 GEOGRAPHY-JERUSALEM. After the capture of Jerusalem by Titus, many of the Jews removed to Tiberias, which was long the chief seat of their literature and worship. 398. A knowledge of geography will often explain aid reconcile the statements of the Bible, show the beauty and truthfulness of particular passages, and bring out the sense which might otherwise remain concealed. Asia, for example, means in the New Testament, a small part of Asia Minor, of which Ephesus was the capital: hence when the apostle was forbidden to go into Asia, he felt himself free to go to Bithynia, one of the provinces of Asia Minor, Acts ii. 9: 1 Core xvi. 19: Rev. i. 4. The word "sea," is often applied in Scripture to great rivers. The Nile is so called, Nah. iii. 8. The description applies to No-Ammon, or Thebes, the ancient capital of Egypt, built on both sides of the Nile, and 300 miles from the Mediterranean; see also Isa. xxvii. 1: Jer. li. 36. Euphrates is so called, Isa. xix. 5. The Nile is still called by this name, el Bahr (the sea), Robinson's Researches, i. 542. The word "coasts," means borders or districts, Matt. ii. 16; xv. 21. In the time of our Lord the Jews called all civilized nations, except themselves, Greeks, Acts. xix. 10; xx. 21 Rom. i. 16; ii. 9, 10; x. 12; as the Greeks called all except themselves, Barbarians. Hence the woman whom Matthew calls a Canaanite is called by Mark a Greek, and a SyroPhoenician, Matt xv. 22. Mark vii. 26; the word " Syro" being intended probably to guard Roman readers (for-whom his Gospel was designed) against supposing that she belonged to Carthage, a " Phcenician city." The word "Grecian" or "Hellenist," however, refers to Jews who for the most part resided out of Judaa, and used the Grecian language and manners, Acts vi. 1; ix. 29 xi. 20. The expression in John iv. 4, "he must needs go through Samaria," has sometimes been taken to imply that the "needs-be" was founded upon the Divine purpose. The fact is, that Samaria lay between Judaea and Galilee, and the direct road to Jerusalem led through that country. That the Gadarenes kept swine, has been regarded as a violation of the Jewish law, and on that account it is supposed our Lord allowed the demons to enter into the herd: Josephus states, however, that.Gadara was a Greek city, and that it had been only recently annexed to Galilee, Luke viii. 37. On comparing Luke xxiv. 50, with Acts i. 12, it seems that our Lord led his-disciples as far as Bethany, and yet he ascended from the Mount of Olives. In fact, the Mount of Olives has on the side of it, next to PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 307 Jerusalem, the garden of Gethsemane, and on the other side, the village of Bethany. The top of the Mount overlooks them both, and the two passages are quite consistent. In Isa. xxviii. 1, Samaria is called " the crown of pride," and her glory is compared to the fading flower of the drunkard. The custom referred to in this passage (and which is mentioned in Wisd. ii. 7, 8), is that of wearing chaplets in seasons of festivity. Samaria, moreover, was built on the top of a round hill, and the fact suggested the appropriate image of a wreath of flowers bound around the head of the drunkard. The chief city of Edom is described, with equal truth, as dwelling in the clefts of the rock, and holding the height of the hill, Obad. 3 a most accurate description of the wondrous city of Petra, whose ruins were discovered by Burckhardt, in 1811, and have been recently visited by Dr. Wilson. 399. In using a modern atlas of Palestine, giving Arabic names, the following table will be of use: Ain, ayun-fountain, s. Hajr-great stone. Mesjed-mosk, temple. A raba-plain, or des- Hummaun-bath. Mukam-tomb of a ert. Jebel, jebal-moun- saint. Bahr-sea, or lake. tain, s. Nahr-river. Belt-house. Jisr —b idge. - Nukb-pass. Bir-well. Kabr - -tomb. Ras-cape, or head. Burg-castle. Khan-inn. Tel-hill. Deir-convent. Khulat Wady -valley, or El, en, er, etc.-the. Kusr -castle. Wely water-course. Ghor-valley betwsen Kasr two mountains. Merj-meadow. 400. Under physical geography are included climate, weather, seasons, etc.; and a knowledge of these will often throw light on Scripture. 401. The heat of the climate of Judsea in summer is intense, and frequently proves fatal. Near Mount Tabor, Heat. many soldiers from the army of Baldwin IV. died from this cause, and at the very place (Shunem) where the child died in the days of Elisha, 2 Kings vi. 18-20. HoNo impressive the figure of the prophet when speaking of the Saviour, "He shall be as the shadow of a great rock in a weary land," Isa. xxxii. 2.' During the summer there was no rain in Palestine; but in the evening the dew fell heavily and suddenly, often Rain. wvterg the inb'altious travell a to the skins It was as suddenly 308 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. dried up on the following morning. Compare with this fact the fol. lowing passages, Psa. cxxxiii. 3: Hos, vi. 4; xiv. 5: 2 Sam. xvii. 12. Philo tells us that there are no rains in Egypt; and it is No rain certain that rain in that country is exceedingly rare.' in Egypt. Hence the evidence of the miracle of rain mentioned in Exod. ik. 18-26, and the hardness of heart displayed by Pharoah in resisting the message of Moses. Rain is generally preceded by a squall of wind. Compare 2 Kings iii. 16, 17, and Prov. xxv. 14. The east wind of Palestine is very hurtful to vegetation. Wd In winter it is dry and cold, and in summer dry and Winds. hot. It carries off the moisture of the leaves too rapidly, and withers them.b When it sweeps over the Mediterranean it is peculiarly dangerous., It was this wind-Euroclydon, or a Levanter, as modern sailors call it-which proved so fatal to the "Castor and Pollux."d The west wind brought show. ers, and, after a long drought, heavy rain." The north wind was cold and drying.f The south wind brought heatg and whirlwinds. These whirlwinds are sometimes used in Scripture to illustrate the power of God in the punishment of the wicked, and the suddenness with which it overtakes them.h Mr. Bruce, in his travels to discover the source of the Nile, was suddenly caught by a whirlwind, which lifted up a camel, and threw it to a considerable distance. It also threw himself and his servants down on their faces, so as to make the blood gush from their nostrils. Sometimes, Maillet informs us, whole caravans have been buried under the sand with which these winds are charged. When connected with the hot, pestilential The Simoom.. simoom, they are peculiarly fatal. Thevenot mentions the suffocation from this cause of 4,000 persons in 1655, and of nearly 20,000 in 1688. Compare Isa. xvii. 13: Hos. xiii. 3: Isa. xxxii. 2: Matt. vii. 27: Prov. xxix. 1. Harmer's Observations, i. 164. Zech. xiv. 1S. bGen. xli. 6: Ezek. xvii. 10; xix. 2: Hos. xiii. 15. c Psa. xlviii. 7. d Acts xxvii. 14. e Luke xii. 54: 1 Kings xviii. 44, 45 f Prov. xxv. 23'Job xxxvii. 9, 22 g Lake xii. 55: Zech. ix. 14. hProv. i. 27; x 25. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY-SEASONS, ETC. 309'The value of wells in the East can be fully appreciated only by those who know the scarcity of water in the summer season. These wells were a source of strife between Abimelech and Isaac, Gen. xxvi.; and Moses commemorates God's bounty in giving the Israelites wells which they digged not, Deut. vi. 11. Travellers crossing the deserts sometimes go as much as 80 miles without water. The wells, too, are often very deep, many of them 160 feet, and then filled only with rain-water. In going to Jerusalem, the devout Israelites went from strength to strength, the rain filling the pools, Psa. lxxxiv: see also Gen. xxiv. 16. The comparison of false teachers to wells without water is thus seen to be peculiarly just; bitterly disappointing the hopes of their hearers, 2 Pet. ii. 17. The mirage, or glowing watery appearance of distant sand, is also a figure expressive of disappointment. Camels and travellers are both deceived, and when they reach what seemed a sheet of water they find burning dust. See Jer. xv. 18, marg. Between the days and nights of Europe, there is no very great difference as to the qualities of heat and cold. In Frosty the East it is quite otherwise. In the height of sum- nights. mer the nights are often as cold as at Paris in the month of March, and the days scorchingly hot. Compare Gen. xxxi. 40, and Jer. xxxvi. 30: Isa. xlix. 10: Rev. vii. 16. Sir J. Chardin, Harmer i. 182. 402. It is instructive to notice that the Scriptures always represent the weather, whose laws are apparently the most difficult to ascertain, as under the control and superintendence of the Creator, Matt. v. 45: Acts xiv. 17: Jer. v. 24: Psa. cxlvii. 16-18: Nahum i. 5, 6. Harmer's Observations will be found a rich store-house of illustrations on the physical geography of Palestine. Recent travellers, and especially Dr. Robinson, Dr. Kitto, and Dr. John Wilson, have largely added to our knowledge. 403. Combining the mode of reckoning common among the Jews with the facts of physical geography, and the seasons fixed for the various annual frusts, we obtain a table of much interest and value. 310 CALENDAR OF THE JEWS, The first month of the sacred year was the one whose full noon answered to March and sometimes to Sacred Civi Name. to the Festivals and Lessons. Year. Year. Months of 1st 7th Abib, or Nisan (30 Parts of 3. Lev. vi.: Jer. vii. 21. days), Exod. xii. 2: Mar. and 14. Paschal lamb slain. The PasEzra vii. 9: Nell. ii. April. over. 1: Esther iii. 7. 16. The first-fruits of the barley harvest presented. 21. End of the Passover and unleavened bread. 2d 8th Tyar, orZif(29 days), Parts of I11. Lev. xvi. 1: Ez. xxii. 1 Kings vi. 1. Apr. and 14. The second Passover(Numb. May. ix. 10, 11), for such as could not celebrate the first. 3d 9th Sisan, or Siuvan (30 Parts of 6. Pentecost, or feast of weeks. days), Esther viii. 9. May and First-fruits of wheat-harvest June. (Lev. xxiii. 17, 20), and firstfruits of all the ground, Deut. xxvi. 2, 10, 16: 1 Kings xii. 25-33. 10. Numb. i.; Hos. i. 4th 10th Thammuz (29 days). Pts. of June.3. Numb. xiii. 1: Josh. ii. and July. 26. Numb. xxii. 2: Mic. v. 7. 5th 11th Ab (30 days), Ezra Pts. of July 3. Numb. xxx. 2: Jer. i. vii.. and Aug. 20. Deut. i.: Isa. i. 6th 12th Elul (29 days), Neh. Pts. of Aug. 3. Deut. vii. 12: Isa. xlix. 14. I vi. 15. and Sept. 20. Deut. xvi. 18: Isa. li. 12. 7th 1st Tisri, or Ethanim (30 Parts of 1. Feast of trumpets, Lev.xxiii. days) 1 Kings viii. 2. Sept. and 24: Numb. xxix. 1. Oct. 10. Day of atonement, Lev. xxiii. 27, 28. 15. Feast of tabernacles, or of the in-gatherings, Ex. xxiii. 16: Lev.xxiii.34. First-fruits of wine and oil, Lev. xxiii. 39. 21. Gen. i.: Isa. xlii. 5. 8th 2d Marchesvan, or Bul Pts. of Oct. 8. Gen. xxiii. i.: 1 Sam. i. 1. (29 ds.)Kings vi.38 and Nov. 9th 3d Chisleu (30 cays). Parts of 10. Gen. xxxvii. i.: Amos ii. 6. Zech. vii. 1: Neh. i. Nov. and 25. Feast of the dedication,1 Mac. l ~~1. lIDec. iv. 52-59: John x. 22, 23. 10th 4th Thebeth (29 days). Parts of 25. Exod. x. 1: Jer. xlvi. 13. Esther ii. 16. Iec. and Jan. 11th 5th Shevet. or Shebat (30 Parts of 17. Exod. xxi. 1: Jer. xxxiv.. days), Zech. i. 7. Jan. and Feb. 12th 6th Adar (29 dlays), [zra Parts of 1. Ex. xxxviii.21:lSam.xvYi. 13. vi. 15. Feb. and 14,15. Feast of Purim. Ve Adar, or 2d Adar. Mar. 25.,ev. i. 1: Isa. xliii. 21. SHOWING THE SEASONS OF THE YEAR, ETC. Y11 loilowel next after the vernal equinox, and thereiore s: nr.etunm e April, and sometimes to parts of both. Seasons and Weather. Productions. The latter rain begins to fall, Deut. xi. 14: Zech. x. 1. The. weather during the rains chilly, Ezra x. 9: Johin xiii. 10. Harvest Trhis rain prepares the corn for harvest. Barleyripe atJericho;wheat begins.'reat ]heat esp)ecillly in the plains, partly in ear; fig-tree blosThe rivers swell from the rains, Josh. iii. 15: soms: winter-fig still on the I1 Clhrion. xi. 15: Jer. xii. 5. tree, Mat. xxi. 19: Mar. xi. 23. The latter rains still frequent. Barley gener'lly three weeks These rains often preceded by whirlwinds, earli'rthanwheat.Barl' geI Kings xviii. 45; Matt. viii. 24. n'?rallv ct thismonth,Ruth i. 22. Wheat begins to ripen. Excessive drought. Fromr April to Sept. no rain Wheat ripening on the hills Ur ihi[ tnlder, 1,-St n'. ii. 17: Prov. xxvi. 1. in June; in the valleys, early The fmorn-ing cloud seen early, but soon disap- in May. pears, Hos. vi. 4; xiii. 3. Summ'r Copious dews at night, Job xxix.9: Psa.cxxxiii.3. Grass in some places a yard begins. North and East winds increase drougt, Gen. high, John vi. 10. xli. 6- Jer. iv. 8. Heat increases. Early vintage, Lev. xxvi. 5. Rice and early figs ripen. Hot Heat intense; country apparently burned up. Ripe figs at Jerusalem; olives season. Lebanon nearly free from snow. atJericho; grapesripening. Heat still intense, 2 Kings iv. 19, 20: Psa. cxxt. 6: Grape harvest general. Isa. xlix. 9, 10: Rev. vii. 16. H eat in the day; nights frosty, Gen. xxxi. 40. IShowers frequent; the forlme r, or early rain. Seed- Ploughing and sowing begin. time begins. Sometimes the early rain begins now. The latter grapes gathered./ Wheat and barley sown. Winter'Trees lose their foliagce. begins. Snow begins to fall on the mountains, Jos. xxxvi. 22. On the mountains the cold is severe. Hail; snow, Josh x. 11: Psa. xlvii. 16,17. Grass and herbs spring up t Weatler warm at intervals. Eze. xxxiii. 30, 31. after the rains. Corn still sown. The winter-fig found on the Co d i At the beginning of the cold season the weather trees, though they are season. cold, but gradually becomes warm. stripped of their leaves. Thunder and hail frequent The almond-tree blossomls. Barley sometimes sown. I _.. _ _._ I 812 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY —UTILITY. 404. The perusal of this table will suggest one or two obvious analogies. The summer and winter in Palestine coincide with the same seasons in England; as does the time of greatest heat, July and August, and of greatest cold, January. Seed time is in our autumn; and harvest begins in our spring, and extends through the early summer. The rainy seasons in Palestine begin about the Equinoxes; the rain in our autumn is the early or seed rain; the rain in our spring is the latter or harvest rain. The one quickens the seed, the other fills the ear. The rains generally come from the west (Luke xii. 54), driven up from the Mediterranean Sea. During harvest and summer, rain is most unusual, a fact which explains the surprise of the people as described in 1 Sam. xii. 17. The Israelites crossed the Jordan in April, when the river was swollen with the winter rains, and hence the necessity for the miracle recorded in Josh. iii. In Scripture, dates are often fixed by a reference to the seasons or productions, 2 Sam. xxi. 9: Numb. xiii. 20; or by a reference to the feasts, John x. 22. The fact recorded in Luke iv. 17, has been thought to fix the time of our Lord's visit to the synagogue at Nazareth. The reading of the Law was completed in the fifty-two Sabbaths of each year, and was begun in Tisri (or Sept.), a custom founded on Neh. viii. 2; and Deut. xxxi. 10, 11. Gen. i.-vi. was read at the feast of tabernacles; and on the Sabbath before, Deut. xxix. 10, with Isa. lxi. 1-lxiii. 10. This reckoning, which is Lamy's, fixes the visit on the 14th Tisri. The time seems fixed by the context, however, nearer to Pentecost, and the phraseology of Luke rather intimates that Christ had chosen the passage, than that he found it in the general order of reading. Lamy has given all the lessons (App. Bibl. Bk. i., chap. v). The preceding Table gives the commencement of a few only. The zeal of the people mentioned in 2 Chron. xxx. 23, be INTERI'RETATION OF ALLEGORIES. 313 coise more obvious, when it is remembered that they kept the feast other seven days, in the midst of the harvest. Important lessons are often suggested by an accurate knowledge of such facts as this table contains. Our Lord, for example, was crucified on the day when the paschal lamb was offered, and rose on the day when the first fruits of the early harvest were presented, "the first fruits of them that slept." The Spirit was poured out at Pentecost, when the first fruits of the ground were presented at the temple: and on that day 3,000 persons, " out of every nation under heaven," were added to the church, Acts ii. 5, 41. The feast of tabernacles (when thanks were offered for the ingathering of all the fruits of the land), is yet to come. The language of our Lord (Matt. xxiii. 27, 29), comparing the Pharisees to whited sepulchres, becomes clearer from the fact, that it was spoken just before the Passover, and after the winter rains, when the Jews were busy whitewashing the burial-places near Jerusalem, and preparing for the feast. SEC. 7.-ON THE APPLICATION OF THESE RULES TO THE INTERPRETATION OF THE ALLEGORIES, PARABLES, TYPES AND SYMBOLS OF SCRIPTURE. "The Scriptures being written to the thoughts of men, and to the succession of all ages.... are not to be interpreted only according to the latitude of the proper sense of the place, and respectively towards that present occasion whereupon the words were uttered.... but have in themselves, both distributively and collectively, infinite springs and streams of doctrine to water the church in every part...... not that I wish men to be bold in allegories.... but that I do much condemn that interpretation of the Scripture, which is only after the manner men use to interpret a profane book."-BacoN; Advancement of Learning. "Our Lord might have uttered the common places of morality, but he teaches by parables, because he knew that they would more constantly inhabit both the memory and the judgment."-SIR P. SYDNEY. "Manifeste dicta absolvent parabolas."-Irenceus, lib. ii. c. 47. 405. We have been engaged thus far in collecting the sense of Scripture, and in order to ascertain that sense, it has only been necessary to find the meaning of the words. There are 27 314 ALLEGORICAL AND FIGURAIVE LANGUAGE. some parts of the Bible, however, where we need an additional kind of interpretation. Hitherto the meaning of the words has been regarded as the Bible. In the passage to which we are about to refer, however, there is a further meaning called the allegorical or spiritual. To this class belong the allegories and parables, types, typical actions, and symbols of'the sacred volume, and as they agree in the principles of interpretation applicable to them all, we class them under one name as allegories. 406. They differ from the figures of Scripture in Figures and 4 Parables. several particulars. First, They present to our view only the less important meaning they are intended to convey, the moral or spiritual one being for a time concealed; while in figures the secondary or important meaning is generally the prominent one. When it is said, for example, that the Son of Man is the sower, we use a figure, and the meaning of the word "sower" is fixed by its place in the sentence. But when we say, " A sower went forth to sow,' we express but one meaning, though there is an ultimate meaning in view which is not expressed. Secondly, Figures always represent one thing as another thing, and the meaning is at once fixed by excluding the points in which they differ and combining those only in which they agree. In the case of allegories or parables, it is never said that one thing is another, though this may be said when the parable is explained. Thirdly, In figures there is but one meaning consistent with the context and scope: in the allegory and parable there are two, the verbal and the allegorical; the verbal being the explanation of the words, and the allegorical, of the thing or things signified by them. 407. It must be remembered, that in an allegory or type, we are not to expect an agreement between the verbal sense and the allegorical meaning in all points. The allegory, so far, is like a figure of speech. In the latter, it is enough if the two things compared touch the one point, and in the former, things must not be expected to touch in all. At the same time, the allegory so far differs from the figure, that it generally touches in more than o7:e. It is in its very nature a continued comparison, and ar. expositor may safely proceed ALLEGORIES-THE SCOPE. 315 on the presumption that there is contact in most points; nor need he desist from his comparison till the resemblance refuses to appear, unless it be forced, or till it is evident that the circumstances under consideration is added only to give beauty or energy to the narrative. 408. The. occasions on which it is proper to use an allegorical representation are numerous. It tests a teach- P Parables able disposition (Matt. xiii. 13). It is peculiarly when used. useful in giving a figurative exhibition of truth, before it is intended to reveal it clearly. It often serves this purpose in the Old Testament, and in the book of Revelation. It is aseful in gaining a man's judgment against himself, as in the case of David, and as in many of the parables; and even when there is no need of concealment, it often attracts the attention of men who might otherwise remain indifferent. 409. All the rules of allegorical interpretation take as granted, that the verbal interpretation of the pasMeaning of sage has been completed, and that if the allegory words to be' -ascertained. be a type or symbol, we have ascertained precisely what the action or symbol is, whose allegorical meaning we are about to investigate. Till this be done, no step can be taken in the real interpretation: we must first know what the thing is, before we can. know what itis intended to represent. 410. (1.) The first rule of interpretation is: ascertain what is the scope, either by reference to the context, or to First rle parallel passages; and seize the one truth which the scope. the type or parable is intended to set forth, distinguishing it from all the other truths which border upon it, and let the parts of the parable which are explained, be explained in harmony with this one truth. In the case of allegories the scope is -generally told us, as in Psa. lxxx; the whole being explained in verse 17, where the man of God's right hand is introduced in such a way as directs us to Israel as the Vine. Sometimes. however, we have to look to other parts of the Bible. The entire book of Canticles is an extended allegory, and under this 316 ALLEGORIES-SUBORDINATE TEUTHS. form is shadowed forth the spiritual affection between Christ and his church. To explain the book, we have recourse to other places, where the relation between God and his church is described under a similar representation. So also Isa. v. 1-7: Ezek. xvi. 19, 10, 14; xix. 1-9; xxiii.; xxxi. 3-17. In the parables, the scope is generally told us in the context; sometimes by our Lord himself (Matt. xxii. 14), sometimes by the-inspired narrator in his own words (Luke xviii. 1). Sometimes it is set forth at the commencement of the parable (Luke xviii. 9; xix. 11); sometimes at the close (Matt. xxv. 13; Luke xvi. 9); sometimes at both, as in Matt. xviii. 23; see verses 21 and 35. So again in Matt. xx. 1-16: Luke xii. 15-21. Sometimes, though rarely, we need to turn to a parallel passage; as, for the full interpretation of Luke xv. 3, we turn to Matt. xviii. 12, etc. When from none of these circumstances the scope can be gathered, we must then have recourse to the occasion or the subject of the parable itself. The meaning of the parable of the barren fig-tree (Luke xiii. 6, 9), and the prodigal son, is gathered in this way. The progress of the parables, and the study of the circumstances under which they were spoken, will clearly show the design of our Lord in uttering them. 411. In the case of a type, it is important to remember that copeof the scope or intention of God in instituting it can types. be gathered only from the Bible. Sometimes from the Old Testament, as in the case of Moses, Deut. xviii. 15, frequently only from the New, as in John iii. 14; vi. 32.; 1 Cor. v. 7, 8: Matt. xii. 40, etc. The principle laid down in the Epistle to the Hebrews, is that the whole of the previous dispensation was typical-a shadow of things to come. In applying this principle, the rules found below must be carefully observed. views in- 412. Any interpretation of a parable or allegory with the that is inconsistent with the great truth, which it rejectebe is thus seen to involve, must be rejected. The parable of the good Samaritan, for example, has been supposed to refer to our Lord; the wounded traveller, to our sinful race; the priest and Levite, to the moral and Levitical law; the inn, to the ALLEGORIES-SUBORDINATEL TRUTHS. 317 church: an interpretation entirely inconsistent with our Saviour's designs. It is enough, therefore, that fhe truths which we suppose to be contained in the allegories and types of Scripture are Scriptural; they must be evidently shown to be involved in the purpose of God in instituting the one, and of inspired teachers in speaking of the other. This remark is applicable to all parts of the parables, and it may be reversed. We have the right interpretation when all the main circumstances are explained. If any important member of the narrative is rendered by our interpretation nugatory, or is paralysed, the interpretation is false; and when we have a true interpretation of the whole, that interpretation of any part is to be rejected which does not conduce to the consistency and force of the whole. In interpreting the parable of the prodigal son, for example, some expositors have descended to details which are quite inconsistent with the obvious scope and force of the narrative. The alienation of the prodigal from all home affections-his resolution to seek happiness where God is notthe fearful change in his position, and his consciousness of that change -his attempt to repair his broken fortunes-his bitter disappointment and wants-the resolve to return-the father's love and welcome-the festal rejoicing which his return created-the discontent and grudging spirit of the elder brother-the father's noble remonstrance-all illustrate the great truth of the passage, that God welcomes the return of the vilest of his children, and all are important. To deny, as some have done, that the prodigal's desertion of his home has any reference to man's apostasy, weakens the parable. and to teach that the ring is the everlasting love of God, or the seal of the Spirit-that the sinner is called the younger son, because man as a sinner is younger than man as righteous-that the citizen to whom he went was a legal preacher-that the swine were self-righteous persons-that the husks were works of righteousness-that the fatted calf was Christ —hat the shoes were means of upright conversation, the doctrines and precepts of the Scripture-that the music which the elder brother heard was the preaching of the Gospel-is to call our attention from the great lesson of the parable to doctrines which the disciples could not have found in the parable itself. By turning the most delicate touches into important Scriptural truths, the great design of the whole is obscured, and we learn to bring a meaning into the passage, and not 9ut of it; a habit which we are likely to employ with more serious mischief in other places. 41.3. But while everything that is expla'iled, must be exs 27* 818 ALLEGORIES-OTHER RULES. Howfar de- plained with reference to the writei's scope, it is an tails to be important question, how far the details of the paraexplained. bles and allegories of Scripture have a reference to corresponding facts, in the application of them. From the inspired interpretation of parables given us in Scripture, we mrlay gather that we are to avoid both the extreme of supposing that only the design of the whole should be regarded, and the extreme of insisting upon every clause as having a double meaning. In the parables of the sower and the tares, for example, which our Lord himself interpreted, the moral application descends to the minutest particulars of the narrative; the birds, and thorns, and stony ground, have all their meaning: and, as Tholuck has remarked, it may be said generally that the similitude is perfect, in proportion as it is on all sides rich in applications. Even in these parables, however, not all the circumstances are explained. " While men slept," in the parable of the tares (Matt. xiii. 25), and the phrase, "I cannot dig," and " to beg I am ashamed," in the parable of the unjust steward, have neither of them any application in the explanation which our Lord himself gave. So in the longest allegory ii Scripture-the book of Canticlesthe description given of the bride is probably no more than an expression of the love and complacency of Jehovah towards his chosen. The two following rules, in addition to the one just given as to the scope of the parable, will be sufficient to guard us in the interpretation both of the parables and allegories of Scripture. 414. (2.) Even of doctrines consistent with the design of the parable or type, no conclusion must be gathered Second rule of interpre- from any part of either of them, which is inconsistent tation. with the clearer revelations of Divine truth. The high priest, under the law, offered first for his own sin, and then for the.sins of the people. It does not, therefore, follow that Christ partook of our sinful nature; the contrary is the fact; " for in him was no sin." So of the paschal lamb; it was a~ type of our Lord; it shadowed forth his death and person, but not the efficacy of his death, nor at all adequately the holiness of his nature. If it be attempted to prove from the fact that the rich man in the ALLEGORIES-OTHER RULES. 319 parable prayed to Abraham, that therefore we are to pray to gkf rifled saints, we reject the interpretation as inconsistent with the express statements of Scripture; or if, from the parable of the faithful servant, or the prodigal son, it be gathered (as by the ancient Pelagians) that God pardons us without sacrifice or intercession, on the ground simply of our repentance or our prayers, we reject the interpretation as inconsistent with the whole tenor of the Bible (John viii. 24: Heb. x.) Nor can we gather from Luke xv 7, that the Pharisees were just men who needed no repentance, or from verse 29, that the elder brother had never transgressed his father's command; nor from Luke xvi. 1, that dishonesty is in any good sense true wisdom. David was, in his kingly character, a type of our Lord; and also in his family descent, but not in his sins. 415. (3.) It is important that neither types nor parables be made the first or sole source of Scripture doctrine. Third rule Doctrines otherwise proved may be further illus- of interpretation. trated or confirmed by them, but we are not to gather doctrine exclusively or primarily from their representations. From the parable of the unjust steward, some of the early Scripture expositors gathered, without reason, the history of the apostasy of Satan. lie was said to be the chief among the servants of God, and being driven from his place of trust, he drew after him the other angels, whom he tempted with the promise of lighter tasks and easier service. Nor can we conclude, from the parable of the ten virgins, that because five were wise and five foolish, half of those who make a profession of religion will finally be saved and half finally perish. In the parable ofihe lost sheep, one in a hundred only went astray: in that of the lost piece of silver, one in ten was lost: neither circumstance can be made the foundation of a doctrine. Both these rules are a modification, as it will be seen, of the rule which bids us interpret according to the analogy of faith, and to look to passages that are clear for the meaning of those that are abstruse. 416. The interpretation of symbols, and of symbolical actions, is regulated by the same principles as the interpretation of allegories. A symbolical expres Symbol interpretation of allegories.. A symbolical expres S20 PARABLES LASSIFIED. sion is simply a figurative one, founded on.lalgy or resemblance, and is interpreted on the principles common to the interpretation of all figurative language. Parables etc. 417. The following are the parables and fables of of the Old Testament. the Old Testament. Jotham's: the trees making a king, Judges ix. 7. Nathan's: the poor man's ewe lamb, 2 Sam. xii. 1. Two brothers striving together, 2 Sam. xiv. 6. The prisoner that made his escape, 1 Kings xx. 39 Micaiah's vision, 1 Kings xxii. 19-23. The thistle and cedar, 2 Kings xiv. 9. The vineyard yielding wild grapes, Isa, v. 1, The parables in the Gospels will be found enumerated chronologically in the introduction to the Gospels. 418. Neander has classified the parables of our Parables of the New Lord with reference to the truths taught in them, Testament. and their connection with his kingdom. Parables on the progress of the kingdom of Christ: 1. The sower, Matt. xili. 3: Mark iv. 3: Luke viii. 5. 2. The tares, Matt. xiii. 24. 3. The mustard-seed, Matt. xiii. 31: Mark iv. 31: Luke vii 18, 19. 4. The leaven, Matt. xiii. 33: Luke xiii. 20, 21. 5. The net, Matt. xiii. 47. Moral requisites for entering the kingdom of Christ. Aati-pharisaic parables, or negative requisites. 6. The lost sheep, Matt. xviii. 12: Luke xv. 4. 7. The lost piece of money, Luke xv. 10. 8. The prodigal son, Luke xv. 11-32. 9. The Pharisee and the Publican, Luke xviii. 9-14. 10. Strife for the first places at feasts, Luke xiv.'-12. Positive requisites. 11. The two sons, Matt. xxi. 28. 12. The hidden treasure, Matt. xiii. 44. 13. The pearl, Matt. xiii. 45, 46. 14. The tower and the warring king, Luke xiv. 28-33. 15. The wedding garment, Matt. xxii. 11. C ill to enter the kingdom of Christ. PARABLES CLASSIFIED. 821 16. The feast, Luke xiv. 16-24: Matt. xxii. 1-14. Activity in the kingdom of Christ. 17. The vine, John xv. 1. 18. The wicked vine-dresser, Matt. xxi. 33-41. 19. The talents, Matt. xxv. 14-30: Luke xix. 12-27. 20. The barren fig-tree, Luke xiii. 6. 21. Favor independent of works, Matt. xx. 1-16. The laberers. The true spirit of the kingdom of Christ. Forgiveness. 22. The good Samaritan, Luke x. 25-37. 23. The unforgiving servant, Matt xviii. 23: Luke vii. 41. The right use of worldly possessions. 24. The unjust steward, Luke xvi. 1-13. 25. The rich man and Lazarus, Luke xvi. 19. The Christian spirit under the name of prudence. 26. The ten virgins, Matt. xxv. Prayer. 27. The importunate widow, Luke xviii. 1. 28. The friend on his journey, Luke xi. 5-10. 419. Other authors have adopted a different division. Dr. Gray divides them into (1.) Such as represent the nature and progress of the Gospel disDensation. (2.) Such as represent the rejection of the Jews, and the calling of the Gentiles. (3.) Such as deliver moral instruction. Greswell divides them into the prophetic and moral. 420. Lisco's division is preferable to either. He regards them as of three classes. (1.) Such as represent the heavenly kingdom as containing truths and powers Divine in their origin, and blessed in their effects. See preceding list, 1, 3, 4, 11, 12. (2.) Such as represent the heavenly kingdom founded on these truths, and these are: 1. Those that respect the church as a whole, 20, 18, 16, 15 (calling and election differ), 2, 5. 2. Those that respect the entrance of individuals into the church, 6,7, 3, 14. 322 ALLEGORICAL 1NTERPlRETA:ION O0 1ISTORY. (3.) Such as represent the heavenly kingdom in the faith, love, and hope of its members. In relation- - 1. To Faith and humility, etc., 21, 9, 11, 25, 26. 2. To love (Luke vii. 41), 23, 22. 3. To hope, 26, 19. These classifications are important, chiefly as showing the views of eminent authors on the scope of each parable. Care must be taken not to adhere so rigidly to the classification we adopt as to miss obvious moral lessons. 421. The principles which are applicable to the interpreAllegorical tation of allegories and parables, properly so called, interpreta- apply equally to much that is historical in Scription of his-:. tory. ture. The ancient Jewish people, for example, sustained to God the same relation as is now sustained by the Christian church and by each Christian. Their Foundation of it. sufferings in Egypt, their deliverance under Moses their wanderings in the desert, their entry into Canaan, prefigure important facts in the history of all Christians. The Israelites not only lived under the same authority with us, and were governed by an economy of discipline like our own, but the facts of their history were typical of the history of the church (Rom. ii. 28: 1 Cor. x.: Heb. iv.: 1 Pet. ii. 10 Rev. xv. 5). 422. It is observable, too, that the relation between the Jewish people, and some of the nations that surrounded them, is a type of the relation between the Christian church and its adversaries: Sodom and. Ishmael, Egypt and Babylon, have all their representatives in the history of the true Israel (Gal. iv. 25: Rev. xiv. 8). 423. It may be added, that while in one aspect Israel as the son, is the representative of our Lord, eminent characters among the Israelites.were types of.Him (as Moses among the prophets, David and Solomon among the kings);and hence expressions, which were originally true of the type, are applied to Christ as the antitype or fulfilment. See Hos. xi. 1, conmpared with Matt. ii. 15, etc. ALLEGORY-ABUSE. 323 424. And as'he people, so the rites and wcrship of the Old( Tetament were typical. The whole dispensation was the shadow of good things to come, not the very image or substance of them. That substance was Christ (Heb. x. 1). Thus it is, that since the beginning of our race, there has been a connected series of representations, each embodying some truth, and all tending to illustrate the office and work of our Lord, or the character and history of his people. Jewish history and worship form one grand type. The Old Testament (as Augustine long ago remarked), is the New veiled, and the New Testament is the Old unveiled. 425. In the interpretation of all these types, and of history in its secondary or spiritual allusions, we use the Rules same rules as in interpreting parables and allegories properly so called: compare the history or type with the general truth, which both the type, and the antitype embody; expect agreement in several particulars, but not in all, and let the interpretation of each part harmonize with the design of the whole, and with the clear revelation of Divine doctrine given in other parts of the sacred volume. 426. In applying these rules, it is important to remember that the inspired writers never destroyed the historical sense of Scripture, to establish the spiritual (as some inquirers have done), nor do they find a hidden meaning in the words (as do the Jews), but only in the facts of each passage; which meaning is easy, natural, and Scriptural; and that they confine themselves to such expositions as illustrate some truth of practical or of spiritual Importance (Heb. v. 11; ix. 5). Indeed, an examination of the passages quoted from the Old Testament in the New, will show that they are adduced exclusively with reference either to the personal history and mediatorial office of our Lord, to the spiritual character of his kingdom, or to the future destiny of his church. 427. The allegorical interpretation of Scripture it has been so greatly abused, that it becomes import- abuse of ant to illustrate these remarks at greater lenghistory. ant to illustrate tl.ese remarks at greater length. 321 ALLEGORY-ABUSE. 428. The ancient Jews allegorized on the words of Scripture. In the original of the word translated "created," for Jewsthe instance, Gen. i. 1, they find the first letter of the Hebrew for Father, Son, and Spirit, and hence they prove the doctrine of the Trinity. They refer Psa. xxi. 1, to Christ, because the letters of the original, for "shall joy," made by transposition, Messiah. The letter X occurs six times in Gen. i. 1, and as K represents 1000, they suppose that the existence of the world for 6000 years, is the truth included in this fact. ha, the sign of the definite accusative in Hebrew, they regard as including the whole essence of a thing, because it is made up of the first and last letters of the Hebrew alphabet. In the same spirit, the pseudo-Barnabas says that Abraham circumcised 318 men of his house, Gen. xiv. 14, because this number in Greek letters represents Jesus and the cross, I = 10, H = 8, and T = 300. 429. Some writers, on the other hand, allegorize Scripture by destroying itsffacts. John the Baptist, for example, is said to have had no real existence, but to be only a mythic representation of the collective body of the Jewish prophets in their relation to Christ. The narrative of the inn and manger at Bethlehem, exhibits nothing more (they add), than the common birth into our world of everything Divine. In the same spirit, the seven days' creation were held to imply merely the perfection of the work of God, and the moving of the Spirit of God on the face of the waters, to indicate the spiritual washing of Christian baptism. 430. A practice more frequent, though scarcely less mischievous, has been adopted in all ages, of admitting the historical truth of the inspired narrative, and basing upon every part of it some spiritual doctrine, not as illustrated, but as proved and intended by the Holy Spirit. To this tendency may be traced the impression that the seventh thousand years in the history of the world, will be the millenium. The division of animals into clean and unclean, was held on a similar principle to represent virtue and vice in human nature. The simplest statements were thus made ridiculous. Moses had said, "All that ALLEGORIES AND TYPES. 325 divideth the hoof and cheweth the cud, ye shall eat," indicating, says the Epistle of Barnabas, that we should hold fast to those who meditate on the command, and who (divide the hoof, that is) live in this world, but have their expectation in another. Heaven and earth in the Lord's Prayer, refer (says Tertullian) to the body and the soul of man, Luke xi. 2. The five loaves with which our Lord fed the multitude, represent, says Clement, the five senses, John vi. 9. Another writer (Cyril), regards them as the five books of Moses, and the two fishes as the Grecian philosophy, which is generated and carried through heathen waters: or our Saviour's teaching, as apostolic and evangelical. Origen even builds upon the images of Scripture, as he calls them, the doctrine of the final restoration of the whole spiritual universe to its original blessedness and purity. Justin thinks that the wrestling of Jacob was a type of the temptation of our Lord, that the injury he received represented the sufferings and death of Christ. Athanasius, who sometimes condemned this style of interpretation, expounds Matt. v. 29, and supposes the body to mean the church, the eyes and hands the bishops and deacons, who ought to be cut off, if they commit acts hurtful to the church. Hilary thinks that the fowls of the air (Matt. vi. 26-30), are unclean spirits, to whom God gives life without trouble. The lilies are the angels: the grass, the heathen. The mother of Zebedee's children represents the law: her children the believing Jews. Cyril thinks Malchus a type of the Jews, and that as Peter cut off his right ear, so they were to be deprived of right hearing, their hearing being only sinister or disobedient. These interpretations were all justified on principle. The obvious historic sense of a passage was always regarded as the less important, sometimes even as altogether untrue; while the spiritual or allegorical was alone deemed worthy of an enlightened mind. Hence Origen maintains that the history of the creation, of Lot's incest, of Abraham's vtwo wives, of Jacob's marriage with Leah and Rachel, is all an allegory; so readily do extremes beget each other. These examples were widely copied among the various sects whicr sprang up in the early church. All justified their dogmas by allegori-.al interpretations of Scripture: and in the end the literal historic sense with all the moral and spiritual lessons it conveyed was overlooked or denied. 431. Intelligent piety will reject all these fabulous interpre28 326 ALLEGORY-LITERATTURE. tations, the result of a vagrant fancy, and will be at no loss to elicit from the historical parts of Scripture, the chief lessons of holy wisdom they were designed to supply. The essential points are, that many characters and transactions recorded in the Old Testament are typical, that many more exhibit qualities which we are to imitate or condemn, that others illustrate principles of Divine government which are still in force, and that none must be intepreted without a reference to the clear revelations which are given in other parts of the Divine word. 432. Types (it may be added), are prophetic, and may be Tvpes. both used to prove, as well as to illustrate the Gospel. md l.io-L Examples, analogies, and resemblances, not anphetic. nounced as typical, are illustrative only. They explain truth rather than prove it. 433. On the subjects discussed in this section, see especially on the parablesDoDD's Discourses on the Miracles and Parables, 4 vols., 1757. A. GRAY's Delineation of the Par-ables, 1777. Lisco on the Parables. Clark, 1840. TnENCEH' Notes on the Parables of our Lord, 1847. On the Types, besides M'Ewen and Wilson (of Irvine)The GOSPEL of the Old Testament, from St. Matthew, by Charlotte Elizabeth. MARSH's Lectures on Biblical Criticism and Interpretation, where it is maintained that nothing is a type unless formally recognised as such in the New Testament: FAIRBAIRN (Typology of Scripture, 2d Series), maintaining that the whole of the previous economy is affirmed in the New Testlament to be typical. This principle hle applies to the patriarchal and Mosaic institutions and history. EDWARDS on the Types of the Messiah. On Allegorical Interpretation, seeOLslrAUSEN on Biblical Interpretation, as taught by the inspired writers: or, on the deep spiritual sense of Scripture. Neufch., 1841, and MAENSCIUER on the Types, and the Typical Interpietation of Scripture. Am. bibl. Rep., January, 1841. PROPHETIC LANGUAGE. 327 SEC. 8.-ON THE INTERPRETATION OF PROPHECY. "In a certain sense, history has been justly called the interpreter of prophecy; but to the Israelite, prophecy was more the interpreter of history, for it gave him intelligible notice of approaching events, and it supplied him with the reasons of God's providence in bringing those events to pass."-DAVIsoN: Lectures on Prophecy. 434. All the difficulties of Scripture interpretation to which we have referred are to be found in prophecy. Its Peculiar diflanguage is largely figurative, and often allegorical. ficulty of prophetic Allusions to the history and circumstances of the pterpretation. times are frequent. The events recorded are for the most part future, and but dimly revealed. On all grounds, therefore, the utmost attention is required rightly to understand the meaning of the inspired predictions. As the prophets are called seers, the prophecies of the Old Testament are commonly called visions, Numb. xxiv. Prophecies 17: 2 Chron. ix. 29: Ezek. xxxvii.: Hab. ii. 1. Some visions. of them were recorded in writing, for the information of the church throughout all time; others were communicated orally by the prophets to their cotemporaries: the whole in language taken largely from the customs and worship prevalent among them. Hence have originated several peculiarities Hence peof the prophetic Scriptures.n n indications of 435. As to time: time. 1. The prophets often speak of things that belong to the remote future as if present to their view. Thus in Isa. ix. 6, it is said, " Unto us a child is born, unto us a son is given;" so in Isa. xlii. 1. 2. They speak of things future as past. In Isa. liii., for example, nearly the whole of the transactions of the life of the "servant" of God are represented as finished; the prophet seeming to stand between the death of our Lord and his coming glory. 3. When the proise time of individual events was not 328 PROPHETIC LANGUAGE. revealed, the prophets describe them as continuous. They saw the future rather in space than in time; the whole, thereiore, appears foreshortened, and perspective rather than actual distance is regarded. They seem often to speak of future things as a common observer would describe the stars, grouping them as they appear, and not according to their true positions. In Jer. 1. 41, for example, the first conquest and the complete destruction of Babylon are connected, without any notice of the interval between them; in fact, nearly a thousand years elapsed between the first shock of the empire in the attack of the Persians and the final overthrow of the city. In Isa. chaps. x., xi., the deliverance of the Jews from the yoke of the Assyrians is connected with the deliverance which was to be effected by the Messiah. In the same way, Isaiah, Micah, Hosea, Ezekiel, and Jeremiah all connected these two events, without intimating, however, that the Messiah was to take part in both. Zechariah, again, who lived after the exile, connects the spiritual salvation of the church in the distant future with the temporal deliverance of the Jews under Alexander and the Maccabees. In the description which is given of the humiliation and glory of the Messiah, there is seldom any notice taken of the time which is to elapse before his kingdom is established. Both are often connected in the same verses, as in Zech. ix. 9, 10. Joel connects in the same way the effusion of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost, and its general effusion in later times, chap. ii. 28, etc. Sometimes, indeed, the precise time was revealed to the prophet, and is recorded, as in the case of the sojourn of Abraham and his posterity in Egypt, Gen. xv. 13; the sixty-five years in which Israel was to be broken, Isa. vii. 8; and the captivity in Babylon, Jer. xxix. 10; but more commonly the prophets were ignorant of it, as the apostle Peter tells us, and as Zechariah has acknowledged, 1 Pet. i. 10-12: Zech. xiv. 7. Very often the events, instead of being represented as continuous, are blended together. The latter parts of Isaiah, and some of the prophe. cies of our Lord, concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the final judgment, illustrate this remark, Matt. xxiv. 28, 29. 436. As to language:-As the future was thus represented PROPHETIC LANGUAGE. 329 in visions, and under a typical dispensation, it caln Hencep. culiaritiei excite no surprise that the whole is often described ofe hrain figurative, and allegorical or symbolic terms. If eog prophecy had everywhere consisted of literal description, it would have defeated its object, and either have prevented the fulfilment, or have taken from the fulfilled prophecy all evidence of a Divine original. Besides, as everything earthly supplies images for describing things spiritual, so does the whole of the Jewish economy. Language borrowed from nature and the law is therefore as appropriate as it is necessary. The unity and vastness of God's plans are illustrated by it all. Under the Gospel, for example, Messiah is to be king, and hence the prophets represent him as possessed of all the characteristics of the most distinguished princes of the Jewish theocracy, and more than once apply to him the title of David, who was, in many respects, the ideal of kingly authority, Hos. iii. 5: Jer. xxx. 9: Acts xiii. 34. They describe his character as prophet or priest in the same strain, multiplying images in each case adapted to give the most exalted ideas of his office, Psa. cx.: Zech. vi.: Heb. vii. In the same way they speak of his kingdom, either of grace or glory, as the hlighest perfection of the Jewish economy. It is called Jerusalem, or Zion, Isa. lxii. 1, 6, 7; lx. 1520: Gal. iv. 26-28: Heb. xii. 22. See, also, Isa. lx. 6, 7; lxvi. 23.a To Joel, the outpouring of the Spirit appears as a general extension of the three forms of Divine revelation which occur in the Old Testament, The idea that all nations should worship the true God, Zechariah expresses by the declaration that they will join in the feast of tabernacles (xiv. 16). The perfect love and fidelity of the people of God appear to IHosea and others as the removal of the worship of Baal, and the abandonment by the church of Assyria and Egypt, Zech. xiv. 16: Isa. xix. 19-21: Zech. chaps. ii., xiv., xiii.: Mic. v. The glory of the Messiah's days is represented by the prosperous times of David and Solomon, Zech iii. 10: 1 Kings iv. 25. The prevalence of peace, by the union of Judah and Israel, Hos. i. 11: Isa. xi. 13. In the same way, the enemies of the kingdom of the Messiah are not only called by the name given to the enemies of the ancient theocracy, viz., the nations of the Gentiles, but they often bear the name of some one people who, at the time, were peculiarly inimical or powerful. In Isa. xxv..they are ~See ".Bickersteth on the Prophecies," p. 50, 28* 330 LaNGUAGE FOUNDED ON JEWISH RISTORY. called by the name of Moab; in Isa. lxiii. and Amos ix. 12, by the name of Edom; and in Ezek. xxxviii., by the name of Magog. There are, of course, specific prophecies concerning most of these nations and cities, but their names are also used generically, or figuratively, in these and other passages. Hence we have foretold the restoration, in the latter days, of Moab and Elam, Jer. xlviii. 47; xlix. 39. Hence, also, the "blessing to the earth" is to proceed "in that day" from Israel, Assyria, and Egypt, Isa. xix. 18-25. 437. Nor need this peculiarity of prophetic language excite This peculi- surprise. It is found pervading the whole ancient phetic la dispensation. That dispensation began with the guage common-in a promise to Abraham. His descendants were to be Scripture. as the stars, and in him and his seed all nations were to be blessed. The first part of this prediction was fulfilled in his literal seed, as Moses implies, Exod. xxxii. 13: Deut. i. 10, 11. Paul also applies it to his spiritual seed, even to all who believe, Rom. iv. 16: Gal. iii. 8, 9. The blessing upon all nations, the second part of the promise, is also upon all as believers, and is received through Christ, who is the seed according to the flesh, Gal. iii. 16, 19, 29. The next remarkable fact in the history of the Jews is their deliverance from Egypt, and in connection with that deliverance the most remarkable expressions are used to indicate the favor which God bore them. All of these expressions, however, are in the New Testament applied to the church. God is said to have chosen them (Deut. x. 15: Ezek. xx. 5: Eph. i. 4). He delivered and saved them (Exod. iii. 8; xiv. 30: Gal. i. 4: 1 Thess. i. 10: 2 Tim. i. 9); He created and called them (Isa. xliii. 1; xliv. 2: 1 Cor. i. 8: Col. iii. 10). Both are sons, helpless, and dear (Ezek. xvi. 3-6: Isa. xliv. 2 Deut. xxxii. 6: Gal. iii. 26: 1.Pet. i. 3); both are brethren (Deut. i. 16: Col. i. 2); a house, afamily (Numb. xii. 7: Heb. iii. 6); a nation (Deut. iv. 34: 1 Pet. ii. 9); both fellow-citizens, with aliens around them (Exod. xx. 10: Eph. ii. 19), and both heirs of their appropriate inheritance (Numb. xxvi. 53: Heb. ix. 15). Compare in the same way the application LANGUAGE FOUNDED GN JEWISH HISTORY. 331 of the following words under the two dispensations. Servant;" "husband" and "wife;" "mother" and "children;" adultery;" "sanctuary" or "temple;" "priests;" "saints" or "holy;" "near" or "nigh," and "afar off;" "congregation" or "church;" " vine," "vineyard;" " shepherd," " flock;" "inheritance" or "heritage;" or the privileges and duties which these terms imply, and it will be found that nearly all the characteristic names of Israel are applied to the body of believers. In the first case, the blessings and relations, so far as the people were concerned, are earthly and temporal; in the second, spiritual and eternal: individual spiritual blessings being enjoyed in both. The apostles reason throughout their writings on the same principle. We who believe, and are united to Christ, are children of Abraham and heirs of his promise (Gal. iii. 29: Rom. iv. 11, 16); the Israel of God (Gal. vi. 16), as distinguished from the Israel according to the flesh (1 Cor. x. 18); the true circumcision (Phil. iii. 3), who therefore appropriate ancient promises (Gen. xxii. 16, 17, applied to all believers: Heb. vi. 13, 20: Deut. xxxi. 6: Josh. i. 5, quoted Heb. xiii. 4, 5: Hos. i. 10; ii. 23, quoted Rom. ix. 24-36). 438. After the exode comes the institution of the ritual law, its sacrifices, priesthood, mercy-seat, tabernacle and Levitic: temple, and worship. All these, it need hardly be law. remarked, are represented in the prophets as being restored in the latter days, and in the Gospels each expression is applied to our Lord or to his church. He is priest, and propitiatory (iao-pTo,), tabernacle (oxny^, John i. 14), and temple (,ao6, John ii. 19); as also, since his ascension, is his church (1 Cor. iii. 16). Her members offer spiritual offerings. They form a royal priesthood, a holy nation. 439. The next prophetic era begins with Samuel. His chief office was to prepare for the establishment of kingly Estblish authority. He was commissioned, moreover, to give ment of the kingdom. to David an assurance that his seed should sit upon his throne forever, i. e., literally till the end of he kingdom, 332 LANGJAGE FOUNDED ON JEWISH-HISTORY. or, spiritually, in the person of his greater Son, till all things should be put under his feet. Of this enlarged meaning Samuel says nothing, nor does Nathan; but David, himself a prophet, clearly understands it, applies it in part to himself (2 Kings ii. 4), but passes on the fulness of the promise to his Lord, Psa. ii.; lxxii.; ex. All these Psalms are applied, in the New Testament, to the kingdom which Christ commenced when he appeared on earth (Heb. i. 5), or rose from the dead (Rom. i. 4). 440. This prophetic era is closed with the predictions of Later p Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and the later prophets. The dictions. great theme of their predictions is the restoration of the Jews, and the re-establishment of that dispensation which seemed hastening, without hope of remedy, to decay; and under a twofold form this theme is presented. The prophets who preceded the captivity, and those who lived in it, foretell a restoration, and borrow from it phrases to describe the establishment of a new kingdom. Haggai and Zechariah foretell the rebuilding of a temple, and under that figure speak of the church. After the temple was finished, Jewish worship was selfish and insincere. Malachi therefore foretells the coming of one who shall purify the sons of Levi, and secure from all a spiritual offering. In a word, not only the prophets, but all the inspired writers describe the church in terms borrowed from successive stages in the history of the ancient economy. Whether because Old Testament prophecy is expressed in terms founded on that Question of economy, therefore, when applied to the church it interpreta- has no further or more literal fulfilment, is another tion hence arising. question. In the meantime, mark the fact from which that question arises. That fact is itself of great importarce in explaining both the Gospel and the law. 441. From the typical character of ancient dispensations arises another peculiarity of prophecy. It not only speaks their language, but it has often a double application. It applies DOUBLE APPLICA tION OF PROPHECY. 333 to one object by anticipation and partially, and to Double aoi another completely; the earlier object being the re- prohecis presentative of the later. In the promises to and to the antitype. Abraham (Gen. xv. etc.), in the prediction of Jacob concerning Judah (Gen. xlix.), and of Balaam (Numb. xxiv. 17), of Nathan (2 Sam. vii. 12-17), and of David in some of the Psalms, in many parts of Isaiah and other prophets, there is this double reference. As the history of the Jews foreshadows the history of the church, so does prophecy the experience of both. Not all parts of prophecy are thus applicable, nor, judging from examples given in the New Testament, are any parts thus applicable to be applied indiscriminately. In fact, the double application is restricted to similar events under two different and remote economies, and is never extended to two different events under the same economy. Prophecies on the restoration from Babylon (Jer. xxxi.: Isa. lii.), on the setting up of the tabernacle of David (Amos ix.), and on his kingdom (2 Sam. vii.), had all, to a certain extent, an immediate fulfilment, and are yet applied in the New Testament to the gospel dispensation. To that dispensation in itself, or in its results, this double application must be confined. 442. It follows from this double sense that, as in the first fulfilment there is a limit to the blessing foretold, How fulso, in the second, there is a fulness of meaning filled in each case. which it seems impossible to exhaust. To David, for example, the promise was partly conditional, partly absolute. As conditional, it cannot be applied to Christ, and as absolute, it cannot be applied in its fullest literal meaning to David. "I will establish the throne of his kingdom fbr ever. If he commit iniquity I will chastise him with the rod of men... but my mercy shall not depart away from him as I took it from Saul," 2 Sam. vii. 13-15. The condition both David and God repeat (1 Kings ii. 4; ix. 4), and the promise that David's seed should occupy the throne for ever, had of course, in a literal sense, but a limited fulfilment. For eves 334 REPEATED FJLFILMENTS3 may mean till the end of the kingdom, or till the end of the polity; the phrase implying perpetuity of duration throughout the period-a system of things to which reference is understood to be made. In fact, David's family occupied the throne till the end of the kingdom, holding it through twenty descendants for upwards of 400 years; while, in the brief duration of Israel (254 years), there were nineteen kings, of nine different families. There was, therefore, a literal fulfilment of the promise, but clearly a fulfilment less glorious than when applied to the Messiah. In truth, prophecy borrowed from previous types is as unequal to describe his kingdom as is narrative, founded on ritual institutions, to describe his office. We call him prophet and priest; our sacrifice and intercessor; but no one of the institutions whence these names are taken, nor all combined, can speak his glory or- tell his worth. 443. We must add that, while there is in reference to types Repeated and antitypes a double application of prophecy, ofplolhets there are prophecies which are of the nature of'ies. general moral principles, and which are therefore repeatedly fulfilled. The proud shall be brought low (Isa. ii. 11), They that forsake God shall be consumed (i. 31), The bread of the upright shall be given him, and his water shall be sure (xxxiii. 15, 16), are instances. Each prediction was spoken on a particular occasion, and each is applicable as a general truth to all time. In such moral predictions the prophetic writings abound; and in reference to them the remark of Leighton is peculiarly appropriate, that the " sweet stream of prophecy did, as the rivers, make its own banks fertile and pleasant, as it ran by and flowed still forward to after ages. 444. Such being the structure of prophecy, the rules of interpretation of —most importance are clearly such as refer to the history and circumstances of the authors-the use and meaning of figurative language generally, -— parallel predictions and partial fulfilment, and especially RULES OF INTERPRETATION. 335 such as ale suggested by the application made in the New Testament, of ancient predictions. 1. Let the student of prophecy ascertain the exact position of the prophet in relation both (1), to his age, and Ascertain (2), to his predictions. (1.) Each prophet was a the psition of each promessenger to his own times. From the circum- phet. stances of his country he borrowed his imagery, and to the moral and physical condition of his country as existing or aa foreseen, he adapted his message. If he foretells impending evil, the more distant future is the opposite of the evil he foretells. If he describes immediAte good, the future is the completion of the good he describes. And even when that future is more distant, it is ever linked with the present by phrases level to the capacity, and adapted to the wants of the age. (2.) Ascertain also his standing point in relation to his own predictions. Let the student also take his place if possible by the prophet's side, and look with him on the past and on the future. If his country lies desolate around him, realize and learn to describe its condition. If he seem in vision amidst the scenes of the Gospel, stand near him at the birth, or death, or in the kingdom of our Lord. To understand Isaiah, for example, read repeatedly 2 Kings xiv-xxi: 2 Chron. xvi-xxii. Mark also the connection, and if possible, the centre of each prediction (see p. 286). When and where the last six chapters of Zechariah were written is a question essential to a right understanding of that part of his prophecies. If written by him (and not as some suppose, by Jeremiah), these chapters must refer to the time of our Lord, the second destruction of Jerusalem, and subsequent events (xiv. 2). If, again, they were written after the return of Ezra, with the last band of the captivity, the predistions ot chapter x. have not yet received even a partial fulfilment. See Introductions to the prophetic books, Part II. 2. Familiarize yourself with the language of prophecy -its figures and symbols. In these prophecy is more Study the rich than common history. Its poetic style and fiig'ativeo ~oth~~ll~e-r reasons makl~le its usanagespect both f other reasons make its usage in this respect both seiiptm'~ 336 RJUBES OF INTERPRETATION. necessary and appropriate. The meaning of these figures is pretty nearly fixed: and though perhaps not clear to those who first used them, to us with the completed Bible in our hands they ought to be familiar. Compare, for example, the following passages:Descriptions of afflictions and distress, Psa. xlii. 7: Isa. xiii. 13; xxix. 6; xxxiv. 4: Jer. iv. 23-26: Ezek. xxxii. 7, 8; xxxviii. 20: Joel ii. 10, 30, 31: Anos viii. 8, 9. Interpositions of Divine Providence and grace in delivery from dangers, Psa. xviii. 7-17: Nah. i. 4, 5: Hab. iii. 5-11: Zech. xiv. 4. The joy of deliverance, Isa. xxxiii. 17; xxxv. 1-7; lv. 12, 13; lx. 13; lxv. 25: Joel iii. 18. See also the classification of Scripture symbols, at the close of this Section. Further light may often be obtained in determining whether words be used figuratively or not: (a.) From the words themselves. To this rule belong numerous illustrations founded on the typical character of the Jewish people. The kingdom of David is foretold after he had appeared, and the earlier occurrences of Jewish history, are spoken of as if they were to be repeated, Isa. xi. 15, 16: so in Zech. x. 11: Hos. ii. 14, 15: Isa. iv. 5. (b.) Sometimes from the context: To interpret Isa. lxvi. 20 literally, requires that verses 21, 23 should also be interpreted literally; involving the re-establishment of the Jewish priesthood and worship. This last view seems inconsistent with the reasoning of Heb. x. In the last eight chapters of Ezekiel, the literal interpretation seems, at first, to have much in its favor, and yet many passages cannot be explained literally. In chapter xlvii. 1-12, for example, a stream of water of unfathomable depth is said to flow out from the temple, restoring the waters of the Dead Sea, and spreading life wherever it comes. The aptness of this passage to describe the progress of the Gospel through the outpouring of the Spirit,.s obvious: so in Zech. xiv. 8. In any case, the whole must be consistently explained. (c.) Sometimes we need to refer to parallel passages: RULES OF INTERIl}ETATION. 337 In Isa. xi. the kingdom of Messiah s spoken of as a kingdom of peace; and in chapter ix. the prophet speaks of the wars and victories of his reign. A reference to the New Testament, or to other parts of the same prophet, shows that chapter ix. is figuratively expressed. The war and peace are real, but not literal. 3. It is a golden rule, that as prophecy is not "self-interpretative" (of private interpretation, 2 Pet. i. 20, Compare 21), each of the predictions of Scripture must be predictions compared with others on the same topic, and with fulilments. history, both profane and inspired. Parallel predictions will often throw light upon one another, and recorded fulfilments will explain predictions or parts of predictions still unfulfilled. History and the New Testament will thus often fix the meaning of individual passages, and these will illuminate and explain their respective connections. Compare in this way the parallel predictions on Babylon, Tyre, Egypt, Ammon, Nineveh, Edom, and Moab (see Epitome of the Prophets, Part II.), and on the man of'sin, 2 Thess. ii.: 1 John ii. 18: Dan. vii.: Rev, xiii. A few instances of recorded fulfilments, taken from profane history, may be seen in the Section on Evidences. Fulfilments recorded in the New Testament may be seen in the chapter on Scripture Difficulties. 4. Mark the principles of prophetic interpretation sanctioned by the New Testament. It gives from God Mark the the meaning of the Old, and while fixing the sense principles o. mterpre, of particular passages, it suggests principles of in- tation sane. terpretation applicable to all (see Chap. VI. See. 1). the New app ~^. ^.. ^ ~~~Testament. Instead of pointing out these principles at length, we may notice and illustrate one which is suggested in almost every chapter of the later Revelation. The great end and theme of prophecy is CHRIST; either in his person and office, or in the establishment of his kingdom. Under this twofold division most of the Old Testament predictions end is may be ranged; some of them are already fulfilled, others Christ 29 838 TWO SYSTEMS OF INTERPRETATION. are in course of falfilment, and others, again, are to be fulfilled at some future day. In paradise prophecy gave the first romise of a Redeemer. In Abraham it connected the covenants of Canaan and of the Gospel. In the law it spoke of the second prophet, and foreshadowed intypes the doctrines of Christianity. To David it revealed the kingdom of his greater Son. In the days of the later prophets it pre-signified the changes of the Judaic economy; gave the history of the chief pagan kingdoms, and completed the announcement of the Messiah. After the captivity it gave clearer information still of the advent of the Gospel. In the days of our Lord it spoke in parables and direct predictions; and at last, in dark symbolical language, foretold the history and final glory of his reign. "The testimony of Jesus" is indeed "the spirit of prophecy," John v. 39: Acts iii. 18; x. 43: Rom. i. 2; iii. 21, 22: Rev. xix. 10. This fact is of the greatest importance. It proves the general scope of ancient predictions, and limits them. It teaches us to seek Christ everywhere, under both Dispensations, and it makes plain the general meaning of these predictions themselves. 445. While most inquirers concur on the whole in these rules, the application of them has led to very difTwo systerns f in- ferent results, owing chiefly to the importance which terpretation.. erprea is attached by various classes to particular rules. In much that is essential these results agree: 1. The literal fulfilment of predictions which refer to our Points of Lord's first coming is admitted by all. Passages agreement. which might seem sufficiently fulfilled in a general sense by the events of his life, were nevertheless fulfilled to the letter. His riding upon an ass, the division of his raiment, the appointment of his death with the wicked, and of his grave with the rich, are examples, Zech. ix. 9: Psa. xxii. 18: Isa. liii. 9. 2. The literal fulfilment of many predictions in relation to the history of the Jews, and of other nations, is admitted by most; and both facts are used by one class of inquirers as evidence of the truth of Scripture; by the other class they TWO SYSTEMS OF INTERPRETATION. 339 are likewise used as evidence of' the truth of Scriptulre, and also as illustrations of the principles of interpretation which we ought to apply to prophecy not yet fulfilled. 3. As to the scheme of prophecy generally, most admit that it has two centres, around which all events revolve: these centres marking the eminences from which the history of the world and of the church may be best surveyed. The one is the first advent of our Lord, to suffer; the other is his second advent, to reign; the latter to be followed, after an interval, by the judgment. 4. The future conversion of the Jews, and the general prevalence of truth, in fulfilment of the glorious predictions of both Testaments-ending, after various struggles, in the final overthrow of the enemies of the faith, are also generally admitted. To this view many from both classes add the restoration of the Jews to their own land. In describing these events, there is also extensive agreement. Predictions of spiritual blessing to be enjoyed under the Gospel are applied by both parties, without scruple, to the Christian Church; and the reign of righteousness, it is held on both sides, will be visible as well as spiritual, affecting social relations, and modifying by its influence all human society. So far, there is substantial agreement among most students of prophecy. 446. The above is (in brief) all which the one class of inquirers find there. Giving great weight to the facts, Points of that the Jews were types, that the distinction be- difference. tween Jew and Gentile is formally abolished, and that our dispensation is spiritual; thinking, moreover, that the descriptions in prophecy, if taken literally, would lead to a belief in the restoration of Judaism, and in the introduction of a system adapted to the infancy rather than the maturity of the church; finding that these descriptions, as far as the re-establishment of the Jews is concerned, are not repeated in the New Testament, and that many prophecies which seem to apply to them aM a nation, are referred in the New Testament to the church, 840 SYSTEMS OF PROPHECY. or to the conversion of the Jews, Acts ii. 17-21: Rom. xi. 26; they conclude that a spiritual interpretation of the whole se. ries is most consistent with the tenor of Scripture. The other class go further. Much of this reasoning they admit to be true; deeming it, however, not all the truth. Finding that predictions even of spiritual blessing have had for the most part a literal accomplishment; that the Jews are spoken of in both dispensations as still beloved for their father's sake;that many prophecies (those, for example, which speak of Israel and Judah in terms, either inapplicable to the first return, or written after it, Isa. xi. 12: Hos. iii. 15: Zech. xiv.), remain unfulfilled; that the language of these prophecies, though often applicable in a general subordinate sense to the Christian church, cannot be confined to it without doing violence to the commonest rules of speech; that in the New Testament prophecies having undoubtedly an early fulfilment in Jewish history, or in the Christian church (as Isa. xiii. 9, 10; xxv. 8; Hag. ii. 6), seem referred to as having fulfilments still future (Matt. xxiv.: 1 Cor. xv: 54: Heb. xii. 26); they maintain, that besides a first accomplishment of many predictions in the history of the Jews, and the spiritual accomplishment of others under the Gospel, many remain to be accomplished in a literal and more extended sense. They hold, therefore, throughout, the principle of literal interpretation, whether predictions refer to the restoration of the Jews, to the second, i. e. as most think it, the pre-millenial advent of Christ, or the establishment of his reign. 447. A complete view of these two systems of interpretation may be obtained from the following Tables. The two eystems One is taken from Powel's "Concordance" (1673); illustrated. i l the other, from Mr. Bickersteth's "Guide to the Prophecies." (1.) The Jews shall be gathered from all parts of the earth and brought a) in re- to their own land, Isa. xi. 11; xxvii. 12, 13; xliii. 5, 6; the Jetw xlix. 11, 12; lx. 4. Compare Jer. iii. 18; xvi. 14, 15; xxiii SYSTEMS OF PROPHECY. 341 8; xxx. 10; xxxi. 7-10; xxxii. 37: so Hos. xi. 10 11: Zeph. iii. 10: Zech. viii. 7, 8; x. 8-10. (2.) They shall be carried by the Gentiles to their place, who shall join themselves with the Jews, and become the Lord's people Isa. xlix. 22; xiv. 2; lx. 9; lxvi. 18, 20; ii. 2-4. Compare Jer. iii. 17; xvi. 19: Ezek. xlvii. 22, 23: Mic. v. 3: Zech. ii. 11; viii. 20-23. (3.) Great miracles shall be wrought when Israel is restored. 1. Drying up the Euphrates, Isa. xi. 15, 16: Zech. x. 11: Rev. xvi 12: Hos. xi. 15: Mic. vii. 15. 2. Giving rivers in desert places, Isa. xli. 17-19; xlviii. 20, 21; xliii 19, 20. 3. Sending prophets, Isa. lxvi. 18-21: Hos. xii. 9, 10. 4. The Lord Christ himself as their head, Isa. xxxv. 4; lii. 12; lviii. 8: Hos. i. 10, 11: Mic. ii. 12, 13. (4.) The Jews restored from a state, with judges and counsellors; the Lord Christ their king, who will then be acknowledged as king over the other nations, Isa. i. 26; lx. 17. Compare Jer. xxiii. 4; xxx. 8, 9, 21: Hos. iii. 5: Ezek. xxxiv. 23, 24; xxxvii. 24, 25: Isa. liv. 5: Obad. 21: Zech xiv. 5, 9: Psa. xxii. 27, 28. (5.) They shall have victory over all enemies, and all kingdoms and nations shall submit themselves unto them, Isa. xi. 13, 14; xiv. 1, 2; xli. 14-16; xlix. 23; lx. 12; xxv. 10-12: Joel iii. 7, 8, 19, 20: Obad. 17, 18: Mic. iv. 6-13; v. 5-7; vii. 16, 17: Zech. ii. 13; ix. 13-16; x. 5, 6; xii. 6: Numb. xxiv. 17: Isa. lx. 10-16; lxvi. 19, 20. (6.) The Jews restored will live peaceably, without division or contentions, Isa. xi. 13, 14; xiv. 1, 2: Jer. iii. 18; 1. 4: Ezek. xxxvii. 21, 22: Hos. i. 11. Be very numerous, Isa. xxvii. 6; xliv, 3, 4; xlix. 18-21; liv. 1-3; )xi. 9; Jer. xxiii. 3; xxx. 18-20; xxxi. 27: Ezek. xxxvi. 37, 38. Have great outward prosperity, Isa. xxxii. 16-18; xxxiii. 24; liv. 13-17; Ix. 18, 21: Jer. xxiii. 3-6; xxx. 10; xxxi. 34-40; xxxiii. 6-9; 1. 9, 10: Joel iii. 17, 18: Mic. vii. 18-20: Zeph. iii. 13. Be a blessing to the earth, Isa. xix. 24, 25; lxi. 9: Jer. xxxiii. 9: Ezek xxxiv. 26: Zeph. iii. 19: Zech. viii. 13. (7.) The land of Judoea shall be eminently fruitful, Isa. xxix. 17: xxxv. 1-9: li. 3, 16; liv. 11-13; Iv. 12, 13; lx. 13, 17; lxv. 25: Ezek. xxxiv. 26, 27; xxxvi. 36: Joel iii. 18: Amos ix. 13, 14. (8.) Jerusalem shall be rebuilt, never to be destroyed, Isa. Iii. 1; xxvi. 1; lx. 18; xxxiii. 6: Joel iii. 17: Obad. 17; Zech. xiv. 10, 11: Jer. xxxi. 38-40: Ezek. xxxviii. 11. (9.) A little before the time of the conversion of the Jews there shall be great wars and desolation, Isa. xxxiv.: Joel iii. 1-10: Zeph. iii. 8, 9: 29. 342 SYSTEMS OF PROPHECY. Ezek. xxviii. 25, 23: Hag. ii. 21-23: Jer. xxx. 7-10: 2 Chron xv. 3-7. Such is one view. Each passage is taken literally as it stands. The other view, looking at the typical character of the ancient Jews and the nature of prophetic language, regards the whole as applioable either to the first return from captivity, or subsequent return to the church of Christ under the dispensation of the Gospel, or the conversion of the Jews, and the establishment among them of that system which their own law prefigured. Before deciding on either view, let the student compare, humbly and prayerfully, the inspired interpretation of ancient prophecy as given in the New Testament. 448. Mr. Bickersteth's Table gives events, in part, contemporaneous with the preceding; in part, subsequent to it. (1.) As the times of the Gentiles are passing away, their power is overthrown, though vast numbers have been converted to the (b). In relation to the faith (Dan. ii. 7: Rev, vii. 9-14: Rom. xi. 25-32: Luke kndgdoml xxi. 24, 25); the Jews are visibly recalled into the church, of our Lord. Dan. ix. 27: Ezek. xx. 32-44: Isa. xlix. 9-12; lxii. 1. (2.) They partake of renewed favor, are restored to their own land,* and are exposed to persecution from apostate Gentiles, who, under the last Antichrist, come against restored Israel.b (3.) Soon, signs in the sun and stars appear, and the sign of the Son of Man himself is seen in the heavens.d (4.) Christ raises his dead, changes his living saints, and they rise to be with him in the air, Matt. xxiv. 31: Rev. xi. 15, 18: 1 Cor. xv. aEzek. xxxvi. 1-38; xxxvii. 20-23: Psa. xxxvii.: Isa. xi. 11, 12; lxii. 4; ix. 21: Jer. xxxi. 1-6: Gen. xiii. 14-18; xv. 18-21; xvii. 7, 8; xxvi. 3, 4: Exod. vi. 2-8: Lev. xxvi. 40-44: Deut. xxx. 4-6; xxxii. 43. bJer. xxx. 1-9: Isa. x. 20-27: Dan. ix. 27: Isa. xxxi.; xxxiii. 1-10: Ezek. xxxviii. 1-16: Dan. xi. 41-45: Joel ii. 1-20: Mic. iv. 8-10: Dan. xii. 12. c Matt. xxiv. 20-29: Luke xxi. 24-26: Heb. xii. 26-28: Hag. ii. 6, 7: Isa. xiii. 9-11; xxxiv. 1-4: Joliii. 12-15; ii. 31, 32: Mal. iv. 1-6. Matt. xxiv. 29, 3C: Isa. xviii 2-7; xi. 12-14: Dan. viii. 13, 14: Matt. xxiii. 39: Luke xvii. 24. SYSTEMS OF PROPHECY. 843 51-54: 1 Thess. iv. 15-17: 2 Thess. i. 7: Isa. x cvii. 12, 13: Rev. iii. 10: Isa. xxvi. 19-21: Mal. iii. 17. (5.) The beast and the kings of the earth combine against the Lord,4 and he pours his judgments on Antichrist and his adherents, pleading with all flesh by fire and sword.b (6.) The character of this dispensation is discriminating, panishing, and purifying (1 Cor. iii. 12-15: Mal. iii. 3: Zech, xiii. 9: Mark ix. 42, 50: Jer. xx. 9; xxiii. 29: Psa. xcviii. 3: 1 Pet. iv. 12: 2 Pet. iii. 10-13: Rev. iii. 18). The Jews have a special promise (Isa. li. 16). The fire and tribulation have a crisis at the beginning (Ezek. xxxviii. 22; xxxix. 6: Isa. lxvi. 15, 16), and again at the close of the millennial kingdom (Rev. xx. 9), Matt. xxiv. 1: Dan. xii. 1: Jer. xxx. 7: Rev. xix. 20; xx. 9. (7.) Christ descends on Olivet, with his saints, in sight of Israel,* who welcome his coming.d Satan is bound: the millennial kingdom begins, over his saints and the nations not yet consumed.' (8.) This reign very blessed, but rebellion still lurks among the nations. Satan loosed for a season, Zech. xiv. 17-19; Rev. xx. 9. (9.) The final judgment, Rev. xx. 10-15. (10.) The new heavens and the new earth; no more sea. The holy city descends, God is All in all, and the saints reign for ever and ever, Rev. xxi.; xxii. 5. Whether all the details of this'cheme are to be fulfilled literally and precisely in this order is not agreed, but the Matt. xxiv. 30: Rev. xi. 18; xvi. 14: Isa. viii. 8-10; x. 24-26; xxiv. 21, 22; xxvii.4; xxxi. 4; liv. 15; lxvi. 18: Joel iii. 1, 2: Mic. iv. 11-13: Zeph. iii. 8, 9: Zech. xii. 2-5; xiv. 1-5: Rev. xix. 19. b Matt. xxiv. 36-39: Rev. xv. 1; xvi. 1: Dan. ix. 27: Isa. x. 24, 26; xiv. 24, 26; xxiv. 21-23; xxxiv. 63: Rev. xix. 10-21: Joel iii. 11-16: Nahl.iii.19,11, 15: Isa. xxx. 27-33: Ezek. xxxviii. 17-23: Dan. vii. -14: Mal. iv. 1,3: Matt. iii. 12: 2 Thess. i. 8; ii. 8: Rev. xix. 15, 20: Isa. lxvi. 16: Rev. xix. Acts. i. 11: Zech. xiv. 4, 5, 1C-14: Isa. lxiv. 1; lxvi. 1; lx. 13: Ezek. xliii. 7-9: Isa. lxvi. 18, 19 Isa. xxv. 9: Matt. xxiii. 29: Rom. xi. 26: Isa. lix. 20: Zech. ii. 10, l. Zech. xii. 10-14: Jer. xxxi. 8-12: Acts iii. 19-21: Isa. xi, 2,4: Psa. cxvii; cxviii.; xcviii.: Rev. xix. 1-6. -Isa. xxxii. 1: Dan. vii. 18, 27; xii. 4 Luke xxii. 28-30: John i 61.:ev. xi. 18,; xx. 4, 6, 344 THE COM: NG OF CHRIST. general plan itself is, on this system of interpretation, as is here described. The other view of these passages we can only indicate. Those that are taken from ancient prophets, and have not yet been fulfilled, are interpreted spiritually of the church and its enemies, either in its present state, or when augmented by the conversion of the Jews, and yet largeraccessions from the Gentiles: those in 1 and 2 Thess. and in 1 Cor., that speak of the resurrection of the dead, are referred to the one resurrection: and those that speak of the coming of our Lord are interpreted according to one or other of the following facts. (1.) " The coming of Christ" is an expression applied to his coming in the flesh, either(a). At his birth, John xvi. 28: 1 John iv. 2, 3: 2 John 7; Matt. xviii. 11; xx. 28: Eph. ii. 17: 1 Tim. i. 15. (b). On his entering upon his ministry, Matt. iii. 11: Mark i. 7. Luke iii. 16: John i. 15, 30: Matt. xi. 17: John v. 43; ix. 39. (2.) It is applied to any great, though invisible, interposition. (a). As for punishment, or reward, Rev. ii. 15, 16; iii. 3: Matt. x 23 (?). (b). As in the remarkable gift of the Spirit, John xiv. 18, 28: Matt. xvi. 28: Mark ix. 1. (c). As in the destruction of Jerusalem, Matt. xxiv. 27: Luke xxi. 6, 7, 27: Mark xiii. 26, ver. 30. (3.) It is applied to his appearance for general judgment, Matt. xvi. 27, and in many other places. From this language it is concluded that, as Christ came in the flesh, at Pentecost; in Asia Minor to remove the privileges of apostate churches; in Judiea to destroy the ancient temple: so he will come in the fresh and enlarged outpouring of his Spirit; and at last, in person, for judgment. All "comings" for punishment being taken from the last, and all " comings" in grace from the first. His reign began at his resurrection and at Pentecost (Psa. ii.: Mark ix. 1: Rom. i. 4: Heb. i. 5). After struggles of great prin )iples, such as many of the pas THE. COMING OF CHRIST. 345 sages above quoted indicate, it will be completed, so far as EARTHELY manifestation is concerned, in millennial glory. 449. Having stated these different systems, we deem it unnecessary to examine or defend them. We mark Subsantial Substantial rather their substantial agreement. The coming harmony. triumph of truth, the spirituality and glory of Christ's reign, the dignity and blessedness of his church, the consequent diminution of earthly evils, are common to both. Where they differ is rather in relation to the modes of accompaniments of these changes than to the changes themselves; and in relation to these accompaniments, we can but commend the student to the disclosure of the New Testament and to the general principles of interpretation sanctioned in its quotations from the Old. See Chap. VI. 450. In the interpretation of the times.of prophecy, it is generally agreed that when years are not men- Ontheintioned, days are reckoned as years. This rule is terpretation founded on several analogies, and is at least highly prophecy. probable. See Numb. xiv. 34 Ezek. iv. 5, 6; where God expressly appoints " each day for a year." Again the expression, "Time, times and a half time," is understood as meaning three prophetic years and a half, i. e. years of 360 prophetic days each, or 1260 years in all, the period assigned for the rise and fall of Antichrist, Dan. vii. 25. See alsb Rev. xi. 2, 3, where the same period seems spoken of as 1260 days, or 42 months. Some of the most remarkable predictions of Scripture, however, specify the time in years. Such are the 430 and 4C0 years of the history of Abraham's descendants, Gen. xv. 13: Exod. xii. 40; the sixty-five years foretold by Isaiah, in which Israel was to be broken, Isa. vii. 8; the seventy years of Judah's captivity; and the seventy weeks of years (for the word day is not found in this passage), in which Messiah was to be cut off, Dan. ix. 26. Concerning the precise times foretold in the Scripture, it is 346 tNTERPRETA'ION OF TIME. Time often clearly not God's intention to give us exact know of difficult interpreta- ledge. These are put in his own power, and there ti on even when ful- is often very little of a sanctified spir;t in seeking flled to krwow them. The prophecy sustains our hope, and elevates our feelings. It assures us of the final issue, and ]ays down certain prognostics highly useful for a moral and spiritual discernment of the Divine purpose, which, however, is very different from the merely mechanical process we have above condemned. Even in prophecies which have been fulfilled, the dates are often difficult of adjustment; a fact that should suggest humility and modesty in interpreting prophecies whose fulfilment is yet to come. The captivity, for example, lasted seventy years, and there are at least two different dates from which it may begin. From the carrying away of Daniel, to the decree of Cyrus, 2 Chron. xxxvi. 5-7; xxii. From the destruction of the temple in the days of Zedekiah, to the decree of Darius to restore it, 2 Chron. xxxvi. 14-21: Ezek. vi. Prideaux adds a third, from the final deportation by Nebuzaradan, to the dedication of the temple, Jer. lii. 30: Ezek. vi. The interpretation of the seventy weeks in Daniel is subject to alike difficulty. Volumes have been written on the precise date when the period begins, and though the meaning is now comparatively clear, the passage gave to the ancient Jew but a general idea of the time of the coming of our Lord. See Bickersteth on the Prophecies, p. 191; Hales, quoted by Dr. Kitto; and Fuller on the Apocalypse, Dis. 30. "What, and what manner of time," are both proper subjects of inquiry in studying the prophets: but then we must remember that God gave us their predictions rather as part of our moral training than to gratify our curiosity and "he means that his providence, and not ours should be manifested by them to the world."-SIR I. NEWTON. 451 Amidst all these difficulties, two facts are highly cons)latory to the ordinary reader. With care, he will easily distinguish between prophecy, and SPIRITUAL LESSONS. 847 those parts of tua prophetical writings which are Moral lespurely historical or moral. Such portions are, as general ~meaning al. we have seen, frequent and highly instructive. ways cle.r. They contain affecting descriptions of the guilt and degradation of the Jews, powerful appeals, and striking exhibitions of the Divine character, but they must not be confounded with the prophetic narrative. However mysterious the prophecy may be, the moral lesson is generally plain. See Jer. ix. 11-14. 452. When the precise reference of any particular prophecy is not clear, its general meaning ca a often be ascertained. On reading Rev. vi. 1, 2, for example, it is plain that whatever be understood by the white horse, the era or event to which the prophet refers, and which is the first of a series, will be peaceful and prosperous; as the era, or event described (vi. 3, 4), is one of persecution and bloodshed. Verses 5, 6, describe an era of equitable government, united with famine; verses 7, 8, an era of mortal sickness and ruin; verses 9-11, of severe protracted persecution; verses 12-17, the era of universal change, the breaking up of empires, and the overthrow of established institutions. There may be a great difference of opinion as to what particular era or event these predictions refer, but the general characteristics of the era are admitted almost on all hands. So of the whole book of Revelation; whatever be the meaning of specific terms, it clearly reveals the coming of our Lord in power and great glory; till that coming, the suffering and affliction of his church, and after it, her triumph and blessedness. How consolatory are these truths in every age, and how impressively are they revealed in nearly all the prophetic writings of Scripture. The moral and spiritual lessons, therefore, of prophecy, remain, and may be applied by all to stimulate their efforts, and sustain their faith. Obedience to these lessons is, moreover, the best preparation for understanding what is mysterious: a special blessing being given to them " that read, and hear, and keep" the sayings which prophecy contains. 453. In addition to predictions on the coming and work of our Lord (s'e Part II.), and those given in the pi )p.ets (see Introduc(bse ar AII an ths iv in thp-^i~l Jt (e In c Predictions tioc to Prophetical Books,PartII.), ii is:mportant to no- ofScripture 848 SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. tice that nearly all the books of the Old Testament contain prophecies The principal events of Jewish history were, as Mr. Davison has remarked, all foretold. A complete view of these predictions may be seen in Brown's "Harmony of the Scripture Prophecies," or in Simpson's "Key to the Prophecies," London, 1809.25 In the historical books, for example, from Gen. to 2 Chron., there are upwards of a hundred predictions recorded, with their fulfilments; the whole supplying evidence of the truth of Scripture, or illustrating principles of prophetic interpretation. The flood, Gen. vi. 17 (vii. 21, 23). Canaan and Shem, ix. 25, 26: (Josh. ix. 23: 1 Kings ix. 20, 21). Ishmael's history, xvi. 12 (see Heb.: Job xxxix. 5); xxi. 20 (Isa. xxi. 17); xvii. 20 (Gen. xxv. 18). The rebuilding of Jericho, Josh. vi. 26 (1 Kings xvi. 34). Eli's house, 1 Sam. ii. 30; iv. 14, 17; xxii. 9-23 (1 Sam iv. 11; ii. 27: see Ezek. xliv. 15). Name and conduct of Josiah, 1 Kings xiii. 1-3 (2 Kings xxiii. 15-20; 350 years after). 454. The interpretation of symbolic or figurative language is a subject of much difficulty. Full information in reference to it tioof sym- must be sought for in such works as Wemyss's " Key to Symbols. bolical language," Edin. 1835; Mills's " Sacred Symbology," 1853; or Daubuz's "Preliminary Discourse in his Commentary on Revelation." The nature of this language may be gathered from the following examples: ADULTERY, unfaithfulness to covenant, and so a symbol of idolatry, especially among an enlightened people, Jer. iii. 8: Rev. ii. 22. ARM, s. of strength or power, Psa. x. 15: Isa. lii. 10; a. made bare, of power put forth. BABYLON, s. of an idolatrous, persecuting enemy of the church; Rome especially, pagan and papal, Isa. xlvii. 12: Rev. xvii. 18. BALANCE, s. of fair dealing, Job xxxi. 6; or (when the sale of corn, etc., is indicated) of scarcity, Lev. xxvi. 26: Ezek. iv. 16: Rev. vi. 5. BEAST, s. of a tyrannical, usurping power, or power merely worldly, Dan. vii. 3, 17: Ezek. xxxiv. 28. BEAR, s. of a fool-hardy, ferocious enemy, Prov. xvii. 12: Isa. xi. 7: Rev. xiii. 2. BULL, s. of a furious enemy, Psa. xxii. 12: Ezek. xxxix. 18; bullocks=people, Jer. 1. 27: and stalls =cities or houses. DOG, s of uncleanness and apostacy, Prov. xxvi. 11: Phil. iii. 2: Rev. xxii. 15; also of watchfulness, Isa. lvi. 10. CaocoDILE (in Heb. of Job. vii. 12: La. xxvii. 1; ii. 9: Ezek. xxix.3: SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. 349 xxxii. 2: Psa. lxxiv. 13), s. of Egypt, and so of any antichristian power, Rev. xi. 18; xiii. 1. GOAT, s. of Macedonian king (LEgeades), and especiall; of Alexander, Dan. viii. 5-7; s. of the wicked generally, Matt. xxv. 32, 33. HORSE, s. of agencies fit for war and conquest, Zech. x. 3: s. for speed, Joel ii. 4: to ride, is to have dominion, Dent. xxxii. 13: Isa. lviii. 14. LEOPARD, S. of a cruel and deceitful foe (Isa. xi. 6: Jer. v. 6: lIab. i. 8), Dan. vii. 6: Rev. xiii. 2. LION, s. of one having energy and dominion, Gen. xlix. 9: Amos. iii. 8: Dan. vii. 4: Rev. v. 5. LocusT, s. of a hostile, destroying army, Joel i. 4: Rev, ix; the chief called Abaddon, or Apollyon, i. e. the destroyer, ver. 11. FEE, s. of Assyrian king, Isa. vii. 18, so represented in hieroglyphics; also of any fierce invader, Deut. i. 44: Psa. cxviii. 12. BOOK, received, s. of inauguration, 2 Kings xi. 12; written within and without, of a long series of event; sealed, of what is secret; to eat a book, s. of consideration, Jer. xv. 16: Rev. x. 9; "the book of life," the list in which the names of the redeemed are enrolled; see Ezra ii. 62: Rev. iii. 5; a book opened, s. of the beginning of judgment, Rev. xx. 12. Bow, s. of conflict and victory, Rev. vi. 2; or (because apt to start aside) of deceit, Hos. vii. 16: Jer. ix. 3. BRASS, s. of baseness and obduracy, Isa. xlviii. 4: Jer. vi. 28;.or of strength and firmness, Psa. cvii. 16: Isa. xlv. 2. BREAS-r-PLATE, what protects a vital part, and strikes terror into an adversary, Isa. lix. 17: 1 Thess. v. 8: Rev. ix. 9. BRTM, (. e. burning) SToEt, s. of torment. Job. xviii. 15: Psa. xi. 6: Rev. xiv. 10; xx. 10. CHARIOT, S. of government or protection, 2 Kings ii. 12- Psa. xx. 7; chariot and two riders, Isa. xxi. 7; Cyrus and Darius (Lowth). In Zech. vi. 1; the four great empires. Chariots of God, the hosts of heaven Psa. lxviii. 17: Isa. lxvi. 15. CHERUBIM, s. of God's regal glory (Wemyss), Psa. xviii. 10; or of the Trinity and human nature of Christ (Parkhurst); of angels (Lowman, Pierce, Mack.); of the excellencies of God's servants (Tay.r,) Newc.); of angels and, in Revelation, of the redeemed (Mede); (if God's manifested perfection; see Gen. iii. 24, Exod. xxv. 18, 22; xxxvii. 7, 9: Lev. xvi. 2: Numb. vii. 89; 1 Kings vi. 23; viii. 7: 2 Chron. iii. 10, 13: Esek, i. 10.2 COLOR, s. of the nature of the things to which it is applied; black a of 30 350 SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE. anguish and affliction, Job xxx. 30: Rev. vi. 5-12; pale, of morta. disease, Rev. vi. 8; red, of bloodshed, or victory, Zech. vi. 2: Rev. xii. 3; or of what cannot be discharged, Isa. i. 18; white, of beauty and holiness, Ece. ix. 8: Rev. iii. 4; white and shining was the Jewish royal and priestly color, as purple was the Roman. COowS, s. of delegated authority, Lev. viii. 9; or of imperial authority and victory, Rev. xix. 12 (Greek, diadem). CuP, s. of enticing luxury, Rev. xvii. 4; of idolatrous rites, 1 Cor. x. 21; of a man's portion, Rev. xiv. 10; xviii. 6. DrRUNKENNESS, of the folly of sin, Jer. li. 7; and of the stupidity produced by Divine judgments, Isa. xxix. 9. EARTHQUAKE, S. of violent agitation, Joel, ii. 10: Hag. ii. 21: Rev vi. 12. EATING, s. of meditation and communion with truth, Isa. lv. 1, 2; s of results of previous conduct, Ezek. xviii. 2; s. of destruction of a man's peace or property, Rev. xvii. 16: Psa. xxvii. 2. EGYPT, s. of a proud, persecuting power, as Rome, Rev. xi. 8. EYES, s. of knowledge, fidelity, glory, Zech. iv. 10; of government, Numb. x. 31. Evil eye = envy; bountiful eye = liberality. FIRE, s. of God's word, Jer. xxiii. 29: Hab. iii. 5: of destruction, Isa. xlii. 25: Zech. xiii. 9; of purification, Mal. iii. 2; of persecution, 1 Pet. i. 7; of punishment and sfiffering, Mark ix. 44. FIRST-BORN, had power over their brethren, Gen. xxvii. 37: were the priests of the family, Exod. xxiv. 5; were consecrated to God, Exod xiii. 2, 13; sanctified the family by their own acceptance, and had & double share of the inheritance, Dent. xxi. 17. See Heb. ii. 10, 11; iii. 1: Col. i. 12. FISH, s, of the rulers of the people, i. e. of the sea, Ezek. xxix. 4 5: Hab. i. 14. FOREHEAD, written on, the mark of apriest, Lev. xix. 28; of a servant and of a soldier: see Rev. xxii. 4. Servants of idols wore a mark, a name, or a number: see Rev. xiii. 16. FOREST, 8. of city or kingdom; tall trees the rulers, Isa. x. 17-34; xxxii. 19: Jer. xxi. 14 Ezek. xx. 46.'FROGS, s. of unclean, impudent enemies, Rev. xvi. 13. GARMENTS, S. of qualities or condition; clean garments, s. of purity; white, of holiness, Psa. li. 7, or happiness, Isa. lii. 1: Rev. iii. 4: Zech. iii. 3; to bestow garments was a mark of favor, 1 Sam. xviii. 4 GEvMS, s. of magnificence, beauty, variety: see table of gems. GRAPES, r'ipe, s. of people ready for punishment, Rev. xiv. 18 - gleaned s. of a people carried away, Isa. xxiv. 13: Jer. xlix. 9. HANDS, s. of actions; pure hands, hands full of blood, etc., indicate SYMBOLIC LANGTAGE. 351 such actions respectively, Psa. xc. 17: Job ix. 3C: 1 Tim. ii. 8. Isa. i, 15. To wash the hands, s. of expiation, or of freedom from guilt, 1 Cor. vi. 11: 1 Tim. ii. 8; s. of power: the right hand is the place of favor, Mark xvi. 19; to give the hand of fellowship, s. of communication of rights and blessings, Gal. ii. 9. To give the hand is to yield to another, Psa lxviii. 31: 2 Chron. xxx. 8 (Heb.); to lift up the right hand was a sign of swearing, Gen. xiv. 22: Dan. xii. 7. Mark, on the hand, s. of servitude and of idol worship, Zech. xiii. 6; hands put on another, s. of transmission of blessing, authority, or guilt, Gen. xlviii. 14-20: Dan. x. 10; hands of God laid on a prophet, indicates spiritual influence, 1 Kings xviii. 46: Ezek. i. 3; iii. 22; his finger, less influence; his arm, greater. IARP,, a s. of praise and joy, Psa. xlix. 4; xxxiii. 2; used especially after victory, 2 Chron. xx. 28: Isa. xxx. 32: Rev. xiv. 1, 2. HARVEST, S. of time of destruction, Jer. li. 33: Isa. xvii. 5: Rev. xiv. 14-18; sickle, the s. of the instrument, Joel iii. 13; s. of time of complete deliverance, or ingathering; so (Horsley) Hos. vi. 11; s. of the field of labor for the church, Matt. ix. 37. HEAVEN AND EARTH, used in a threefold sense; the invisible and moral, the visible and literal, and the political. In the last senses heaven is a s. of rulers; earth, of the people; heaven and earth, of a kingdom or polity, Isa. li. 15, 16; lxv. 17: Jer. iv. 23, 24: Matt. xxiv. 29. To fall from heaven, is to lose dignity; heaven opened, is a new phase in the political world; a door opened in heaven, the beginning of a new government: see Hag. ii. 6-22. San, moon, stars, are s. of authorities, supreme or secondary, Isa. xxiv. 21, 23: Joel ii. 10: Rev. xii. 1. HORN, s. of power, Amos vi. 13 (Heb.): Deut. xxxiii. 17 (see Josh. xvii. 14-18): 1 Kings xxii. 11: Mic. iv. 13; so of regal dignity, Jer. xlviii. 25: Dan. viii. 9: Rev. xiii. 1. Horns of the altar, when touched, formed a sanctuary, Exod. xxi. 14: Amos iii. 14: Jer. xvii. 1. Horns, or rays, were part of the glory ascribed to God, Deut. xxxiii. 2: Hab. iii. 4 (Heb.), and to Moses. INCENSE, a s. of prayer, Psa. cxli. 2: Rev. viii. 4: Mal. i. 11; it was offered with fire taken from the burnt offering. KEY, a s. of authority; a commission to open or shut, Isa. xxii. 22:.Rev. i. 18; iii. 7; xx. 1. LAMP (so candle" should be translated), a s. of light, joy, truth, and government, Rev. ii. 5: see Exod. xxv. 31, 32: 1 Kings xi. 36; i. e a successor shall never fail, Psa. cxxxii. 17. 852 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. MANNA, 8. of Divine, immortal sustenance, Rev. ii. 17: see Exod. xvi 33, 34. MARRIAGE, s. of a state of union under covenant, and so of perfection, Isa. liv 1-6: Rev. xix. 7. MEASURE, to, or divide, s. of conquest and possession, Isa. liii 12: Zech. ii. 2: Amos vii. 17, where re-measurement implies re-possession. MOTHER, s. of the producer of anything, Rev. xvii. 5; s. of a city, whose inhabitants are her children, 2 Sam. xx. 19: Isa. xlix. 23; of the metropolis, whose daughters are dependent cities, Isa. 1. 1: Hos. ii. 2, 5; of the New Testament church, Gal. iv. 26. MOUNTAIN, s. of stability and greatness, Isa. ii. 2: Dan. ii. 35. TREES, tall, s. of rulers, Ezek. xxxi. 5-9; low, s. of common men, Rev. vii. 1; viii. 7. TRUMPET, blown, s. of the warning of the approach of important events. VINE, s. of luxuriant productiveness, Jer. ii. 21: Hos. xiv. 7: Rev. xiv. 18; vintage, of the destruction of such, Rev. xiv. 19. VIRGINS, s. of faithful servants, uncorrupted by idolatry, Rev. xiv. 4. WVIND, agitating the air, a. of commotions; restrained, of tranquility, Rev. vii. 1. CHAPTER V. ON THE SYSTEMATIC AND INFERENTIAL STUDY OF THE SCRIPTURES. " Inferences from Scripture that appear to be strictly legitimate must be received with the greatest caution, or, rather, decidedly rejected, except as they are supported by explicit Scripture declarations."BRIDGES: On the Christian Ministry. " No science is more strictly inductive than theology... The Bible is a record of words and facts..and our duty is to analyze them: reducing them, by a method strictly inductive, into a proper order, and then deducing" (rather gathering) " from them the legitimate general truth."-BISHOP OF KENTUCKY. " A Bible Christian insensibly borrows and unites what is excellent in all systems, perhaps without knowing how far he agrees with them, because he finds in all the written word."-NEwTros: Works, vi. 418 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY., 353 SEC, 1.-ON THE STUDY OF THE DOCTRINES OF SCRIPTURE. 455. It is obvious that truth may be revealed in different forms; either authoritatively, as law; or historically, by way of example; in promise, or in doctrine. The truths of the Bible are revealed in all these forms, and each often involves the other. A command includes a doctrine; a doctrine, a promise; and both doctrine and promise, correspondent duty. 456. If the commands, and doctrines and promises of Scripture were respectively placed by themselves, we Scripture should have a system of truth on one principle of arranged according arrangement. And if the doctrines and precepts to the forms oftruth. which refer to each truth of Scripture were placed together, we should then have a system of truth on a different principle. In the first case, Scripture truth would be classified under the form of the statement, which may be preceptive, promissory, or doctrinal. In the second, the Orord various forms of Scripture statement would be clas- ing to the truths eified under the truths to which they respectively themselves. refer. By the careful student, both principles of arrangement are combined. That view of the whole which puts the correct meaning upon every part of the Divine word, and assigns to every truth and duty such a place, both in order and importance, as properly belongs to it, each truth and duty honoring the rest, and itself appearing to the greatest advantage, is the true system of divinity. 457. Nor is the necessity of such arrangement peculiar to the Bible. Both in nature and in providence facts ArrangeArrangeand objects are scattered in endless variety. It is nent ot peculiar to the business of science to detect amongst them all Scripture. unity and order. The general laws that regulate the universe therefore, and the rules of conduct by which men govern their lives, are alike facts reduced to system by intelligence and care. In both cases, too, we employ the same principle of investigation-the great principle of the inductive philosophy. The texts of Scripture form the basis of theology, a, 30* 854 SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF SOBI rrURE IMPORTANT. the facts of nature form the basis of natural science, or as the facts of consciousness form the basis of mental philosophy. In the Bible, however, we have this advantage, that while in nature facts are the only data from which we gather general laws, in Scripture we find the general laws of truth and duty, as well as particular instances in which those laws are seen to be applied to the uses of life. 458. The systematic study of the Bible (it must be observed) interpreta- differs very materially from the interpretation of it. ion. and Interpretation is concerned only with the meaning stematic, ruYthdiffer. of individual passages: Systematic Theology considers them in their relation to one another and-to ourselves. 459. When it is said that we study the doctrines of Scripture in its precepts, we embody an important truth. Precept involves Between the doctrines and precepts of Christianity doctrine. there is an essential connection. Not only does doctrine contain by implication a command, but it exhibits such views of truth as are adapted by God to excite holy affections, and those affections are the immediate principles of holy conduct. The belief of the doctrines of the Gospel, and obedience, are therefore inseparable. "Morality is religion in practice, and religion is morality in principle." He that loves God keeps his commandments, and he that keeps the commandments loves God. Man may attempt to put asunder the things which God has thus joined. He may explain truth so as to destroy morality, making " void the law through faith," or he may hold " the truth in unrighteousness." But God's design is that truth should always promote holiness, as it is essential to it. Holiness, therefore, is never found without truth; and if ever truth be found without holiness, it is because the perverseness of human nature has succeeded in parting them. 460. The systematic study cf Scripture has been singularly Importance misrepresented. Some hold that, there can be no of the systematic intelligent knowledge of Scripture without it, and etu e o thers, thatf uele a t, fat s&4rqtmeo, others, thai. it.is uselew;- a remnant, in'fxat,:'Of RULES FOR FRAMING A SYSTEM. 355 scholastic habits, which it is for the interest of the church to destroy. Both these views, however, are wrong. The passages of the Bible which contain clear summaries of truth are so numerous (Tit. ii. 11-14: Eph. ii. 4-10), that a good man will often gather, without knowing it, a comprehensive and sound system. On the other hand, to repudiate system compels us either to confine ourselves in statements of doctrine to Scripture language; or it exposes us to the risk of misrepresenting one doctrine in enforcing another; or, more commonly still, it tempts us to overlook the due proportion or connection of doctrines, and so lead us into error, the more seductive that it is founded partially on truth. -"General principles drawn from particulars," says Locke, "are the jewels of knowledge, comprehending great store in little room: but these are therefore to be used with the greater care and caution, lest, if we take counterfeit for true, our loss be the greater when our stock comes to a severe scrutiny." 461. The Bible may be studied systematically for a double purpose; either, first, to ascertain the doctrines of'Theology Scripture, or secondly, to determine its rules of adn ac morality and holiness. The system of doctrine Cal thus framed is called dogmatic, or doctrinal theology; and the system of duty, moral, or practical theology; both, however, being most closely interwoven in Scripture as they are in human experience. 462. In gathering doctrinal truth from Scripture, we bring together all the texts that refers to the same sub- H ject, whether they be doctrines, precepts, promises, framed. or examples; impartially compare them; restrict the expressions of one text by those of another; and explain the whole consistently. When the proposition which we derive from the passages examined embodies all they contain, and no more, it may then be regarded as a general Scriptural truth. 463. The following rules are equally obvious and important. 3l6 RULES FOR FRAMING A SYSTEM. lRules (1.) We must gather ourviews of Christian loctrine i. From the?'ew Testa- primarily from the New Testament, interpretingits "met. statements consistently with one another, and with the facts and clear revelations of the Old. (2.) In carrying outthisrule it is necessary to explain ambiguous and figurative passages by those that are clear and literal; 2. Loca and passages in whioh a subject is briefly described cLassica. with those in which it is largely discussed:; and general assertions by others (if such they be) which treat of the same truth with some restriction or exceptions. (3.) Not only must the passages which speak of the same doctrine be explained consistently with one another, 3. All held consist- but each doctrine must be held consistently with ently. other doctrines. The Scriptures teach, for example, on a comparison of passages, that repentance, faith, and obedience, are the gifts of God.a Do we therefore gather that men are guiltless if they do not repent and believe, and obey the gospel? or do we deem it needless to exhort men to repentance, obedience and faith? If so, our views are unsound, for the guilt of impenitence is charged entirely upon man.b His unbelief is declared to be his great sin and the ground of his condemnation;, and not to obey God is everywhere condemned. Men are exhorted, too, to repent,d and believe, and obey. So Samuel taught the Israelites, and so Peter exhorted Simon Magus and the murderers of our Lord." Though truths may be revealed in Scripture which it is difficult for us to harmonize, yet one truth so held as to contradict another is not held as the Bible reveals it. 4. Truth to (4.)Employ and interpret the doctrines of Scripture beahtld al with special regard to the practical purposes for purposes. which the Scripture reveals them. The use made in Scripture, for example, of the doctrine of election is highly instructive. However the doctrine itself be regarded, all agree in admitting that it can involve no capricious fondness without John xv. 5: Acts vi. 31: Eph. ii. 8: Phil. i, 29; ii. 13: 1 Pet. i. 2& Matt. xi. 20, 21: Rev. ii. 20, 21. eJohn iii. 18; xvi. 9. * Mark i. 15. e Acts iii 19; viii. 22. RULES FOR FRAMING A SYSTEM. 357 reason or wisdom; nor can it be regarded as affection founded upon our merit, or as seeking for its ultimate end our happiness. It is rather an exhibition of the character of God, which represents him as acting in pursuance of his own purpose, and while securing that purpose, as displaying his glory and promoting the general good. The doctrine is introduced in Scripture, too, only for such objects as these; to declare the source of salvation to be the undeserved favor of God, and to cut off all hope of acceptance by works, as in Rom. xi. 5, 6; to account for the unbelief of the Jews without excusing it, as in Rom. ix.; or to show the certain success of Christ's kingdom in defiance of all hostility, as in Matt. xxi. 42: John vi. 37. Considered without reference to these facts, it might be made the ground of a charge of caprice, or it might become (as among the Jews) the nourishment of self-conceit; or it might be used to destroy the doctrine of human responsibility or the duty of Christian devotedness. The doctrine systematically considered,-viewed, that is, in connection with the truths among which it stands, and applied for the purposes for which the inspired teachers used it, —has a humbling and sanctifying tendency. The doctrine of Satanic influence, again, is taught in Scripture; but only to give us aclearer perception of the value of the work of Christ, and to excite us to greater watchfulness and prayer, 2 Cor. iv. 4: Eph. ii. 2; vi. 12: John xiii. 27: Luke viii. 30:' Rev. xii. 9: 1 John iii. 8: Eph. vi. il-18, etc. The. mysterious connection between the first offence and the fact that all are under condemnation is clearly affirmed in the 5th chapter of the Epistle to the Romans, and in 1 Cor., but only to magnify the grace of God in our redemption by Christ. The doctrine of the Trinity is a revelation of God in relation to man; and, though sometimes introduced as an article of faith simply, (as in the rite of baptism), it is generally in connection with spiritual blessings, and especially with the scheme of redemption, 2 Cor. xiii. 14. (5.) It must be remembered, again, that deductions drawn by reason from propositions founded on the statements 5 Deductions from of Scripture are not to be deemed inspired unless Scripture not necessathose deductions are themselves revealed. rily true. it is certain, for example, that distinct acts of personal agency, which are in some passages ascribed simply to God, are ascribed elsewhere to the Father, or to the Son, or to the Holy Ghost, and that worship and adoration are claimed for each. We may say, therefore, that there are three Persons in the God'aed, and bct one God; or that there is a 358 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF TRU1IH. Trinity in Unity. We thus express Scripture truth in a convenient form. But if we attempt*to explain this truth, or to draw from the phraseology employed other remote conclusions, we may either darken counsel by words without knowledge, or gather lessons which God has not taught. Or again, that all men are sinners, and that the holiest acts of the best men come short of the requirements of the Divine law, are truths revealed in Scripture, and we comprehend them both in the general statement that men are totally depraved; but if from this statement we gather the conclusion that all men are sinners in the same degree, the conclusion, though seemingly involved in the statement, is not a lesson of Scripture, but an inference drawn by human reason, not from God's word, but from the imperfect language of man. ~ All men are bound to believe Scripture, and he that believes Scripture believes all that is seen to be contained therein.' But "no man," says Jeremy Taylor, "is to be pressed with consequences drawn from thence, unless the transcript be drawn by the same hand that wrote the original. For we are sure it came, in the simplicity of it, from an infallible Spirit; but he that bids me believe his deductions bids me believe that he is an unerring logician; for which God has given me no command, and himself can give me no security." Concerning all doctrines, indeed, which are peculiar to Scripture, the rule of the martyr Ridley is as Christian as it is philosophical. "In these matters," says he, "I am so fearful that I dare not speak further; yea, almost none otherwise than the text doth, as it were, lead me by the hand." (6.) But besidesascertaining the truths of the Gospel, it is not 6. Truth in less important in framing a system of truth to asitscompara- certain their relative importance; and if possible, the five importance. order in which Scripture reveals them. With this view, notice: 1. What things are omitted in one book, or in several, or in compara- many, and then gather the conclusion that what are tive impor- omitted are probably not as important as those that tance, how ascertained. are included in all. 2. Mark the subjects which are oftenest recommended to attention by our Lord, and by his apostles. "DiSauasives against Popery." GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 359 If it be asked, for example, what is the most memorable circumstance in the institution of the last. supper, the reply is, its commemorative character: for this peculiarity is thrice mentioned in the words of the institution, 1 Cor. xi. 24, 25, 26. A rule of the Divine procedure is on the same ground of obvious importance. Thrice is it intimated by our Lord, and in each case with much emphasis, that gifts habitually exercised are increased, while gifts habitually neglected are withdrawn, Matt. xiii. 12; xxv. 29: Luke xix. 26. So of humility, which is Mentioned with peculiar honor no less than seven times in the first three Gospels, Matt. xviii. 4, etc. 3. Observe carefully what is common to the two dispensasations, the Christian and the Jewish. In both the unity and spirituality of God, his power and truthfulness, are frequently revealed. So among our first duties are gratitude and love. The numerous injunctions in the law respecting sacrifices, and the prominence given to the truth, that Christ was "once offered to bear the sins of many," illustrate the paramount importance both of the doctrine, and of appropriate feelings in reference to it, Heb. ix. 28. 4. Observe the value ascribed in Scripture itself, to any truth or precept which it contains.^ Sometimes a quality is set forth as essential, "Without faith it is impossible to please God." Sometimes one quality is preferred to another, as love to both faith and hope, 1 Cor. xiii. It is on this principle that much importance is attached to the qualifications which are to regulate the decisions of the day of judgment. Such as faith, and the right government of our thoughts, words, feelings, actions, habits and dispositions.b The reader may apply the foregoing rules to ascertain the importance of the death and resurrection of oar Lord, and the connection of both with justification and holiness, e. g.,See:" Exposition of the Gospel of Luke," by James Thomson, D.D., Introd. bJohn iii. 15: Matt. xv. 18, 20; xiii. 43, 49; xvi. 27: Rom. ii. 6: Gal. vi. 8: Rev. xiv. 13: 1 John iii. 23. These passages all prove that the design of the Gospel is not only pardon but holiness, and that meetness for heaven includes both title and character, 360 APPARENT CONTRADICTIONS. Gal. ii. 20; iii. 1; iii. 13; v. 24; v. 11; vi. 12, 14. 1 Cor. i. 13, 17, 18, 23; ii. 2, 8; v. 7; viii. 11; xi. 26; xv. 3. Rom. iii. 24, 25; iv.24 25; v. 8, 19; vi. 5-8, 10; viii. 3, 32; xiv. 15. Eph. i. 7; ii. 16; v.2: Col. i. 14, 18-20, etc. The fact of the resurrection and ascension of our Lord, as an evidence of the completion and acceptance of his work, and as a pledge of the resurrection of his people, is mentioned in the Epistles alone, more than fifty times. Any view of the Gospel, therefore, which gives to these doctrines a second place, is clearly not the Gospel of Scripture. 464. One or two general principles may be laid down to aid Canons on in the application of these rules. the appica- 1. Nothing must be made a matter of faith which tion of these rules. is not a matter of revelation. 2. In studying the Bible, there must be an indifferent judgment till the truth itself decides. Allow no bias but what is received from the Scriptures themselves, otherwise our knowledge will be only inclination and fancy. 3. The same prominence should be given to each doctrine, as is given to it in Scripture. 4. Where the doctrine of Scripture is important and necesEary, the Scripture will be found full and clear. Where Scrip. ture is not full and clear, the doctrine is either in itself not important, or the certain knowledge of it does not belong to our present state. 5. The Bible being inspired cannot really contradict itself. Of apparent contradictions, some are merely verbal, and the right interpretation of the words will remove the difficulty. Others, which originate in the doctrines themselves, may be solved by one or other of the three following rules. (a.) When the same action is affirmed of different persons, there is a sense in which it is true of both. It is said, for example, ten times, that Pharaoh hardened his heart, and ten times, that God hardened Pharaoh's heart; and both statements are in a sense true. What the sense is not, may be gathered from Scrip APPARENT CONTRADICTIONS. 361 ture revelations of God's character; whi.t the sense is, may be told us in Scripture, or it may not. If it is not, that sense is one of the secret things which "belong unto God." If it is, then both the sense which reconciles the statermants, and the statements themselves are revealed. Instances in which the same act is ascribed in Scripture to different persons: Exod. xviii. 17-26: Dent. i. 9-13, in relation to the appointment of judges. Numb. xiii. 1-20: Deut. i. 22, on sending the spies. 2 Sam xxiv. 1: 1 Chron. xxi. 1, in the numbering of the people by David. (6.) When apparently contradictory qualities are ascribed in Scripture to the same person or object, there is a sense in which both assertions are true. There is a sense, for example, in which all men are sinners, and there is a sense in which some men (those born of God), do not commit sin (1 John), and both senses are Scriptural. What those senses are must be gathered from the Bible, if they be revealed. If not revealed, we believe the statements and wait for further light. There is a sense, also, in which God visits the sins of the fathers upon the children, and there is a sense in which the children do not bear the sins of the fathers, Exod. xx. 5: Ezek. xviii. 20. Either the effects of the father's sin fall temporarily upon his children, though each man's final destiny is the result of his own conduct, or the first passage may be limited to those who hate him; in their case there is an accumulation of punishment. (c.) When one thing is said in Scripture to secure salvation, and the want of another thing is said to exclude from it, the existence of the one necessarily implies the existence of the other. It is said, for example, that faith saves us, and yet no one can be saved who hates his brother. Both statements are true; and, in fact, we find that faith and love are never disjoined. This is the canon that reconciles the prerogatives of faith with the promises made to character, as in the sermon on the Mount. It is not that such characters having faith, are blessed, for the promise is absolute; but it is, that faith forms such characters, and so brings the believer within the range of the promise. 31 362 PRINCIPLES OF MORLALITY. SEC. 2.-THE PRECEPTS OF SCRIPTURE. 465. The study of Scripture doctrine- has been placed first in this chapter for a double reason. Most of the Dottrine essentialto rules applicable to the study of the first, are appliholiness.' cable to the study of all. It will be found, moreover, that Scripture doctrine is at the foundation of all true morality. The Gospel begins its message with the " story of peace," unfolding the pardoning mercy of God through the death of his Son. It then exhibits its truths as motives to holiness When these truths have taken possession of the heart, they teach us to perceive in Scripture the requirements of a high and spiritual obedience: and under their influence we learn to serve in newness of spirit, and not in the oldness of the letter. This is the order, therefore, of human experience; knowledge in the heart, or truth, precedes knowledge in practice, or goodness: or, in simple Scripture language, man is sanctified by faith, through the operation of the Holy Spirit. 466. When the reader of the Bible has examined and classified its precepts, he will find that it is rather a Sr'iptore a book of book of principles than of directions. And of prinp-miciples. p ciples in a double sense: Its precepts refer rather to motives than to actions, which motives are called the principles, or beginnings of action: and moreover, its precepts are comprehensive maxims, and are, therefore, rather principles of morality than specific rules. When it speaks of holiness, it means faith, well-regulated affection, inward purity, and moral rectitude of disposition, and these it represents, not as the ground of our salvation, but as its evidence and result.. e. of The law of the ten commandments, which seems at motives. first to refer to practice only, is summed up by our Lord, in the form of love to God and to man; humility and evangelic faith towards God, and all holy conduct towards our fellows being the appropriate utteranc.e of these inward feelings. This apparent peculiarity of the Gospel scheme was PRECEPTS, MORAL AND POSITIVE. 863 the more striling in the time of our Lord, from the fact that Jtewish tradition had given undue importance to ritual zeal and punctuality: and it accounts for much of the opposition which the first teachers of the truth encountered. That it is a peculiarity also of the law is plain, both from the nature of its precepts and from the teaching of our Lord, for when he impresses upon his hearers the importance of inward dispositions, he never speaks of the law as faulty, but merely frees it from the glosses of the Pharisees, and unfolds its spiritual meaning. See also Mark xii. 32-34. 467. Even when the precepts of the Gospel are given in a specific form, they are often intended as descriptive Even speirather of character than of specific acts. The comr- ti rules involve prin mand of our Lord, "If any man will sue thee at the ciples. law to take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also," is an instance, Matt. v. 40. A specific compliance with the precept would be seldom practicable. To wait for the occasion when it can be applied, or even to apply it at all, might be of little service; but to cherish the disposition at which it aims is to take one of the likeliest means of promoting our holiness. 468. It is another peculiarity of the precepts of the Gospel that they are generally expressed in comprehen- And of sive terms, and that the application of them, and general maxim&a the distinctions that attend it, are left to the reason of the reader. It is true that the laws are so plain as to leave a conscientious and teachable mind in little danger of mistake. Still, it is part of our discipline that we are left to apply them.. There is such clearness in the command, that he that runneth may read; but withal, such possibility of error as proves God to be testing " what is in our hearts, and whether we will keep his commandments or not." 469. Applying these distinctions to the moral law, whether given in the Old Testament or in the New, it may The moral be observed law. 1. That whatever e'il it prohibits in the highest degree it 364 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MORAL AND POSITIVE PRECEPTS. prohibits in the lower. Murder and the malignant passions in every stage, adultery and the sins of the flesh, fraud and wrong, false accusation in private intercourse and in courts of law, theft, and covetous, discontented desires, are all condemned; and 2. That when sin is forbidden, the opposite duty is enjoined, and when any duty is enjoined, the opposite sin is forbidden. It forbids the use of images of invisible things for purposes of worship, and thus enjoins spiritual service. In excluding every other object of religious worship, it implies that God is to be worshipped, reverenced, and loved. It surrounds the parental relation with sanctity and honor, and thus condemns the difference of false independence which are too often indulged. This apparent extension of the meaning of inspired precepts is the necessary result of the general truth that the Scriptures are a book of principles, checking or fostering dispositions, and speaking in the language of comprehensive command. 470. Keeping in mind that the precepts of Scripture refer chiefly to the dispositions of the soul, that they are expressed for the most part in general terms, and that the application of them is left to the reader, we need still to notice an important distinction between these precepts themselves. Some are called moral and others positive, and the distinction is founded on Scripture itself. Bishop Taylor Moral pre. cepts and defines moral precepts as having their measure in positive doined. natural reason, while in positive precepts the reasons and measure are incidental, economical, or political. The reason of the first is eternal, the reason of the second temporary. Bishop Butler and Dr. Doddridge, again, define the first as precepts, the reasons for which we see; and the second as precepts, the reasons for which we do not see. By combining these definitions, we may, perhaps, obtain one sounder than either. Positive precepts refer only to outward acts, and to such outward acts as do not naturally flow from an obedient heart; moral precepts, on the other hand, have reference to RELATIVE CLAIMS OF EACH. 365 inward holiness, or to acts as the natural expression of hoy feeling. Both are, within certain limits, obligatory, and the neglect of either has its peculiar aggravations. To violate moral laws is to disobey our reason and God. To violate positive laws is to sin where temptation is commonly feeblest, and where disobedience involves a direct denial of Divine authority. Some precepts (it is obvious) are mixed in their nature, being partly moral and paitly positive. Such is Mixed. the law of the Sabbath. That creatures, framed as man is, should present some unit(d worship is a moral duty; but whether that worship be presented on the seventh or the first day of the week must be decided by positive law. It is obvious, too, that in the use of the words of this distinction we are liable to mistake. /Moral duties are positive, in the sense of being expressly commanded; and positive duties are moral, in the sense of requiring holy motive in fulfilling them; guilt, too, is incurred, if they be regarded with indifference or contempt. 471. Positive laws however differ widely from those which are.strictly moral. Di Distinction between In their nature. The moral are intrinsically holy and them..mmutable; the positive are the indifferent till the precept is given. Under the law, for example, to look at the brazen serpent, to sprinkle the door-posts with blood, were acts of no obligation till God had commanded them, and both were temporary in their duration. In their evidence. The moral precept is written, though often nearly effaced, in the heart; but the positive precept in the Bible only. The latter, therefore, is a matter of pure revelation, and differences among Christians in reference to them are more easy and (may we not say ) less inexcusable. In their ground. Moral precepts are founded in the nature of God and of man, and in the relation that subsists between them; positive precepts in God's ill alone. That will is doubtless guided by wisdom, and the general design of many positive precepts are even obvious.'Baptism, and the Lord's Supper, and the Sabbath, for example, are all adapted to a specific end; but why these ordinances only, and not others, is not reveai3i(.I a; 866 RELATIVE CLAIMS TO EACH. In the extent of their obligation, moral precepts are universally binding. There is no state conceivable to which God's moral dominion does not extend. Positive precepts, on;he other hand, are particular. The ceremonial law included the Jews, L]ut not the Gentiles. Worshipping in groves was allow d to the patriarchs (Gen. xxi. 23), but was forbidden to the children of Israel (Deut. xvi. 21). Under the Gospel it is different (John iv. 21). Other observances were binding on the priests but not on the people. So, under the Gospel, those only must partake of the Lord's Supper on whom that ordinance is enjoined. They differ, further, in their observance. Moral precepts, inculcating principles, are obeyed by a thousand different actions. Positive precepts, controlling conduct only, are uniform, and are to be observed according to the prescription and letter of the law. And lastly, in their connection. Moral precepts are necessarily connected. Positive precepts may be so by authority, but are not so in nature. Faith is followed by hope, and joy, and love. Love to God strengthens our sorrow for offending and our fear to offend; and love to man, fidelity and beneficence. But circumcision did not imply holiness or ceremonial purity. Institutions may be observed apart, "but virtues go ever," says Bishop Hall, " in troops." 472. In reference to the application of these laws, moral Rles for and positive, it must be rememberedapplying 1. That moral precepts never really contradict one another. If there be apparent contradiction; we have misinterpreted the meaning or the limits of the law. 2. Positive institutions, being founded exclusively on the law of God, admit of no additions in number to those it reveals. Institutions professedly of Divine original must not only not be forbidden in Scripture, they must be expressly commanded. To increase the number of such institutions, says Dr. Whichcote, "lessens the number of things lawful, brings the consciences of men into bondage, multiplies sin in the world, makes the way narrower than God has made it, and divides his church." 3. When positive precepts interfere with the observance of the moral law, theymust-yield the outward rite to the expression of holy feeling, the offering of sacrifice to the dictates of mercy, the ]heping of a Sabbath to the law of love. PROMISES UNIVERSAL AND PECULIAR. 367 4. God rejects his own positive institutions when men make them final, or put them in competition with holiness, or substitute them for it,.sa. i. 11-17; lxvi. 3: Mic. vi. 7, 8: Jer. vii. 4, 5: Amos v. 21. SEC. 3-THE PROMISES OF SCRIPTURE. 473. Faith in the promise of the Gospel is, by the opera, tion of the Holy Spirit, the great medium of man's renewal and holiness. When born again, that is, restored to the condition and character of children, it is, under the operation of the same Holy Spirit, by the incorruptible seed of the Divine word, received into the heart. When justified, it is by faith; and by faith they are made holy: faith is our "shield," our' work," our "victory," our "life." In studying and applying the promises of the Bible, it is important that we remember the following particulars. 474. The general promises of the Bible are the expression of God's immutable counsel. Men have often at- P Promises tached this idea of counsel to the secret purposes the counsel of God only, as if those purposes contradicted his word, or were intended to nullify and frustate his statements. But in Scripture the promises are always spoken of as the revelation of his purpose, and the violation of his promise as the denial, not of his word only, but of himself. He had promised " before the world began," Titus i. 2; and the promises are quoted in proof of his immutability, Heb. vi. 17, 18. 475. Some of the promises are universal, and others pecnliar and temporary; and it is important to distinUniv w al guish between them. There are promises made to and peculiar. Noah, to Moses, to David, to Peter, which cannot apply to us. The promise to the Israelites, of outward rv-sperity, was temporary, being suited te their dispensation, and adapted (in a state where eternal things were less clearly revealed) to secure obedience. So the gift of miracles, and of infallibility for writing or confirming the Scriptures, were promised to the first age of the church only, but is now with 368 PROMISES, ABSOLUTE AND -CONDITIONAL. drawn. The Gospel is the universal promise, and the only one. It is, therefore, the ground and measure of our faith. MIany promises, however, made to individual believers are branches of the universal promise, and are, as such, to be applied to believers stili. Paul, for example, applies to the Hebrew Christians the promise of God to Joshua, "I will never leave thee;" and Nehemiah prayed for the fulfilment of the promise given to Moses, Josh. i. 5: Heb. xiii. 5: Neh. i. 5-11. To this class belong the promises that refer to the present life, especially those that are contained in the Old Promises of temporal Testament. When applied to a consistent Christian blessig. they embody a general truth, namely, that religion, by making men honest, and sober, and industrious, has a constant tendency to secure temporal blessing. The hand of the diligent maketh rich, and diligence is enforced by the Gospel. But then the constancy of this law is corrected by three considerations. 1. Persecution and suffering are expressly foretold of the church, and for Christ's sake; and such suffering is itself the theme of a promise; 2. The temporal promises of the Old Testament have a limit in the very character of the later dispensation. It is one of faith rather than of sight. 3. And besides, temporal mercies are now employed to promote the Christian's spiritual welfare, and are given or withheld, as may prove most for his highest good. Under the law, the rod of the wicked less frequently rested upon the lot of the righteous, because the lessons of Providence were among the grand teachers both of the church and of the world. Now, however, the Bible is complete; and God is free (so to speak) to adapt his discipline to the wants of each of his children. In asking, therefore, for the fulfilment of temporal promises, even when universal, we must remember that prosperity has ceased to be the universal expression of Divine favor, and that providence is now administered in subservience to the spiritual discipline of the church. 476. Some of the promises are absolute, and others are 3onditional. PROMISES NOT THE RULE OF DUTY. 369 The promises of the coming of the Messiah and Absoltte and conof the call of the Gentiles were absolute. The pro- ditional. mise oi pardon and of blessings essential to salvation is suspended upon our faith. The Christian's progress, again, in holiness, and his freedom from chastisement, are dependent upon his diligence, and obedience, and prayer. It may be said generally that every promise of spiritual blessing to individual Christians is given to character, and on conditions. So Nehemiah believed, and therefore his prayer ended with the acknowledgment that the promise was made to such only as turn to God and keep his commandments to do them. See also 1 Chron. xxviii. 9, 19: Ezek. xxxiii. 13-15: Jas. i. 5-7: 1 Sam. ii. 30: Rom. iv. 3-12: Heb. iv. 1. These promises are made to character; sincerity and faith are always required. Do we seek Abraham's blessing, we must walk in Abraham's steps. Do we wish for special tokens of Divine regard, we must cherish the poor and contrite spirit with which God is pleased to dwell. And they are made on conditions. Further light and richer gifts are ever bestowed in proportion to our industry, and fervor, and fidelity, and prayer. So far, therefore, as any promise of Scripture is common, and we fulfil its conditions, we may apply it to ourselves as boldly as if our name were there. If even it be a particular promise given to one saint, but a branch of the universal promise of the Gospel, and we do as he did to whom it was originally given, it becomes )ur own. 477. This connection of the promises of Scripture and the conditions attached to them is often overlooked. This conMen apply the promises as if they were made to nection I'. ~ -T n' ~.~ *' * * overlooked. sorrow or distress. In fact, no promise is given to mere distress, but only to distress crying for relief, and seeking it in the way of Divine appointment: " Call upon me in the day of trouble, and I will deliver thee, and thou shalt glcrify me," is the uniform language of Scripture, Psa. 1. 15. In this respect its promises differ from its invitations. The 870 PROMISES NOT THE RULE OF DUTY. latter are commands addressed to all, even to the impenitent and tile unbelieving (Mark i. 15); the former to the penitent and believing: only. or to the impenitent, on the supposition thatt tbey turn and believe. 478. God often promises a blessing without fixing the time when it is to be bestowed. God will deliver the Time of fulfilment righteous out of his troubles, but the time is not told not fixed. us (Psa. xxxvii). Christ is to come again, and to take us to himself (John xiv. 1-3); but "of that day and hour knoweth no man." To trust in the promise, therefore, includes both patience and faith. He that believes will not make haste, Isa. xxviii. 16: Rom. i. 7: 2 Thess. iii. 5. 479. Rightly to employ the promises, we must use them, Promises not indeed as the ground or measure of duty, but tly ued yet as motives to exertion and prayer. motives to prayer. God has promised to deliver his church and to destroy her adversaries; but these promises are not our guide. Paul had received a promise that he should see Rome, and yet, when the conspiracy was firamed to assassinate him, he -immediately took steps to protect his life, as if no promise had been given (Acts xxiii. 11-17). In every case, the precept is our rule, though the promise may influence our motives and encourage our prayers. God promised David to establish his house, and David therefore pleaded the more earnestly with God to fulfil his promise, 2 Sam. vii 16 —25. God had promised, in the days of Elijah to "send rain upon the earth," 1 Kings xviii. 1, and yet Elijah prays with the greater earnestness and perseverance, 1 Kings xviii. 42-44. Daniel knew that the seventy years' captivity was expiring when he set his face by prayer to seek its accomplishment, Dan. ix. 2, 3. When our Lord had promised the gift of the Holy Ghost, the disciples continued in prayer till the promise was fulfilled, Acts.i 14 480. Rightly to employ the promises, we must use them to wen promote our holiness. They were given that we they pro- might be parta.ers of a Divine nature. Nor is the.note ho-.iness. design of God answered, unless they deepen our thankfulness,: and bind us to a life of holy and devoted obedience, 2 Pet. i. 4: 2 nor. vii. 1. SCRIPTURE EXAMPLES. 371 SEC. 4. —THE EXAMPLES OF SCRIPTURE. 481. In considering and applying the examples of Scripture, there are several points to which attention In studyin needs to be directed. Scripture examples 1. Many things are recorded in Scripture with remembernensure. There are examples of injustice and idolatry which are either discountenanced by the law, or were at the time expressly condemned. The record of tboim is not intended to hallow the facts, or to justify us in copying them, but to illustrate the wickedness of human nature and the justice of God, or to serve some holy and important end. 2, The actions of a good man which were nevertheless wrong, or which are not, on other grounds, intended for our imitation, are sometimes recorded without censure. To this class belong the equivocation of Abraham before Pharaoh; the falsehood of Rebecca and Jacob; the dissembled madness of David, 1 Sam. xxi. 13; and the massacre at Jabesh Gilead. To this class, also, belong such actions as were allowed under the law, but are forbidden under the Gospel. Polygamy, for example, was only permitted to the Jews "because of the hardness of their hearts;" never enjoined. The reasoning of our Lord condemns it (Mark x. 6), nor must we, from the pattern of children learn the measures of duty in men. 3. Many acts under the old dispensation were done by express command. Abraham offered up his son; Joshua destroyed the Canaanites; the Levites put to death the idolaters in the camp; Jehu rebelled against the house of Ahab, 2 Kings ix. but each of these acts was performed under the authority of a peculiar and positive precept. The fact that God expressly commanded them takes them out of the list of imitable actions. To make similar actions c3mmendable we must have similar authority. It may be observed that when a peculiar?omrmand was given, the reason is generally appended, showing the command to bo but temporary. Abraham:was commanded to offer up 372 SCRIPTURE EXAMPLES. his son to test his faith; Joshua destroyed the Canaanites because the time of their probation was past, and they had proved irretrievably idolatrous; idolaters in Judsea were put to death because, there, idolatry was treason against the supreme authority of the invisible King. 4. In judging of Old Testament examples we must ascertain tile principle on which the actions were performed. This is the rule suggested by the 11th chapter of the Hebrews, where some acts are recorded as imitable only in the principle of faith from which they sprang. Without this rule Scripture may be made to sanction the most contradictory acts. In Gen. xxi. 9, for example, Ishmael mocked Isaac, and from Galatians iv. 29, we learn that this mockery was the expression of a spirit of persecution, and of contempt of God's promises. Elijah, on the other hand, mocked the priests of Baal to prove the folly and wickedness of idolatry. Elijah's conduct, in calling fire from heaven (2 Kings), was not the result of angry feeling, but of a desire to convince a wicked prince and an idolatrous people; when James and John wished to exercise the same power, however, our Lord rebuked them; partly because his kingdom forbade such agency, and partly because the temper in which they spoke was passionate and revengeful. 482. All these considerations may be expressed in the form of rules: and it follows that we are not to copy the practices which Scripture records and condemns; nor practices which Rlle of it records without censure, unless those practices jaidermenit and rule of were holy as well as lawful; nor what was done imnittionf. under specific and temporary command; nor what, was done in consequence of inferior knowledge; nor must we copy or judge the good acts of even a good man, without considering their motives and end. Or the whole may be summed up in one principle. In relation to Old Testament examples, the rule of judgment is, that we estimate each act as the individual who performed it was bound to estimate it by the law, under which he lived, NOT OUR RULE. 873 and the negative rule of imitation is, that we are not to copy it, if it be inconsistent with the precepts of the New Testament. The positive rule of imitation will be found below. 483. Of what use then are the examples of Scriptures, and how are we to employ them? They are of great U use: example. 1. In interpreting the rules of Scripture where the sense is questioned. If the example be set by men who 1 inter were at the time inspired, and that example is in pretation. obedience to the rule in question, we have then an inspired interpretation of its meaning. The conduct of Paul in opposing Peter on the question of circumcision, and the practice of the apostles generally, decides the signification of many passages of Scripture. In such cases we copy the example, not because good men have left it, but because, under the circumstances, it proves to us what is in the mind of Christ. We may thus often find an explanation of the meaning of Scripture, in the examples which inspired men have left us. " Swear not at all," for instance, is one of the commands of our Lord, Matt. v. 33-37. In the same chapter he tells us that he came not to destroy the law (ver. 17, 18), and as the law permitted oaths, it may be presumed that all oaths for all purposes, are not forbid ten in this prohibition. On referring to 2 Cor. xi. 31-33: Rom. i. 9, it becomes plain that the precept refers to our ordinary communications, which should be yea, yea, nay, nay. The vice which is thus condemned was very common among the Jews. " Resist not evil," in the same chapter, will be found by the same reasoning to mean, "cherish not a spirit.of retaliation and revenge." Our Lord did not complain of the law in the hands of the magistrate, nor did he forbid his disciples appealing to it where public justice was concerned. He himself remonstrated against unjust smiting, John xviii. 23; and Paul so far resisted evil, as to protest against' cruel indignities offered him, and, on another occasion, to appeal to Olssar, Acts xxv. 11. The meaning of the precept therefore is, rather sufler injury than revenge yourselves. They are of use again2. In teaching us to apply the rules of Scripture to particular 32 874 SCRIPTURE EXAMPLEF. 2. In tach- cases. The New Testament, is in a great degree, a ing to appl book of principles, and not of specific directiona Scripture ^rnll> and it requires great wisdom to apply them. If, for instance, it be asked whether it is the duty of all Christians to speak of the true God, or of his Son, and to exhort others to believe in Him, we appeal to the precepts of the Gospel, precepts addressed to all saints, and we illustrate and learn to apply the precepts from Scripture example, Abraham, Gen. xviii. 19. The Captive Maid, 2 Kings v. 3. The restored Demoniac, Mark v. 20. Anna, Luke ii. 38. Andrew and Philip, John i. 41, 46. The woman of Samaria, John iv. 29. Persecuted Christians, Acts viii. 4. Apollos, Acts xviii. 25. Aquila and Priscilla, Acts xviii. 26. Phoebe and others at Rome, Rom. xvi. 12. Philemon, ver. 6. The value for examples for this purpose, may be well illustrated by comparing the moral principles laid down in the Book of Proverbs, with the application of them in the different characters mentioned in Scripture. It is said for example, " There is that maketh himself rich, and yet hath nothing, and there is that maketh himself poor and yet hath great riches." Of the first principle we have illustrations, in Ahab, 1 Kings xxi. 4, 16, 22: in Haman, Esther v. 11-13: the selfrighteous Pharisee, Luke xviii. 1].-14': in the self-conceited Corinthians, 1 Cor. iv. 8: in the false teachers alluded to by Peter, 2 Pet. ii. 18, 19: and of the second, in Matthew, Luke v. 27, 28: Zaccheus, Luke xix. 8, 9: Paul, 2 Cor. vi. 10: Phil. iii. 8. The Ephesian converts, Acts xix. 19: Eph. ii.: and in the church of Smyrna, Rev. ii. 9: compared with the church at Laodicea, Rev. iii. 17. 3, The great use of Scripture examples, however, is not for purposes of interpretation, but for the increase of our S. In promoting our holiness. They illustrate Divine truth and human holiness duty-they show the possibility of obedience-they rebuke our imperfections, and by exhibiting the sins of good. men, excite our watchfulness and charity. Does the Christian ask, for instance, whether it is possible for him to serve God in the business of the world, as well as in retirement, or in the public service of religion?Let him remember that Enoch, who walked with God, had sons and daughters, that Abraham had great possessions, that Joseph was governor of Egypt, that Moses was king in Jeshurun (Deut. xxxiii. 5), that Jeremiah dwelt in royal courts, that THEIR UTILITY. 375 Daniel was third ruler in the kingdom of Babylon, and that our blessed Lord himself, was not less holy as the carpenter than when engaged in his public ministry, or when offering the great sacrifice of the cross. Do we wish to test our repentance, and ascertain whether it is worldly or spiritual? We may examine its fruits, or we may compare it with Scripture examples. We have true repentance in David, 2 Sam. xii. 13, and Psa. li: in Manasseh, 2 Chron. xxxiii.'2, 13: in Job xlii. 6: in Nineveh, Jonah iii. 5, 8: in Peter, Matt. xxvi. 75: and in the Publican, Luke xviii. We have worldly repentance in Pharaoh: in Saul, I Sam. xv. 24: in Ahab, 1 Kings xxi. 27: in Johanan, Jer. xiii. 12, 20: and in Judas, Matt. xxvii. 3, 5. Do we watch with most care against our easily besetting sins, and feel secure against others to which we are less prone. We may, with advantage, remember that Abraham the father of the faithful distrusted the providence of God; that Moses the meekest of men, spoke unadvisedly with his lips; that Job murmured (Job vi. 8, etc.); for that the boldest of the disciples of the Lord swore, through fear, that he never knew him. 4. The impressiveness of these examples may be increased by. our selecting such as resemble more closely our Effectof own case, or by placing in contrast the conduct of contrast different persons under similar circumstances. We may compare the humility of the true teacher, John the Baptist, with the self-conceit of Simon Magus, the false teacher, who gave out that he himself was some great one, John i. 19-27, and Acts viii. 9; the anger of Jeroboam and Uzziah when reproved, with the submission and diligence of Jehoshaphat, 1 Kings xiii. 4: 2 Chron. xxvi. 19: 2 Chron xix. 24, etc. 484. Nor ought we lightly to esteem the value of sucn examples. "All that philosophy, wise men, and Their im general reason can teach," says Luther, "that is portance. profitable for good life, history presents by examples and cases. And when we look at it deeply, we find that thence have flowed, almost all rights, art, good counsel, warning, threatening, terror, consolation, strengthening, instruction, and produce, as out of a living spring." Examples thus become morality taught in facts, "Christ and his Gospel preached 376 EXAMPLES HOW FAR TO BE CCPIED. from the annals of his own kingdom,"' and the experience of his church. 485. It may be remarked, generally, that if the matter to which the example refers, is of a moral nature, we General principle of are to copy the example of inspired men, so far as miitatlon. P the reason of the practice is the same in their case and in ours. If the cases are not similar, we then obey the command by cherishing the spirit which their example embodied, without copying the example itself. It is a principle, for instance, that Christians are "by love to serve one another," and if the churches of one district have abundance, and those of another district are suffering from poverty, the churches in the former case are to obey the command by collecting for their poorer brethren, as the early churches did, Acts xi. 28-30: 1 Cor. xvi. 1. They apply the rule in the same way. But if it be said to follow from this principle that we should copy the examples of the early Christians, and wash one another's feet, we then apply the exceptive principle just named. That custom was in eastern countries a common and necessary refreshment; but to observe it here would defeat the design of the observance. A kiss was the common form of eastern salutation, and was designed to express affectionate regard; the principle of that practice (the exercise and expression of affectionate feeling), is still binding, but we cease to copy the example, or to express the principle in that form, because the custom has ceased. The primitive church, it is evident from the New Testament, had its love feasts; we have no record of their being a Divine appointment, but they were probably the spontaneous expression of mutual affection. Hence, when they were abused, the apostles condemned them. "These are spots," said Jude, "in your feasts of charity." In the case of the Lord's Supper, the abuse was condemned also, but the ordinance was re-inculcated. The observance of such feasts, therefore, is allowable, if they tend to deepen ~N ea.der. EXAMPLES HOW FAR TO BE USED. 377 the feelings they are designed to express, but the example is plainly not of binding authorny. 486. If the matter to which the example refers is a positive institution, the precedent is of no force in regard to its merely accidental circumstances. In relation, for example, to the Lord's Supper, it was celebrated in an upper room, with unleavened bread, the guests reclining at the table, on the fifth day of the week, and in the evening of the day. Three of these facts are expressly mentioned, and the others are undoubted; yet none is deemed essential to the due observance of the ordinance. Most of the meetings of believers mentioned in the New Testament, were held on the first day of the week (Acts xx. I: 1 Cor. xi. 20). Most of the preaching to the Jews and others who worshipped with them, was on the seventh day (Acts xiii. 42; xviii. 4; xvi. 13). To frame our example in this case after apostolic example, without considering the reason of their conduct, is plainly to confound the essential and accidental characteristics of their abedience. They exhorted Christians principally on the first day of the week, because on that day Christians only attended their service. They preached on the Saturday, because then the people generally were accessible. 487. It is important to observe, that in all those cases (both those that refer to moral precepts, and those The precept that refer to positive institutions), the duty oI obe- our law in dience is founded on the command, the application and extent of the command being fixed by the phraseology employed, and by the example of inspired men, subject only, to the rules just given. 878 SCRIPTURE DIFFICULTIES. CHAPTER VI. PRINCIPLES AND HULES OF THE PRECEDING CHAPTERS IILTLS TRATED IN THE QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT FROM THE OLD, AND APPLIED TO THE SOLUTION OF SCRIPTURE DIP FTCULTIES. 488. Nearly all introductions to Scripture treat of Scripture difficulties as a distinct branch of inquiry. There Scripture difficulties are obvious objections to this order, but it is on the require separateinves- whole convenient to adhere to it. So far as diffitigation. culties illustrate any rule of interpretation, or are explained by it, they belong to interpretation; but as many of them admit several solutions, and might; if placed under rules, bring the rules themselves into question, it is better to discuss them apart. The very existence of difficulties, moreover, raises a point which it is important to examine, and this can be done with advantage only in a separate chapter. Studied in their right place, with as much attention as their importance demands and'ho more, the difficulties of Scripture will do no mischief to a humble, prayerful reader. They will even stimulate inquiry and strengthen trust. Those that belong to interpretation will supply decisive evidences of the genuineness and authenticity of the Bible, and those that belong to doctrine will teach humility and faith. There is true iharmony, though it lie deep: there is really a central point whence all truth appears in order; God means us to reach it ultimately, and in the meantime to make the attempt. Thai attempt, independently even of its ultimate issues, will bring with it a present reward. SEC. 1. QUOTATIONS CLASSIFIED AND EXAMINED WITB REFERENCE TO THE STATE OF THE TEXT, THE TRUTHS ANt EVIDENCES OF SCRIPTURE, AND PRINCIPLES OF INTER, PRETATION. 489. The quotations made in the New Tee-imont from the NUMBER OF QUOTATIONS-THEIR NATURE. 379 Old form a subject of much interest. They illus- New restamenc quota trate the state of the original text, and the eviden- tions fiom the Old imces of Scripture. They explain ancient types, his- portant. tory and predictions. They exemplify sound principles of interpretation; and as these explanations and illustrations have received the sanction of inspired men, they are l]early of the utmost value. The quotations of Scripture may be studied for a double purpose; either to ascertain the verbal variations M be st between the Old Testament and the New, and the died for vs rious purlessons taught by it, or to determine the spiritual poses. truths and principles of interpretation which these quotations involve. To this twofold division we shall adhere in the following remarks. These quotations are very numerous, in all 263; references less direct amount to 376, or together, 639. Of these Number o there are in-' quotations. Quota- Refer- Quota- Refer- luota-Refertions. ences. tions. ences. tions. ences. Matt... 37 43 Gal.... 9 5 Jas... 5 1 Mark.. 17 10 Eph... 4 3 1 Pet. 10 9 Luke.. 19 31 Phil... - 2 2 Pet.. 1 9 John.. 15 19 Col.... 2 1 John. - 4 Acts.. 31 21 2 Thess. - 2 Jude.. 4 Ror... 52 15 1 Tim... 1 4 Rev... 1 115 Cor... 18 17 2Tim... I 1 2 Cor... 9 6 Heb... 33 44 Quotations from the Pentateuch amount to 90, and referen. ces to it to upwards of 100; from the Psalms, 71, references 30; from Isaiah, 56, references 48; from the minor prophets about 30. Quotations are either prophetic, demonstrative, explanatory, or illustrative: prophetic, including those that refer to Christ and the Gospel immediately, as Matt. iv. 15, 16, or typically, i. e., they indicate primarily some typical event or person, and then some other event or person under the Gospel, as John xix. 36: demonstrative, proving 380 THEIR UTILITY FOR CRITICISM. some statement, as John vi. 45: explanatory, explaining some statement or fact, as Heb. xii. 20; and illustrative, when expressions are taken from the Old Testament with a new meaning, as Rom. x. 18. These last are very few. Some, of course, are both demonstrative and explanatory, i. e., they explain and prove by examples some general truth, as Gal. iii. 11. Prophetic quotations, referring to our Lord or his church, amount to about 120. The references to the Old Testament can be fully appreciated only by examining the LXX, as the identity of expression does not always appear in the English version. The quotations are generally made from the LXX; sometimes from the Hebrew, in opposition to the LXX; How made. and still more frequently they express the general sense of both. Sometimes they are strict and verbal; sometimes widely paraphrastic or greatly abbreviated; but even in these instances no violence is done to the general meaning of the original. 490. Looking first to the PHRASEOLOGY of these quotations, it may be observed: 1. To a certain extent the quotations from the LXX now Uses found in the New Testament may be applied to corthisstudy. rect the text of that version. This rule applies because the New Testament text has been more carefully guarded than the text of the LXX. On the other hand, it is not of extensive application, from the fact that the New Testament writers do not care to copy verbally, and often leave the text of the LXX altogether for the Hebrew. 2. Very occasionally the quotations in the New Testament may be applied to correct the Hebrew text of the Old. In Heb. i. 5, for example, for "among the heathen," read "ye despisers," as in Acts xiii. 41: not Btui, Baggoyim; but ot., 3ozim.' So Isa. xxix. 13, and Matt. xv. 8, 9: Gen. xlvii 31: Heb. xi. 21; Psa. xl. 6: Heb. x. 5, 7: Amos. ix..1, 12, and Acts xv. 16: Psa. xvi. 10: Heb. and Aits ii. 27: Hos. xiii. 14, and 1 Cor. xv. 55 (for " I will bj," "ead "w here"). a'aOr~^ s ~:- Atfordon Acts xiii. 4I1] THEIR VARIATIONS, 381 S. As we have seen, several passages in the Henrew may be translated in the same way as the quotations in the New Testament. As a rule, the LXX takes, in these instances, the secondary meaning of the words of the original, the English version the primary. In Psa. xix. 4, for example, the English version translates "line:" the LXX, "sound," and so in Rom. x. 18. The word means a "string or chord," and thence a musical or other sound. So in Isa. xxviii. 16, and 1 Pet. ii. 6: Jer. xxxi. 31-34, and Heb. viii. 9. After all these corrections have been made, however, a large number of passages remain which do not agree with Quotations the exact words either of the LXX or of the He- give rather the sense brew. About one-half of the quotations, in fact, than the words: ofgive rather the sense than the words. In all (it ten,however, the very may be added) the sense is given, even when the words. expressions are not exact: see in Rom. xv. 12: (Isa. xi. 10): 1 Cor. ii. 9: (Isa. lxiv. 3): 1 Cor. i. 31: (Jer.'ix. 24). Sometimes, on the other hand, the whole -argument is made to turn on the very terms employed, as in Heb. iii. 7-10: Gal. iii. 16: 1 Cor. xv. 45. 491. The principle on which these quotations are made seems to be the same as a competent scholar would adopt in quoting the present English version. Wherever the Septuagint represents the meaning of the original with sufficient accuracy, the inspired writers use it, but in particular passages they translate directly from the Hebrew. Matthew, for example, frequently uses the LXX, but in passages which refer to the Messiah he pays special attention to the original, which he very closely follows. Paul, on the other hand, in the Hebrews, quotes nearly always from tihe LXX, and generally verbatim. 492. While most of the variations between the New Testament and the Old are explained on the principle Reason for that it is rather the sense than the words that are variations. quoted, there is sometimes an obvious purpose in the variati ea. 382 THEIR UTILITY IN DOCTRINE. To fit a quotation to the context, the number, or the person, or tih tense, or the voice is changed, Luke iv. 12: (Dent. vi. 16): Luke viii. 10: (Isa. vi. 9): John xix. 36: (Exod. xii. 46). To suit the argument, or to suggest an additional lesson, the meaning of the Iob. in nairrowed in the quotation, the larger meaning ncluding the less: thus, In Acts iii. 25, Peter in quoting Gen. xxii. 18, uses "kindreds" instead of " nations," suggesting tJ: his Jewish hearers that the Gentiles were their brethren: So in Heb. v. 10, Paul translates a word (n., cohen), which in the 6th verse he had translated "priest," following the LXX by a word equally accurate, but better suited to his argument, "high priest:" In Ieb. i. 6 we have angels instead of " gods," as in Psa. xcvii. 7, The original means "mighty ones," and is applied to God, false gods, angels, and generally to those high in authority. The apostle takes the narrower meaning and omits the rest: In Rom. xi. 26, 27, the word "Deliverer" is used instead of "Re-. deemer." After Christ had appeared the latter term in this passage would have been ambiguous: So in 1 Cor. iii. 20, quoted from Psa. xciv. 11; for" men" the apostle reads "wise," and in Matt. iv. 20, our Lord says "worship" instead of "fear," So. Ronm. xiv. 1, 493. Sometimes, again, parts of a prediction are omitted Reasonfor because not required by the argument, or because omissions. likely to raise a question which the inspired writer did not at the time intend to discuss. In quoting Zech. ix. 9, for example, Matthew omits "bringing salvation," as that fact was not at the time apparent. (Matt. xxi. 5). So in quoting Jer. xxxi. 34, Paul omits a clause which contained a promise at that time unfulfilled, Ieb. x. 16. So Rom. x. 15, and 2 Cor. vi. 17. 494. Sometimes, again, the New Testament quotation is Sometimes more clearly expressed than the LXX, and somethe varia- times it brings out the' idea more fully even than tion brings out the the original itself. sense more completely. Compare, in illustration, the LXX version of Job v. 13 with the apostle's quotas'on, 1 Cor. iii. 19; and also the TRUTHS TAUGHT IN QUOTATIONS. 383 Heh. LXX and English versic.n of Isa. xxix. 14 with 1 Cor. i. 19. While, therefore, the general principle seems to be that the inspired writers preserve rather the thoughts than the words of the original, we must not hastily conclude that verbal variations are without meaning; still less that such variations are inaccurate. Nowhere is there a difference of sense, and the verbal variation is often itself suggestive of instructive lessons. 495. The quotations in the book of Revelation, which are generally indirect, are of great interest. They connect the predictions of the two economies, and throw light upon the meaning of the symbolical language of the sacred volume. 496. The chief instruction, however, to be gathered from New Testament quotations refers to the. TRUTHS taught by them. They illustrate the doctrines and ethics of the ancient Scriptures, and of both dispensations; they supply evidence of the truth of Scripture, and they suggest important rules of Biblical interpretation. (1.) Life by faith, salvation through Christ, and the duty of holiness are all taught to the Jewish and Gentile alvtion Salvation church from the ancient Scriptures. by faith, tChrist's deity, and Salvation by faith, and through Christ proved by quota- man's immortality tions in Ron. i. 17: Gal. iii. 6-9, 14, 16: Rom. iv. 10, 11: taught i 1 Pet. ii. 6, 7: John viii. 56. Faith, from its relation to ttamen, as something which is righteousness, is counted as righteous- shown by ness, Rom. iv. 3-8. Men are condemned through unbelief, qotations. Heb. iii. 7-10. See also Heb. viii. 9, 10. Election of grace, and the promise as wide as the fall, Rom. xi. 5; x. 10. Holiness essential, consists in love, and is enforced by Divine example, 2 Cor. vi. 16: Matt. xxii. 37-39: 1 Pet. i. 16: Matt. xxiii. 23. Grace given to the humble, and in largest measure to those who use it best, Jas. iv. 6. Present temporal blessings connected with obedience even under the Gospel, Eph. vi. 2, 3: 1 Pet. iii. 10, 11. The passages of the Old Testament to which we have re 384 RULES OF INTERPRETATION. ferred as implying the Divinity of the Messiah and the agency of the Holy Spirit, are quoted in the New Testament with the same view. Read Chap. III. Sec. 3, and mark the following:The stone of stumbling on which Israel fell is said in Isaiah to be Jehovah himself, Isa. viii. 13, 14: Rom. x. 9, 11; ix. 32, 33. So in Isa. xlv. 21-25, the speaker is called Jehovah, and to him every knee is to bow. His language is quoted by Paul, Rom. xiv. 11, to prove that ill must submit to Christ. The vision described in Isa. vi. 3-10, is spoken of by John as a sight of Christ's glory, John xii. 41; and the "voice of the Lord" which spake to the prophet is called by Paul, the Holy Ghost, Acts xxviii. 25. In the Epistle to the Hebrews (i. 6, 8,10), the apostle applies to Christ, Psa. xcvii. 7; xlv. 6, 7: cii. 25-27; in all of which passages the person spoken of is described as the ruler of the world, the unchangeable Creator. That the ancient church believed in immortality, in the resurrection, and in a future judgment may be gathered from Matt. xxii. 32: Heb. xi. 5, 13, 14: 1 Cor. xv. 55 (see Jude 14, 15); and the various passages in which the great day of the Lord is named, 1 Thess.'v. 2: Rev. vi. 17: Joel ii. 31: Mal. iv. 5: Psa. xvii. 15: Job xix. 26; xxi. 10: Dan. xii. 2: Hos. xiii. 14. 497. After all, however, particular quotations give a very The whole imperfect idea of the identity of the principles of Gospel the two covenants. in rte old "The entire religious system of the Jews, is in Testament. the most appropriate sense a prophecy; and the individual passages of their sacred books are merely the strongest expressions of that spirit which enlivens the whole mass." (Davison.) 498. (2.) For the prophetic evidence supplied by the quotations see ~ 182. They refer in part to the person sUpply po- f our Lord, and in part to the progress of his phetic evilence of church. The immediate and undoubted prophecies the truth of Scripture. are upwards of 70; and the typical, with such as are either typical or immediate, amount to upwards of 50 more. RULES OF INTERPRETATION. 385 499.(3.)The rules of Biblical interpretation suggested by these quotations are highly important. Rules of interprelation sug1. The whole Gospel, in its precepts and truths, may be gestedby illustrated and proved from the Old Testament. quotations. 2. I-uman nature, being the same in all ages, is set forth in the history and descriptions of the Old Testament. See human wickedness described in passages taken from Isaiah and the Psalms, Rom. iii. 13-18. The unbelief of Noah's time, and of Lot's, repeated under the Gospel, Luke xaii. 27-29: Matt. xxiv. 37. 3. The principle involved in Old Testament precepts or statements may be applied inferentially to support Gospel truths. See John x. 34 If magistrates are addressed by a name descriptive of Divine authority (gods), how much more is the Son of God entitled to that name. So, from Deut. xxv. 4, the apostles show that the laborer is worthy of his hire, and that they who preach the Gospel may live of the Gospel, 1 Tim. v. 18: 1 Cor. ix. 9. So from Isa. lv. 3, "I will give you the sure mercies of (i. e.,'the favor pledged to) David," viz., that his seed should sit upon his throne for ever, the apostle concludes that Christ, to whom it refers, must have risen from the dead. See also, 2 Cor. viii. 15, Acts xiii. 34, and, generally, Rom. chaps. iz. Co xv. 4. The principles involved in Old Testament history may be applied in the same way to the experience of the church under the Gospel: whether that history illustrate human character, or God's dispensations, Rom..x. 7, 9: Gal. iv. 22-31: 1 Cor. x. 4: Rom. viii. 36: 1 Cor. x 1-11: Heb. iii. 7-10; x. 26-30. From these quotations, it cannot justly be affirmed, of course, that the persons referred to in the original passages, are types of those to whom the quotation is applied: still less can it be said that in these quotations, we must understand by the persons named, the persons intended by the New Testament writer. The case quoted, is simply a case in point, proving and illustrating by example a particular principle. In the 9th of Romans, for example, the apostle is proving that in all ages there has been (what his readers urged as an objection to the GCospel), an election, even of Jews, according to grace: and he establishes this conclusion, by showing that not all the descendants of Abraham were chosen, but only his descendant by Sarah: nor all the descendants of Isaac, but only his descendants through Jacob. 5. Passages in the prophets which contain. general promises, or are 33 386 RULE3 OF INTERPRETATION. descriptive of classes, are, of course, repeatedly fulfilled. They are, in fact, general principles. See the quotations of Isa. vi. 9, 10: see Matt, xv. 8, 9: Acts xiii. 41. See also Isa. liv. 13: Hab. ii. 4: Heb. xiii.5 (from Joshua i. 5). 6. Predictions, properly so called, may have a double fulfilment; a fact, of which various explanations have been given. Sometimes, for example, the persons or things are types, one of the other;a sometimes they are in certain aspects, identical,b and sometimes the events referred to, are so closely blended, as to be scarcely distinguishable.c 500. If it be said that this double fulfilment (whatever the Doubleful- explanation) weakens the evidence of prophecy, it filmentcon- should be remembered in reply, that the facts on solatory and instructive. which it is founded-the typical nature, for example, of the two. economies, or the complete identity of Christ's interests, and those of his church-themselves supply both ~ The promise to Abraham, for example, that he should be the father of a numerous seed, is applied literally by Moses, Dent. i. 10: by Paul it is applied to those who are partakers of his faith, Rom. iv. 18. b In another epistle, he says expressly, that the seed in whom the nations are to be blessed, is Chlrist, and then, that all who are Christ's, are the seed and heirs of the promise, Gal. iii. 16, 29. To Class (a), belong such passages as Exod. xii. 46 (the paschal lamb, John xix. 36), and the promise concerning Solomon, 2 Sam. vii. 14; and the corresponding Psalms, as cxxxii. 11. To (a) or (b), belong Psa. viii. 2-6, applicable first to man as the chief of God's creatures, and thence to our Lord, who is in this respect identified with us, or (it maybe said), our antitype: Psa. xci. 11, 12, applicable first to all who "say of the Lord' He is my refuge'" (ver. 1), and peculiarly, therefore, to Christ: and various Psalms, which, originally descriptive of the afflictions of individual believers, have their fullest accomplishment in our Lord, Psa. lxix. 9, 21, 25; cix. 8; xli. 9; cxviii. 19, 20, 25, 26. Such are the predictions in Isa. xl. 3-5, where the coming of our Lord in the flesh, and the final extension of his truth, are blended; in Mal. iii. 1-3, where we have the same double reference, and in Joel ii. 28-32. Compare the New Testament quotations. Of the same character are the predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem, as given in Matt. xxiv., xxv., where are represented also some of the awful trans". actions of the last judgment. SCRIPTURFE DIFFICULTIES. 887 evidence and consolation; while many of the Psalms' and most of the predictions of our Lord, taken from the prophets, apply exclusively to Him. SEC. 2.-SCRIPTURE DIFFICULTIES.'In divinity many things must be left abrupt and concluded with thlis:-Oh the depth.. For the inditer of Scrip'ture did know four thinas which no man attains to know,-the mysteries of the kingdom of glory, the perfection of the laws of nature, the secrets of the heart of man, and the future succession of all ages."-BAcoN. 501. The Bible was written "for our learning," and by "inspiration of God," and yet it is confessed that its Scriptures general clearness is obscured by " things hard to be inspired &, * ~ and intendunderstood." Christians are often harassed by edforour learning objections deduced from them, and unbelievers and yetdif "... ficult. make them an excuse for rejecting the authority of revelation. What, it may be asked, is their origin, their solution, their use, and how far are they consistent with the character and aim of the Bible as an inspired and instructive book? 502. Their origin, it may be answered, is sufficiently plain. The languages in which the Bible was composed O iinf are disused; they are distinct from each other, and scripture difficulties. different from our own; the expressions, images, and thoughts it contains belong to different ages, countries, and. persons; the manners and customs it describes have passed away; its topics are the most various and comprehensive, including the history, in part, of all nations and of all times; the system of truth it reveals is to influence both worlds; and it contains precepts and disclosures which refer to both, expressed necessarily in terms taken from one only; and the whole revelation is included in a brief volume. Let these and kindred facts be remembered, and it will be seen at once that, to give within so narrow a range, and even to give X Psalms ii., xxii., xlv., cx.; and probably, xl., xvi., and lxxii.: Psalms xvi., xxii., xl., embody the experience of the suffering Messiah, ii., xlv., lxxii., and ex., describe his victories and glory. 388 THEIR ORIGIN. at all, to a mortal, finite mind, amidst the changes incident to everything human, a revelation that shall be free from difficulty is impossible. Difficulties there must be, such as need a larger amount of inquiry than any one man can give, and such as will leave, after the utmost inquiry, much to be hereafter explained. Either Scripture must have been written without reference to history or common experience; without reference, moreover, to anything not familiar to every-man of every age, or difficulties must abound: in some respects they do abound; but it is the darkness of the readers, not of the writers, which creates and continues them. 503. Comparing the sections of Chap. IV.: Chap. I. Sec. 5. Difficulties and the Introductions of Part II., it will be seen classified that Scripture difficulties are such as are entailed upon us, (1st) by the uncertainties of the text; (2dly), by the meaning of words and phrases, the connection of arguments, the scope and authorship of particular books; (3dly), by the customs and manners of the age and country in which inspired authors wrote; (4thly), by the chronology, geography, and history of the sacred volume; (5thly), by the apparent contradiction of the precepts or truths of revelation regarding them as matters of interpretation only; and, last-y, by the objects with which revelation is conversant; the lasL description including the difficulties involved in the whole range of spiritual and moral truth as revealed in the sacred vlume. Let us briefly illustrate each class: 504. (1.) It is sometimes difficult to ascertain the rading of Difficulties the inspired text. in the readn Gen. xlix. 6, " digged a wall" ('g, shur), but liere is no such circumstance mentioned in the history, and it would have been comparatively innocent, see xxxiv. 25. Some read (t'e, sbsor), an ox; " they houghed the oxen," but this is not true, xxxiv. 29; more probably b, sar, a prince: in their wrath or self-will, " they slew a rince." So the Syriac version. 506. (2.) After the text has been fixed there are dilflie.4 DIFFICULTIilS IN PHRASES. 389 in the explanation of words and phrases," the con n the se xtse., connection of arguments,b the scope and authorship of neetion,and particular books,c or in two or more combined. d Many of the illustrations in Chap. IV Sec. 6, once belonged to this class; they were Scripture difficulties, and the solution of them is the result of modern inquiry. (I) John i. 16, "grace FOR grace," has created difficulty. "For the. benefits of the law we have the blessings of the Gospel," Chrys., Beza, Erasmus: " additional grace for grace properly used," Le Clerc: "grace on account of the grace of Christ," Grot.: "grace upon grace," i. e., abundance, so Dodd, Wesley, Olshausen: probably correct, though av'r (for), has not this meaning elsewhere in the New Testament. It may be a Hebraism for al, upon, and there are instances of this meaning in classic authors. Heb. xii. 17, "though he sought it carefully with tears;" if it refers to the nearest antecedent, it means "repentance," either his own or his father's, Dodd.; it may, however, refer to the remoter antecedent, his father's blessing;&,iav, and this agrees with the history, Gen. xxvii. 34. Heb. ix. 16, "where a testament is (a64Jii) there must also of necessity be the death of the testator," i. e., either where there is a will the testator must die before it can be proved or take effect; so the English version, Guyse, Stuart: or where there is a covenant the victim whose death is to ratify it must be slain: Mich., Mack., Dodd., Bloomfield. 1 Cor. xi. 10, "For this cause ought the woman (1) to have power (2) on her head, (3) because of the angels." " To have power on," that is, say some, to have a veil-covering, but the word never has this meaning elsewhere. Others understand it literally, and then (2) by "head" they understand her husband, and translate, "for this cause should she have power in or through the man," 1 Tim. ii. 11-13, (3) "because of the angels," i. e. either evil angels who will be gratified by indecency, or good angels who observe her conduct, Ecc. v. 6; or, the teacher of the churches, Rev. iii.; or spies sent by the pagans. " One of the very few passages of Scripture wholly inexplicable." Barnes. When the language is figurative the difficulty is often increased. Psa. civ. 1-3, for example, is figurative, and the expressions may lbe taken from nature, or they may be taken from the tabernacle; light referring to the Shekinah, the curtain referring to the veil, the beams 53* 890 DIFFICULTIES IN CONNECTION. of his chamber to the pieces of which the tabernacle was composed, the clouds his chariot to the moving of the Shekinah, and cloud when the ark moved; the latter verses of the Psalm, however, refer tc. nature. In Ezekiel's descriptions, some are clear, some purposely ambiguous: (b) 2. Pet. i. 19. "a more sure word of prophecy," than what? "Surer than fables," verse 16, Chandler; others, than the transfiguration, Sherlock; but better, " the word of prophecy confirmed," either by the transfiguration or rather by New Testament fulfilments.' Prophecy was as a lamp in a dark place, the fulfilment in Christ is as the dawn. (c) Of the difficulties of scope and authorship the Book of Job may be taken as an illustration. Some reckon it very ancient, as early as Moses or earlier, Michael., SchultZ, Lowth; others modern, during or after the Kings, Heath, Warburton: written by Job or Elihu, or some contemporary, so Dupin, Lowth, Schult., Lightfoot; translated by Moses, so Patrick, Grey; or written by him, Michael., Lowth; or by. Solomon or some contemporary, Dupin, Spanheim; or by Ezra, Warburton: some regard it as real history, Lowth, Schult.; others as an allegory, Michael., Warburton: its scope is to give an example of patience, Schult., Grey; to show that affliction is consistent with piety, Lowth; to illustrate God's sovereignty, or contradict the Manichean doctrine of the existence of a power of evil equal to God, Sherl.; to comfort the Israelite in Egypt, Michaelis; or during the captivity, Heath; or to explain the change in God's providential government after the captivity, viz., the substitution of a more spiritual system for the system of earthly rewards which had previously prevailed, Warburton. It may be added that many of the foregoing ends are answered by this Book, and that comparatively recent investigation has thrown much light upon its meaning. (d) Sometimes there are difficulties both in the words and in the connection. One of the most difficult words of Scripture is the particle 1vx. The question involved in it is whether it means only in order that, or also, with the result that. If the former be its only meaning, then it always expresses the purpose or view with which a thing is done. If the latter be one meaning, then it may express the consequence of an act, without implying intention upon the part of the agent. The first is called its telic (xero?) meaning, and the second its ecbatic (z-jzivs). Authorities are divided. Tittman, Stuart, Robinson, Burton, all maintain that it is used in both senses; Winer, De Wette, Olshausen, ihat DIFFIOJLTIES IN CONNECTION. 391 it is used in the first sense only. The telic sense is no doubt most consistent with classic usage, and so the word is generally used in Scripture; some think the ecbatic sense preferable in the following passages, John ix. 2: Luke xi. 50: Rom. xi. 11; others maintain a telic sense even here. It is sometimes used also to express not the chief end of an act, but a subordinate one, as in Rom. v. 20: Rom. xi. 32: John v. 20; i. 7; xv. 6. This looser usage is probably owing to the employment of the word by the LXX in passages where there is nothing, either in the Hebrew or in the context, to indicate a telic sense, but the contrary, Gen. xxii. 14 (LXX). (e) Sometimes there are difficulties both in the reading and the sense. Isa. liii. has been altered by transcribers and its meaning observed. Mic. v. 1-5, quoted in Matt. ii. 6, and many of the quotations in the New Testament. Isa. iii. 6, 7; vi. 10; viii. 12-18; xvi. 1-7; xlviiL 16, on which see Lowth. 506. (3.) When the meaning of words has been fixed, it is sometimes difficult to understand the custom to In customs. which they refer and the reasons'for it. Ecc. xi. 1: " Cast thy bread upon the waters: for thou shalt find it after many days:" "Give bread to those in affliction," Gill. "S.ow thy corn without hope of harvest;" that is, be disinterested in your liberality, Jebb. " Be liberal while you can," Boothroyd. Rather, exercise a large faith in God; act in your gifts and effects as the husbandman, who casts his rice upon the waters and waits for the crop; the rice ground being inundated from seed-time till nearly harvest, Dr. Clarke. Various customs are mentioned in the following passages in Tsaiah, and create difficulty; all of them, however, are explained by Lowth, in his notes, Isa. iii. 16, etc.; xlix. 16, 23; 1. 1, 6; Ii. 23; lii. 2; lvii. 6 —9; lxv. 3, 4. 507. (4.) Difficulties in chronology and history nron are various..loy and history. In Gen.iv. 17, the early building of a city by Cain has created diffculty, iand it:has been askdc —who inlabited it? A little calculation, 392 DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. however, will show that, 500 years after the creation, the descendalta of our first parents must have amo.unted to many hundred thousand in all. Dr. A. Clarke. Difficulties in chronology and in numbers generally have often arisen, as we have se.n, from false readings, the similarity between different numeral letters, and from the use of different modes of reckoning. So among profane authors. Cyrus reigned thirty years,(Cicero de Div.), i. e., from his joining Cyaxares; nine years, (Ptol. Canor) i. e., from his taking Babylon; seven years,(Xen.),i. e., from his becoming sole monarch. This last is perhaps Ezra's reckoning, Ezr. i. 1. (Shuckford). 508. Historical difficulties are of two kinds: such as arise on comparison of different parts of Scripture, and such as arise from the comparison of Scripture with profane records. Sometimes difficulties arise from the proper names of Scripture, some of which are spelt differently,a or the referring to the same person or place are entirely different.b Eliam., Sam., Amiel., Chron., Nebuchad = nezzar, = rezzar. Correct such from parallel passages, ancient versions, and Josephus. b For comparison of the discrepancies between 2 Sam. v. 23, and 1 Chron. xi., see Kennicott's First Dissertation. 509. 1. Comparing parallel and apparently contradictory historical passages of Scripture, the following solutions are important:(a.) Facts that seem contradictory are often really different. In Matt. i. 1, we have our Lord's genealogy through Joseph; in Luke iii. 23, through Mary. See Introd. to Gospels, Part II. (b.) In giving the same narrative different historians relate different circumstances, some giving more, some fewer than the rest; the fuller account includes the shorter, and the shorter does not contradict the fuller. Compare Luke ii. 39, with Matt. ii. 22, 23, where they agree: in all the preceding verses they differ, though without contradiction. Compare, on the call of the apostles, Luke v. 1-11: Matt. iv. 18-22: DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. 393 Mark i. 16-20. Some (as Greswell) place the passage;n Luke later; others (as Robinson) deem the whole, as they stand, reconcilable. Compare, on the two demoniacs, Mark v. 1-21: Matt. viii. 28-ix. 1: Luke v'ii. 26-40. (c.) The same remark applies to the narrative of what was said on some particular occasion, one historian giving the very words and another the sense, or each a different part.of what was said, or varying the order for a particular reason. The words of the Supper; the titles on the cross, Matt. xix. 3-12: Mark x. 2-12. (d.) Things said to be done by one man are elsewhere said to be done by another, who, however, acted on his behalf," and sometimes the plural is used when the remark is applicable to one only.b Here there is no contradiction. * Matt. viii. 5, 6: Luke vii. 2, 3. Mark x. 35, and Matt. xx. 20. b Matt. xxvi. 8, and John xii. 4. Matt. xxvii. 44, and Luke xxiii. 39-42. (e.) Narrative of what was spoken or done may create difficulty from the fact that general expressions are to be limited by particular ones, obscure expressions to be explained by those that are plain. Matt. x. 10: Mark vi. 8: Luke ix. 3. (/.) The narratives of Scripture are compiled on diffe.rent principles and for different purposes. Some are written chronologically on the whole or particular passages, or give incidents in groups. The principle of arrangement must be studied, and the whole harmonized in accordance with it. The order of Mark and Luke is generally chronological. Matthew gives facts and parables in groups: see Har. of the Gospels, PartII. Sometimes, however, Matthew gives the true order, and indicates the fact by the terms employed. In the history of the temptation, for example (chap. iv.), he affirms the order, "then:" again Luke iv. gives a different order, but the order is not affirmed, " and"In Gen. i. 27, the creation of man is mentioned briefly, at greater length in chap. ii. 7, 21, and so as to create an apparent contradiction. 894 DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. The order of the Lord's Supper, and the betrayal of Judas is gives by John, Matthew, and Mark; between Matthew xxvi. 25, and 26: John xiii. 26-35, must be inserted, and Luke's order will be, Luke xxii. 21-33; xix. 20. So the true order of Isa. xxxviii. 21, 22, may be gathered from 2 Kings xx. 7, 8. These difficulties are augmented by the present arrangement of the Psalms and prophecies. See chronological arrangement of the whole Part II. (g.) Sometimes there is an apparent discrepancy between an original narrative and the reference made to it elsewhere, and in that case there is generally a false reading, or someti mes another explanation. Mark ii. 25, 26, "in the days of Abiathar," see 1 Sam. xxi. 1, 2; Ahimelech was the priest: not a false reading; not about the time of; rather in the days of Abiathar, afterwards so well known as high priest, and who was present at the time, 1 Sam. xxii. 22. Matt. xxiii. 35, Zachariah, the son of Barachiah, see 2 Chron. xxiv. 21, where his father is called Jehoiada; the names have in Hebrew substantially the same meaning (whom Jehovah cares for or blesses): as Uzziah (the strength of Jehovah), is called also Azariah (whom Jehovah helps), 2 Chron. xxvi. 1: 2 Kings xiv. 21. Acts vii. 16, " which Abraham bought,"-but Jacob bought it, Gen. xxiii. 19: Josh. xxiv. 32; and Jacob, moreover, was buried in Hebron, not in Sychem, Gen. 1. 13. Read, probably, our father, i. e., Jacob, and omit Abraham. (h.) Sometimes the reference contains more than the original narrative, and the difficulty is removed by remembering that the earlier inspired historians do not relate all that happened. Joseph fettered, Psa. cv. 18: the saying of our Lord, Acts xx. 35: an appearance of Christ to James, 1 Cor. xv. 7: the marriage of Salmon and Rahab, Matt. i. 5, is not recorded in the Old Testament. So Jude 9, 14: Rev. ii. 14. 510. 2. Comparing the narratives of Scripture with profane records, there are several difficulties, most of which, however, have long since yielded additional evidence of its truth. DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY. 395 In Luke ii. 2, it is said, that a taxing was first made when Cyrenius was governor of Syria. Greswell and Thoiuck translate, this enrolment took place before Cyrenius was governor; Burton and others, the eun rolmeni (which was ordered twelve years before), first took effect, i. v. money due in consequence of it was first paid, when Cyrenius waa governor. The fact is, that the census or enrolment was ordered by Augustus, three years before the birth of Christ, but the tax was not paid till twelve years afterwards, when Cyrenius was president of Syria. See others in Paley's Evidences, Part ii. Chap. vi,, Religious Trat Society, p. 260. The works of Lardner give the completest view of tLe accordance of sacred and profane records. Many similar difficulties have arisen and been explained Ly further inquiry. Daniel mentions four kings of Babylon and Persia-Nebuchadnezzdr, Belshazzar, Darius the Mede, and Cyrus. The first is well known, the second is mentioned, though by other names; Labynetus, by Herod; Nabonadius, by Berosus; the third was no more than nominal king, and is not mentioned by any, but he is Cyaxares II. of Xen., Prid. Con., Book 2. Cyrus was succeeded by Cambyses; he by Smerdis, and he by Darius Hystaspes, Ezra vi. 1. His successor was Artaxerxes Longi. manus, the Artaxerxes of Nehemiah; another Artaxerxes, and two other kings by the name of Darius filled the throne before the empire was subdued by Alexander, B. C. 331. The identity of the names and the confusion of all Persian and Assyrian chronology, combine to create several difficulties: but careful study reconciles most. See additional examples in Horne ii. 618, in Newton on the Prophecies, and in the connections of Prideaux, Shuckford and Russell. 511. (5.) There are apparent contradictions in the truths and precepts of Scripture, regarding them as mat- Intruths ter of interpretation only. Between a literal ex- tid precepts as pression and a figurative one there is sometimes an matters of interpreta. apparent contradiction which is removed by ex- tion. plaining the two harmoniously. (a.) Sometimes the words of one passage must be Vrious explained figuratively. kiis ela "Ye will not comie," John v. 40: "no n.an can come except the Father draw him," John vi. 44. The first imn lies, when compared Mith S96 APPARENT CONTRADICTIONS. other passages, that to have eternal life, we must believe that every one who hears the Gospel is bound to believe it; that men are so depraved that they will not believe, and that therefore they are condemned. The second affirms that men cannot come. What, then, does this mean? Is it want of power, which is the proper sense if they cannot, or is it want of will, which is the figurative sense? Both senses are found in Scripture. "Ahijah could not see, by reason of age." So, Jonah i. 13. " Joseph's brethren could not speak peaceably to him." How can ye, being evil, speak good things?" where the dominion of a strong propensity is implied. It is to this latter our Lord refers nothing less than special Di-vine agency will subdue this propensity; and, being in the will, it is our sin. So in all the passages which speak of God in expressions accommodated to the weakness of human conceptions. Compare also Matt. xi. 14, with John i. 21. Or the words of both passages need to be explained figuratively. See ~ 262. (b.) Sometimes general assertions in one text are to be restricted by others. In Luke xvi. 18: Mark x. 11, 12, divorce is forbidden absolutely; but in Matt. v. 32: xix. 9, it is allowed, though for adultery only; while in 1 Cor. vii. 15, the believing party is said to be free to leave the unbelieving husband or wife who is determined to separate. Restrict and explain in the same way Gen. xiii. 17; xxiii. 17, 18: Acts vii. 5. (c.) Sometimes the same terms are used in different senses in different texts, and it is difficult to know how to restrict them in each. In Matt. xviii. 21, 22, forgiveness is enjoined absolutely: in Luke xvii. 3, 4, on repentance; in the latter, the word is used in a different sense (Gerard), or the condition of repentance is presupposed in Matt., or the phrase in Luke means, as often as one seeks forgiveness give it. A man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law, Rom. iii. 28: " by works a man is justified, and not by faith only," James ii. 24. Paul speaks of the justification of the ungodly in relation to their acceptance by God; James of the justification of the godly in relation to their approval by Gcd: Fuller. Or Paul of justification in the sight of God; James in the sight of man: Hoadley and Taylor. Or Paul speaks of faith with its effects, James of mere assent: Grot. Mac DIFFICULTIES IN TRUTHS REVEALED. 897 kpWght. Various writers restrict various words of each verse, but all agree that some restriction is necessary( So in 1 Cor. x. 33: Gal. i. 10: Prov. xxvi. 4, 5. Ex. xx. 5: Ezek. xviii. 20, "visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children;" " the son shall not bear the iniquity of the father." Either God's plan towards the close of the Jewish dispensation wav changed: at first the fathers were spared, but at last fathers and sons, and not sons only,,were to suffer: Fuller. Or the first description applies only to those "who hate hime." If Judah, therefore, in the days of Ezekiel had been righteous, they would not have gone into captivity for the sins of Manasseh. In both passages men are spoken of, not as individuals, but as members of society, and both refer only to this life. (d.) Sometimes the same action is ascribed to different agents, and sometimes different and apparently inconsistent descriptions are given of the same object, in which came either the action is described in terms which are used in different senses, or there is a sense in which the terms are true; but it is sometimes difficult to ascertain which is the correct solution. See pp. 316, 317. Christ intercedes, RoI. viii. 34: Heb. vii. 25, as does the Spirit, Rom. viii. 26, 27, the one in heaven and the other in our hearts. Christ is called the Comforter (or Advocate) 1 John ii. 1, as is the Spirit, Joha xvi. 7. The one is within, and the other above. The teaching of Scripture on the coming of our Lord involves nearly all the difficulties of interpretation to which we have referred. 512. (6.) After all these difficulties of interpretation have been solved, there are others which apply to the I th things revealed or commanded in Scripture, and it thigs re is in objections founded upon those difficulties that men most indulge. (a.) Many passages have been placed under this head which properly involve questions of interpretation only. The creation of the rainbow after the deluge, and of the sun and stars on the fourth day, are probably difficulties, of interpretation only. Most Hebrew scholars affirm that the original means simply that the 34 398 DIFFICULTIES ENUMERATED. sun and stars were made or constituted on the fourth day, to rule the day and the night, and that the rainbow was made or became after the deluge the sign of the covenant; both were created by God, but had existed before, and were only tlen employed for these purposes. Lev. xxvii. 28, 29, has been quoted as authorizing human sacrifices, as has Jephthah's treatment of his daug.iter, Judges xi. 34; but human sacrifices were expressly forbidden, Deut. xii. 30, 31: Ps. lxvi. 3: Ps. cvi. 37, 38. All who even touched a dead body were unclean;- and, moreover, no devoted thing could be sacrificed. Jepththah probably devoted his daughter to perpetual virginity; and, at all events, the act is not commended. [But see Judg. xi. 39]. Predictions are sometimes stated, through a similar error, to be false, 2 Kings viii. 10. Elisha's answer to Hazael (1~ not R lo). The proinise to Josiah, 2 Chron. xxxiv. 28; xxxv. 23. The history of Jonah. Some assertions that the last day was near, 1 Cor. x. 11, etc. Expressions in the Old Testament seem to imply vindictive feeling: hut some of the expressions are figurative, Ps. x. 15; some are predictions, only the tenses being indicative future rather than imperative; and others are the denunciations of Divine justice against transgressors, Deut. xxviii. Some actions alleged to be done by-prophets are said to be ridiculous or immoral; but they were either symbolical, or were represented in vision only, or were merely related by the prophet. Isa. xx. 3, naked, i. e. without his upper garment, Lowth; or in vision, Rosenm. Jer. xiii. 4, 6, a visiuoi (Lowth); Ezek. iv.: Hos. i. 2. Precepts and statements are interpreted without the necessary restriction or explanation: John vi. 51-58, eating Christ's flesh: Matt. xii. 36, "idle words," pernicious, calumnious: Matt. xix. 23, "rich man," "one who trusts in riches:" Mark x. 24. Matt. v. 30, cut off a right hand: v. 39, "Whosoever shall smite thee on the right cheek, turn to him the other also;" both spoken comparatively, rather do this than commit evil. All these passages involve important truths and some difficulty, hut the difficulty refers to interpretation only. (6.) Of difficulties in the sense of Scripture the following These diffimay be taken as a sample. These difficultiesenu- 1. There are alleged contrarieties between the Old Testament and the New, and between the teaching of our Lord ain the teaching of his apostles. CLEARNESS OF SCRIPTURE STATEMENTS. 399 2. There is said to be much that is impossible in the history of creation, and in the attempt to trace all mankind to a common origin. 3. Some of the miracles-the history of the fall, of Balaam, the demoniacal possessions in the New Testament, for example-are said to be incredible. 4. Much was wrong in the applauded characters of Old Testament saints. 5. Extraordinary commands were given to them, as to Abraham, and to the Israelites. 6. The punishment of idolatry with death seems to sanction persecution, and many of the institutions of the law are unacaountabl e. 7. Passages from the Old Testament are quoted in the New in altogether unnatural senses. 8. Some of the moral and spiritual doctrines of the Gospel as a remedial system are mysterious. 9. Above all, the existence of difficulties in the Bible is inconsistent with its object as a universal revelation. 513. The last of these objections' we proceed to examine first. There are, confessedly, difficulties in the Bible: Are the are they inconsistent with its inspiration and authen- consistent ~,a~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~with inspiticity, and do they hinder its usefulness for doctrine ration. or teaching, and for instruction in righteousness? 514. Noticing the latter part of this question first, it is quite clear that the Bible reveals in passages innuThe usefulmerable and unmistakable, the essential principles ness of of truth and duty. We have but to open the New Scripture. Testament at almost any of its pages, to draw forth a scheme of holiness. The spirituality of the Divine nature, and of all acceptable worship (John iv. 24); repentance and remission of sins in Christ's name (Luke xxiv. 47); salvation through no other (Acts iv. 12); the duty of all men everywhere to repent and believe (Acts xvii. 30: Mark i. 15); eternal life through the Son; eternal death as the consequence of unbelief (John iii.); the necessity of holiness (Matt. vii. 21); the 400 DIFFICULTIES-3THEIR OEJ3CT. assurance of the help of the Spirit to control our corruption and to aid our infirmities. All these truths are written as with a sunbeam; that "he may run that readeth." In every age, moreover, the great end of the Bible as a religiously instructive book, the repositwy of saving truth, has been answered. Contrast the creed of he meanest Jew, in relation to God and law, with the errors and uncertainty of the wisest of the heathen; the first Tusculan disputation of Cicero with the commonest Christian treatise on immortality and the resurrection, and the difference will at once appear. The heathen philosopher falters at every step, and dreads the very conclusions to which his reasonings lead him; while the opinion of the Christian is already formed; his only difficulty being to impress his own heart and the hearts of others with the truth. By the leading and undoubted precepts of Scripture, the guiltiest may be "thoroughly furnished unto all good works," and by its doctrines all men may be made "wise unto salvation.' 515. But do not these difficulties affect dhe authority of the Bible, and weaken the evidence of its inspiration? Can a revelation be of universal authority which all do not understarud; and is it really a revelation where so much is concealed? In answering this question it might be said, that whatever we know of the works of God in nature is liable to the same objection. Bishop Butler has shown most conclusively that natural religion, revealed religion, and the providence of God, together with every known law of human duty, are all exposed to the same difficulties. There is in all an obscurity of meaning and deficiency of evidence, a mysteriousness of Similar diffi- ~,. cultiesinall arrangement and treatment that bespeak our state God's works. to be one of incessant discipline. In truth these objections apply much less forcibly to Scripture than to our daily practice; al:i the reasoning which seeks to set aside the Bible would, if true, rob God of all his authority, and man of all motives to virtue... It might be said further, that sa DIFFICULTIEIS-THEIR OBJECT. 401 long as customs and language change, revelation un-And un less given to each nation and to each age, cannot be voidable. free from difficulty. Customs and terms are now obsolete which were once familiar; facts once known are now forgotten; the connection, therefore, between them and other facts is lost. The result is a degree of ignorance which admits of no conceivable remedy, except what all would feel to be inconsistent with our present condition. 516. But we go further. The very difficulties of Scripture, philological and historical, afford cogent internal Supply proof of the genuineness and authenticity of the proofofthe D ivine oriBible. No one can now doubt that it was revealed giln of Scr ipture. to successive generations, and in ancient tongues. Sc The solution of its difficulties, too, has been gradual, and that for the best reasons. Each age has its own temptations to infidelity, and each has its peculiar evidence. Let any one read the Credibility of Lardner, a work which could not have been written in the age of the apostles, for the facts on which it is founded were later than their times; or the Horm Paulina of Paley, or the Horan Apostolicae and Horme Evangelicas of Birks, on the apparent discrepancies and real agreement between the statements of profane and sacred history, between the Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles, or between the different Gospels, and he will at once perceive that the difficulties of Scripture create an internal evidence even more decisive than the external: it is, throughout, the apparent discrepancy between the writers themselves, and profane records, and their obvious independence of one another and of everything but truth that forms the argument. We can dispense with nothing, not even difficulties. Every element (the apparent discrepancy among the rest) is essential to the force of the whole. And if it be said that these difficulties are too numerous, or that the solution of them has been too slow, it may be answered that this gradual solution is necessary in order to supply to each age fresh evidence, and to excite continued interest.... 402 - DOCTRINi L DIFFICULTIES. in Scripture, while the fact proves that the evidence of the Bible, like its doctrine, is for all time. 517. From the study of philological and his torical difficulties Their natu- we proceed to investigate the doc trinal-the great ralness and mysteries of godliness and iniquity, "the hard utility in. other re- things" connected with salvation, and the veiled or spects. et dimly disclosed future. How obvious are such remarks as these; men are fallen; our nature is depraved;- our intellect is darkened. A revelation just such as our moral taste approved could not fail to have marks of an origin mach lower than heaven. We are finite: what more natural than that an omniscient being, when he speaks on matters which refer to eternal interests, should speak occasionally what we but partially comprehend: certainly, the absence of difficulty (the thing pleaded for) in a communication from what professed to be infinite wisdom, would have had thrown upon it, by that circumstance, a strong if not unanswerable suspicion. See objection 8. Let it be added that these difficulties have dignified every kind of human learning, by rendering all eligible to the service of religion. Historically, the study of classical literature in modern times began with the study of the Bible; and ever since, sound religion and true learning have been linked in inseparable bonds. All knowledge is thus sanctified; and however individual Christians may have exposed themselves to the charge of being enemies of mental improvement, it becomes impossible to include the Christian religion itself in this rebuke. No doubt it may be affirmed in reply to these reasonings, that the existence of Scripture difficulties is attended with one inconvenience: they are liable to excite distrust in the minds even of Christians; that is, they try our faith. But is not this again an evidence in their favor? What are all the dispensations of God but our discipline? What is life but a walking by faith; that is, by habitual reliance on Him whose ways we eaanot- understand, and in crcumstances that require HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 403 such a trust. Perhaps inspiration might have removed all difficulties from Scripture, though we cannot tell how; but certainly we should have lost much and gained littie by the change. Instead of answering these objections in detail Rules for let the following rules be marked and applied. solving 518. (1.) We must interpret Scripture, its announcements, and disclosures, in accordance with Interpret it what it professes to be;-an inspired volume de- aswxrtenin ^ human lansigned to set forth the scheme of salvation by Christ, guage, but by a Divine and to bring men unto God. So far as it is like author. other books written in the language of man, it must be interpreted by the same laws as other books; we must ever look at the words, the context, the speaker and the customs and history of his age; but so far as it differs from other books-. being inspired and intended for all time, every part of it foreshadowing or plainly exhibiting the cross, we must give to its phrases and intimations a plenary and spiritual significance. The sacrificial enactments of the law, for example, considered in themselves alone, were sanguinary. They certainly contain no intimation that they prefigured the death of our Lord. Their ultimate purpose, however, is unquestioned; and in the meantime they taught the great doctrine of substitution, to some probably most plainly; and they impressed the hearts of men with some of the same sentiments as are now awakened by the cross. The promise to Abraham, again, has no such terms as point exclusively and clearly to the coming of the Messiah; and such a promise found in Virgil or in Homer could not fairly be interpreted as having such a reference. But the Christian cannot doubt its meaning. If the writers of the Scriptures did not foresee all the truths which might be drawn from their words, God the Holy Spirit foresaw them; and the business of interpretation is, to learn his purpose and end in what was revealed. To explain, therefore, the inspired Scriptures in all respects as if they were human compositions, with no wider range, and no spiritual 40) HOW SOLVED OPl ANSWERED. rule, is, as Lord Bacon has expressed it, to "dishonor the Scriptures and injure the church." See Objection 7. 519. (2.) As doctrines are to be interpreted in accordance with the comprehensiveness of Scripture, so no ]No solution iuconsist, solution of a difficulty must be admitted which is ent with inspiration to not in accordance with the great fact of inspirabe admitted. tion. Mia.ny compare the miracles of Moses with the prodigies of Livy, or the writings of Ezekiel with those of Eschylus, or the doctrines of our Lord with the philosophizings of Plato, and the difficulties i? each case may be removed in the same way. If it be said that the miracles are incredible, and the imagery is extravagant, and the moral reasoning is fallacious or forced; in that case the difficulties are removed on principles which set aside the authority of Scripture. If we deny inspiration it becomes us to examine the evidence, and to attend to the moral and spiritual truths of the Bible; but if we admit its inspiration, our solution of its difficulties must leave that glorious characteristic of it untouched. Most, therefore, of the expressions employed in the preceding objections (2, 3, 9) must be rejected, because incon. sistent with the spirit of a devout humble inquirer. 520. (3.) Scripture must be regarded as a system from'Bible a beginning to end; and the different books and senwhole: tences must be interpreted'as the component and connected parts of a great whole. All the light which the first page throws upon the last, or the last upon the first, may be freely used for purposes of illustration and defence; not of course to prove that every passage has the same meaning, but to prove that all have the same end. This rule, it will be observed, does for facts and truths what the kindred rule on the analogy of faith or on parallel passages does for the interpretation of the words. "From him that hath not, shall be taken away even that which he hath," for example, is the sentence of our Lord. Separate these words from the context, from the parallel passage in another Gospel, from the principle of the Divine government HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 405 which they illustrate, and we miss their sense; explain them connectedly and the whole is clear. So of Bible truths. The eacrifice and the death of Abel, viewed in themselves, seem.not more significant than the good deed and untimely end of any good man; but view his death as the first fruit of sin, aid his sacrifice as an evidence of the true nature of every acceptable offering; as a proof, moreover, how conscious demerit expressed itself in the first age, and how deeply it felt the need of vicarious suffering, and the whole narrative assumes an aspect of importance and dignity. Explain in the same way the ordinances of the law, the personal history of many ancient saints, and incidents in themselves trivial become fresh marks of internal credibility, and even lessons for the instruction of the church throughout every age. 521. (4.) As it is important to study Scripture connectedly, it is even more important to study it in its true con- And conAnd connection, and in that alone. A false system may be nected. more mischievous than no system at all. The plagues of Egypt, for example, may be regarded as inflicted only for the deliverance of a nation from slavery; in that light they may seem excessive, and some of them even absurd. Regarded as manifestations of Divine power, as foreshadowings of the destiny of the finally impenitent, or of the spoiling of principalities and powers by him who so signally triumphed over them in his cross, as public rebukes of idolatry, every plague being directed against an idol god, as confirmations of the faith of the Israelites, long remembered, their significance is plain. If idolatry again be regarded as mental error merely, or if the Jews be regarded as an ordinary community, the punisnment of that sin with death may seem severe. ]Really it was a penalty inflicted only on the apostate Israelite, who had repeatedly accepted Jehovah as his chosen king. In a theocracy it was civil treason; and the great purpose, moreover, of the whole institution was to redeem our race from the depra 3ad and wretched condition which that sin involvecl 406 IOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. In the same way the truths of Scripture on the person of ouir ]lm derive much of their significance, and all their consigtmy fom the union in him of our human nature with the Divine. Explain them on the supposition that he was man only or God only, and they appear contradictory; combine both views, and the whole is harmonious and highly consolatory. To find fault with the acts of ancient saints, and to conclude that the record of their faults is as inconsistent with the Divine origin of the Bible as the acts themselves were derogatory to true religion, implies a false theory. Suppose, for example, that the object of the Bible be-the revelation of God and the improvement of man, and the objections cease. Take, as an instance, the deception of Jacob, Gen. xxvii. 33-35, and mark its lessons in relation to God and to ourselves. His superiority over his brother and his inheritance of the promise had been foretold at his birth. Isaac, Rebecca, and Jacob himself all probably knew of this prediction. In spite of this knowledge, however, Isaac made a favorite of the elder brother, who had connected himself with a heathen family: Jacob had so little faith, moreover, in the Divine promise, that he needlessly removed the difficulty of his brother's priority by purchase: Rebecca, with no more faith, induced her son to practise the deception which obtained him the blessing. The guilt and folly of this whole transaction soon bore their appropriate fruits. The weakness of Isaac was punished by the alienation and dislersion of his children. The recklessness and profanity of Esau cost him the blessing; Rebecca's unbelief ended in her becoming dependent upon the son she had wronged: her favorite son she never again saw. Jacob was driven from his home-was himself robbed and defrauded by Laban; the wife he despised became the mother of the chosen tribe, and in the deception of his own children he learned the grievousness of his sin. Above all, though the pr'mvse was ultimately fulfilled, Jacob himself HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. 407 received no blessing from it. Instead of his mother's son bowing down before him, he, in his own person, bowed down before his mother's son, and at the close of his life he was dependent upon his children. The punishment, in fact, was complete: nor less so is the lesson. It may be said that, nevertheless, he inherited the blessing; and this is true: for the gifts of God are without repentance, and his choice of his servants is founded upon no personal merit, but on reasons, which, in most cases, as in this, he has seen it right to conceal. It may be said also, that the blessing was secured by means which no ingenuous mind can commend; and this is true; but the objection applies to providential dealings generally as much as to Scripture. Man's sin is constantly overruled for God's glory; and neither the responsibility of man nor the holiness of God is affected. by the arrangement: a revelation, infact, without such incidents, would be neither just to God nor true to man. 522. (5.) It becomes us to distrust the conclusions of human wisdom and of logical reasoning, whenever applied Conclusion to subjects beyond the reach of our experience, and of human.'.~~~~~~~... ~wisdom to especially in matters of religious truth. Even in be distrusted. science we know really little beyond what we have observed. "What is light?" and "What is power?" are quentions which philosophy has not yet answered. We speak ot the laws of gravitation, and affirm that they keep the planets in their orbits; but gravitation (it is allowed) is itself nothing but the expression of a uniform fact. The origin of disease, independently of second causes and symptoms, is entirely unknown; nor can any one tell how contagion or infection acta upon the frame. The most probable conclusion to which even philosophy is pointing is, that the great forces in this universe are put forth immediately by God. Miracles and mysteries everywhere abound, and it is only their regularity and frequency that destroy our surprise. Combine with this fact the fallen condition and inherent littleness of man, and the propriety of the principle of Lord Bacon, when he bids us rev 408 HOW SOLVED OR ANSWERED. erently question nature, and not dogmatize on her processes, will appear doubly just when applied to the Bible. 523. (6.) Let no man attempt or expect the explanation of xpect not every difficulty. "Of the dark parts of Scripture," the solutfion says Warburton, "there are two sorts, one which culties. may be cleared up by the studious application of well employed talents, the other which will always recede within the shadow of God's throne, where it would be impiety to intrude." "The last step of reason," says Pascal, "is to know that there is an infinitude of things which surpass it." After all difficulties have been solved and every word of the Bible explained, the weightiest difficulties of all will remain. The origin of evil, the mystery of Divine foreknowledge and free-agency, and much of the scheme of redemption will still exercise our faith. We shall say even then, as it is our wisdom to say now, "Oh, the depth of the riches, both of the wisdom and knowledge of God! how unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways past finding out!" On the whole of this Section, see Home, " On the Apparent Contra dictions of Scripture," Davidson's "Hermeneutics," Gerard's "Biblical Criticism," and, on the latter part especially, Benson's "Hulsean Lectures." CHAPTER VII. ON THE INFERENTIAL AND PRACTICAL READING OF THE BIBLE. " All Scripture is practical, and intended to minister to our improvement rather than to our curiosity."-ARNOLD: Sermons (p. 239). "I know not a better rule of reading the Scripture than to read it through from beginning to end; and when we have finished it once, to begin it again. We shall meet with many passages which we can make little improvement of; but not so many in the second reading as in the first; and fewer in the third than in the second."-JOHN NEWTON(vi. 418). LESSONS FROM WORDS, ETC. 409 524. As the great use of philosophy is the " endowment of man's life with commodities," so the great use of The chief Scripture is the increase of our wisdom and holi- use of Scrip ture is to ness. To gather the meaning of Scripture, and apply it. sum up its doctrines, is to accomplish but part of the purpose for which Scripture was given. Every precept and promise must be applied. Even from every verse we may gain some accession to our knowledge, some quickened impulse to our feelings, or some encouragement or guide in duty. Meditation on truth will reveal its fulness; and the practical applicability of it on all sides will at once surprise and reward our inquiries. 525. By the practical and inferential reading of the Bible is meant that study of the sacred page which de- Whatmeant duces and applies to ourselves, or to the great by the prac. tical and in. questions of religious character and experience, the ferential I reading of truths it contains. It is not distinct from interpre- Scripture. tation, it is rather the continuance and end of it. Interpretation answers the question, What is the meaning of the words of a particular passage? Systematic theology decides the connection between that meaning and the whole system of truth. The inferential and practical study of Scripture answers the question, What do these words imply, and what truth or duty do they illustrate or suggest in relation to the Divine life, and my personal history? The foundation of such study is the perpetual harmony of Divine truth, and the practicalness of the whole. Its pre-requisite is a general knowledge of the teaching of Scripture, and a spirit imbued with " the form of sound words in faith and love which is in Christ Jesus" (2 Tim. i. 13). With these pre-requisites it will be easy (so closely is one truth connected with another) for a Christian to "diffuse himself," as Francke expressed it, "from one word over the whole Scripture." 526. In drawing such inferences from Scripture we need 35 410 LESSONS FROM WORDS, ETC. Inferences the same rules which we have already laid down for may be drawn from SCi ipture interpretation. various sources. The words-the words in their place in the sentence-the words in connection with the scope of the writer — the words in connection with other parts of Scripture-is the division which includes all the inferences that can be legitimately drawn from the teachings of Divine truth. 527. (1.) Lessons may be drawn from the words of Scripture. In Rom. xiv. 17, we have a description of the "kingdom of God:" such is the Gospel: it is God's reign;. it originates in his grace; it is founded upon his power; it will illustrate his government. In Heb. iii. 1, Christ is called the "High Priest and the Apostle of our profession." Each word is significant; he was first selected and ordained of God; he was commissioned and sent by him. The guilt of rejecting him is proportioned to his dignity. The efficacy of his salvation is secured by Divine appointment. He is High Priest under the Gospel; therefore, though it is a dispensation of mercy, we need sacrifice and acceptance, and are dependent for both upon him. 528. (2.) Lessons may be drawn from the words in their place in the sentence. In 1 Pet. v. 5, we are commanded to be clothed with humility, for God resisteth the proud. Clearly (1) humility, though despised by the heathen, is a Christian grace. (2.) Our truest ornament (for this the Greek word for " be clothed" involves) is a just, that is, an humble estimate of ourselves, and that ornament must be so closely connected with us that none shall be able to tear it away (so the Greek implies). (3.) Every duty may be enforced by a reference to God's character. (4.) Pride is a public conspicuous sin (so the Greek implies). (5.) It braves God, and he sets himself in array against it. So in Rom. xiv. 17, the kingdom of God is described as righteousness, peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost. Hence it may be inferred (1) that peace is through righteousness only, (2) and joy is the fruit of righteousness and peace; (3) that a righteousness which brings with it neither peace nor joy is not the righteousness of the kingdom of God. 529. (3.) Lessons may be drawn from words in connection with the context. LESSONS FROM SCQPE, ETC. 411 Thus in Matt. xxvii. 52, we read that many bodies of the saints which slept arose, but (ver. 53) it was after the resurrection of our Lord; he therefore was the first-fruits of them that slept, and whatever his saints received they owed to him. Contrast 1 Tim. i. 15 with ver. 4, and we shall gather that the legends of the Jews and the stories of the Gentiles are compared to fables; the Gospel to undoubted truth. 530. (4.) Lessons may be drawn from the scope either of the book or of the particular passage. Compare, for example, John viii. 51, "If a man keep my sayings he shall never see death," with John xx. 31, "These are written that ye might believe... and that believing ye might have life through his name," and it follows that faith in Christ is shown by obedience to his words; that faith receives not only his sacrifice but his teaching; that whoever has life through his name shall never see death. Comparing this passage with the immediate object of our Lord (which was to prove that he was not possessed of an evil spirit), it follows that a doctrine which secures eternal life is not likely to be false; that saving truth is to be set forth, even before those who calumniate it; and that though Christ's teaching is foolishness with men, it must be received and obeyed. 531. (5.) Lessons may be drawn from parallel passages. Instead, however, of multiplying examples, let us Parallel take a passage and apply the rules now given to passages illustrate and expound it. 532. In 2 Tim. i. 8, we read, "Be not thou, therefore, ashamed of the testimony of our Lord, nor of me, his prisoner: but be thou partaker of the afflictions of the Gospel." The meaning of the verse having been ascertained, take irst the words: 1. The Gospel is called a testimony. It is therefore not an unsupported assertion. 2. Of this Gospel the Christian is not to be ashamed. Boldness in giving witness for Christ is often required, especially in times of persecution. 3. This boldness is not unfounded presumption, but a rational assurance: " Be not thou therefore ashamed." 4. The Gospel is the testimony of our Lord; its end is " to bear wit 412 INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. ness of Christ, who is our Lord." Paul and Timothy were fellow-ser vants (Phil. i. 1), and therefore stood in the same relation to Christ their Lord, whom therefore they were bound to obey. 5. Paul was His prisoner; men had confined him, but he was not in their power, nor did he suffer as an evil doer. Secondly. Take each word in connection with the other words of the sentence, and we gather such inferences as these. 1. Not to partake of the afflictions of the Gospel when called upon to share them, is to be ashamed of the testimony of our Lord. 2. He who is ashamed of suffering Christians, who suffer as Christians, is ashamed of Christ himself. 3. Our testimony to Christ must be borne, not only in seasons of prosperity, but in seasons of affliction. 4. Even in his bonds Paul preached the Gospel. 5. Paul bore a consistent testimony to the truth, and yet he required the testimony of Timothy. It is therefore necessary that the testimony of God's servants should be multiplied. 6. A timid and distrustful heart is not fit to bear testimony for Christ, nor to endure affliction for his cause. Thirdly. Take the words in- connection with the context. The general object of the apostle, ii this part of the chapter is, to exhort Timothy to undergo affliction for the cause of Christ, and he enforces this exhortation by cogent arguments. Comparing the passage with the fourth verse, we conclude that the godly, though surrounded by calamity, can rejoice, and have delightful communion with one another. With the third verse, that those who are about to suffer for the testimony of Jesus need our prayers "night and day." With the fifth verse, that the remembrance of a pious ancestry may happily increase our boldness and fidelity in seasons of persecution. With the sixth verse, that the gift which the minister has received from God is to be stirred up, in order not only to teach, but to suffer. With the seventh verse, that the gifts of power and of love (to Christ and the souls of men), and of a sound mind, in the discharge of arduous duties, all bind the Christian to fidelity in suffering. With the ninth verse, that t'he remembrance of our salvation, and of the grace and purpose of God towards us, will dispel the fear of temporal affliction. INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 413 With the tent7t verse, that the superiority of the Gospel dispensation, and the confirmation of our faith by the appearance and resurrection of Christ, should make us the more willing to suffer; our sufferings are not for a cunning]v-devised fable, but for the truth of God. Comparing the words of the verse with the words of the preceding verses, we gather other lessons. The fear of persecution is orne frequent cause of apostasy. Men artn ashamed of the testimony of Christ, because not willing to be partakers of the afflictions of the Gospel. A sound mind, or real wisdom, is seen in willingness to endure affliction rather than deny Christ. Mere worldly prudence is tested and discovered by affliction. The spirit of fear is injurious to our steadfastness, and is. not God's gift. True power is seen in endurance and fidelity. Love has such influence over the soul that, were we exposed to the severest calamities, or even to death, it will keep us unmoved. Apostasy implies feebleness, coldness, folly; for steadfastness is the fruit of power, prudence, and love. Fourthly. If we look to the scope of the Epistle, and the circumstances of the writer, we learn other lessons equally important. The general scope of the Epistle is, that Paul, now the prisoner of the Lord, asks Timothy to come to him, and endeavors, previously, to prepare and fortify his mind against the afflictions which at that period threatened the churches at Ephesus and in Rome. Look at Paul's circumstances, we learn that one who is imprisoned for Christ may still, by letter, incite others to serve him; and that, so far from a Christian losing his consolation through imprisonment, he may even exhort others to suffer, and to gather encouragement from limself: that in affliction we should take special care lest others be discouraged by our sufferings: that we may ask others to share our sufferings if it be for the furtherance of the Gospel, but that we mast first fortify their minds for what they may have to bear: that Christians may be tempted to apostasy by calamity, and that therefore they should be kindly warned and prayed for by those that see its approach. In looking at Timothy, we may learn that a Christian should neither accelerate his removal from one sphere of duty nor defer going to another through fear of affliction: that he ought to strengthen his own mind for what may befall him: that the danger of others ought not to intimidate him, but to render him at once prudent, and willing to 35* 414 INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. undergo similar sufferings; that even in the case of eminent Chrntlans when calling them to the service of God, it may be important to remove the scruples and difficulties they may feel in relation to the call. In looking generally at the scope of the Epistle, and connecting it with the words of the text, we may learn such lessons as these. In seasons of persecution, the spiritual boldness of love and of a sound mind is peculiarly required. In such seasons the servants of God may justly stir up each other to promote the common cause; to preserve each other's fidelity in obedience and in suffering. Before we bid another to engage in a difficult service, we must, by prayer and exhortation, seek to prepare him for it. The qualifications for service in the kingdom of Christ are gifts of the Holy Spirit. The fifth source of inferential reading is the comparison of a passage with other passages throughout the sacred writings, In this case it is not a merely verbal parallelism which suggests "he lesson but the parallelism of thought and truth. Let us take phrase by phrase. " Be not thou therefore ashamed." In Rom i. 16 and Phil. i. 20, Paul affirms that he is " not ashamed of the Gospel of Christ," and it is the same boldness he requires in Timothy. Hence it may be said that faithful teachers require of others what they themselves know is not impossible; and again, he who best inculcates patience manifests it by example before he enjoins it by precept. " Be thou partaker of the afflictions of the Gospel." From I Thess. iii. 2-4, we learn that Timothy had been sent to Thessalonica to establish and comfort the church, that no man might be moved by their afflictions; and from Rom. viii. 17 and 18, we gather that participation in sufferings is essential to participation in glory. Hence we may infer that Timothy was specially bound to observe what he himself taught; and that the prospect of everlasting blessedness proportioned to our holy and devoted suffering may well repress our.hame of present affliction. By comparing the second clause of the verse with other passages lessons equally important and interesting may be obtained. See 1 Cor. iv. 9: 2 Cor. xi. 13-33, where affliction is said by the apostle to be the seal of his apostleship; and 1 Pet. iv. 13 and Col. i. 24, where Christians are exhorted not only to bear afflictions, but to rejoice in them; and Rev. xii. 11, where the end of affliction is set forth in the blessedness of those who are now before the throne. By reference to 1 Pet. INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 415 iii. 13 and iv. 17, it will be seen that even the ungodly are not free from suffering, and that the surest way of avoiding afflictiori, or, if it cannot be avoided, of having comfort in it, is to cherish fidelity as Christians. 533. These rules are of extensive use. They may be applied to nearly the whole of the Bible; and as this kind of study is highly instructive it may be well to give another instance or two of the application of them. We take a passage from the history of our Lord. In John xi. 15, we read, " I am glad for your sakes that I was not there to the intent ye may believe; nevertheless let us go unto him." The meaning of the words we suppose to have been gathered from the general usage of language and from comparison with other parts of the Scripture. The obvious facts of passage are the following. Christ was glad. He was glad for the sake of his disciples: he was glad that he was not there. To the intent that they might believe. He nevertheless ioved Lazarus, and determined to restore him, and therefore (said he) "let us go unto him." 1. Christ was glad. Joy may be at times becoming; on connecting this fact with verses 14, 35, 36, we infer that an event, in itself painful, may be a source of joy to the Christian; or, connecting it with similar facts in Scripture, it may be gathered that our Saviour's joy was always found in what contributed to the good of his disciples or to the glory of His Father. 2. He was gladfor the sake of his disciples. That a benevolent mind finds happiness in the improvement of others is one obvious inference; that some of the dealings of Christ were prompted by a regard to the welfare of his disciples is another. Both these truths are in the sentence. Looking to the context, we find that one Christian may sometimes suffer for the good of others. Comparing this expression with other parts of Scripture, we gather a conclusion more general still. All that Christ did or suffered was done for the sake of his church. Did he empty himself of glory, and come into our world in circumstances of the deepest humiliation? "For our sakes he became poor." Did he here endu;e sufferings more diversified and intense than human nature had ever known? " He bore our griefs and he carried our sorrows." Did he devote himself to our interests and sanctify himself for the work of mediation? It was for our sakes and that he might be sanctifies by the truth (John xvii. 19). Did a voice 416 INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBlE. from hear-en comfort Him? " This voice came," says he, "not becalse of me, but for your sakes" (John xii. 30). Did he, after he had suffered, leave the world? It was because it was expedient for us. Is he now at the right hand of the Majesty on high? It is that if any man sin he may have " an Advocate with the Father." Even the conduct of his providence is regulated by a regard for the interests of his church. " He rebuked kings for their sakes." He spared ancient Israel, though guilty, and he tells them that they were spared for the sake of his true servants who were found among them, Isa. lxv. 8. More comprehensively still, he assures us that all things are for our sakes, that life is ours and death, and things present and things to come, Rom. viii. 28: 2 Cor. iv. 15. 3. He was glad that he was not there, i. e. to heal the sick. To withhold deliverance may be a blessing. On comparing this verse with verses 21 and 32, where Martha and Mary expressed their surprise that Christ was not there; and again, with verses 44, 45, where it is said that the Jews believed, we infer that Christ's purpose is sometimes accomplished by means which are not consistent with the expectations of his disciples. This truth is taught in a limited form by the context. Comparing the truth thus ascertained with other similar his tories, we gather the general conclusion that God's ways are not as our ways, nor his thoughts as our thoughts. Joseph, for instance, was sold into Egypt in the anguish of his soul, and amidst the lamentations of his father. In Egypt he endured bitter temptation and imprisonment, yet the whole of his affliction seems now to have been part of the Divine plan, and was certainly the means of preserving his family alive. It proved advantageous, moreover, to his own honor; and the history of his trial suggests many a lesson for the improvement of young men in every age. The sufferings of Job must at first have seemed mysterious. At the close of his history, however, all is explained; for God blessed his latter end more than his beginning, gave him honor in proportion to his previous afflictions, and has handed down his history as a permanent lesson of patience and faith. The three Hebrew youths in Babylon were found faithful among the faithless, and for their conscientious obedience to the Divine law were thrown into the fiery furnace. Was God there, and did he interpose in their behalf? Not in the way we might have hoped, but in his own. I-e made their sufferings the means of giving to his church a new promise of the Messiah (for a fourth was seen walking with them); and they themselves were uninjured, so that even the smell of fire was not upon thern. In the end, too, no' at the beg', ning, a heathen king was INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. 417 compelled to acknowledge that no god was able to deliver like the God of the Hebrews. In each of these cases the Divine purpose was accomplished by a process very different from the expectation of the sufferers, The folly of judging the dispensations of God during their operation, and the wisdom of waiting till the day when all shall be made plain, is equally a lesson of this part of the verse, and might be illustrated in the same way. 4. All this was done to the intent- that the disciples might believe. Christ, therefore, is anxious in his dealings to increase our faith. His disciples were not credulous, as has been supposed, but the contrary. Their faith was not inclination, but conviction,. and the result of evidence. That they believed the things they describe, ought therefore to add to the weight of their testimony. Comparing this clause with ver. 45, where it is said that, as the result of the miracle, many of the Jews believed, it may be inferred that the same exhibition of Divine power which is adapted to increase a believer's faith, is adapted to produce conviction in the undecided. Comparing it with John xx. 31, we gather that the miracles of the Gospel should have the same influence upon us as they had upon those that witnessed them; the record of them by credible witnesses making them standing miracles. Comparing it with passages in which it is implied that the disciples hadbelieved, we gather that faith admits of increase; and comparing it with Romans v. 1, where Christians are said to be "justified by faith," and with Acts xxvi. 18, where they are said to be "sanctified by faith;" and with Gal. ii. 20: 2 Cor. i. 24, where faith is said to be the secret of their life and steadfastness, we gather that this increase of faith is thus precious in the esteem of our Lord because it brings with it to the Christian an increase both of usefulness and of peace. 5. Christ had nevertheless resolved to go unto him. His case might seem desperate, but it was not beyond the reach of Divine power. Christ often does above what we think. The extremity of the sufferer was the opportunity of the Redeemer. Comparing this verse with the following, it is plain that the words of our Lord are often misunderstood, and misunderstood through unbelief. Comparing this clause with ver. 8, we learn that Christ is ready to expose himself to personal peril in order to comfort or relieve his disciples. Comparing it with ver. 4244, we gather that when the purpose of affliction is answered, the affliction itself is removed. From the whole verse we gather that God speaks to us in the afflictio:ns of others, and 418 INFERENTIAL READING OF THE BIBLE. that if we disregard his voice we are the more likely to be chastised ourselves. 534. Sometimes the student of Scripture is anxious to ascertain what it teaches on some one question. In which case he uses each passage with a special reference not to all it contains, but to the truth which he is investigating: an exercise which combines the systematic with the inferential study of the Bible. If, for example, he wishes to obtain a full view of what is taught in Scripture on affliction, he examines a few passages, and soon finds that they begin to arrange themselves in his mind. Some treat of affliction generally, some of the afflictions of Christians, and some of the afflictions of the impenitent; while throughout he finds truths and duties most instructively blended. In the end he ascertains such results as these: AFFLIOTION:-Men born to it, Job v. 6, 7. Is the consequence and a punishment of sin, Gen. iii. 16-19: Prov. i. 31: 2 Sam. xii. 14: Psa, lxxxix. 30-32: Isa. lvii. 17: Jer. ii. 14-17. For which, however, it cannot atone, Isa. v. 25: Lev. xxvi. 14-39: Lam. iii. 1-22: Dan. ix. 16-19. Is appointed by God, who regulates the measure and continuance of it, Psa. lxvi. 11: Job i. 21: Lam. iii. 33: 2 Kings xiv. 26, 27. Isa. ix. 1: Jer. xlvi. 28: Gen. xv. 13, 14: Jer. xxix. 10. Is often deep and severe, Psa. xviii. 4, 5: 1 Pet. iv. 12. But tempered with mercy and less than we deserve, Psa. lxxviii. 38, 39: Isa. xxx. 20: Ezra ix. 13. AFFLICTION is often blessed to the Christian-showing him his errors, Numb. xxi. 6, 7: Luke xv. 16, 17. Bringing him back to God and keeping him there, Psa. lxxviii. 34: Hos. ii. 6, 7: Isa. x. 20: Ezek. xiv. 10, 11. Humbling him, trying and perfecting his patience, faith, and obedience, Rom. v. 3: 1 Pet. i. 7:Judg.iii. 4: Heb. xi. 17. Testing and exhibiting his sincerity, Job. xxiii. 10: Prov. xvii. 3. Fitting him for greater usefulness: explaining the Bible: purifying the heart, Mal. iii. 23. Tending to the furtherance of the Gospel, Acts viii. 3, 4: 2 Tim. iv. 17. Illustrating the power and love of God, 2 Cor iv. 7-11: John ix. 1-3; xi. 4. Ending, when rightly endured, in the greater blessedness, 1 Pet. iv. 13, 14, etc. Its influence is exemplified in Joseph's brethren, Gen. xlii. 21: in Israel, Dent. viii. 3, 5: David, 2 Sam. xvi. 12: Josiah, 2 Kings xxii. 19: Hezekiah, 2 Chron. xxxii. 25, 26: Manasseh, 2 Chron. xxxiii. 12. In the case of the impenitent, AFFLICTION is multiplied, and often INFERENCES —PRALBILES. 419 Budden, Psa. xxxii. 10; xvi. 4: Prov. vi. It: Isa. xxx. 13. Is a consequence of impenitence, Zech. vii. 11, 12: Prov. i. 24-33. Is of itself ineffect-lal for conversion; often hardens the heart, or produces slavish fear, Is.. i 5: Jer. ii. 30: Neh. ix. 27-29: Jer. xlix. 5. Is no cause of fear to the righteous, Psa. xc. 1, 5. Is a warning to others, 1 Cor. x. 5-11: 2 Pet. ii. 6. God will be glorified in it, Ezek. xxviii. 22, 23. Its influence exemplified in Pharaoh, Ex. viii. 8-15: Ahaziah, 2 Kings i. 1-4: Gehazi, 2 Kings v. 27: Jehoram, 2 Chron. xxi. 12-19: Athaliah, 2 Chron. xxii. 10: Uzziah, 2 Chron. xxvi. 19, 21: Ahaz, 2 Chron. xxviii. 5-8, 22. The AFFLICTED CHRISTIAN should exercise resignation and patience, Psa. xxxix. 9: James i. 4: 1 Pet. ii. 20. Acknowledge the justness of his chastisements, Mic. vii. 9. Avoid sin, John v. 14. Trust in God, Psa. lxxi. 20; Psa. lvi. 11. Praise him, Psa. xxxv. 18; Psa. lvi. 8-12. Take encouragement from past mercies, Psa. xlii. 4, 5: 2 Cor. i. 10. Remember that God has promised that in time of trouble he will be with him; will support, comfort, and finally deliver him, Isa. xliii. 2: Psa. xxvii. 5, 6: 2 Cor. vii. 6: Psa. cvii. 13. The AFFLICTED CHRISTIAN should be visited, pitied, protected, comforted and relieved, James i. 27: Job vi. 14: Psa. lxxxii. 3: 1 Thess. iv. 18:1 Tim. v. 10. The character of the afflicted Christian i'illustrated in Joseph, Gen. xxxix. 20-23: Moses, Deut. ix. 18, 19: Job 1. 22: Eli, 1 Sam. iii. 18: Ezra, Ezr. ix. 5: Nehemiah, Neh. i. 1: Daniel, Dan ix. 3-19: Paul, Acts xx. 22-24: 2 Cor. xii. 7-9: Apostles, 1 Cor. iv. 9-13: 2 Cor. vi. 4-10. 535. Sometimes, again, the student of Scripture is desirous of investigating the history of Scripture practically with reference to some particular fact; or parables with reference to their scope; and then the question is what is taught on the subject of inquiry by each phrase or verse. The parable, for example, of the Prodigal Son may be variously regarded; either with Neander, as an exhibition of Pharisaism and its opposite, or with Lisco, as an exhibition of true penitence, and of the rreatment it receives from God and man. Taking the second view, we have the following connection of thoughts: (1.) We have the necessity of repentance, grounded (Luke xv. 11-32) — 1. In the state of preceding sinfulneas: 420 INFERENCES-PARABLES. (a.) Its origin, ver. 12. Self-sufficient waywardness: give me father. (b.) Its nature, ver. 13. And not long after. (c.) Its manifestation, ver. 13. And there wasted. 2. In the misery consequent upon sin: (a.) The man has still a desire after blessedness, ver. 14. (b.) And feels his misery, ver. 14. Began to be in want. (c.) And seeks in vain for relief, ver. 15. Went and joined himself. (d.) And sinks the longer, the deeper, ver. 15. Sent to feed swine. (e.) Without finding the longed-for satisfaction, ver 16. (2.) The nature of repentance is described: 1. The sinner comes to a right understanding, ver 17. 2. Perceives the greatness of his misery, ver. 17. How many, etc. 3. Forms a good resolution, ver. 18. I will arise. 4. Recognises his guilt, ver. 18. Father, I have sinned. 5. Humbles himself, ver. 19. 6. By faith actually returns, ver. 20. He arose and came to his father. (3.) The results of repentance, ver. 20-30. 1. In reference to a compassionate God, ver. 20-24. (a.) God descries the repentant feeling, ver. 20. When yet a great way. (b.) Graciously receives the sinner, ver. 20. Had compassion. (c.) Facilitates the execution of his purpose, ver. 21. (d.) Heaps upon him marks of love, and goodness, ver. 22, 23. (e.) And calls for a general expression of joy, ver. 24. 2. In reference to the self-righteous, ver. 25-32. (a.) Their cold-hearted envy is excited, ver. 28. He was angry. (b.) They accuse God of unrighteousness, ver. 29, 30. (c.) They overlook God's gracious goodness to themselves, ver. 31. (d.) And violate the obligations of mutual love, ver. 32. So, in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus we have worldly unblief, Luke xvi. 19-31- - (1.) In its manifestations1. Insatiable thirst for enjoyment, ver. 19. Clothes in purple, lives sumptuously. (a.) It seeks all sorts of enjoyment INFERENCES-PARABLES. 421 bo.) It seeks in these all its satisfaction —every day. (c.) It regards the temporal as its only good. 2. Cold-hearted uncharitableness, ver. 20, 21. (a.) It despises the poor as worthless, ver. 20. (b.) It hardens itself against the rights of misery, ver. 20. (c.) It gives no relief, ver. 21. (2.) In its final condition:1. It is fearfully undeceived, ver. 22, 23. (a.) In regard to the value of its enjoyments, ver. 23. (b.) In regard to the value of salvation now imperfectly apprehended. (c.) In regard to the relation between Lazarus and Gcd, in Abraham's bosom. 2. Its sinful misapprehensions remain, ver. 24. (a.) As to trust in descent from Abraham. Father Abraham. (b.) As to imaginary hopes of salvation. Have mercy. (c.) As to its unholy preference for personal comfort. Dip the tip, and cool my tongue. 3. It is self-condemned by an evil conscience, ver. 25-31. (a.) As dealt with justly, ver. 25. (b.) As incapable, from its state of mind, of deliverance, ver. 26. (c.) As being without excuse. Because no want of means of grace, ver. 27-29. Because these means sufficient for salvation, ver. 30, 31.a 536. The results in these examples (which might be greatly extended) are reached in an order different from the one in which they are now given. Here we have first the result and then the proof passage; but in investigating a subject we turn first from passage to passage, and then state their import in the form of a general lesson. The text and the lesson is the order of inquiry; the lesson and the proof is the order of instruction. The exercise of following out truth in this way is one of the most instructive in which a Christian can engage. 537. For the further study of this part of the subject see * See Lisco on the Parablesa ~ 422 INFERENCES-PARABLES. any common-place book of the Bible-especially " Talbot's Bible," and the common-place books of Strutt and Locke. "Scripture Text arranged," is a very useful manual of subjects classified under their respective heads and illustrated by Scripture examples. On the subject of this chapter, the inferential reading of Scripture, see Rambach's "Institutiones Hermeneutica," lib. iv., c. 3; Francke's "Guide to the Study of the Scripture;" Claude's "Essay on the. Composition of a Sermon;" and especially, for the illustrations, the "Commentary" of Matth. Henry, one of the richest storehouses of evangelical truth. Felicitous examples abound, also, in the wriungs of Rev. R. Cecil and Rev. W. Jay. THE BOOKS OF THE.IBLE. 423 PART II. THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE. INTRODUCTORY. "Though many other books are comparable to cloth, in which, by a small pattern, we may safely judge of the whole piece, yet the Bible is like a fair suit of arras, of which, though a shred may assure you of the fineness of the colors and richness of the stuff, yet the hangings never appear to their true advantage but when they are displayed to their full dimensions and are seen together."-BOYLE: On the Style of Scripture. 1. We now come to the study of the books of the Bible. Already we have considered- jectThe general divisions of Scripture: the two Testa- ready conments: the law, the prophets, and the holy writings of the Old: the Gospels, Epistles, and Acts, and the Revelations, of the New: chapters, verses, and other sections: The claims of Scripture as genuine, as authentic, and as inspired, with the evidences of its claims (Chaps. I. II.): The peculiarities of Scripture as a revelation of God, of man, and of the plan of salvation reconciling both, securing at once peace and holiness: revelation gradually communicated, everywhere consistent; taught, however, without a formally-announced system, though all centring in the cross (Chap. III. 1-5): The principles of the interpretation, and the use of external helps; the spirit, above ail, in which inquiries into the meaning of Scripture should be conducted(IV.especially ~ 2): The systematic study of Scripture; the best methods of applying it to practical life, and the difficulties of various kinds connected with all those questions (V. VI. VII.). 424 USE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. Having thus'viewed sacred Scripture as a whole, we proceed to examine particular portions and to apply more minutely the rules and principles already discussed. THE TWO PARTS OF THE BIBLE. 2. The Bible is composed of two parts: the Old Testament and the New. The second containing a full revelapartsof the tion of the Divine will, and a plan of salvation addressed to all. The first containing not all prooably that God revealed in early times to our race, but as much as he deemed it necessary to preserve. Every part of what is thus revealed being "profitable for instruction, for reproof, for rectification, and for establishment in righteousness. 3. The use of the first Testament is highly important: and Use ofthe a simple statement of the use will show the connecfirst. tion of the two. 1. Though most of it was addressed to one nation, yet it enjoins much on man as man, and contains principles of morality which are universal and eternal. The precepts which were given to Adam, the decalogue, and the appeals of the whole book illustrate and enforce moral truth. 2. Much of the history of the Old Testament is the history of God's government. In that government he illustrates his own character and ours; and whatever advantage an inspired record of this kind can give, we derive from this part of the sacred volumes. 3. Further, the hopelessness of salvation by law is clearly taught in this early dispensation. The patriarchal faith, with its immediate or traditional communications ended in a corruption, which not even the Deluge could check. Solemn legal institutes, with rites and sanctions most instructive and awful, failed to preserve the people from idolatry, though the Great Legislator himself repeatedly interposed; and when, after the captivity, idolatry ceased, formalism and infidelity extended on every side, and at length prevailed (Part II., Chap. IV). In the meantime, the power of natural religion was tried among the heathen: and the result of the whole, the result of an experiment carried on under every form of government, am-idst different degrees of civilization, with traditional knowledge and immediate light, is a demonstration, that in oul fallen state, reformation by law is hopeless, and that CONNECTION OF DIFFERENT BOOKS. 425 unless some other plan be introdu ted, our race must perish. The Old Testament was given, therefore, in part, to show us our sins, and to shut us up into faith (Gal. iii. 23). 4. To this new faith it is also an introduction, teaching to the spiritual and humble under the first dispensation, more or less of the plan of salvation to be revealed under the second. Hence its types, prophecies, sacrifices; hence assurances of pardon to the penitent, and the revelation of a God ready to forgive, though the procuring cause of pardon, the provision that was to reconcile justice and mercy is not fully stated, nor was it fully understood till the remedial work of Christ was accomplished. Other purposes also were no doubt answered by the first dispensation. A knowledge of the true God, which might otherwise have died away, was preserved; and the effect of true religion, even in its less perfect forms was illustrated; but the foregoing are probably the chief. The relation of the New Testament to these purposes of the Old is plain. The second, or new covenant, is a TheNew double completion of the first. As the first was a Tetafment covenant of types and predictions, the second fulfils of the Old. it; putting the fact in the place of the'prophecy, and in the place of the shadow the substance. As under the first, moreover, the revelation of God and of duty was imperfect, and holiness was made, or became ceremonial, national, and contracted, the second filled up the system of truth and of precept which was thus but partially disclosed, developing and explaining it with more of spiritual application, and securing for it in a richer degree the influence of the Spirit. In a double sense, then, the Gospel is the completion (,wArpwo-) of the law. 4. Regarding the whole Bible in its connections, we are prepared to trace the continual development of Di- ummr vine truth in its different parts. the whole. In the first eleven chapters of GENESIS, and in JOB, we have the outlines of the patriarchal religion; in the later chapters of Genesis the history of the transition from it to the temporary and typical dispensation of the law. In the other books of the PENTATEUCE we have the moral law, illustrative at once of God's character and of human duty; the ceremonial, with ite foreshadowings of the great atonement; and 38* 426 CONNECTION OF DIFFERENT BOOKS. the oivil, the means of the preservation of the other two. In the set. tlement of the Jews under JOSHUA, whether considered in itself, cT aa an emblem of the future; in the apostasy of the Jews, their punishment and deliverance under the JUDGES; in the establishment of the prophetic and kingly offices of LATER BOOKS, in addition to the priestly, and in the unchanging and yet diversified tenor of God's providence to his separated people, we have our knowledge of the Divine character and purpose varied and augmented. In the PSALMS we have the utterances of devout hearts, and much that is predictive of Him in whom all devout hearts trust. In the WORDS of SOLOMON we learn both the wisdom and the vanity of the world, and are led forward to that world where there is neither vanity nor vexation, and are at the same time conducted beyond the maxims of worldly prudence, to Him who is the eternal wisdom. In his nuptial SONG we see God in a new relation to his church, no longer her Lord (Baali), but her husband (Ishi). In ISAIAH we have Messiah as prophet, sacrifice and King, gathering from scenes of the captivity descriptions of a double deliverance. In JEREMIAH the same scenes are revealed, though dimly, and as in a cloudy and dark day. In EZEKIEL the shadowy priesthood of the Jews is enlarged into a more glorious and spiritual worship: and in DANIEL we see the termination of all kingly power in the never-ending empire of the Messiah. The MINOR prophets present the same views of the Divine government, either in providence or in grace, and Malachi closes the old revelation with predictions of the coming appearance of tb~ Sun of righteousness. In the New Testament, MATTHEW, after a silence of the prophetic spirit for 400 years, connects the ancient Scriptures with the more recent, and completes prophecy by pointing out its fulfilment in Christ. LUKE reveals Him as a light to lighten the Gentiles; MARK, as the mighty God; JOHN as the everlasting Father, and as the Prince of peace The ACTS continue the illustration of the fulfilment of ancient predictions, and connect the facts of the Gospel history with the Epistles. Each Epistle, while giving most of the doctrines of the Gospel, embodies distinctly some particular truth. The Epistles to the THESSALONIANS exhibit the self-evidencing power of the Gospel in the hearts of believers, and set forth the antecedents and result of the second coming. The Epistles to the CORINTHIANS explain Christian unity, and the doctrine of the resurrection. The Epistle to the ROMANS gives to those whom Paul had not then visited, a full view of the Gospel, without reference to any previov.s communication, enlarging most on the great truth of "justification by faith." The simplicity of that faith, and ita BOOKS-HOW CLASSIFIED. 427 independence of the law, in opposition to the legality of Judaizing teachers, is maintained in the Epistle to the GALATIANS. The Epistle to the Hm.RREWS shows the connection between the Christian faith and the law; JAMES and Joas (1 Ep:), the connection between the Christian faith and practical holiness; while the Epistle to the EPHESIANS shows that language is unequal to express the fulness which is communicated in all abounding grace, from the Head to the body. Other Epistles treat of specific duties or truths, and the system of revelation is completed by the APOCALYPSE, which unites and closes the prophecies that go before, and introduces the church, after all her trials and changes, first into millenial rest on earth, and then into never-ending blessedness in Heaven.a The volume that speaks of these topics may be described as consisting of two parts; but they form really one Really one book: and the truths it reveals are ever the same, book. dimly seen or fully disclosed, according to their position in relation to the cross. 5. It becomes us, then, duly to appreciate both Testaments. Study the Old to see what God has done, and what, Importance therefore, he is. See in it a solemn protest against andinferiority of the idolatry; a proof that none can be justified by the. OldTestah deeds of the law; a gradual disclosure of the Di- men vine will and of the plan of redemption. Prize it for these reasons, but remember, also, that as contrasted with the New, inspired writers speak of it in depreciating terms. They call it " darkness," "flesh," "letter," "bondage," "the elements of the world" (Gal. iv. 3), while the Gospel is "light," "spirit," liberty," "a'heavenly kingdom." Important principles of interpretation are thus suggested, nor less the peculiar obligations of our position. It is now doubly binding upon us to be complete in all His will. Our dispensation is light, let us be wise: it is spirit, let us be holy: it is power, let us be strong. 6, The thirty-nine books of the Old Testament may be ar*See Douglas on the "Truths of Religion" 428 THE PENTATEUCH. Old Testa. ranged on different principles. Sometlnes they are rment. how ii divided. classed according to their contents: the Pentateuch, the historical books, the poetical books, and the prophets. This division is sufficiently accurate, though several of the books belong to two or more classes, and the division has not been uniformly observed. Sometimes they are classed in the order of time; and as much of the meaning of Scripture is elicited by the chronological study of the different books, we shall arrange them in this order, not overlooking, however, the difference of object and of contents on which the other division rests. The importance of specific introductions to each of the Importance books of the Bible must not be disregarded. Such of specific introductions will often prove, as Bishop Percy has introduc- tions. observed, " the best of commentaries, and frequently supersede the want of any. Like an intelligent guide, they direct the reader right at his first setting out, and thereby save him the trouble of much after inquiry; or, like a map of the country through which he is to travel, they give him a general view of his journey, and prevent his being afterwards bewildered and lost." We begin with the Pentateuch and the book of Job. CHAPTER I. THE PENTATEUCH AND THE BOOK OF JOB. SEC. 1.-THE GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY OF THE PENTATEUCH. 7. All complete copies of Holy Scripture begin with the Pentateuch. It was called by the Jews " the law,"' Titles.ly, the ve-fifths of the law; or si or, more fully, "the five-fifths of the law;' or simply GENUINENESS OF THE PENTATEUCH. 429 the fifths; a single book being called "a fifth."' The several books take their names in Hebrew from the first word or words. The English names are taken from the Greek version, and indicate in part the subjects of which they treat. Pentateuch means, in Alexandrian Greek, "the five volumes;" a name first used, as was probably the division into five books, by Alexandrian critics.b 8. That Moses was the author of the Pentateuch is the testimony of all tradition, both Jewish and heathen; Genuine and this testimony is sustained by the record itself. nessproved The book is quoted, moreover, by nearly all the tureand sacred writers as his work,d and is appealed to as genuine and authentic by our Lord and his apostles.' The Old Testament quotations begin with Joshua, B. C. 1451, and extend over more than a thousand years, B. 0. 430. Indeed the coincidences between the Pentateuch and the later books are so numerous and exact that the sense of the law might have been gathered, if the law itself had perished, from other parts of the Bible; every allusion in the later books having also its corresponding passage in the Pentateuch.' The testimony of profane history is, of course, much later than Scripture. Mohammed (A. D. 569) maintained From pro that Moses was inspired, and the Jewish law divine. fane history. Julian, the apostate (331), acknowledged that persons ina^ ar^w Khan 4;116tm. tn n. and 1,in M. b Havernick. risx0o ordinarily means an implement. e Dent. xxxi. 9, 24, 26: Exod. xvii. 14; xxiv. 4-7; xxxiv. 27, 28: Numb. xxxiii. 2: Dent. xxviii. 58-61. d Josh. i. 7, 8; xxiii. 6: Comp. xxiv. 26; viii. 32, 34: 1 Kings ii. 3: 2 Kings xxii. 8: 2 Chron. xxxiv. 14. Matt. xv. 4; v. 17, 18, etc. t 2 Kings xiv. 6, and Dent. xxiv. 16. 2 Kings xxiii. 2-25, and Lev. xxvi. 3-45: Dent. xxvii. 11 to xxviii. 68. Ezra iii. 2-6, and Lev. chaps. vi., vii. Neh. i. 7, 8, and Lev. xxvi.: Dent. iv. 26, 27. Isa. i. 9, and GTen. xix. 2-4. Isa. xii., and Exod. xv. 2. Micah vi. 5, and Numb. xxii. 5, etc. Amos ii 9, and Numb. xxi. 21-21. Amos iv. 11, and Gen xix. 24, 25. 430 GENUINENESS OF THE PENTATEUCH. structed of God once lived amongst the Israelites, and maintained both the genuineness and the authenticity of these books. Porphyry (233) admits their genuineness, and contends for the truth of Sanconiathon's accounts, from their accordance with the Mosaic history. Nicolaus of Damascus, an eminent orator, and Strabo, both contemporaries of Augustus, ascribe the Pentateuch to Moses; as do Tacitus, Juvenal and Longinus (A. D. 273). Internal evidence corroborates this view. (1.) The books Internal e- were evidently written by a Hebrew, speaking the dence of language and cherishing the sentiments of his nation. genuineness. (2.) They were written by a Hebrew acquainted with Egypt and Arabia, their customs and learning.' But Egyptian learning was carefully concealed from foreigners (Her. ii. c. iii. 100, 101, 164, 168). The priests alone, and the royal family, who were reckoned as priests, had access to it. To this class, therefore, the writer must have belonged. (3.) There is, moreover, an exact correspondence between the narrative and the institutions, showing that both had one author. The laws are not given in the form of statutes, but are mixed with narrative, and are inserted as the exigencies requiring them arose. They are often briefly sketched, and afterwards repeated at greater length, with such modifications as were demanded by altered circumstances.b (4.) No-less remarkable is the agreement between the style of the different books and the circumstances of Moses. In the earlier narrative of Exodus and Numbers the style is broken and abrupt. In Deuteronomy it is continuous and parental. The history of the antediluvians is brief and simple; of the Jews, full and explicit; and the whole exhibits the unity of design which bespeaks a single author. See Gen. xiii. 10; xl. 11, 16 (see pp. 380-1); xlii. 9; xlvii. 20-6: Deut. xi. 10: Numb. xiii. 22. b Compare Exod. xxi. 27, and Dent. xv. 12, 17. Numb. iv. 24-33, and vii. 1-9. Lev. xvii. 3, 4, and Deut. xii. 5, 6, 21. Exod. xxii. 26, and Deut. xxiv. 6, 10-15 AUTHENTICITY OF THE PENTATEUCIE. 431 The first doubt expressed on this question in England was by Thomas Hobbes, A. D. 1650, at least three thousand years after the first publi cation of the Pentateuch. Nor were doubts expressed by any known writer earlier than the 13th century. 9. The evidence of the authenticity of the Pentateuch is no less decisive; though, as many of the events are A less decisive' thoucth Authen. recorded only here, it is necessarily less comprehen- tcity. sive than similar evidence in the case of ordinary history. Several of the historical statements of the Pen- Itsstat tateuch are confirmed by the traditions of ancient ments con. firmed by nations tradition. In proof of its general accuracy Josephus appeals to various public records, and to books extant in his time (A. D. 70), confirming in this way the history of the flood, of the delivery from Egypt, and of the expulsion of the Canaanites. Creation completed in six distinct days, or in six distinct periods; the division of time into weeks, the seventh day being holy; the state of innocency, or the golden age; the promise of a Mighty Deliverer; the flood; the ark; are traditions preserved among nearly all nations, and have been shown to exist in the East, though strangely disguised, in the very age in which Moses lived. Faber's Hore Mosaicm i. 1-136; Graves on the Pentateuch i.; Sir William Jones's Works, and Maurice's Hindostan. See other traditions in S. Turner's Sacred History i., and Kitto's Daily Bible Ill. Antedil. and Patriarchs. A new kind of proof has sprung up in our own days. It has been said, for example, that the following customs, or allusions, are Asiatic, and not Egyptian, or are later than the exode: building with bricks, Exod. i. 14; keeping asses-animals odious to the Egyptians; the presence of eunuchs, implied in the name given to the captain of the guard, Gen. xxxvii. 36; the freedom of domestic life implied in Gen. xxxix.; the use of wine, which Herodotus says was not made in Egypt; of rings, seals, and other ornaments, xli. 42; the appointment of stewards, xliii. 16, 19; xliv. 1: the custom of sitting at table, xliii. 32. All, however, have been confirmed by the discovery of ancient Egyptian monuments. Bricks are still found with the names of the oldest Egyptian dynasties stamped upon them. To the art of wine-making Rosellini devotes a section of his work; and upon the very monuments whence bis illustrations are taken appear eunuchs, stewards, ornaments 432 AUTHENTICITY-EXTERNAL EVIDENCE. and entertainments, exhibiting habits of social intercourse, and modes of sitting, such as the Pentateuch implies. ANCIENT SEATS, ETI. That the Egyptians shaved, Gen. xli. 14, and carried burdens, not on the shoulder, but on the head, xl. 16; that shepherds Were treated with great contempt-the butts of Egyptian wit; that caste existed; that foreigners were naturalized by clothing them in the celebrated Egyptian linen, Gen. xli. 42; are facts confirmed by ancient sculptures, or expressly mentioned by Herodotus as peculiar to Egypt. See Hengstenberg's "Egypt and the Books of Moses." The statements of the Pentateuch are confirmed, moreover, Bvyvrious by the faots of history (a), ethnography (b), and Faets. geology (c), so far as these have been clearly ascertained. (a.) No nation has credible, or even intelligible, records extending earlier than the flood. The dynasties of Egypt run up, on the largest interpretation, no higher than B. C. 2200 (Champollion). The reign of Yoa, the first Chinese emperor mentioned by Confucius (B. C. 450), cannot be earlier than B. C. 2500; nor is'there any historical certainty till the year B. C. 782 (Klaproth). The celebrated chronology of India reaches no higher than B. C. 2256, and then we have Buddha himself, the representative, perhaps, of Noah (Col. Tod). Such is the testimony of witnesses who have examined the most ancient chronological systems, avowedly without any leaning to the Pentateuch. AUTHENTICITY-INTERNAL EVIDENCE. 433 (b.) Ethnography, in its threefold division, philological, physiological and ethical, is equally in favor of the Mosaic account. The mythological systems of India., China, Greece and Scandinavia, are really identical (Sir. W. Jones); while Shemitic nations are all monotheistic, indicating in each case identity of origin. All known languages, it is admitted, are reducible to a few families: the Indo-European, the Shemitic, the Ugro-Tartarian, the Malayan, the Transfengetic, which are chiefly monosyllabic; the American and the African. Chev. Bunsen and Mr. Schon have already traced the Egyptian, and several of the African dialects, to a Shemitic origin. The American languages are proved to be chiefly Asiatic, and the ablest scholars find among all such affinities as bespeak original unity (so Humboldt, Klaproth, F. Schlegel, Balbi, Herder). Philologically and physiologically "the human race," says the last-named, "is a progressive whole, dependent upon a common origin." " With the increase of knowledge in every direction," is the last testimony of Dr. Pritchard; "we find continually less and less reason for believing that the diversified races of men are separated from each other by insuperable barriers." (c.) Nor is geology an unimportant witness. One of its clearest lessons is the recentness of the "last great geological change." The present state of the globe "cannot date much further than five or six thousand years" (Saussure, Cuvier, De Luc). Independently, even, of external evidence, the internal is itself decisive. The artlessness of the style, the fre- Interna quent genealogies, the impartiality of the author in evidence, recording the faults of the Jews and his own,^ are all obvious. Add to this that Judaism is founded upon the supposed truthfulness of these records. They give the history of Jewish institutions, and the reasons for the observance of them. If there be a forgery, when could it have been executed? Not when' the version of the LXX was made (B. C. 275). Not on the return from Babylon (B. 0. 536), Ezra ii. 62. Not on the division of the kingdom (975). Not in the days of Samuel (1095). Not in the four hundred years preceding, For at each successive era there were thousands interested in detecting the forgery, and in setting aside the burdensome *a See history of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob; also Deut. xxvi. 5: Exod. ii. 14: Numb xx. 10-13. 37 434 PENTATEUCH EPITOMISED. and peculiar institutions founded upon it. To suppose that any man could secure the observance of Circumcision, of the Passover, of the feast of Pentecost, or of tabernacles, on the plea that these rules had been observed from the first, and for the reasons assigned, when it must have been known that this statement was untrue, is to suppose a greater miracle than the record contains. And these institutions had their origin, it will be noticed, not in the ordinary events of the history, but in the miracles: so that by them, not only the history, but each miracle is confirmed.^ 10. It may be added that it is supposed by some writers that the author of the Pentateuch used various anVarious documents cient documents in preparing this volume. Hence e ye quotations from other books, and hence, perhaps, the different names applied, in different parts, with marked uniformity to God. In Numb. xxi. 14, 15, for example, "the book of the wars of Jehovah" is quoted, and iii ver. 27-30 is an extract from a war-song of the Amo* rites. So in Gen. i.-ii. 3, the name applied to God is uniformly God (t{,i[q Elohlm). InGen. ii. 4-iii., it is Jehovah-God. In chap. v. it is God only, except in ver. 29, where a quotation is made. In Gen. vi-ix. God and Jehovah are used indiscriminately everywhere, except in ix. 29, where a quotation is made; and in chaps. xii., xiii., Jehovah only. In chap. xiv. a new name is introduced, "God most High," and is used throughout the chapter. This opinion was first advanced by Vitringa, Obs. Sac. i. chap. iv. ~ 23, and has been advocated by Calmet, Horne, Pye Smith, Stuart, and others. The errors and refinements of some modern writers have brought it into, perhaps, undeserved discredit. And addi- 11. There are also passages which must have tions made been added after the death of Moses. to the original narrative. Deut. xxxiv. records his death and burial. Gen. xxxvi. ~ Graves has expanded this argument with great force: "Lectures nu the Pentateuch," i. ii. PENTATEUCH AND THE BOOK OF JOB. 435 31-39 gives a supplementary list of Edomitish chiefs, and in several passages the later designation of a place has been substituted for, or is-given with the original name, as in Gen. xiv. 14, where Dan is put for Laish (see Josh. xix. 47): so Gen. xiii. 18 (Josh. xiv. 15): Gen. xiii. 3:(Gen. xxviii. 19); xiv. 2, 7, 8: Dent. iii. 9; iv. 48. 12. In the Jewish canon, the Pentateuch is kept distinct from the rest of Scripture, as it is the basis of the True nature theocracy. The title "law" describes the principal of the Pentateuch. subject of the books, though their true central point is the covenant relation between Jehovah and Israel. The whole of the Old Testament is, indeed, the history of that covenant, of the preparation for it, and of its progressive development, till it gave place to the Gospel. 13. The events recorded in these books may be Briefly arranged as follows:- epitomized. GExNESI.-The Creation i., ii.: the fall and antediluvian world, iii.-vi: the deluge, vii., viii., a consequence of wickedness; the blessing of Noah and the re-peopling of the earth, ix., x.: the dispersion, xi.: call and history of Abraham, xii-xxv.: of Isaac, xxvi., xxvii.: of Jacob, etc., to the death of Joseph, xxviii.-l.-A period of 2369 years (or of 3619; Hales). ExoDUS.-The Israelites after Joseph's death, i.: birth and training of Moses, ii.-vi.: the.Exode, vii.-xv. 21: first year's journey, their covenant, moral and other laws, the tabernacle, xv. 22-xl.-A period of 145 years. LEVITIiCU.-Laws on sacrifices, i.-vii.: on the Levitical priesthood, viii.-x.: on purifications, xi.-xxii.: on festivals, etc., xxiii.-xxvii.One month. NUMBERS.-Events from the numbering of the people, i.-iv.: in the second year to the thirty-ninth year, several laws, v.-x. 10: and the journeys of the Israelites, x. 11-xxxvi.-Nearly 39 years. DEUTERONOMY, or the paw repeated, has seven parts giving1. A summary of privileges and history of the Israelites, i.-iv. 40. 2. A summary of their laws, moral, civil, and ceremonial, iv. 40-xxvi. 3. Directions as to what is to be done after crossing Jordan, including the blessings and curses, xxvi.; xxviii. 4. Exhortations to obedience, xxix., xxx. 5. A narrative of events subsequent, with the song of Moses, xxxi., xxxii. 6. The benediction of Moses, xxxiii.; and 7. Aa amount of his death, xxxiv.-A period of five or eight weeks. 436 JOB DATE AND AtTHOlRSHIP, SEC. 2.-THE BOOK OF JOB. 14. This book takes its name from the venerable patriarch whose history it records. Its antiquity, and the brevity of it.s style, make it confessedly difficult of interpretation. But these difficulties seldom refer to topics of religious importance. As Job is mentioned in Scripture in connection with other known saints (Ezek. xiv. 14: Jas. v. 11), it may be safely concluded that he was a real person, and that the narrative is no fiction. This conclusion is sustained by the details given of persons and places, and by the internal evidence. Uz, the country which he inhabited, was probably in the north-east of Arabia Deserta. The age in which Job lived is a question that has created when he much discussion. The most probable opinion'fixes lived. it as earlier than Abraham. The book may be read, therefore, between the 11th and 12th chapters of Genesis, as a supplement to the concise record of the early condition of our race, given by Moses. The arguments adduced in support of the latter opinion are as follows. (1.) The long life of Job, extending to 200 years. (2.) The absence of any allusion to the Mosaic law, or the wonderful works of God towards Israel in their departure from the land of bondage, and their journey to Canaan; which are constantly referred to by other sacred writers, as illustrating the character and government of Jehovah. (3.) The absence of any reference to the destriuction of Sodom and Gomorrah; which memorable event.occurred in the vicinity of the country where Job resided: and which, as a signal and direct judgment of the Almighty upon the wicked, would hardly have been omitted in an argument of this nature. (4.) The worship of the sun and moon being the only form of idolatry mentioned; which waa, without question, the moat ancient, chap. xxxi. 26-28. (5.) JOB-CONTENTS AND OBJECT. 437 The manners and customs described, which are those of the earliest patriarchs. (6.) The religion of Job is of the same kind as that which prevailed among the patriarchs before the Mosaic enconomy. It is the religion of sacrifices; but without any officiating priest or sacred place. (7.) To these arguments Dr. Hales has added one derived from astronomy, founded on chaps. ix. 9, and xxxviii. 31, 32. He states, that the principal stars there referred to, appear, by a retrograde calculation, to have been the cardinal constellations of spring and autumn about B. C. 2130, or about 184 years before the birth of Abraham. It is worthy of notice, that if Job lived between the deluge and the call of Abraham, we have an additional proof that God has never left the world without witnesses to his truth.,On the other hand, some think they detect allusions to the destruction of Sodom, etc., in cha;pxv. 34; xviii. 15; xx. 26; and adduce the coincidence of many names occurring in this book, with those of some of Abraham's descendants, through Ishmael and Esau, as indications of a somewhat later age. By some of these writers it is assigned to the earlier period of the sojourn in Egypt. Respecting the author of the book, a difference of opinion prevails. Some ascribe it to Job, others to Elihu and others to Moses. Whoever was the author, its canonical authority is proved by its place in the Jewish Scriptures, and the recognition of the whole collection by our Lord and his apostles. 15. The book may be divided into three parts:(1.) The historical introduction in prose, i.,ii,, giving a narrative of sudden and severe affliction, borne with ex- Contents ot emplary patience. (2.) The argument or controversy, in poetry, in five divisions:1. The first series of discussions, comprising Job's compiaint, ill.; the speech of Eliphaz, iv., v.; and Job's answer, vi., vii.; of' Bildad, viii.; and Job's answer, ix.,x.; of Zophar, xi.; and Job' anmawer,:ii.-xiv. 8T* 488 JOB-CONTENTS AND OBJECT. 2. The second series, comprising the speech of E'iphar, xv,: and Job's answer, xvi. xvii.; of Bildad, xviii.; and Jobs arswer, xix.; of Zophar, xx,; and Job's answer, xxi. 3. The third series, comprising the speech of Eliphaz, xxii.; and Job's answer, xxiii. xxiv.; of Bildad, xxv.; and Job's answer, xxvi.-xxxi. The question discussed thus far is, whether great suffering be not an evidence of great guilt. Job's friends affirm it, and exhort him to repent and reform. Job denies it, appeals to facts, and complains bitterly ofhis friends for aggravating his distress by false charges. 4. The speech of Elihu, xxxii.-xxxvii. Elihu maintains, that afflictions are meant for the good of the sufferer, even when not properly the consequences of sin; he reproves Job for justifying himself, rather than'God, and vindicates the Divine character and government. 5. The close of the discussion, by the address of the Almighty (not condescending to explain his conduct, but), illustrating: his power and wisdom, xxxviii.-xli.; and Job's response and; penitential confession, xlii. 1-6. (3.) The conclusion in prose, xlii. 7-17, giving an account of Job'sf acceptance and prosperity. 16. The precise object of the book has given rise to much discussion. Mercenary selfishness was the charge brought against Job; (i). In the end the charge is disproved. Job assures us that the Judge of all the earth will do right, and resolves still to trust, though God should' slay him, xix. 23-26. The nature and power of faith are thus illustrated, as is the identity of true piety in every age. Such perhaps was one chief object of the inspired writer: in this composition. The book, moreover, displays the Providence of God in its inscrutableness and mercy, and sets forth: in unrivalled magnificence the glory of the Divine attributes. It illustrates human depravity,2 exhibits faith in a coming Redeemer and a future life,b speaks of sacrifices as the apipointed means of acceptance," and shows the benefit of intercessory prayer.d a xxxiii. 8, 9: xxxiv. 5, 9, 35. b xix. 25-29- xxxiii. 23-2t i. 5; xlii. 3. dxlii. 89. JOB-LESSONS-HEBREW POETRY. 439:Not all, of course, that even Job said in these discussions, is to be commended. The principles advanced are sometimes erroneous, and sometimes, also, the conclusions. Inspiration describes accurately what was said or done, without necessarily sanctioning either. 17. The practical lessons suggested by the book are obvious and important. Copy Elihu's humility. Though able to speak best, he spoke last. Uncharitableness I lesson is of the devil (i. 9, 10). Its origin, no less than its unloveliness, should put us on our guard against it... Perfect and upright men are among the first to confess their vileness (i. 1; xl.4; xlii. 6). Our progress in holiness may be measured by our humility... What wisdom is needed to conduct controversy wisely, when even Job failed... How needful is a specific revelation, when even good men, with an accurate knowledge of God, and of many principles of his government, misread the lessons written upon his works. To correct human misapprehension on such questions, God had himself to interpose. SEC. 3.-ON HEBREW POETRY AND THE POETICAL BOOKS. 18. As Job is the earliest of the poetical books of the Bible, itmay be convenient to make here a few remarks Hebre on the nature of Hebrew poetry. poetry.'The division of the Holy Scriptures usually called the poetical books comprises Job, Psalms and Proverbs; some adding Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon. In point of date, some portions of them are earlier, and others are later than many parts of the historical books; but they are classed by themselves, as being almost wholly composed in Hebrew verse. In the Jewish Canon of Scripture they are included in the Hagiographa, or Holy Writings. The writings of the prophets, are for the most part, also in a poetical form. Tlie pecduliar excellence of the Hebrew poetry is to be ascribed to the employment of it in the noblest service, that of religion. It presents the loftiest and most precious truths, expressed in the most appropriate lanageiaO 440 PARALLELISM There is so much uncertainty respecting the ancoint pronunciation of the langusge, that it is not easy to determine the nature of the Hebrew versification. But much light has been thrown upon the subject il later times by Lowth, Jebb, and other scholars. The leading char-: acteristics of Hebrew poetry may be described generally as consisting in the ornate and elevated character of the style, in the rse of certain words and forms of words, in the sententious manner of expression, and in certain peculiarities in the structure andcombination of the sentences. These.peculiarities appear in the following artificial forms: There is sometimes an alphabetical arrangement of the whole poem; each line commencing with one of the letters of the alphabet, or every alternate verse beginning with a succeeding letter, or a series of verses with the same initial letter: see Psa. cxix. and Lam..iii. In Psa. cxix, in the original, eight verses in succession begin with the same letter, followed by eight more beginning with the succeeding letter; and soon through the alphabet, dividing the whole psalm into alphabetical strophes. - There are twelve of these alphabetical poems in the Old Testament. Another artificial form of poetry appears to have consisted in the repetition of the same verse or sentiment at somewhat distant intervals, or after a certain number of verses, as in Psa. xlii. 5, 11; xliii.5; cvii. 8, 15, 21, 31: Isa. ix. 12, 17, 21; x. 4: Amos i. 3, 6, 9, 11, 13; ii. 1, 4,6. But the most striking peculiarity of Hebrew poetry is what Lowth entitles parallelism; that is, there is a certain correspondence either as to thought or language, or both, between the members of each period. Sometimes the secondary expression is little more than an echo of the first: sometimes it adds to it a new idea, and often greatly excels it in force and beauty: sometimes, to heighten the impression, the main idea is expressed in contrasi with some other. It is in a great measure owing to this structure of the sentences that our translation of these books has so much of a poetical cast; for being for the most part literal, it retains much both of the form and simple beauty of the Hebrew. This poetical parallelism admits many varieties, more or less defiind. The following classification will illustrate the subject. Parallelism. 1. Some parallelisms are gradational or synonymous. 2. Others are antithetic: see Chap. IV., Sec. 3, ~ 286, Part I. Occasionally we meet with a double synonyme and a double antithesis; as in Isa. i. 3, 19, 20. A double antithetical form of the parallelism is not uncommon in the Prophets. A very beautiful parallelism of this kind occurs in Hab. iit. 17, 18. See also Isa. ix. 10. PARALLELISM. 441 S A third form of parallelism is the synthetic, or cnstructive. In thit, form word does not answer to word, nor sentence to sentence, either as of an equivalent or as of an opposite meaning; but there is a correspondence and similarity between the different propositions in respect of the shape and turn of the whole sentence. This species of parallels includes such as do not come within the two former classes; and its variety is very great. In this kind of parallelism the writer, instead of merely echoing the former sentiment, or placing it in contrast, enforces his thought by accessory ideas and modifications, generally preserving throughout a correspondence of form between the different parts. As examples, see Job iii. 3-9: Psa. cxlviii. 7-13: Isa. i. 5-9; lviii. 5-8. Instances of this kind of parallelism are found in abundance in the Scriptures, and especially in the Prophets. Respecting these different' species of parallelism Bp. Jebb remarks, that separately "each kind admits many subordinate varieties; and that in combinations of verses the several kinds are perpetually intermingled; circumstances which at once enliven and beautify the composition, and frequently give peculiar distinctness and precision to the train of thought." It may be added that, according to the theme and divisions, Hebrew poetry is lyric, as in the Psalms; epic, as. in Job; didactic, as in the Proverbs; pastoral, or idyllic, as in Canticles; and prophetical, as in the earlier prophets. Occasionally we have rhyme, though probably not designed by the poet, Gen. iv. 23: Job vi. 4, 7, 9, 13, 22, 29. In reading the Bible it is very desirable to understand the laws of poetic parallelism, for these often furnish important facilities for interpretation. As one member of a sentence frequently expresses the same sense as its parallel, difficult words and phrases are thus rendered susceptible of easy explanation. In the Paragraph Bible (Religious Tract Society), the poetical parts of Scripture are printed according to the order of the original, in parallelisms. These parallelisms, indeed, are not always indicated in the mode of printing the Hebrew text (except in Exod. xv.: Deut. xxxii.: Judges v., and 2 Sam. xxii.); but the lines may alw.Sy be marked by attention to the accents. SEC. 4.-THE BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH ARRANGED AND EPITOMIZED WITH OCCASIONAL HELPS. 19. In studying the Bible as it ought to be studied, for practical purposes, we may advantageously regard it as a 1:42 BIBLE-VARIOUSLY REGARDED. Bible, how revelation of God, of man, and of salvation, each regarded. chapter throwing light on one or on all of these themes. Or it may be regarded in other aspects. According to the form into which the different portions of the Bible are thrown, we may describe it as a book of biography, containing the lives of believers and unbelievers, with the history of their influence and example: of history, under its twofold division of the church and the world: of doctrine, gradually disclosing Divine truth: of ethics, teaching the whole range of human duty: of positive institutions, founded on the will of God, and: therefore mutable, as morality is immutable, being founded in his character: and of practical wisdom, suggesting and illustrating rules of both human and divine prudence. In accordance with this division we may read the whole, asking everywhere what light is thrown here on personal or national character, on ethics, on spiritual truth, on positive institutions, or on practical wisdom. Simpler and more practical, however, is the division first suggested. Study the Bible to know God, his nature, perfectioris and government; to know:man, his condition and destiny, his duties and privilege; to know Christ in his office and work; and it will be found that under one of these three heads we may arrange all that Scripture teaches and reveals. 20. It is an instructive suggestions that, after reading Read with through a book of Scripture, we should read it again reference to with reference to some one subject. Many illustrations of truth prevent mistakes, teach us to apply it, and deepen its impression upon the mind. If we apply this suggestion, under the guidance of the hints and clearer instruction of the Gospel, to the Pentate-ach, we shall find it peculiarly useful. No portion of Scripture, indeed, is richer in these threefold revelations. In reading history (it may be added) our business is so to Bishop of London, Lent Sermons on St. John's Gospel, quoted by Nichols. BIBLE-VARIOUSLY REGARDEID 443 group and compare particular facts as to connect History: them with the motive and principle from which they spring, and hence to apply the lessons taught in the inspired narrative with wisdom and clearness. In reading precept or doctrine, on the other hand, seek rather to illustrate it, so as to make it more impressive and touching. Let facts lead up to principles; and let principles be set forth and explained in appropriate facts. For the first, see notes on Genesis; and for the second, see notes on Proverbs. 21. In the following summary the whole Bible will be found chronologically arranged; and it is highly important e of fothat it should be studied in this order. It will also lowing arbe found divided, for the most part, into sections, according to the sense. The notes at the foot of the page are all adapted, as far as they go, to explain the sacred text. They are not intended, however, as a commentary upon it, but simply as helps to put readers in the way of making comments for themselves, and so of applying principles already discussed. It will be remarked that Old Testament pre-intimations of the Messiah-his person, office, and work-are all Prepaaprinted in Italics, and in such a form as to catch tions orf the eye at a glance. Though, therefore, these are Messiah. of the deepest importance, the notes but seldom refer to them., Let them not, however, be overlooked by the reader. For the devotional study of the Bible, the reader may often, with advantage, lay aside all helps, and select a few verses only, marking and applying the truths suggested by each word and sentence (see Chap. VII.). Many have found this plan more impressive than the more student-like process above described. The two plans of study are in themselves consistent, though human weakness has led us to regard them as opposed. If we could but study devotionally-tracing God, and Christ, and ourselves everywhere, and applying the whole as we proceed-the mind And the heart would alike gain by the arrangement. 4.4: GENESIS, I.-IX.-LESSONS. 22, (1.) From the Creation, 4004; t the Death of Noah, 2006 years. TYv, and Place. Frents illustrating the coming and work of the Messiah;.1a. * Land ordinary Occurrences. B. C. 4004. The Creation, Gen. i. ii. 4-7 d Institution of the Sabbath, Gen. ii. 1-3 hese a Ces reation of Adam and Eve, briefly described in chap pt i 355. i. recapitulated, Gen. ii. 8-25 4004. The fall of Man, Gen. iii. 1-13 Eden.w (Connection of the first sin with man's subset ent state Rom. v. 14: 1 Cor. xv) Eden. First promise of a Saviour; expulsion from Eden. Gen. iii. 14-24. 4003-2, Birth of Cain and Abel, Gen. iv. 1, 2. d [ear Eden. 3875. Sacrificefirst mentioned, Abel's accepted, Gen. iv. 3-7 3875. Cain s crime and curse, Gen. iv. 8-15. 5875-3504, Cain builds Enoch; his descendants; Lamech's Nod. speech, etc., Gen. iv. 16-24. 3874, Birth of Seth, and of Enos; world and church disNear Eden. tinguished, Gen. iv. 25, 26. 3769. Genealogyfrom Adam to Noah; the line of the Messiah, Gen. v. 2468. Wickedness of the world; God determines to destroy it after a respite of 120 years; Noah preaches (2 Pet. ii. 5), Gen. vi. 2468. Covenant renewed with him; he builds an ark as God commanded, Gen. vi. 18 2348. Noah enters the ark; the Deluge,. Gen. vii. 2347. The waters abate; Noah leaves the ark, Gen. viii. Armenia, God's covenant renewed with Noah, Gen. ix. 1-17. or Ararat, Noah and his sons; his prediction concerning them, Gen. viii. 4. [Gen. ix. 18-27].b Togarmah, Ezek. xxvii. 14. 2247, Babel; confusion of tongues; dispersion, Gen. xi. 1-9 A. M. 1757, Genealogies of Noah's sons; Nimrod founds BabyB. C. 2233. lonian or Assyrian empire, [Gen. x.] Shinar (Baby- Genealogy from Shem to Terah; the line of the Meslonia, or Irak siah, [Gen. xi. 10-26]. Arabi.) 1998. Death of Noah, Gen. ix. 28, 29. Eden is supposed to. have been either near the head of the Persian Gulf, or in Armenia, near the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates. b Passages marked thus [ ], are either repetitions, genealogical tables, or otherwise less suitable for general, or family reading. GENESIS-LESSONS. 445 Gen. i. On this narrative of the creation, see ] 224; and the brevity and moral completeness of the whole history, see } 220. The history of the world before the flood occupies seven chapters. The general history of mankind for more than 400 years after, four more. The history of Abraham and his descendants, for only 286 years, occupies thirty-nine chapters, and contains details rich in moral wisdom. Gen. i. 26. Let us: On the gradual revelation of the Divine nature in. the Old Testament, see ~ 230. Gen. i. 2. Creation is here ascribed to God. All heathen philosophers maintained the eternity of matter; even those who taught that God moulded it into its various forms. This chapter teaches more truth on creation than all heathen cosmogonies combined, and it so teaches it as to prove the folly of idolatry. What God is here said to have made, the Egyptians and others worshipped. See Faber's Orig. of Pag. Idol. Gen. ii. 4. Gives a particular account of what has been briefly recorded in i. 27. Gen. ii. 2, 24. The law of marriage and the law of the Sabbath were instituted before man fell. The Sabbath was at first consecrated by the fact that it closed the work of creation. That it continued to be observed is clear from the division of time into weeks, viii. 8-13: xxix. 27, 28; the recognition of the day before the giving of the law, Ex. xvi. 22-30; and the form of the precept, Remember! From the exode the Sabbath was further consecrated by the deliverance on that day of the Israelites (Ex. xx. and Deut. v. 15). Under the Gospel we observe the day that commemorates a greater deliverance, and introduces a new creation. The day in the seven is changed, but a day in seven has been observed from the first, Acts xx. 7: Rev. i. 10. The day is to be kept as one of rest, moral improvement, and of joyous holy devotion, Ex. xxxi. 13: Is. Iviii. 13, 14. Gen. iii. 6, 7. Mark the history of the first sin (Q 220), and the connection of that sin with our fallen condition. Compare ch. ii., iii. with Rom. v.: 1 Cor. xv. Neither add to the inspired explanation, nor take from it. Sound views on this question lie at the fonndation of all accurate systems of truth. (John iii.) Gen. iii. Study the character and personality of the tempter in the light thrown upon both by inspiration, 2 Cor. ii. 11; xi. 3-14: Eph. vi. 11: Luke xxii. 3: Acts v. 3: Matt. xiii. 25. His wiles and influence are described here in teims whici prove this history to be no fiction. See ~ 463, 4. Gen. iii. 15. On the delay of the fulfilmen: of the first promise, see s 382. 38 446 - JOB-GENESIS-LESSONS. Note on this whole narrative the justice of God in punishing sin, and compare the history of Cain, iv.; of the flood, vi.; of Sodom, xix; and even of the patriarchs. Note also his mercy. The promise before the sentence; the curse of labor made a blessing: and comr.are Noah's preaching, the delay of tie flood, and the promise to save Sodom if ten righteous had been found in it. God " warns that he may not strike" He is long-suffering, but also just. Gen. iv. 4. The first and second sacrifices mentioned in Scripture were specially accepted, Gen. iv. 4: viii. 20; and in later instances the a.cceptance of them is implied, xii. 7, 8: xiii. 18. The institution of sacrifice by God himself is expressly recorded in Gen. xv. 9. What it meant may be gathered from the New Testament. The feelings it excited and expressed were such as are now excited, though in an infinitely higher degree, by the sacrifice of the cross, ~ 231, 245. On "Sacrifice of Divine Origin," see Magee on the Atonement, and Faber's Origin of Pagan Idol., b. 2, ch. viii. Gen. iv. 25. The promise of a great deliverer is suspended now, as afterwards, upon a single life-Isaac, Joash, 2 Kings xi. Gen. v. All the history of the Scripture is useful. This chapter describes, with sad monotony, the character and death of the antediluvians; but it fixes the age of the antediluvian world, and it completes the evidence of the descent of our Lord from the first man, at once confirming a prediction, and illustrating a truth. Gen. v. 24. Mark the three ascensions to heaven, in three successive stages of the plan of redemption-of Enoch, Elijah, and our Lord; each an evidence of immortality, and the last the foundation of man's title to it. Abel is slain. Enoch translated. Jacob chosen. Elijah taken to heaven without dying. John, his New Testament representative, foully murdered. "Even so, Father I" is the only solution man can give-a solution sanctioned by the Bible. Psa. cxxxv. 6: Rom. ix. 20: Dan. iv. 35. Gen. viii. 22. Even nature proves God's faithfulness. Gen. xi. On chronology, as fixed by this chapter, see ~ 356. Gae xi. 9. Place ch. x. after xi. 9, because in xi. 1-9 men have one speech in x. we find them scattered. GEN. XII.-XXII.-LESSONS. 447 23. (2.) F'om the Death of Noah to the Birth of Moses, 417 years. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B.C. 1. Job. Uz, in dumaea. The exact date of Job is not known. There is good reason, however, for placing his history before that of Abraham, see Introduction to Job, or Townsend's Arrangement, i., p. 28; for analysis, see p. 384, etc. Job. i.-xlii. [Chaps. iii.-xxxi.]; chaps. xix. 25-27; xxxiii. 23-28, are direct references to the work of the Messiah. 2. Abraham 1996, Birth of Abram; marries Sarai; leaves Ur and his idolUr, Edessa, now atrous kindred (Josh. xxiv. 2): Gen. xi. 27-32. Orfa? 1922, Terah, Lot, and Sarai; death of Terah: flaran, Char- (see Acts vii. 2-4). roe, Harran. 1921, Leaves Haran at God's command with Sarai and Lot, Canaan. Gen. xii. 1-9. 1921. Great blessings promised him, Gen. xii. 1-9: see Acts iii. 25: Ror. iv.: Gal. iii. 16. 1920. Visits Egypt; dissimulates, Gen. xii. 10-20. 1918. Returns to Canaan; Lot in Sodom, Gen. xiii. 1-13. 1917, Promises renewed; goes to Mamre, Gen. xiii. 14-18. Hebron. 1913, Chedorlaomer; Lot taken and rescued, Gen. xiv. Siddim (El Ghor). Melchizedek blesses Abram, Gen. xiv. 1912, Covenant of God with Abram, Gen. xv. -lebron. 1910. Hagar; Ishmael born, Gen. xvi. 1897. Covenant renewed; names changed; circumcision, Gen. xvii. Abraham entertains angels, one of whom is the angel of the covenant; Sodom: Lot's wife; LOt's incest, Gen. xviii.; xix. 1-36; [xix. 4-11, 30-36]. 1896, Abraham leaves Hebron; dissembles with Abimelech, Gerar. Gen. xx. Moab and Ben-ammi born, [Gen. xix. 37, 38]. Isaac born; Ishmael sent away; covenant with Abimelech, Gen. xxi. 1-34. Moriah (site of Trial of Abraham's faith, Gen. xxii. 1-19. the temple?). 448 GENESIS-LESSONS. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B.C. Machpelah, Death and burial of Sarah, Gen. xxiii. near Hebron. Account oi Nahor's family, Gen. xxii. [20-24]. 1856, Abraham sends his servant to Haran; Laban receives Beersheba; him; marriage of Isaac, Gen. xxiv. Bir-es-Seba. 1850. Abraham marries Keturah; children by her, Gen. xxv. 1-6. 1836, Birth of Esau and Jacob; their character, Lahai-roi. Gen. xxv. 19-28. 1821, Abraham dies; Isaac and Ishmael bury him, Beersheba. Gen. xxv. 7-11. Gen. xii. The wanderings of Abraham carried some knowledge of the true religion through a large part of the East. We find the results in the lingering convictions of many families referred to in Scripture; and to Abraham many ancient nations profess to trace their religion. See Hales, ii. 124; Witsius, Egypt., lib. iii. Gen. xiii. 7. Servants. Study on their duties the history of Eliezer (xxiv. 1-60); of Jacob (xxxi. 38-41); of Joseph (xxxix. 1-6); of David (1 Sam. xviii. 5); of Obadiah (1 Kings xviii 3): of Naaman's servants (2 Kings v. 2, 3, 13); and compare with these examples the precepts of the New Testament (Eph. v. 6). Gen. xiv. 14. On allegorical interpretation, see Ch. IV., Sec. 7. Gen. xiv. 16. Brother, i. e. collateral relative; here nephew. ~ 277 (). Gen. xii. The successive covenants of Scripture are subjects of deep interest. The first was made with Adam, the second with Noah, and the third with Abraham. The one with Adam required obedience, and denounced death, legal, spiritual, natural, and (without penitence) eternal, as the consequence of sin. The second was without conditions, and is fulfilled to this day, ix. 8-17. The third also was without conditions, Gen. xii. 1-3, 7; xiii. 14-17; xv. 17; xxviii 10-15: Acts iii. 13-26: Gal. iii. 4: Rom. iv., though confirmed in consequence of Abraham's faith, xxii. 16-18; xxvi. 1-5. This last covenant is called by the apostle the covenant of promise, in distinction from the law, which is called the covenant of works. The Gospel is called in distinction from both-truth and grace; that is, salvation realized and founded, not on works, but on unmerited favor. That Abraham saw in the covenant made with him the promise of a coming Messiah, is clear from the reasonings of both Peter and Paul (Acts iii. 25, 26. Gal. iii. 8) This pro GENESIS XXV.-XXxv:. 449 mise was frequently repeated, and formed, with the significant truths to which it pointed, the foundation of justifying faith for many ages The expectation of a coming Saviour founded upon it, explains the value of the birthright (xxv. 34), the preservation of family records, and many of the institutes of patriarchal religion. Gen. xii. 7. The religious knowledge of the patriarchs was evidently very limited, but their piety was exemplary. Wherever the patriarchs go, they build their altar, xii. 7; xiii. 4. Whatever their emergency, prayer is their resource. Their children they command after them; and the traditional promise they carefully preserve and transmit; faith sustaining them in all (see 1 242). Trace the character of Abraham as the "friend of God," and, again, as the father of those who believe. Gen. xix. The godly are saved, yet so as through fire, 1 Cor. iii. 13. Gen. xxi. The seed of the flesh separated from the seed of the promise: the first persecute and despise the second, Gal. iv. 29. Gen. xxiv. A marriage in the Lord. Note its peculiarities and results. Yet for twenty years to come there was no heir of the promise. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B. 0. 3. Isaac and Jacob 1804, Esau sells Jacob his birthright; Isaac leaves Canaan Lahai-roi. Gen. xxv. 29-35. 1804. Covenant confirmed to Isaac at Gerar, Gen. xxvi. 1-5. 1804, Isaac dissembles; covenant with Abimelech, Beersheba. Gen. xxvi. 6-33. 1796. Esau marries two Hittite women, Gen. xxvi. 34-5. 1773. Death of Ishmael; descendants, Gen. xxv. 12-18. 1760, Jacob obtains his father's blessing, and flees from Beersheba. Esau, Gen. xxvii.; xxviii. 1-5. 1760, Jacob's vision at Luz; the promises continued to him; Fadan-aram. stays with Laban, his uncle, Gen. xxviii. 10 —22, xxix. 1-14. 1760, Esau marries a daug-ter of Ishmael, Gen. xxviii. 6-9. Arabia. 1753. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel, Gen. xxix. 15-30. 752-1745. Jacob's (hildren-Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Jndah, Padan-aram. by Leah; Dan and Naphtali, by Billah, Rachel s 2Mesopotamia, maid; Gad and Asher, by Zilpah, Leah's maid; Al Jezireh. Issachar, Zebulun and Dinah, by Leah: Joseph, by Rachel, Gen. xxix. 31-35; xxx. 1-24. --- -^r —l-rI 450 GEN. XXX.-XXXVI.-LESSON.S Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B. C. 1745. Jacob a bargain with Laban; he becomes rich, Gen. xxx. 25-43, 1739, Jacob, returning to Canaan, is pursued by Laban; Galeed. their covenant, Gen. xxxi. 1739, Jacob's vision at Mahanaim; wrestles with an angel Succoth. (See at Penuel; reconciled to Esau; settles at Succoth, Josh. xiii. 27). Gen. xxxii.; xxxiii. 1-17. 1736, Jacob removes to Shalem, Gen. xxxiii. 18-20; birth Shechem. of sons of Judah, [Gen. xxxviii. 1-5]. 1732. Dinah defiled by Shechem; slaughter of Shechemites by Simeon and Levi, [Gen. xxxiv], Bethel, Luz, Jacob removes; purges his household of idols, the Bethaven, promises renewed to him; his name changed to (Hos. x. 5), Israel, Gen. xxxv. 1-15. Beit-in. Rachel dies on the birth of Benjamin, Gen. xxxv. 16-20. 1729, Sin of Reuben; Jacob abides with Isaac, Hebron. Gen. xxxv. 21-27. 1729. Esau's descendants, [Gen. xxxvi]. Gen. xxvi. Note the evils of parental favoritism-in Isaac. Gen. xxvii 6. Mark how each virtue has its counterfeit. Seek wisdom, but not as Eve sought it. Husbands should love their wives, but not as Adam did, iii. 6. Worship God, but not -with Cain, iv. 3, 5. Wives should obey their husbands, but not in sin, xii 11. Children should obey their parents, but not with Jacob, xxvii. 13, 14. Seek the accomplishment of God's will, but not with Rebekah, xxvii. 6. Compassion may be disobedience, as in Ahab, 1 Kings xx. 34; delight in God's service, selfishness, Isa. lviii. 2; and zeal not good, because without knowledge, Rom. x. 2. There may be even a high sense of duty without love to Christ, reverence for God, or true obedience: see Acts xxvi. 9-11. Gen. xxvii. 13, 17. Temptation is sometimes hope, sometimes fear, Gen iii. 6; xii. 12. Eve was tempted by the devil; Adam by his wife; Sarah by her husband; Jacob by his mother. Gen. xxvii. Such is life. Isaac's favorite son proves his plague. Isaac was himself the child of the promise (Gen. xxi. 22), and yet was a stranger in the land of promise (xxxvii 1). Forty years nearly of his life he was bedridden, had but two children, one of whom by his marriage, and the other by his deceit, embittered the last years of their father's life. So Eve hoped to find in Cain a special gift (Gen. i. 1), but he proved a murdere, a 248 (b). GEN. XXXVII.-EXODUS I. —LESSONS. 451 Gen. xxx. Compare xxx. 1 and xxxv. 18, and check inordinate desires Gen. xxxiv. Sin ever deepens and extends. Eve sinned and tempted her husband. Cain envied, complained against God, and then murdered his brother. Esau sold his birthright, and intermarried with the heathen. He was angry with Jacob, and then sought his life. Jacob meant to tell but one lie, but in the end he told several, and blasphemously made God a party to his deception, Gen. xxvii. 20. In this chap. we have dissipation leading to seduction, seduction to wrath, revenge, treachery, and murder. Fuller. Gen. xxxi. Potiphar favored for Joseph's sake; Laban for Jacob's, Gen. xxx. 27; Zoar for Lot's, xix. 21; as Sodom would have been spared if ten righteous men had been found in it. How God puts honor upon his people, ~.248. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B. C. 4. Joseph, etc. 1728, Joseph's two dreams; envy of his brethren; sold to the Dothan. Ishmaelites and to Potiphar in Egypt, Gen. xxxvii. 1726, Er and Onan slain by God; incest of Judah and TaTimnath. mar; Pharez, a progenitor of Messiah, born, [Gen. xxxviii. 6-30]. 1719, Joseph advanced, tempted, falsely accused, and imEgypt. prisoned, Gen. xxxix. 1718. Pharaoh's butler and baker imprisoned; Joseph interprets their dreams, Gen. xl. 1716. Death of Isaac at Mamre, Gen. xxxv. 28, 29. 1715. Joseph interprets Pharaoh's dreams; his elevation. Gen. xli. 1-49. 1712, 1711. Birth of Joseph's two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, Gen. xli. 50-52. 1708. Commencement of the seven years' famine, Gen. xli. 53-57. 1707. Joseph's ten bitthren come to buy corn; Simeon a pledge, Gen. xlii. 1706. They come again co buy corn; Joseph makes himself known to them; sends for his father, Gen. xliii.-xlv. 1706. Jacob and his family arrive; settle in Goshen; Jacob meets Pharaoh, Gen. xlvi.; [8-25]; xlvii. 1-12. 1704-1701. Joseph, by giving corn to the Egyptians, increases the wealth of the king, Gen. xlvii. 13-26. 1689, Jacob blesses Ephraim and Manasseh,:.Egypt. Gen. xlvii. 27-31; xlviii. -1689. Jacob's predictions concerning his sons and Judah; his death, Gen. xlix, r --- -- -~r,~-~ — ~5~ 452 GEN. L.-EXODUS I.-JOSEPH. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B. O. Machpelah. Joseph and his brethren bury their father, Gen. 1. 1-13. 1689. Joseph shows kindness to his brethren, Gen. 1. 14-21. 1635, Joseph predicts the return to Canaan; charges them Egypt. to carry tp his bones there; his death, Gen.1. 22-26. 1577, The Israelites multiply; a new king oppresses them, Egypt. Exod. i. 1-21; [15-211. Pharaoh orders the male children to be cast into the 1573. river, Exod. i. 22. Gen. xlif. 21. Affliction is sanctified when it reminds us of our sins. Contrast the tender anxiety of these brothers for their father's feelings now, Gen. xliv. 16-34, with their indifference years ago (xxxvii. 31, 32), and mark another fruit of affliction, when blessed. This book is wonderfully rich in such instances. Gen. xlix. 10. Mark the gradual narrowing of the promise of the Messiah. The seed of the woman, through Shem, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Judah, and afterwards David. Gen. 1. 20. Even evil passions are-overruled for the accomplishment of God's purposes. So were the treachery of Judas, the injustice of Pilate, the persecution of Paul. Acts iv. 28: Phil. i. 12. Gen. 1. 25. "Joseph, it has justly been remarked, is a bright example in every relation. At the age of seventeen years he appears uncorrupted by the wickedness of his brethren or the partiality of his father; discountenancing the sin of the former, and prompt in his obedience to the latter (xxxvii. 2, 13; see iv. 8, 11). Unjustly sold as a slave, he is faithful to his master (xxxix. 4-6). He flees youthful lust, though exposed to temptation (xxxix. 9). Persecuted, he, like Paul, finds in prison opportunities of usefulness (xxxix. 22; xl. 7). Flattered by Pharaoh, he disclaims all ability of himself to interpret the dream, and avows before a heathen court the power of God (xli. 16). At the age of thirty he is suddenly raised to the highest dignity, and yet becomes a pattern of industry and justice (xli. 38; xlvi. 48). Though a courtier, he is truthful, and with noble simplicity avows the disreputable employment of his connections (xlvi. 31-34). As a brother, he exhibits unabated affection, not only for Benjamin, but to those who had hated him (xliii. 29, 30; xlv. 14; xliv. 18-34; xlv. 4-13; i. 21). As a son, though lord of Egypt, he manifests the most affectionate respect for his aged parent, who wa& now iependent upon him (xlvi. 29; xlvii. 7). As a father, his EXODUS II.-XII. 453 piety appears in the names he gave his children (xli. 51, 52); a id his earnest desire for God's blessing for them in bringing them to Jacob's dying bed (xlviii. 1, etc.) For eighty years he lived in the midst of the greatest worldly grandeur, surrounded with every temptation to worldliness and idolatry; but his dying breath testified how entirely his heart and treasure were in God's promises" (1. 25). See also Heb. xi. 22 - 1 John v. 4. This summary (from Nichols) illustrates several rules of interpretation (see ~ 248). 24. (3.) From the iirth of Moses, B. C. 1571, to his Death, 120 years. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B. C. 1. To the Eode. 1571-1532. Birth, exposure, rescue, and early life of Moses, Exod. ii. 1-10. 1531, Moses, having killed On Egyptian, flees; marries Midian. Zipporah, daughter of Jethro: Gershom born, Exod. ii. 11-22. 1531, The Israelites groan for their bondage, Egypt. Exod. ii. 23-25: Psa. lxxxviii. 1491, God appears to Moses in a burning bush; appoints him Horeb. and Aaron to bring the'Israelites out of Egypt, (Acts vii. 30.) Exod. iii.; iv. 1-17. 1491, Moses leaves Midian; meets Aaron; they deliver Egypt. their message, Exod. iv. 18-31. (Acts vii. 31.) Moses and Aaron demand the release of the Israelites; Pharaoh refuses, Exod. v. 1491. God renews his promise by his name Jehovah, Exod. vi. 1-13. 1491. Descendants of Reuben, Simeon, and of Levi, from whom came Moses and Aaron, [Exod. vi. 14-27]. 1491. Moses and Aaron again sent; confrm their message by a miracle; magicians imitate them, Exod. vi. 28-30; vii. 1-13. 1491. Pharaoh refuses to let Israel go; eight plagues, Exod. vii. 14-25; viii; ix.; x.1-20. 1491. The Passover instituted, Exod. xii. 1-20. 1491, The 9th plague, three days' darkness, Exod. x. 21-27. 1491 Israelites bidden to ask gold of the Egyptians; Pharaoh threatened with the death of the first-born, Exod. xi. 1-8; x. 28, 29; xi. 9, 10. 1491. The Passover eaten, the same day of the same month on which Christ our Passover was sacrificed for us (see Hales ii. 197); the first-born slain, Exod. xii. 21-30. 1491, The exodus, (A. M. 2513), Exod. xii. 31-36, and 40-42. Rameses. - _ —--._~ - _ - _1 I_. —~ —.. I... 554 LESSONS —PLAGUE,;O) EGYPT. By God's command, Nisan or Abib, on the 14th night of which the exode took place, was made the 1st month of the ecclesiastical year Exod. xii. 2. As the rest of the history of Moses is dated chiefly from this epoch, we shall give the dates from that time. Exod. ii. 25. Lightfoot and Townsend place the 88th Psalm here (see 1 Chron. ii. 6). Witsius and others refer it to the captivity (1 Chron. vi. 33). Exod. iii. 11. Mark the diffidence of Moses, till his scruples and fear are removed by several miraculous proofs of his Diyine legation. Israel in Egypt had evidently become contaminated by the idolatry of their neighbors: hence their unbelief and inconstancy. See Josh. xxiv. 14: Ez. xx. 8: Josh. v. 9: Lev. xxiv. 10. Exod. iii. 14. " The Angel of Jehovah" speaks of himself as " I am that I am." He is the same who delivered Jacob from all evil (Gen. xlviii. 15); who gave the law (Acts vii. 38- Exod. xix. 20; xx. 1); who conducted Israel through the wilderness (Exod. xxiii. 20, 21); and claimed the homage of Joshua (Josh. v 15; vi. 2.) Exod. vii. 1. " My prophet," or spokesman (iii. 16). To prophesy is in Scripture language to foretell, and also to instruct or speak publicly. See Tit. i. 12: Acts xiii. 1: I Cor.- x. 4, 5; xiv 1: Eph. ii. 20. Exod. vii. 13. Pharaoh hardened. The Divine forbearance seems to have produced this result (viii. 31, 32). Exod. viii. These plagues are all significant, proving the power of God,and rebuking idolatry. 1. The Nile-blood; an object of worship turned into an object of abhorrence. 2. The sacred frog itself their plague. 3. Lice, which the Egyptians deemed so polluting, that to enter a temple with them was a profanation, cover the country like dust. 4. The gad-fly (Zebub), an object of Egyptian reverence, becomes their torture. 6. The cattle, which were objects of Egyptian worship, fall dead before their worshippers. 7 The ashes which the priests scattered as signs of blessings, become boils. 7. Isis and Osiris, the deities of water and fire, are unable to protect Egypt even at a season when storms and rain were unknown, from the fire and hail of God. 8. Isis and Serapis were supposed to protect the country from locusts. West winds might bring these enemies; but an east wind the Egyptian never feared, for the Red Sea defended him. But now Isis fails: and the very east wind he reverenced becomes his destruction. 9. The heavenly hosts, the objects of worship, are themselves shown to be under Divine control. 10. The last plague explains the whole. God's first-born Egypt had oppressed; and now the first-born of Egypt are all dest oyed, the first two plagues, it will be noticed, were foretold JOURNEYS OF ISRAEL-EXODUS XII.-XIX. 455 by Moses, and imitated by the Egyptians. The rest they failed to copy, and confessed they were wrought by the finger of God. See Bryant and Bishop Gleig's )iss.: Stackhouse, i. p. 47 Exod. xii. 1-20. Contains a command given five days tefore the Passover, i. e., on or before the 10th Nisan. Hence the position of this section. Exod. xii. 21. The Passover victim was selected on the 10th, the day Christ entered Jerusalem, John xii. 12-19. Early on the 14th, the victim was prepared for the sacrifice, and between the 9th and 11th hour-the hour when Christ expired-the victim was slain; its blood sprinkled upon their dwellings; its body a family feast, strengthening them for their journey. At midnight the first-born was slain, and amidst this distress, but with all the calmness of a religious procession, the Israelites leave the land of their bondage. How instructive is this type. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. P. C. 2. The forty-two Journeys of the Israelites. 1491. 1st journey. Passover reinforced. First-born comSuccoth, manded to be set apart. Joseph's bones removed, Ecci. y. 1. Exod. xii. 37-39, and 43-51; xiii. 1-19: Numb. xxxiii 1-5. 1 m. 15 d. 2d journey. Israel guided by a pillar of cloud and Etham. fire, Exod. xiii. 20-22: Numb. xxxiii. 6. 1491, 3d journey. Pharaoh pursues, Pihahiroth; Exod. xiv. 1-9: Numb. xxxiii. 7. t. e., mouth of pass. 4th journey. Passage of the Red Sea (see 1 Cor. x. Marah. 1, 2). Destruction of Pharaoh's army. Song of Moses. The bitter waters sweetened, Exod. xiv. 10; xv. 26: Numb. xxxiii. 8. Elim, 5th journey, Exod. xv. 27: Numb. xxxiii. 9. (Wadi Gharendal.) Red Sea. 6th journey, Numb. xxxiii. 10. 2 in. 15 d. 7th journey. People murmur for bread. Quails and Sin. manna. Directions of manna (see John vi. 31, 49: Exod. xvi. 1. Rev. ii. 17), Exod. xvi. 1-36: Numb. xxxiii. 11. Dophkah. 8th journey, Numb. xxxiii. 12. Alush. 9th journey, Numb. xxxii. 13. Rephidim. 10th journey. Water given from the rock in Horeb (1 Cor. x. 4). Joshua defeats Amalek, while Moses prays, Exod. xvii. 1-16: Numb. xxxiii. 14. 3 nl. 15 d. 11th journey. Preparation for giving the law, Sinai. Exod. xix. 1-25: Numb. xxxiii. 15. 456 JOURNEYS OF ISRAEL-EXODUS XX.-XL.-LAWS. Date and Place. Event and Narrative. B.C. 1491. Moral law given. Divers laws (chiefly judicial) en3 m. 15 d. joined. The angel promised as a guide to the Sinai. Israelites, Exod. xx.-xxiii The people promise obedience; the blood of the covenant sprinkled on them. Moses and others have a vision of God's glory. Moses remains forty days and forty nights in the mount, Exod. xxiv. Ceremonial law given. The tabernacle and its furniture, the priests and their garments, etc. The Sabbath again enjoined. Daily sacrifice and incense, Rom viii. 3. Rev. viii. 3, 4. Tables of the law given to Moses, Exod. xxv.-xxxi. Idolatry of the calf; the tables broken; the people punished; the tabernacle removed out of the camp. Moses intercedes for the people and asks to see God's glory, Exod. xxxii., xxxiii. Eccl. y. 1. The tables renewed; the name of the Lord pro6 m. claimed; God makes a covenant with Israel. Moses Sinai. stays on the mount forty days and forty nights; his face shines, Exod. xxxiv. Offerings of the people for the tabernacle. Bezaleei and others prepared the tabernacle and its furniture, [Exod. xxxv.-xxxix.l 1490. Moses commanded to rear the tabernacle and to anoint Eccl. y. 2. it, and to sanctify Aaron and his sons, 1 m. 1 d. [Exod. xl. 1-16.] (John i. 14; ii. 19-21; Col. ii. 9.) 1490. The tabernacle set up. The glory of the Lord fills it. Eccl. y. 2. The Israelites directed by the cloud, Exod. xl. 17-38. I m. 1 day. Laws on various sacrifices and offerings, Lev. i.-vii. Consecration of Aaron and his sons aspriests, [Lev. viii.] 1 m. 8 d. The offerings of Aaron. Fire consumes the sacrifice, [Lev. ix.] The offerings of the princes accepted, Numb. vii. Destruction of Nadab and Abihu, Lev. x. Of the great day of atonement, and of the scapegoat, Lev. xvi.: see Heb. ix.: and v. 1. 1 m. 14 d. The second Passover celebrated. Some allowed to observe it in the second month, Numb. ix. 1-14. Laws on meats and purifications, [Lev. xi.-xv.] Miscellaneous laws, moral, ceremonial, and judicial Shelomith's son stoned for blasphemy, [Lev. xvii.-xxii. and xxiv.] Laws concerning festivals, etc., Lev. xxiii. and xxiv. Prophetic promises and threatenings, Lev. xxvi. Laws of vows, devotions and tithes, Lev. xxvii. 2 m. 1 d. The tribes numbered; their order, [Numb. i., ii.] JOURNEYS OF ISRAEL —LAWS. 457 Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B. C. 1490. The Levites appointed to the service of the tabernacle instead of the first-born; their duties, [Numb. iii., iv. Institution of various ceremonies. The law of the Nazarites. The form of blessing, [Numb. v., vi.] Consecration of the Levites; their age and period of service [Numb. viii.]. Use of the silver trumpets [x. 1-10]. Manner in which the cloud guided the people, ix. 15-23. Arrival of Jethro with Moses' wife and sons. He advises Moses to appoint judges to assist, Exod. xviii. 1-26. 1491. 12th journey. Order of the march,. 2m. 20 d. [Numb. x. 11, 12 (Numb. xxxiii. 16), 28]. Wilderness of Moses entreats Hobab to accompany Israel; Jethro Paran returns to M'idian, (El Tyh.). Numb. x. 29-32, and Exod. xviii. 27. The form of blessing on the removal and resting of the ark, Numb. x. 33-36. The burning at Taberah. The people murmur for flesh; Moses complains of his charge; seventy elders appointed as a council to assist him; quails given in wrath, Numb. xi. 1 —34. Hazaroth. 13th journey. Miriam smitten with leprosy for sedition, Numb. xi. 35 (Numb. xxxiii. 17), xii. 15. 5 m.-7 m. 14th journey. Spies sent to search the land; ten of Kadesh Barnea, them bring an evil report; Caleb and Joshua faithor En Mishpah. ful, Numb. xii. 16 (Numb. xxxiii. 18), xiii. 1490. Israel murmurs at the report -of the spies; God Eccl. y. 2. threatens; Moses intercedes; condemned to wan7 i. 6 d. der forty years. Numb. xiv. 1-39: Psa. xc. The people going up against the will of God, are discomfited, Numb. xiv. 40-45. Laws of offerings; Sabbath-breaker stoned, [Numb. xv.] The rebellion of Korah, etc., earthquake, fire, and plague inflicted; Aaron approved as high-priest by the budding of his rod, Numb. xvi., xvii. The charge and portion of the priests and Levites, [Numb. xviii.] Water of purification; how to be made and used, [Numb. xix.] 1490-1452. The next seventeen journeys (15th to 31st) of the Eccl. y. 2-40. Israelites, being their wandering in the wilderness nearly. thirty-eight years, Numb. xxxiii. 19-35. 1452. 32d journey; death of Miriam, Numb. xx. 1; xxxiii. 36. Eccl. y. 40. The people murmur for water; Moses and Aaron 1 m. transgressing, not to enter Canaan, Numb. xx. 2-13. 39 458 JOURNEYS OF ISRAEL. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B. C. 1490. Edom refuses'a passage to the Israelites, Kadesh. Numb. xx. 14-21. Mount Hor. 33d journey; Aaron dies; Arad attacks Israel, and, is defeated, Numb. xx. 22-xxi. 3; xxxiii. 37-40. Zalmonah. 34th journey; the people murmur; fiery serpents are sent; the brazen serpent set up, (see John iii. 14): Numb. xxi. 4 (xxxiii. 41)-9. Punon, 35th, 36th, and 37th journeys, Oboth, lim. Numb. xxi. 10, 11; xxxiii. 42-44. Dibon-gad. 38th journey, Numb. xxxiii. 45. The Israelites stop at Zared, Arnon, and Beer, Numb. xxi. 12-18. Sihon, the Amorite, opposes their passage; defeated, Numb. xxi. 21-32. Og, of Bashan, attacks them; defeated, Numb. xxi. 33-35. Almon-' 39th journey, Numb. xxxiii. 46. diolathaim. 40th journey, Numb. xxi. 18-20; xxxiii. 47. Abarim. 41st journey; account of Balaam and Balak, Plains of (Luke i. 78: Rev. xxii. 16: 1 Cor. xv. 25:) Moab by Numb. xxii. 1 (xxxiii. 48)-41; xxiii., xxiv. Jordan. 42d journey; idolatry of Baal-Peor; zeal of Phinehas, Numb. xxv. 1 (xxxiii. 49)-18. Third numbering of the people,. [Numb. xxvi]. The daughters of Zelophehad; laws of inheritance, Numb. xxvii. 1-11; xxxvi. Laws of offerings, vows, etc., Numb. xxviii.-xxx. 1451, The slaughter of Midian; Balaam slain, Numb. xxxi. Ec;l. y. 40. Territories given to Reuben, Gad, and part of Manassell, on the east of Jordan, Numb. xxxii. Directions for the Israelites on their entering Canaan; borders of land described; forty-eight cities for the Levites, of which six are to be cities of refuge; the laws on murder, Numb. xxxiii. 50-56; xxxiv.; xxxv. Exod. xii. 37. This order of the journeys is taken from Numb. xxxv. We see here how -od weans his people from idolatry, how he inures them to trial and trains them to obedience. For an inspired, practical comment on tfe history of the Israelites in the wilderness, see Psa. lxxviii.; cv.; cvi.; cxxxvi.: and 1 Cor. x. Lev. What an instructive month's history. Aaron consecrated, in proof of the holiness required in worship; his sons Nadab and Abilh punished-for:unhallowed contemnIt of Divine authority (see Exod. xxx. I), shortly after their consecration, which a miracle had confirmed, LEVITIGUS-NUMBERS-LESSONS DEUT. I.-XXX. 459 Exod. xxiv. 9: Lev. ix. 24; Aaron's resignation a touching exhibition of grace, x. 3; the blasphemer stoned. Lev. xi. As the sacrifices of the law point to Christ and his atonement, so do the repeated purifications to man's need of inward purity and of the cleansing influence of the Holy Spirit. The ceremonial law contains rites closely resembling those in use among several heathen nations, but with striking differences (Spencer [deLeg. and Michaelis). Some (as Warburton and Maimonides) think the former borrowed from the latter; others (as Gale and Stillingfleet) think the latter borrowed from the former; others still (as Calmet and Faber) maintain that both were taken from early patriarchal institutes, which the Gentiles corrupted and which God himself modified, to meet the peculiar condition of the Jews. This last theory, the most probable of the three, is confirmed by the fact that many primitive traditions are preserved in the systems, moral, religious, and philosophical, of many ancient nations. Numb. ix. 1-14. This section is out of its place, see ver. 1. Numb. xxxv. 31, 32. See ~ 329 (h), on " satisfaction." When Jacob's family entered Egypt they numbered but seventy souls, Gen. xlvi. 27. Now their descendants number upwards (it may be gathered) of two millions (chap. xxvi.); so richly had God already fulfilled his promise. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B. C. 3. The Review and closing Charge of Moses. 1451. Moses reviews the history of the Israelites, introEccl. y. 40. ducing some new particulars, Dent.: i.-iv. 11 m. 1 d. The moral law repeated and enforced, Dent. v.-ix; x. 1-5, 10-22; xi. The ceremonial law repeated, with injunctions against idolatry, etc., [Deut. xii.-xvi.; xvii. 1]. The judicial law repeated and explained. Christ foretold as a prophet to whom they are to hearken, Dent. xvii. 2-20; [xviii.-xxvi]. Moses directs Israel, after entering Canaan, to write the law on stones, and to recite its blessings and curses upon Mt. Gerizim and Mt. Ebal, Dent. xxvii. Prophetic promises and curses, Deut. xxviii. Concluding appeal to the Israelites, Deut. xxix.; xxx. Dent. On the impartance of comparing the law, as given in Deuteronomy, with the law as given in the earlier books, see Pt. II 8. 460 DEUT. XXXI.-XXYIV.-THE DESIGN 0Ov TIE LAW. Date and Place. Event or Narrative. B. C. 4. Joshua's appointment; death of Mosens Eccl. y. 40. Joshua appointedto succeed Moses, Numb. xxvii. 12-23. 11 m. Moses encourages the people and Joshua; charges the priests to read the law publicly every seventh year, Deut. xxxi. 1-13. God's charge to Joshua; Moses writes a song of witness; completes the writing of the law, an delivers it to the Levites, with a prediction of the disobedience of Israel, Deut. xxxi. 14-29. Moses recites his song, and exhorts Israel to set their hearts upon it, Dent. xxxi. 30: xxxii. 1-47. Moses ascends Mount. Nebo to view the land of Canaan, and to die, Deut xxxii. 48-52. Moses prophetically blesses the tribes, Deut. xxxiii. Moses views the promised land; his death, burial, and character. Deut. xxxiv. SEC. 5.-THE DESIGN OF THE LAW-SUMMARY OF ITS RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS. 25. What, then, it may be asked, was the purpose of this ancient dispensation, and to what end must we study it? There was faith and piety before it was given. Faith and piety remain, now that it is done away. As an institute, it was confessedly burdensome; and if its aim had been either to regulate the worship of God, to give a figurative representation of the Gospel, or to separate the Jews from other nations, this aim might have been reached by simpler means. Might not some points, moreover, not forcibly impressed upon the ancient Jews, have been more clearly revealed-the spirituality, for example, of the coming dispensation, and the glories of eternal life? In reply to these questions, let it be remembered that man has a strong tendency to forget God. Virtue, truth, godliness, submission to the Divine will, conformity to the Divine law, supreme desire for the Divine glory, are things not only not natural-they are things to which man is directly opposed. Without successive revelations, or some such provision as the Old Testament supplies, the feelings THE DESIGN OF THE LAW. 461 which these terms describe, and the truths on which they are founded, must long since have perished from the earth. This conclusion is gained by an induction of particulars as sound as any in science. Let it now be supposed that God has to deal with men who are ever prone to idolatry and barbarism, in a condition of intellectual childhood, with no relish for blessings purely spiritual, and so earthly as to be incapable of comprehending them; that he desires to impress the minds of such a race with his own infinite perfections, and induce them to worship him with becoming reverence; to prove to them what is in their heart, and so humble them for their depravity; to lead them to acknowledge him in all their ways, that they may fear his power and trust his love; to raise their confidence towards the God of their fathers, their covenant-God; to incline their hearts towards his holy place, and the privilege of communion with him;-suppose that he wishes to distinguish them as his peculiar people (that is, both purchased and separate); to prevent needless intercourse with their idolatrous neighbors; to unite all classes o'f Israelites as one body, under one king; to teach them to love one another as brethren; to check the tendency, in all communities, to the accumulation of extreme wealth in the hands of a few, and the oppression that springs from such accumulation; to induce honest industry among the people; to give every man the conviction that he has a name and a place in his country; to secure competent provision for the fatherless and the widow; to provide rest and moral training for all servants; to connect the maintenance of the learned and priestly class, in part at least, with the obedience and piety of the people, thus stimulating them to diligence in teaching the law;-suppose that he seeks to reveal himself with new claims; to preserve the memory of what he had done for them as a nation; to teach them implicit obedience; to excite thoughts and feelings in harmony with the office, and work, and reign of that Messiah whom these various institutions were to introduce;-and suppose, lastly, that, owing to man's guilty depravity, and the powerlessness 39t 462. THE THEOCRACY-THE TABERNACLE. of ritual observance to cleanse him spiritually from sin, these precepts and rites could not, by themselves alone, secure more than legal forgiveness, or attain, in any sense, eternal life; admit that these suppositions describe the end of the law, and its adaptation to its end will at once appear. Now, these suppositions really do describe its end, though they may be stated variously. Is the law a moral code? It teaches us our duty both to man and to God. Is it ritual observance? It teaches us our faults, and God's holiness, pointing, moreover, to the cross. Is it a civil institute? It regulates the worship of an Invisible King, preserves the Jews as a peculiar people, and enforces brotherly love. Regarded as a revelation of truth (objective religion), all its parts are instructive. Regarded as a shadow of truth afterwards to be revealed, it excites and deepens holy feeling (subjective religion). Regarded chiefly as a treasury of earlier traditional knowledge, that knowledge it preserves, adding much of its own, in order to preserve it;.though, of course, a spiritual perception of its truths is still, as before, essential to salvation However the end of the law be defined, the chief facts remain. It reveals man's sin, God's holiness and love, forgiveness through sacrifice, and sanctification as its result, Christ's work and reign, while it provides for the preservation of these truths in a world ever prone to forget what is spiritual, and deteriorate what is holy. The whole institute is at once a Gospel and a church. It preserved and guarded piety, union, and happiness; is every way worthy of its author, and entitled to the commendations which pious Jews have bestowed upon ii in every age, Psalms xix., cxix. 26. In theory the Jewish constitution was a theocracy, a visible representation of the reign of God. Jehovah himThe Jewish constitution self was regarded as king; the laws were delivtheocracy. ered by him; the tabernacle (and afterwards the temple) was considered as his palace; there he gave visible manifestations of his glory; there he revealed his will; there THE TABERNACL E. 463 was offered "the blead of the presence;' there he received his ministers, and performed his functions as sovereign. Hence it is that the land of Palestine is ever represented as held by direct tenure from Jehovah (Lev. xxv. 23). To him, peace and war, questions determined under all governments by the supreme authority, were referred (Deut. i. 41, 42: Josh. x. 40: Judges i. 1, 2: 1 Kings xii. 24); and idolatry was treason. In relation, therefore, to the Jews, Jehovah was both God and king. 27. This twofold character was preserved in all the arrangements of the ancient law. 1. The Tabernacle, where public worship was held from the exods till the reign of Solomon, was both the temple of God and the palace of the invisible king. It was his " holy habita- Thce Taetc tion." It was the place where he met the people and communed with them-" the Tabernacle," therefore, " of the Congregation." It was an oblong, rectangular structure, 55 feet by 18 feet, built of planks of the acacia, overlaid with gold, united by poles of gold, and resting on bases of silver. The whole shielded by four costly coverings. Exod. xxvi. 7-13. (See Shittah, p. 268.) The eastern end was not boarded, but was closed by a curtain of cotton, suspended from silver rods, that were sustained by five pillars covered with gold. The interior was divided into two parts by a curtain or veil made of rich stuff, and curiously embroidered with figures of cherubim and other ornaments (Exod. xxvi. 36, 37). The first apartment was the Holy Place (Heb. ix. 2). The inner and smaller one, the " Holy of Holies." ficre was the ark of the Covenant, an oblong chest of wood, covered with gold, and surmounted by two golden figures of cherubim with outstretched wings. Above them was " the Glory," the symbol of the Divine presence. It rested between them, and came down to the lid of the ark —"the mercy seat." In or near the ark were the tables of stone, the book of the law, a pot of manna, and Aaron's rod (Exod. xxv. 21: Dent. xxxi. 26; Heb. ix. 4). In the first, or ante-room, were placed the golden altar of incense (Exod. xxx. 1-10); the seven-handed golden candlestick or lamp (Exod. xxv. 31-39); and the table of wood, overlaid with gold, where the shew-bread and wine were placed (Exod. xxv. 23-30). Around the tabernacle was an extensive court, about 180 feet by 90 feet, formed by curtains of linen, suspended by silver hooks from rods 464 THE TABERNACLE-TEE LEVITES. of silver, which reached from one column to another. These columns were twenty in all, of acacia, probably supported on bases of brass and 8 or 9 feet (5 cubits) high. The entrance was on the east side, and was closed by falling tapestry, adorned with figures in blue, purple, and scarlet (Exod. xxvii. 9-19; xxxix. 9-20). In this court, which was open at the top, all the public services of religion were performed, and all sacrifices presented. Near the centre was the great brazen altar (5 cubits square and 3 high), with prominences at the corners cilled "horns," Exod. xxvii. 1-8: Psa. cxviii. 27. On the south side there was an ascent to it made of earth (Exod. xx. 24; xxxviii. 1-7). The various instruments of this altar were of brass, as those of the altar of incense were of gold (Exod. xxvii. 3; xxxviii. 3; xxv. 31-40). In the court of the tabernacle, between the brazen altar and tabernacle, stood a brazen laver, at which the priests performed their ablutions before approaching the altar (Exod. xxx. 15-21). On the altar a fire burnt continually, at first kindled miraculously, and afterwards kept,n by the priests, (Lev. ix. 24; vi. 12; x. 1). The Temple of Solomon was built after the same plan, and contained the same furniture; but it was much larger, and the materials were more costly and durable. Instead of one court there were three, the innermost corresponding to the court of the tabernacle. The curtains were supplied by walls and colonnades; the brazen laver being represented by the brazen sea, 1 Kings vii. 26, and ten smaller vessels, 1 Kings vii. 27-39. The greater grandeur of the temple service was in harmony both with the extended power of the nation, and with the clearer revelation which was then given of God's kingly authority. To a much later date belong the synagogues of the Jews. They were plain and unpretending buildings, in which the Jews met yngogues. to offer prayers, to hear Moses and the prophets read, and to receive instruction. They are often mentioned in the New Testament, and seem to have sprung up after the captivity. 28. (2.) As the tabernacle was both the temple of God and the palace of the Great King, so the Levites were The Levites. both priests and officers of state. Under the law, the high-priesthood was confined to the family of Aaron, and during the purest age of that economy to the first-born of that house; Nadab, however, his eldest son, perished by his impiety during the high-priesthood of his father, so that Eleazar succeeded Aaron, and from him the office passed in succession to Eli. From hi: it was transferred to the family of Ithamar (Aaron's ~urth son); but in the days of Solomon it returned to the family of HIE t!VITES. 465 Eleazar, where it remained till the captivity. During t} e Asmonean dynasty a private Levite family held it, and towards the close of the Hebrew polity the right of succession was wholly disregaided. Aaron was co nsecrated by Moses, and his sons were priests under him. Into the inner chamber of the tabernacle the high-priest alone entered, once a year, on the day of atonement. In the reign of David the descendants of Eleazar and Ithamar were so numerous that they could not all be employed at the same time in their sacred duties; they were, therefore, divided into 24 courses, each serving in weekly rotation twice in the lunar year (1 Chron. xxiv). Each course had its head or chief, and these are probably the chief priests so often referred to in the Gospels. They had the whole care of the sacrifices and religious services of the temple, most of the important functions of their office being assigned to each by lot. All the priests were Levites, that is, descendants of Levi, through Gershom and Aaron. Levi, however, had other children, and all their descendants were devoted to public business. They assisted the priests, formed the guard of the tabernacle, and conveyed it from place to place (Numb. iv. 1-20). In David's time the whole body was divided into three classes, each of which was subdivided into 24 courses. The first class attended upon the priests; the second formed the choir of singers in the temple, and the third acted as porters and guards (1 Chron. xxiv. 25, 26) in the temple and at the gates. It seems probable that the Levites all acted, when not engaged in the temple service, as the instructors of the people; they formed, in fact, the learned class. For the support of this large body of men 48 cities, with a belt of land round each, were assigned: a tenth of all the produce and cattle of the country (Lev. xxvii. 30: Numb. xxxv. pThersu 1-8), of which tenth the priests had a tenth: all shared also in another tenth of the produce, which the people generally were to expend in feast offerings, to which the Levites were to be invited (DeuLt xiv. 22-27). When not engaged in their sacerdotal duties the priests dressed as other men; but when so engaged their tunics, girdles, turbans, &c., were all of white linen (Exod. xxxix. 27, 28). Thedresse o the prieits. The dress of the high-priest was both splendid and significant. Over his white tunic he wore a woollen robe of blue, having on its hem small golden bells (Exod. xxviii. 31-34). Over this was a short, sleeveless garment-an " ephod" of fine linen, inwrought with gold and purple, and having on each shoulder-strap a precious stone, the whole en. 466 THE SACRIFICES OF THE LAW. graven with the name of the tribes (xxviii. 5-12). In front was the breast-plate of judgment, similarly adorned, each stone similarly engraven (xxviii. 15, 21). On his head was a kind of mitre, to the front of which was fastened a plate of gold, inscribed "Holiness unto the Lord." Connected with the breast-plate was the urim and thummim, by which the priest was enabled to ascertain the will of the invisible. king. How the response was given is not clearly known. To their office all the priests were consecrated with a "holy anointing," and the spiritual significance of the whole institute is plain. 39. (3.) Among the Jews, as among all ancient nations, sacrifices formed the most essential part of religious Sacrifices. worship. The subject, therefore, is of great importance, and as the laws in relation to-it are scattered over the various books of the Pentateuch, we give the substance of them in a connected form. (a.) The things offered were taken from both the vegetable and the animal kingdom, those from the former called the bloodless Things offered. offerings (rpoeo,, 1i.:3t, minchoth), and those from the latter the bloody (QhT:, zevachim, usriu, slain sacrifices). With both, the mineral salt, an emblem of purity, was used. From the vegetable kingdom were taken the meat-offerings (flour, cakes, parched corn, frankincense), and the drink-offerings ( ne, nesek, vr-TvJ, Phil. ii. 17) of wine, either in its natural or fermented state. Both offerings were usually united, and were considered as an addition to the thank-offerings made by fire, Numb. xv. 5-11; xxviii. 7-15: Lev. xiv. 10-21. Heathen libations were not unlike the drink-offerings of the law. I1. i. 462: AEn. vi. 254; with characteristic differences, however: they consisted of wine and blood, Sail. Cat. sec 32: Psa. xiv. 4: Zech. ix. 7. The aniraals offered were oxen, goats, and sheep; all were to be without blemish, not under eight days old, nor over three years. Doves were also offered in some cases, Exod. xxii. 20; xii. 5: Lev. ix. 3. Fishes were never offered, and human sacrifices were expressly forbidden, Lev. xviii. 21; xx. 25. (b.) Offerings were presented only in the front court of the sanctuary, the tabernacle, that is, and afterwards the temple. Lev. Plsace of xvii. 1-9: Deut. xii. 5-7. Occasionally, however, sacrifices offereif. were offered elsewhere, without reprehension, Judges ii. 5: 1 Sam. vii. 17; ix. 12: IKings xviii. 19-32. KINDS OF SACRIFICES. 467 (c.) The object of the legal sacrifice was either the expression of gratitude to God or the expiation of sin. Thank-offerings had, as their object, the first: sin-offerings and trespass-of- Oblieet f otferings. ferings, the second. Sin was expiated, it must he remembered, not by the merit or eficacy of the sacrifice offered, but by the great sacrifice of the Son of God, which it typified, and in which the spiritual worshipper believed. A legal or civil expiation, however, was efiected by the sacrifices of the law: they freed the offerer from the legal penalty of transgression. (d.) In the performance of the sacrifice, the offerer, himself legally purified (. Sam. xvi. 5: Exod. xix. 14), brought the victim to the altar, and turning towards the sanctuary (Lev. ii. towrlp. 3, 4; iii. 1; xvii. 4), laid his hand upon its head (Lev. i. 4; iii. 2; iv. 33), implying a transference of his sin and punishment to the victim. He then slew it (Lev. i. 5), an act, however, which the priest might do, and sometimes did (2 Chron. xxix. 24: Ezra vi. 24). As the victim was slain the priest received the blood, and sprinkled or poured it near the different offerings, yet apart from them. The victim was cut in pieces by the offerer (Lev. i. 6), and the fat was burnt by the priest. In some sacrifices, before or after the slaying, the victim was heaved or lifted up, and waved towards heaven; a symbol of its presentation to Jehovah (e.) There were various kinds of sacrifices, Burnt-offerings, sin and trespass-offerings, and thank-of- kindsof ferings. sacrifices 1. Burnt-offerings, holocausts (;}, ola,'oxoKxsure-), consisted in the immolation of a male victim, which was entirely consumed 1. Burntin the fire. The sacrifice was slain on the north of the altar, offterings. deprived of the skin (which belonged to the priest, Lev. vii. 8), and then cut in pieces by the offerer. The blood was sprinkled around the altar, and the parts of the victim were laid separately upon the fire, which the priests kept always burning. The design of burnt-offerings was to make atonement for sins in general (Lev. i. 4). They were presented daily in the name of the nation (Exod. xxix. 38-42: Numb. vii. 15-17; viii. 12), on the great day of atonement (Lev. xvi. 3), and on the three great festivals. They were also presented by private persons Levitically unclean, viz., by women (Lev. xii. 6-8); by lepers (Lev. xiv. 21-31); by Nazarites (Numb. vi. 11-14); and by those referred to in Lev. xv. 1-15. When two doves were offered, one of them was made a burnt-offering, Lev. v. 10. Hecatombs of such offerings were sometimes presented, Ezra vi 17: 1 Chion 168 SIN AND THANK-OFFERINGS. xxix. 21; and in later times, even the heathen sometimes presented them, as did Augustus (Joseph. Bell. Jud. ii. 17). 2. Trespass-offerings and sin-offerings are not easily distinguished. The first were generally presented for a sin of omission, and Trespass and sin- the second for one of commission (Jahn and others), though ofierings. this distinction does not always obtain, Lev. v. 17-19: Numb. vi. 11: Lev. xv. 25, etc. The trespass has been thought the less guilty; the sin the more guilty; sometimes this' rule seems reversed. In fact, the two are distinguished in Scripture, and the cases are prescribed in which each is to be offered. Trespass-offerings are enjoined in Lev. vii. 1-10, and also in Numb. vi. 12; see ver. 14: Lev. xiv. 12; see ver. 19; Lev. xix. 20-22. Ezra x. 10. The victims offered were an ewe or she-goat, doves or fine flour, a ram or lamb, according to the nature.of the case. Sin-offerings are enjoined, Lev. iv. 6, 25-30. They were offered by the high-priest when he had committed an offence, and brought guilt upon the nation; when the whole nation had sinned inadvertently, and afterwards repented; and on the great day of atonement. In the first and last cases the highpriest laid his hand on the head of the victim, confessing his sin. -In the second case the elders laid their hand on the victim. The transactions of the great day of atonement are exceedingly significant: see Numb. xxix. 7-11: Lev. xvi. 1-34; xxiii. 26-32; the azazel, or scapegoat, carrying off the sins of the people, and forming, with the second goat, which was sacrificed, a single complete type of the work of our Lord. Sin-offerings were also presented by magistrates and private persons, who had sinned through ignorance, Lev. iv. 22-26; and on various occasions of purification, Lev. xv. 25-30; xv. 2, 14, 15: Numb. vi. 10-14: Lev. xiv. 19-32; ix. 23. In all these offerings the idea of substitutionary expiation is involved. The blood was "the life;" and the life of the victim was accepted for the life of the offerer, Lev. xvii. 1; v. 18; xiv. 19. 3. Thank-offerings consisted of the presentation of a bull, sheep, or goat. It was brought by the offerer, with laying on of hands, Ti'nkg- and was slain by him on the south side of the altar. The blood was sprinkled around the altar; the fat was burnt. The "heaved" breast and "waved" shoulder belonged to the priest, and the rest was used as a sacrificial feast: see 1 Cor. x. 18. Thankofferings for particular blessings were called "sacrifices of praise" (t-"T? t, &u'+ osa;uwirt); when presented from a feeling of pious devotedness, they were called free-will offerings. Sometimes they were offered in fulfilment of a vow, Numb. vi. 3. Peace-offering is the JEWISH FESTIVALS. 469 general name for lth whDle of this kind; and though the expression of gratitude formed part of the offerer's aim, propitiation was also involved, as is proved by the title of peace-offering, which was given to them. Everything, therefore, under the law, was purified with blood — thanksgivings and other religious acts, man's sins, and his corrupt nature itself. For the first, there was the sprinkling of the blood of the victim; for the second, there were sin and trespass-offerings; and for the last, there were the whole burnt-offerings of the daily sacrifice and of the great festivals.: God thus sought to impress upon the people their guilt and his holiness, and to reveal to them, by line upon line, the only way of access to himself. The repeated purifications enjoined by the law were no less suggestive of the need of practical holiness, and of the sanctifying influence of the Spirit. See on this section Winer's Realworterbuch, or the article on sacrifice, translated in Dr. Pye Smith's Four Discourses. 30. (4.) The festivals of the Jews were held weekly, monthly, and yearly. Each seventh and fiftieth year, moreover, was kept with peculiar solemnities. The weekly festival was the Sabbath, a day consecrated to rest and cheerful devotion (Psa. lxviii. 25-27, etc). On this day additional sacrifices were presented (Lev. xxiv. 8: Numb. xxviii. We 9). Children were instructed; and those who were not far distant visited the temple. Later than the days of the Pentateuch, the people seem to have visited the prophets (2 Kings iv. 23); and after the captivity synagogues were erected in many of the towns of Palestine, where the "law and the prophets"'were read and expounded (Acts xiii. 15). The monthly festival. was held on the da ntly of the new moon, and was announced by the sound of silver trumpets (Numb. x. 10). Labor was not interdicted, but additional sacrifices were offered. The new moon of the seventh month (Tisri, or Oct.) commenced the civil year. The great annual festivals prescribed by the law were three; and when they were cele- y brated, all the adult males in Israel were required to appear at the sanctuary (Exod. xxiii. 14-17). They were all intended to be seasons of joyous thanksgiving, and were commemorative of the kindness and favor of God. 1. The passover was kept in remembrance of the destruction of the first-born of the Egyptians, of the sparing of the Israelites, and of their departure from Egypt. It began on the eve Pasover. 40 470 FESTIVALS. of the 14th of Abib i;. e. all leaven was removed from the house on the 14th day, between the evenings, the feast being reckoned from the 15th to the 21st. Between the evenings, also, the paschal lamb (a ram or a goat of a year old, Exod. xii. 1-16) was slain before the altar (Dent. xvi. 2-6). The blood was sprinkled (originally on the doorposts, and later) at the bottom of the altar; the lamb itself was roasted whole, with two spits thrust transversely through it, and was then eaten with bitter herbs; unleavened bread was broken by the master of the family and distributed to each, not fewer than ten nor more than twenty being admitted to the feast. After the third cup (the "cup of blessing") had been drunk, praises were sung, generally, in later times, Psa. cxv.-cxviii.; and sometimes, in addition, Psa. cxx.-cxxxvii. It was in connection with this feast, and towards its close, that our Lord instituted the last supper (Matt. xxvi: 1 Cor. x.: Mark xiv.). During every day of the festival additional sacrifices were offered; on the 16th Abib, the first ripe ears of corn were presented at the sanctuary, and the harvest commenced (Exod. xii. 1-27: Lev. xxiii. 9-14). 2. The fiftieth day after the second day of the Passover (the 16th), came the feast of Pentecost, called also the feast of weeks Penteeost. (i. e. seven clear weeks from the 16th Abib.) This was properly the feast of the completed harvest of the ground. Loaves made of the new meal-and grain were offered as first-fruits (Lev. xxiii. 17). Many burnt offerings were now presented (Lev. xxiii. 18-20), and Jews residing out of Palestine generally chose this occasion for visiting Jerusalem. 3. In autumn, from the 15th to the 23d of Tisri (October), the feast of Tabernacles was celebrated, the 23d being the chief day aber^ of the feast (Lev. xxiii. 34-42: John vii. 23). It commemorated the sojourning of the Israelites in the wilderness, and was intended also as the feast of the ingathering of all the fruits of autumn. Booths were constructed of branches of trees in all parts of the city, and here the people resided for the week. This feast was the most joyous of all; "the Great Hosanna" it was called; and more public sacrifices were offered than at any other (Numb. xix. 13-37: compare with Lev. xxiii. 38-40: Numb. xxix. 39: Dent. xvi. 14, 15). To the ordinary legal service of this festival, later Jews added others. Water was drawn from the pool of Siloam, carried with great pomp to the temple, and poured before the altar (see Isa. xii. 3). Priests also ascended the steps which separated the court of the women from the inner court, singing the Psalms of Degrees, Psa. cxx.-cxxxiv. These customs, however, are comparatively modern. FESTIVALS. 471 The fifth-day before the feast of tabernacles, the 10th of Tisri (October), was the great day of atonement; the only fast ap- The dayof pointed by the law (Lev. xxiii. 27-29; xxv. 9: Acts xxvii. 9). atonement. The people then bewailed the sins of the year, and ceremonial expiation was made by the high-priest, who on that day alone entered into the holy of holies, where he sprinkled the blood of the goat which had been sacrificed. The goat was one of two which had been appointed by lot to their separate destinations. The other, after the sins of the people had been confessed over it, and so laid upon its head, was sent alive to be lost in the wilderness (Lev. xvi. 6-10). All this was done to make expiation for the sins of the people (Lev. xvi. 11-19). Other fasts were instituted in later times, connected with the siege of Jerusalem (the 10th of the 10th month), the capture of the city (the 17th of the 4th month), the burning of the Other and temple (the 9th of the 5th month), the death of Gedaliah (the 3d of the 7th month): see Jer. lii. 6, etc.: Zech. vii. 3, 5; viii. 19. The first day of the moon of Tisri (October) was celebrated as the commencement of the civil year. It was introduced, by the blowing of trumpets, with unwonted solemnity, and Thenew hence its name, the feast of trumpets, Jer. xxiii. 23-25. Additional offerings and sacrifices were now presented, Numb. xxix. 29; and, unlike the ordinary new moons, it was kept as a festival. There were also two other feasts, though not appointed by law, which require notice, as they are often mentioned in Jewish history. The first is the feast of Purim (i. e. lots). It falls on the 14th or 15th of Adar (March), and commemorates the defeat of Haman's plot fol the destruction of the Jews (Esth. iii. 7; ix. 26). It is also called Mordecai's day (2 Mac. xv. 36). The other is the feast of the dedication, appointed to celebrate the re-establishment of Divine worship in Jerusalem, after Antiochus The dedica Epiphanes had been vanquished and the temple purified, B. C. 164, John x. 22. It was observed for eight days, from the 25th of Kisleu (December), and was sometimes called the feast of lights, from the illuminations in which, at that season, the Jews indulged. Every seventh year was sabbatic; and during that year the land was untilled and fruits ungathered, except by the poor; the people, however, were free to hunt, to feed their flocks, batcsyar. repair their buildings, and engage in commerce. The year began on the 1st of Tisri, and the institution was intended to secure rest for the soil, to teach economy and foresight, and probably to impress upon the people their dependence. Special services were held at 472 FESTIVALS~-THEIR USE. the temple during the feast of tabernacles, Deut. xxxi. 10, 13: see Exod. xxiii. 10, 11: Lev. xxv. 1-7: Deut. xxvi. 33-35. This institute, as Moses predicted (Lev. xxvi. 34, 35), was long disregarded, 2 Chron. xxxvi. 21; but after the captivity it was observed more carefully. The year after seven sabbatic years, cr the fiftieth, was the jubilee, Lev. xxv. 8-11. This year was announced on the 10th of j Tisri, the great day of propitiation. In addition to the regulations of the sabbatic year, there were others quite peculiar. All servants, or slaves, obtained lteir freedom (Lev. xxv. 39-46: Jer. xxxiv. 8, etc.). All the land throughout the country, and the houses in the cities of the Levites, sold during the preceding fifty years, were returned to the sellers, except such as had been consecrated to God, and not redeemed (Lev. xxv. 10, 13-17, 24-28: xxvii. 16-21). All mortgaged lands, too, were released without charge. The completeness of the release secured by these arrangements makes the jubilee a type of the Gospel (Isa. lxi. 2: Luke iv. 19). The moral and spiritual use of these festivals is plain. They all tended to unite the people in holy brotherhood, and to separate thenm from the heathen. They preserved the memory of past mercies. They illustrate the Divine holiness. They lightened the load of poverty, checked oppression and covetousness, and were all either types of Gospel blessings, or suggestive, to a'spiritual mind, of Gospel truths. 31. Let the whole law be thus studied; regard it as a scheme intended to reveal, or suggest, or impress, or preserve, spiritual truth, and not only will objections be removed, but the whole will appear a gorgeous, instructive lesson, eminently adapted to the condition of the nation to whom it was addressed. AUTHORS OF THE HISTORICA1 BOOKS. 478 CHAPTER II. HISTORICAL AND POETICAL BOOKS TO THE DEATH 3F SOLOMON. SEC. 1. —THE HISTORICAL BOOKs OF SCRIPTURE GENRALLY. 8,2. The historical books of Scriptmi-e-from Joshua to Nehemiah-contain the history of the Jewish Hi.toria church and nation from the first settlement in oks, JJewish arrangeCanaan to their return after the captivity of Baby- ent of. Ion. The books,as they are placed in the English Bible, are twelve in all, though the Jews reckoned them but six, classing Ruth with Judges, Nehemiah with Ezra, and numbering the double books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, respectively, as one. In early times, moreover, they were all placed among the prophets; and Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, are still placed in Hebrew Bibles in this list. Taking into account, therefore, the fact that large portions of the Pentateuch and of the Prophets are historical, and that a different arrangement was adopted by the Jews, the modern classification of "historical books" is not very appropriate. Having mentioned it, however, it may be well to give here some information concerning the books of which it is composed. 33. The historical books of Scripture claim, like tne rest, inspired authority, and the general evidence of Inspired, by: their inspiration is not different from that of the whom written. Pentateuch. Some of these books bear the names of distinguished prophets, and the rest are attributed to writers who had the same high character. The annals of the Hebrew nation were kept only by persons appointed to their office; and the writers, who are occasionally mentioned in Scripture as the penmen of sacred history, are expressly called prophets 40* 474 HIISTORICAL BOOKS. or seers.' The narrative portion of Scripture, moreover, displays throughout an intimate acquaintance with the secret motives of men, and with the purposes of God;b it reveals his mercy and judgment in the clearest predictions;' it exhibits unexampled impartiality, and enforces everywhere practical' holiness. The facts it records are appealed to or quoted throughout the Bible; the writings which record them were received into the Hebrew canon; in Ezra's collection they are placed among the productions of prophets, and are cited' by apostles and by our Lord. That in these writings other documents are named, as the depositories of ampler information, and that some of them were written or collected long after the events they describe, are facts which create no difficulty, and are in accordance with what we know of the economy of inspiration in later times. They account, moreover, for the occasional blending of expressions, evidentlycontemporaneous with the events described, with others of clearly a later origin. 34. The Bible is (as we have seen) a selection from the history of the church, given just so much as was Prinsq pies on which sufficient to teach us our duty, reveal the character the history of Scripture of God, and prepare us for the coming of his Son, writte It is a history, moreover, of the church only, or of the heathen as connected with its sufferings and destiny; and nowhere is this peculiarity of the Bible more marked than in the portion called historical. During the times it chronicles,: a The history of David, for example, was written by Samuel, Nathan, and Gad, 1 Chron. xxix. 29: of Solomon, by Nathan, Abijah, and Iddo the prophets, 2 Chron. ix. 29: of Rehoboam, by Shemaiah and Iddo, 2 Chron. xii. 15: of Abijah, by Iddo: of Jehoshaphat, by Jehu the prophet, 2 Chron. xx. 34: 1 Kings xvi. 1; and of Uzziah and Hezekiah (including probably the two intermediate kings), by Isaiah, 2 Chron. xxvi. 22; xxxii. 32. Even in rebellious Israel, we read of several prophets, and it was no doubt their business to record what occurred in that country. b 1 Kings xii. 26, 28: Esther, chaps v.; vi. * See Chap. on Prophecy, ~ 453. OUTLINE OF EARLY HISTORICAL BOOKS. 475 there were many mighty nations celebrated for learning and valor, for illustrious men and illustrious actions; yet their records are all lost in silence or in fable, while the history of the Jews, who "dwelt apart," and were "not reckoned among the nations," has been carefully preserved. Such concern has God for his church, and so dear are its interests to him, Deut. xxxii. 8, 9. Another peculiarity is no less marked. Political events of: deep interest are passed over; the history of long reigns is compressed into a few sentences; national concerns give place to matters of private life, history to biography, a mighty monarch to a poor widow (2 Kings iii.; iv.) These omissions and digressions, however, are all explained by the designs of the Bible. It aims to reveal the grace and providence of God, to show the workings of human nature, and the blessedness of obedience, while it interweaves with the whole, lessons and truths preparatory to the work and reign of the Messiah. 35. Within these limits, however, the. completeness of Scripture history is both characteristic and instructive. It explains at once the law and the prophets, the completePsalms and the Gospel, the future and the past. To ne man, to nations, to the church, every chapter is a lesson; and the:history, studied in the light of the law and prophets, and applied under the guidance of the Gospel, will teach and illustrate, either by examples of excellence or by contrasts, both our duty and the blessedness of obedience. SEC. 2.-BRIEF OUTLINE OF THESE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 36. Keeping, then, to a chronological division of the books, the second portion of Scripture-Joshua to Solo- Booksfrom mon-is readily divisible into two parts; the first Joshua to extending from the entry into the land of promise Solollon. to the establishment of monarchy; and the second reaching to the death of Solomon. The first period contains the his 476 OUTLINE. OF EARLY HISTORICAL- BOOKS. tory of the conquest and settlement of Canaan; of the decay of the spirit of obedience after the death of Joshua; the subsequent punishment and restorations of the people; and the second describes the revival of that spirit under Samuel and David. Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and 1 Sam. i.-x., include events extending over 365 years. 1 and 2 Sam., 1 Kings to xi., 1 Chron., 2 Chron. to ix., include the remaining events, which extend over 120 years more; on the latter period all agree: on the former, there is much difference of opinion (see ~356). Briefly epitomized — JosHUA may be divided into three parts: — i.-xii. Giving an account of the conquest of Canaan, with a histfory Epitome of of the re-establishment of Circumcision. Camp at Gilycal Joshua. Seven years war: thirty-one kings destroyed. xiii.-xxii. The distribution of Canaan by lot, each tribe obtaining a portion in agreement with the predictions of Jacob and Moses. Tabernacle at Shiloh. Two half tribes return. xxiii., xxiv. Joshua's final admonitions and death. 25 years. JUDGES contains a history of subsequent conquests imperfectly completed, and ending often in intermarriages with the CaJudges. g naanites, and subsequent idolatry, i.-iii. 4; xvii.-xxi. of seven Servitudes and thirteen Judges, of whom Ehud and Shamgar, Deborah and Barak, are deemed by Usher, contemporaries. Chaps. xvii.-xxi. belong to the earlier part of the history. 309 years. RUTH gives the history of events which occurred about the middle of Judges or even earlier, as Obed, the son of Ruth, was Ruth. grandfather of David. His descent from Judah isgiven, iv. 18. See Gen. xxxviii. 29. Matt. i. 3. 1 Sam. i.-x. gives the history of the judicature of Eli, i.-v., and of Samuel with subsequent events to the designation of Saul, Samuel, etc. v.-x. 21 years. I Sam. x. to 2 Sam. i. 27, and I Chron. x.-xii. give the reign of Saul, the history of his wars and unfaithfulness. 40 years. 2 Sam. ii. 1, to 1 Kings ii. 11: 1 Chron. xi. 1, to 1 Chron. xxix. 30, give the reign of David, his victories, his afflictions, and their cause: his repentance and restoration. 40-years. JSHUA — AUT HO SHIP. 477 1 Kings i'. 12, to xi. 43: 2 Chron. i. 1, toix. 31 give the reign ol &Slomon, his glory, and the extension of his kingdom: 40 years..PSALMS, SOLOMON'S SONG, PROVERBS, ECCLESIASTES. SE. 3. —THE BOOKS OF JOSHUA, JUDGES, AND RUTH. THE BOOK OF JOSHUA. 37. The book of Joshua is composed of materials supplied, in all probability, by Joshua himself, with two or Authorship. three additions made by a later writer. The first fact may be gathered from the general tenor of the book, which is the narrative of a contemporary and eye-witness of the events described (v. 1; vi. 25): from chap. xxiv. 26, nessandaufrom the character of Joshua as an instructor and inspired thenticity. prophet (1 Kings xvi. 34: see Josh. vi. 26, and compare Ecclus. xlvi. 1), and from uniform Jewish tradition. That the book must have been written before the days of David or Solomon appears from xv. 63, compared with 2 Sam. v. 7-9, and from xvi. 10, compared with I King3 ix. 16. Additions to the original documents may be seen in xix. 47 (Judges xviii. 27-29: xv. 13, 19, see Judges i. 11-16), and xxiv. 29-33. The facts recorded in this book are repeatedly cited,a and several predictions are found in the book itself.b Joshua, whose victories are described, was an Ephraimite (b 1536), one of the spies, a faithful servant and companion of Moses Mr-L history during many years. He was permitted to ascend Sinai with him, just previous to the giving of the law. He seems also to have been intrusted with the special care of the tabernacle, Exod. xxxiii. 11. After the death of Moses he took the command of the Israelites, having been early designated to that office, by God himself. Originally he was called Oshea, a saviour, or one saved; but afterwards Moses called him Joshua, "he shall save," or "the salvation of Jehovah," referring no doubt to the work which God was to accomaplish by him. In this office he is a type of our Lord. His character and history are highly instructive. The. and