JOHNA.SEAVERNS iil''.,.,;J:i, r V UNITED STATES Business Man^s, Farmer^s & Gardener^s COMPANION, AND COMPLETE DOMESTIC ANIMAL DOCTOR. COMPRISING VALUABLE INFORMATION IN RESPECT TO CONTRACTS, BILLS, NOTES, AND THE VARIOUS FORMS OF LAW : Deduced from the Opinions of Judges Story, Kent, and others i FORMING A COMPLETE LEGAL ADVISOR. ALSO, THE VERY BEST DIRECTIONS FOR Analyzings Emiching^ and Tilling the Soil; DRAWN FROM THE Ohen&ical Investigations of Liebig, Sir H* Davy, and others* ALSO, AN EXCELLENT SYSTEM OF GARDENING. BY WM. COBBITT, M. P. TO WHICH IS ADDED, THE MOST CELEBRATED METHOD OF RAISING AND DOCTORING HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, AND SWWR, EVER PRESENTED TO THE PUBLIC. BY -WILLIAM YOUATT A FRANCIS CliA^ER. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED AT 128 NASSAU STREET. 185 1. ^»^N^N^»^^#^ Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1351, BY E. HUTCHINSON, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New- York. Business Man's & Farmer's Lawyer ; LEGAL & COMMERCIAL INSTRUCTOR. CONTENTS. A PAGE I PAQB Acceptance .... 9 Interest Table— Legal , 19 Accomaiodation Bill and Nous . 10 L Affidavits and Depositions 16 Leases T,ease — Form of ^ 29 Agtni .... 12 as Agreenient .... 13 15 33 M Alteration ... Apprenticeship— Indenture of B Marriage Certificates do. Settlements . • 18 30 do. do a Jointuie set- Bill of Lading 18 tied on an intended Wife 30 Bond— Form of a simple 26 Mortgacres 40 Bonds ..... c 26 Mungage of Real Estate . . 41 N Coin.s-Gold .... do. —Silver 45 47 Note— Promissory do. on Tiinu 8 22 D • do. on Demand 22 Deeds 36 do. Payable at Bank , 22 Deed— Form of a Quit Claim 37 do do. by Instalments 23 . Treatment . . .la S'nn-I.alt .... 10 SwH lowin?, without Grinding . 31 Swelled Legs ... 21 Uo CO. Remedy . . £1 T Tetanus, or Locked Jaw . . 9 do. do ?ympti ms . 9 do. CO. Rem< liy 10 Thickening of the Back Sinews . 47 Tripping .... 39 Unsteadiness while bi ing Mi unied. 27 V Vices, and Dipaereeah'e or Danger- ous Iliibiia of the Horse . 2) Vicious to Cean ... 29 do. Shi>c . .30 w Osfltt\caiiun o( the Lateral Caiii.cged 4o . Weaning DIRECTIONS RAISING CATTLE, SHEEP & SWINE. CONTENTS, AliTH'ive Powder lor Swir.e AIUMt VV'Uey . . . '^ Ai>i'|>l«-xy iinii Inllamnulioo of the Braiii. in Swine . . 4.') d,. ilo Symptoms ol 45 ^^4*^ I Lic'^^rick!', and Flies . Lull:/.— liillainmdiion of . JNl FAOa . 43 Ars.- ical Wisli lor Slieep l.icc . 4- AstiUiiieiit Uiiiik • • ^' dj. do. with Mutton Suet 23 B Bladder— Inflammation of (1.1 do. Drink lor B!er iing . • • • Bov/i'.s -Inflammation of Brdi.i— latiainniatioii uf, in Sheep C Ch ki'i? . . . ^ CoH a! ticinof the Milk Coi ! n i Cough— Uor^e, in Cattle Col ', (lid disi-.haigc from ilie Nose, in Sliei-u Coo : i; Fever Drink . Co :,a Unnk . . »• Cos i .-u-ss i; >. in Swir.c Con -!!i and Ft' ver Drink Cow I'lKk .... do. Lotion for . D Diar hoBa (or Pursing) in Cattle . di). do. Sheep DiSi^'.sesof Horned Cattle d . . Sheep Dlu.viic D.iiik . . . 'Mi DystMiery, Sling Flux, or Scourinj Hot .... 21 do. do. do. Causes 22 do. do. do. Remedy 22 F Fevr Medicine for Swine . . 45 Flv I'l'W ler lor Sheep . • 43 Fool Rji ill Micep . . .40 do. do. Tieaimcntof. 41 G Car?»»t, (or the Downfall in ihl Udder 01 ihe Cow ■ ■ ' ^S ^o Iodine Ointment for . . 25 I Inflammation ■ ' ' cJ\ 20 Mnnee .... Mcaslc^i .... do. Remedy f.ir Mercurial (i.irgei Ointment do Wrish, lor She-p Lice Milk ►ever (or the l)n>p) Mixiine lor .'lie lloi in Sheep . ,lo. do. lio No. Murrain, (or PcHilcnti..! Fevei) &>. di) Drink lor do. do. Tonic U. ink for M o Ointment for Sore Teats . . 26 P Phy-ic • • • • 12 [•i-^'-'i"? g poisons ...•<** Q Quinsy . 29 R Red Water. . . . 2S do. Recipe • -4 Rheumaiism. (or .Joint Fehm) . 15 .lo. Solpnur Pui-ging Drink 15 llheum:itic Drink on EmJnocaiion 3ti 16 30 . 39 40 37 Rot, in Sheep 7 do. Symptoms of do R rnedy scab, in Sheep . . . • j| ,lo Rempdy . . ''i do Ml d Oininienl for . « Son? F.Hrs, in Swine . « Stjioiiiiig • ' \\ d.>. M(kI« of in'^ertini; . M do. Hlisieriim O mm 't . . « Stag' e-p, (or Swi inning in the Head of Citth) . • , ■ .\a do i\^. do. < f Sheep J3 Sion.' in the Urinary Pasa.iges, (or Rind e ) . • • f J^ Strong Physic Drink \' Swr».:— Di-^aseB o*- . ,, • ** SvfirjoMis o F.pi iemic Cold, or Ca- tairh, or lnlln 00. K , Nov. 8, 185 . ibush, ten dolla H. W. FISH. Due James A. Quackenbush, ten dollars', three months from date. Payable in Wood. $20 00. K , Nov. 8, 185 . Due James D. Lamb, twenty dollars, payable in wood, next February, at the current price. T. W. BOYD. 26 LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. Payable in Work. $8 00. K , Nov. 8, 185 . Due Hiram L. Wharton, eight dollars, payable in work. ^ ^ F. K. LAIGHT. BONDS. Bonds are of two kinds, simple and penal. A simple bond is an obligation to pay a certain amount of money, or to perform, or not to perform, some specified act. FORM OF A SIMPLE BOND. Know all men by these presents, that I, B. L., of Coutsville, am holden and firmly bound to K. M., of M , in the sum of five thousand dollars, to be paid to the said K. M., or his certain attorney, executors, or administrators, or assigns ; for which payment well and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors, and administrators, firmly, by these presents. Signed with my hand, sealed with mv seal, and dated Oct. 8, 185 . B. LEECH, (l. s.) Signed, sealed, and delivered, ^ in the presence of T. Sutton. \ LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. 27 ORDERS. For Money, $12 00. K , Oct. 8, 185 . Messrs. Hines & Davis. Please pay the bearer twelve dollars, and charge the same to the account of JOSEPH GREEN. Fcyr Merchandize, $10 00. K , Oct. 8, 185 . Messrs. Hines & Davis. Gents. : Please let the bearer have ten dolllars in merchandise, and place the same to the ac- count of Yours, &c. T. L. MORRia K , Oct. 8, 185 . Please let Mr. F. M. Hines have such goods as he may wish, and charge to account of GEORGE GREEN. To Messrs. SHIPMAN & Co. If S. (fe Co., resided in another town from the one in which the order is dated, the name of the town in which they reside should be written under their names. 28 LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. DRAFTS. Drafts at Sight, $150 00. K , Oct. 8, 185 . At sight, pa> to the order of B. B. Briggs, one hun- dred and fifty dollars, value received, and charge the same to the account of F. M. HINES. 7o W. N. LAWSON, Orange Co. Thirty Days after Date. $1,000 00. K , Oct. 8, 185 . Thirty days after date, pay to the order of J. S. Turney, one thousand dollars, and place the same to the account of J. HUTCHINS. To PAUL NORRIS, Baltimore, Md. LEGAL INSTRUCTOR, 29 LEASES. A lease is the conveyance of lands for one or more years, or at will, in consideration of a return of rent or other recompense. A lease not in writing may be valid for a short time, but it will prevent dispute, and is better to be in writing. FORMS OP A LEASE. This indenture, made the first day of January, in the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty, between L. M,, in the town of , county of , and State of , of the first part, and M. O., of the same place, of the second part, witnesseth, that the said party of the first part has let. and by these presents does grant, demise, and let, unto the said party of the second part [here describe premises ; if land say, "all that certain piece or parcel of land known," (fcc, or, "bounded and described as follows, to wit :"] with the appurte- nances, for the term of five years, from the first day of May, one thousand eight hundred and fifty, at the yearly rent or sum of one hundred dollars, to be paid in equal half-yearly payments. And it is agreed that if any rent shall be due and unpaid, or if default shall be made in any of the covenants herein contained, then it shall be lawful for the said party of the first part to re- enter the said premises, or to destrain for any rent tliat may remain due thereon. And the said party of the second part does hereby covenant to pay to tbe said party of the first part, the said yearly rent as herein spe- cified, and that, at the expiration of the said term, the said party of the second part will quit and surrender the premises hereby demised, in as good state and condition 30 LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. as reasonable use and wear thereof will permit, dannages by the elements excepted. And the said party of the first part, does covenant that the said party of the second part, on paying the said yearly rent, and performing the covenants aforesaid, shall and may peaceably and qui etly have, hold, and enjoy, the said demised premises foi the term aforesaid. In witness whereof, the parties to these presents have hereunto set their hands and seals, the day and year first above written. Sealed and delivered in ^ the presence of T. E. B. S L. M. (l.s.^, M. O. (l.s.) MARRIAGE SETTLEMENTS. A Jointure Settled on an intended Wife. This indenture, made and agreed upon between L. E. of , and P. T. of , on the one part, and O. E. ot , widow, on the other part, witnesseth, that the said L. E., in consideration of a marriage to be had and solemnized between him and the said O. E., does, for himself, his heirs, and assigns, covenant, grant, and agree, to and with the said P. T., his heirs and assigns, shall and will fprevcr hersafter stand seized of and in that tract of land situate in , whereof he is now ac- tually and lawfully seized in fee simple, to the uses fol- lowing, that is to say, to the use of the said L. E., for and during the termof liis natural life, without impeach- ment of waste, and after his said marriage with the said O. E.. and after his decease, to her use, so long as she LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. 3| shall remain his widow, and unmarried, without im peachment of waste fo, her .jointure, and in heu and satLsfaclion of her whole.dower in his estate, and after Ins decease, and the expiration of her said estate, to the use ol Ins hens and assigns forever. And the said L. R, in consideration of the premises and one dohar paid, does, for himself, his heirs, execu- tors, and admmistrators, covenant and agree with the said P. T., brother to the said O. E., his executors and admmistrators, that said marriage being solemnized, he the said L. E., will carefully, and according to his best judgment, husband, manage, and preserve her estate which she now has, and which during the said marriao-e she may receive by descent, or the statute of distribu- tions from her relations ; and take and recover to his own use, only the interest and income thereof, during the said marriage, and at the expiration thereof by his will or otherwise, he the said L. E., will leave secured to her, 1^ she survives him, or to her heirs, if he shall sur- vive her, all her said estate, except the said interest and income thereof during the said marriage, and except such parts of her said estate as shall be unavoidably consunied or destroyed, or be worn out in common use or lost by the insolvency of those to whom the same, or any part thereof, shall be lent on interest; and that the ^aid U. E., at any time in her life-time, shall have power by her appointment testamentary, to name the person or persons^ who shall be entitled to have her said estate alter her decease ; and that, by virtue thereof, it shall he lawful for such person or persons to receive and hold the same. And the said O. E., in consideration of the premises and one dollar, paid her by the said L. E., does, for herself, her heirs, executors, and administrators, covenant and agree with him, the said L. E., that the said land, so assigned to her, shall be in full satisfaction or her dower in his estate, and shall bar her from claim- ing the same, if she shall survive after the said marriao-e • and further, that if the said marriage be had, and she 32 LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. survive him, she will not claim any share in his personal estate, but her retaining her own estate, as aforesaid, shall be a bar to her claim to, any part of his personal estate after his decease, unless some part thereof be given to her by his will, or some act of his done after the execution hereof. In witness, (fcc. FORM OF A WILL. In the name of God, Amen. I, O. B., of the town of -, in the county of , and State of being of sound mind and memory (blessed be Almighty God for the same), do make and publish this my last will and testament. I give and bequeath to my sons Jacob and Oren, eight hundred dollars each, if they shall have attained the age <»f twenty-one years before my decease, but if they shall be under the age of twenty-one at my decease, then I fX'we to them one thousand dollars each, the last men- tioned sum to be in place of the first mentioned. I give and bequeath to my beloved wife Susan, all my household furniture and all the rest of my personal pro- perty, after paying from the same the several legacies already named, to be hers for ever ; but if there should not be at my decease sufficient personal property to pay the aforesaid legacies, then so much of my real estate shall be sold as will raise sufficient money to pay the same. 1 also give, devise, and bequeath, to my beloved wife Susan, all the rest and residue of my real estate as long as she shall remain unmarried, and my widow, but on her decease or marriage, the remainder thereof I give LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. 33 and devise to my said cfiildien and their heirs, respec- tively, to be divided in equal shares between them. I do nominate and appoint my beloved wife Susan to be the sole executrix of this my last will and testament. In testimony whereof, I hereunto set my hand and seal, and publish and decree this to be my last will and testament in presence of the witnesses named below, this day of , in the year of our Lord, one thou- sand eight hundred and . O. B. (l. s.) Signed, sealed, declared, and published by the said O. B., as and for his last will and testament, in presence of us, who, at his request and in his presence, and in presence of each other, have subscribed our names as witnesses hereto. C. D., residing at , in county. P. G., residing at , in county. INDENTURE OF APPRENTICESHIP. This indenture, made this 1st day of October, in the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty, between O. S., of Lyme, of the Srate of , father of E. li, a minor under the age of twenty-one years, of the one part, and A. K. of Newport, in the aforesaid State, of the other part, witnesseth : That the said O. S. has placed and bound his son, E. P., an apprentice to the said A. K., to be instructed in the art, mystery of trade, and occupation of shoefnaking, which the said A. K. now uses, and to live with him, and serve him as an apprentice, from the date hereof, until he, the said E. P., shall arrive at the age of twenty- 34 LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. one years, which will be on the day of , A. D. ; all which time the said E. B. as an apprentice, shall faithfully serve, and be just and true to him, the said A. K., as his master ; his secrets he shall keep, and his lawful commands obey ; he shall do no injury to his master, in his person, family, or property, nor suffer it to be done by others ; he shall not embezzle or waste his master's property, nor lend it without his consent; he shall not play at unlawful games, nor frequent taverns or tippling-houses ; he shall not contract marriage, nor at any time leave his master's service without his con- sent ; but in all things, as a good and faithful apprentice, he shall and will behave himself to his said master, during the time aforesaid. And the said A. K., on his part, in consideration of the premises, covenants and agrees with the said father and son, each by himself, re- spectively and jointly, to teach and instruct the said E. R, as his apprentice, or otherwise cause him to be well and sufficiently instructed and taught, in the art, mys- tery, trade, and occupation of shoemaking, in the best manner in his power, and to teach and instruct, or cause him to be taught and instructed, to read, to write, and to cipher as far as the first four rules of arithmetic ; to educate him in the principles of religion and virtue, and train him to habits of faithfulness, industry, and econ- omy. And the said master shall and will provide for the said apprentice, meat, drink, washing, lodging, and ap- parel, in winter and suuuner, on common and holy days ; and all necessaries, in sickness and in health, proper and convenient for an apprentice, during the time of his said apprenticeship ; and at the expiration thereof, shall and will give to said apprentice — [here insert such articles as may be agreed upon between the parties]. In witness whereof, the parties have hereunto set their LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. 35 hands and seals, as well as to a duplicate of the same tenor and date. O. S. (l. s.) E. B. (l. s.) A. K. (l. s.) Signed, sealed, and delivered, in ) the presence of M. O. > M. L. ) Duplicates should be issued alike in all of their parts. An indenture by a guardian of his ward may be in the same form as the above, only changing the word father for guardian. An indenture of this form will bind the father or guardian to a faithful performance of the covenant on the part of the apprentice, and will subject him to danaages for his misconduct or non-performance. When the person binding an apprentice does not intend to make himseif liable on the indenture, but merely to give the power of a master over the apprentice, it may be so specified. 36 LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. DEEDS. All writings under the seal are deeds, but in common acceptation it is an instrument conveying lands. A deed must be for a consideration. The consideration may be money, goods, services, or marriage. Or the consideration may be love, natural affection, or connection by blood. A deed must be written oi printed. There must be sufficient parties. There should be two witnesses to a deed in New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Penn- sylvania, Ohio, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Delaware, Tennessee, and North and South Carohna. In the other States one witness will answer. It is required in some of the States, that the wife sign the deed, to free the estate from her right of dower. There should be a seal of wax or wafer to each sig- nature of a party to a deed. In some of the States, a scroll of ink with a pen is of the same vahdity as a seal ; but there must be evidence of an intention to substitute the scroll for a seal. In Vermont, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, deeds are recorded by the town clerks of the several towns in which the lands lie. In other States they are recorded by recordino: officers, acting under various names. In New Ham[)shire and Vermont a deed may be put on record before it is acknowledged, but it will be avail- able only against the claims of creditors and subsequent purchasers for sixty days. In most of the States a deed may be good against the grantor and his heirs, without being acknowledged or LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. 37 recorded, but they will not avail against the attachment of a creditor, or the rights of a subsequent purchaser. It is not generally safe to depart from accustomed usages in the wording of deeds. Form of a Quit- Claim Deed. Know all men by these presents, that we, O. S., of, (fcc, and D., the wife of the said N., in consideration of the sum of , to us in hand paid by O. P., of, (fee, the receipt whereof we do hereby acknowledge, have bargained, sold, and quit-claimed, and by these presents do bargain, sell, and quit-claim, unto the said O. P., and to his heirs and assigns for ever, all our, and each of our right, title, interest, estate, claim, and demand, both at law and iri equity, and as well in possession as in expec- tancy, of, in, and to all that certain farm, or piece of land, situate, (fee. [describing it], with all and singular the hereditaments and appurtenances thereunto be- longing. In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals, this day of , in the year . Quit- Claim Deed with Covenant. This indenture made the first day of January, in the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty, between O. N., of the city of Albany, county of , and State of New York, party of the first part, and J. N., of the town of , county of , and State of , party of the second part, witnesseth, that the said party 38 LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. of the first part, for and in consideration of the sum of five thousand five hundred and fifty dollars, lawful money of the United States of Amer^ica, to him in hand paid, by the said party of tlie second part, at or before the ensealing and delivery of these presents, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, has remised, released, and quit-claimed, and by these presents does remise, re- lease, and quit-claim, unto the said party of the second part, and to his heirs aiid assigns for ever, all [here de- scribe land sold] ; together with alj and singular the ten- ements, hereditaments, and appurtenances, thereunto beloijging, or in anywise appertaining, and the rever- sion and reversions, remainder and remainders, rents, issues, and profits thereof. And also, all the estate, right, , title, interest, property, possession, claim, and demand whatsoever, as well in law as in equity, of the said party of the first part, of, in, or to the above de- scribed premises, and every part and parcel thereof, with the appurtenances. To have and to hold, all and sin- gular the above mentioned and described premises, to- gether with the appurtenances, unto the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns for ever. And the said party of the first part for himself, his heirs, execu- tors, and administrators, does hereby covenant, promise, and agree, to and with the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, that he has not made, done, com- mitted, executed, or sufferecl ^ny act or acts, thing or things whatsoever, whereby, or by means whereof, the above mentioned and described premises, or any part or parcel thereof, now are, or at any time hereafter shall or may be impeached, charged, or encumbered, in any manner or way whatsoever. In witness whereof, the said party of the first part has hereunto set his hand and seal, the day and year first above written. O. N. (l.s.) Sealed and delivered in ) the presence of V. S. \ LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. HO Form of Acknoirledginent of Deeds in Maine^ New H(t?npshire, 3Iassachuselts, Vermont, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, by Husband and Wife. Comn.onwealth [or, State] of , 1 County of , ss. [town and date.] \ Then peisonally appeared the above named O. S., [and E. S., iiis wife, and severally foregoing instrument to be his before me, ' N. \V., Justice of the Peace. and acknowledged the tlieirs] free act and deed By a Person Conveying by a Power of Attorney, Commonwealth [or, State] of County of , 55. [town and date.] \ Then personally appeared the above named O. N., who signed and sealed the foregoing instrument as the attorney of the above named E. R., and acknowledge the same to be his free act and deed ; before me, J. N., Justice of the Peace. .\ Certificate of Acknowledgment of a Deed of Property in New York, the grantor being known to the Officer. State of New^ York, Putnam County, ^ On this day of , in the year , personally appeared O. N , and acknowledged the within convey- ance to be his act and deed, and I certify that I well know the said O. N., and that he is the same person who is described in the within conveyance, and who ex- ecuted the same. N. B., Commissioner of Deeds, for said County of Putnam. 40 LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. MORTGAGES. A mortgage is the conveyance of property, subject to rights of redemption. A mortgage made to secure the purchase-money, will take the preference of any other mortgage. A mortgage on personal property, made io secure the payment of any money except the purchase-nioney, should be accompanied by the delivery of the goods to the mortgagee, and be followed by his continued posses- sion of the property. A mortgage on personal 'property may be available security, even if the possession of the property is not changed ; provided the requirements of law are complied with, and there is no previous mortgage, and it can be made to appear that such mortgage was given for a val- uable consideration, and without intent to defraud credi- tors. All mortgages made \^ ith intent to defraud creditors are void. Mortgages on personal property, where the possession is not changed, occasion innumerable suits at law^ In Maine, the property mortgaged, should be delivered to, and retained by the mortgagee, and the mortgage should be recorded in the office of the clerk of the town in which the morigager resides. In Massachusetts. Connecticut, and several other States, mortgages on personal property, when the mort- gager retains possession, must be recorded by the clerk of the town where the mortgager resides, and in the town where he principally transacts his business. In New York State, a mortgage on real property must be recorded in the clerk's office of the countv where the LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. 41 estate lies. And all mortgages, or a true copy thereof, on personal property, must be filed — if in the city of New York, in the ollice of the register ; if in any other place in the State, in the town clerk's office where the mortgager resides. And all mortgages on personal pro- perty will cease to be valid after one year, unless within thirty days next preceding the expiration of the year, a copy of the mortgage is again filed. In New Jersey, mortgages must be acknowledged, proved, and recorded, in the same manner as deeds. The mortgager is entitled to redeem his property in New York, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, New Hampshj'e, &c. In Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Maine, he has three years in which to redeem it. Mortgage of Real Estate, Know all men by these presents, That I, A. N., of -, in the county of , and State of , yeoman for and in consideration of dollars, paid by E. V., of , in the county of , merchant, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, do hereby give, grant, bargain, sell, and convey, unto the said E. V.. his heirs and assigns, for ever, a certain parcel of land situate in , in said county of , together with all the privileges and appurtenances to the same belonging, and bounded as follows : [Here insert the boundaries.^ To have and to hold the above granted premises to the said E. V., his heirs and assigns, to his and their use 4S LEGAL INSTR' / and beboof for ever. And I do, for n/y.-if .'^v aP c , ecutors, and administrators, covenant aiid Crigage lo d,L. with the said E. V., his heirs and assigns, that I am law fullv seized in fee simple of the afore-granted premises ; thai they are free from all incumbrances ; that I have good right to sell and convey the same to the said E. W., his heirs and assigns ; and that I will, and my heirs, executors, and administrators, shall, warrant and defend the same to the said E. V., his heirs and assigns, for ever, against the lawful claims and demands of all per- sons. Provided nevertheless, That if the said A. N., his heirs, executors, administrators, or assigns, shall pay unto the said E. Y., his executors, administrators, or as- signs, the sum of dollars, in years from the date hereof, then this deed, as also a certain promissory note bearing even date with these presents, given by the said A. N., to the said E. V., whereby he promises to pay the said sum at the time aforesaid, with interest semi- annually at the rate of six per centum, shall both be void to all intents and purposes, otherwise shall remain in full force and virtue. In witness whereof, we, the said A. N., and U. B.,v wife of the said A. N., who hereby relinquishes all her right of dower in the above named piemises, have here- unto set our hands and seals, this day of , in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and fifty. A. N. (l. s.) E. B. (l. s.) Signed, sealed, and delivered, in presence of [Must be acknowledged and recorded.] LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. 43 CERTIFICATES OF RENTING. Tenant's Agreement in Common Use, This is to certify, that I have hired and taken from B. D.j all that certain brick store in the city of New- York, on the east side of Nassau street, No. — , now oc- cupied by O. L. as a book and periodical store, for the term of one year from the first day of January, 1851, at the yearly rent of one thousand dollars, payable in quar- terly payments, to be made on the first day of April, July, October, and January. And I hereby promise to make punctual payment of the rent in manner aforesaid, and quit and surrender the premises at the expiration of the said term, in as good state and condition as reasonable use and wear thereof will permit, damages by the elements excepted, and en- gage not to let or underlet the whole or any part of the said premises, or occupy the sanie for any business deemed extra-hazardous on account of fire, without the written consent of the landlord, under the penalty of for- feiture and damages. Given under my hand and seal, the first day of Jan- uary, lb51. O. W. N. (l. s.) Landlord's Agreement in Common Use, . This is to certify, that I have let and rented unto S. S., all that certain brick store in the city of Brooklyn, on the east side of Fulton street, No. — , now occupied by 44 LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. E. S., as a book and periodical store, for the term of one year from the first day of January, 1851, at the yearly rent of one thousand dollars, payable in quarterly pay- ments, to be made on the first days of April, July, Octo- ber, and January. The premises are not be used or oc- cupied for any business deemed extra-hazardous on ac- count of'fire, nor shall the same, or any part thereof, be let or underlet, without the written consent of the land- lord, under the penalty of forfeiture and damages. Given under my hand and seal, the first day of Jan- uary, 1851. P. A- (l. s.) FEES PAYABLE AT THE PATENT OFFICE. If a citizen of the United States, as a patent-fee $30 00 If a foreigner, who has resided in the U. States one year next preceding tiie application for a patent, and shall have made oath of his inten- tion to become a citizen - - - 30 00 If a subject of the sovereign of Great Britain 500 00 All other foreigners - - - 300 00 On entering an application for an appeal from the decision of the conunissioner - 25 00 On extending a pntent beyond fourteen years 40 00 For adding to a patent the specification of a sub- sequent improvement - - 15 00 In case of reissue, for every additional patent 30 00 On surrender of an old patent to be reissued, or correct a mistake of the patentee - 15 00 For a disclaimer - - - - 10 00 For a design patent - - - 15 00 LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. 4^ GOLD COINS. $ cts. United States Eagle, since 1834 - 10 00 United States Eagle, before 1834 - 10 43 United States Half Eagle 5 00 to » 5 22 United States Gluarter Eagle . 2 50 tc ► 2 61 Doubloon, Mexico - - - 15 46 to 15 60 Doubloon, Spain, 1802 - 15 90 Doubloon, Chili, 1841 - 15 55 Doubloon, Bolivia, 1839 - 15 60 Doubloon, Peru, 1827 - 15 60 Doubloon, New Granada - 15 60 Doubloon, Central America - 15 60 Half Doubloon, Bolivia, 1836 - 7 75 auarter Doubloon, Chili, 1840 - 3 80 Quarter Doubloon, Peru - 3 80 Quarter Doubloon, Colombia - 3 80 Quarter Doubloon, Bolivia, 1835 • - 3 80 Guinea - . - . . 5 00 Half Guinea - 2 50 Seven Shilling Piece . 1 70 Sovereign - - . - . 4 80 to 4 84 Double Louis, France, before 1786 - 7 20 Double Louis, France, since 1786 9 02 1 to 9 12 Double Louis, Malta - 9 23 Louis, France, 5 pwts. and 5 3-4 grs. -■ 4 63 46 LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. 9cu Louis, France, 4 pwts. and 22 grs. Louis, Malta Demi Louis, Malta - - - - Forty Francs . - - 4 56 4 64 . 4 33 7 67 Twenty Francs Ducat, Frankfort - - - Ducat, current, Denmark Ducat, specie, Denmark - • . - Ducat, Cologne - - - Ducat, Bern - . - . 3 83 - 2 26 . - 1 80 - 2 26 - 2 26 2 00 Ducat, Hungary Ducat, Holland ... 2 29 2 26 Ducat, Hanover - . . • Ducat, Brunswick - - 2 28 2 24 Ducat, Hamburg - - * • Ducat, Sweden .... - 2 25 2 23 Ducat, Saxony • - Ducat, Russia, 1763 2 23 to 2 26 2 26 Ducat, Russia, 1796 2 28 Six Ducat Piece, Naples, 1783 5 22 Two Ducat Piece, Naples, 1762 - 1 5^) Three Ducat Piece, Naples, J 818 Ducat, Prussia ... 2 48 2 25 to 2 27 Ducat., Poland - 2 26 Ducat, Wurtemburg . . - 2 22 Wurtcnibiirg - , . - - 4 87 Pistole, old, Geneva . . - - 3 96 Pistole, New, Geneva - 3 40 Pistole, Brunsw.ick - . - - 4 53 LEGAL INSTRUCTOR. 47 $ cts. Pistole, Bern - 4 51 Pistole, Parma - - - - 4 10 to 4 IB Pistole, Spain, 1801 98 Gold Florin. Hanover - - - • 1 65 George d'or, Hanover - - - - 3 97 Christian d'or, Denmark - - - 4 00 Seguin, Tuscany - - - - - 2 28 Seguin, Turkey - - - . 1 81 to 1 85 Forty Line Piece, Milan, 1808 .- - - 7 45 Seguin, Milan 2 27 Seguin, Rome, since 1748 - - - - 2 23 Seguin, Piedmont - . - - . 2 27 Gold Ruble, Russia - - - - 73 to 96 Imperial, Russia, 1801 - - - ♦ 7 78 Half Imperial, Russia, 1808 - - - - 3 91 Five Thalers, Germany, 1825 - - - 3 90 Ten Guilders - - . . 4 00 SILVER COINS. $ctg. United States Dollar 1 GO Mexican Dollar - - • - 1 80 Mexican Real .... 12 English Crown - - - 1 09 to I 21 English Half Crown "^ . . - 60 English Shilling 23 English Sixpence 11 Quarter Franc . - - « 4 48 LEQAL INSTRUCTOR. $ CtS. Half Franc - - . - - 8 One Franc - - - - 17 Two Francs ... - - • 34 Five Francs 93 to 95 French Crown 1 06 One Livre - - - - - 1 07 Base Dollar, Colombia - - - 70 Base Dollar, New Granada - - - - 65 Spanish Dollar - - - I 00 to 1 01 Spanish Real - - - - 12 Cross Pistareen ------ 16 Dollar, La Plata 90 Dollar, Colombia - - - - 1 00 Quarter Dollar, Chili 23 Two Reals, Ecuador - - - 13 Quarter Dollar, Guatemala - - - - 22 Dollar, Peru - - - - 1 00 Two Reals, Central America - - - 23 Dollar, Bolivia, 1838 - - - I 00 Half Dollar, Bolivia, 1830 - . - - 48 Rupee, 1835 .... 40 Crown, Tuscany ------ 97 Spudo, Naples - - - - 94 One Guilder, Holland - - - - - 36 Rix Dollar 92 to 96 One Thaler, Germany - - - 66 Rix Dollar, 1812 . - - - 66 Dollar, Hungary - - - - 93 One Guilder, Germany - - - - 37 DIRECTIONS FOR FARMING. ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. SOILS. EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS. The Soil is the upper portion of the ground in which plants are produced-. It forms a stratum of from a few inches to a foot or more in depth. It is usually some- what dark in color, arising from the mixing with it of the decomposed stems, leaves, and other parts of plants \*rhich had grown upon it, and in part often from the pre- sence of animal substances. The decomposed organic portion of the soil may be termed mould ; mould distin- guishes the soil from the subsoil. Soils are termed rich or poor : with relation to their texture, they may be termed stiff,— and free or light. — The stiff soils are those which are tenacious and cohe- sive in their parts ; the light or free soils are those which are of a looser texture, and whose parts are easily sep- arated. All soils which possess this cohesive property in a con- 10 ELEMENTS OP sideiable degree, are termed clays ; while all the looser soils are termed Ilffht oi free. When soils are naturally fertile, or rendered perma- nently so by art, they are termed loa?/is. Subsoils are distinguished from soils by the absence of mould. Soils may be distinguished according to their texture and constitution, and they may be divided into two classes.— the stiff or strong, denominated Clays, — the light or free, subdivided into the Sandy, Gravelly, and Peaty ; and all these, again, may be distinguished, 1st, According to their powers of production, when they are termed Rich or Poor ; and 2dj According to their habitual relation with respect to moisture, when they are termed Wet or Dry. THE PROPERTIES OF SOILS AS DETERMINED BY CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. Soils consist chiefly of silica, alumina, hme, magnesia, oxide of iron, potassa, and soda, together with a portion of matter derived from organic substances. The soil, then, may be chiefly regarded, 1st, As the instrument for fixing the roots of plants in the ground ; and, 2d, As a medium for conveying to them the water holding dissolved the different substances which pass into the plant. The order in which the principal substances that en- ter into the composition of soils possess an absorbent power, is the following : 1. Animal and vegetable substances. 2. Alumina. 3. Carbonate of Lime. 4. Silica. The following conclusions may be given as deducible from the investigations of chemists : 1. Soils, in which a large quantity of silica and alumina PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 11 exists in the state of fine divisions, are comparatively fertile. 2. Soils in which the quantity of sihceous.sand is large are comparatively infertile ; while soils in which the sand is fine and only partially siliceous, are compare atively fertile. 3. Iron exists in all spils, but does not influence their fertility in proportion to its larger or smaller quan- tity. 4. An excess of the acid combinations of the oxide of iron, and certain other saline bodies, is hurtful to veg- etation. 6. Carbonate of hme exists in the best soils, and, gen- erally, though not always, in larger quantity in the bet- ter than in the inferior soils. 6. Certain earths possess the power of combining chemically with animal and vegetable matter, and of retaining it for a longer or shorter time. Thus, alumina and lime form certain compounds of greater or less in- solubility with animal and vegetable matters, while silica will not enter into the same combinations ; and hence it is that aluminous and calcareous soils retain for a longer time the manure applied to them than sili- ceous soils. 7. When w^ater is in excess in the soil, and when vegetable matter is present, acid is formed which is injurious to the productive powers of the soil. Far- mers are familiar with this effect, and say that the soil is soured. 8. Soils, besides absorbing moisture from the air, ap- pear to absorb carbon and other matters nutrimental to plants. MEANS OF INCREASING THE PRODUCTIVE POWERS CF SOILS. 1. Supply the soil with those organic and earthy sub- stances which may be required. 2. Alter its texture, depih, and properties, by tillage and other means. 12 ELEMENTS OF 3. Change its relation with respect to moisture. 4. Change its relation with respect to temperature, MANURES. There are, — 1. Animal and Vegetable Manures. 2. Mineral Manures. 3. Mixed Manures. Lime may be applied to the land thus : 1. It may be laid on the surface of land which is in grass, and remain there until the land is ploughed up for tillage. Lime, in this case, quickly sinks into the soil, and acting upon it, prepares it for crops when it is again tilled. 2. It may be spread upon the ground, and covered by the plough, just after a crop of any kind has been reaped. 3. It may be spread upon the surface even when plants are growing. 4. It may be, and is most frequently, applied during the season in which the land is in fallow, or in prepara- tion for what are termed fallow crops. 5. It may be mixed with earthy matter, particularly with that containing vegetable remains; forming a compost. IMPLEMENTS OF TtlE FARM. 1. Implements for preparing land for plants to be cultivated. These may be called the Implements of Preparatory Tillage : 1.. The Plough. 2. The Harrow. 3. The Roller. 2. Machines for Sowing: 1. Corn in rows. PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 18 2. Corn and Grass-seeds broad-cast. 3. The Seeds of the Bean and Pea. 4. Tlie smaller Seeds in rows. 3. Implements for Hoeing. Horse-Hoes, &c. 4. Machines for Thrashing and Winnowing. 1. Thrashing-Macliine. 2. Winnowing-Machine. 5. Implements for preparing food for live-stock. 1. Turnip-slicer. 2. Chaff-cutter, &c. 6. Wheel-carriages. 1. Single and Double-horse Cart, or Wagon. 2. Sparred or Corn-cart. 7. Utensils of Dairy. 1. Churn. 2. Cheese-press, &c. 8. Implements of Manual Labor, &c. Barrows, Forks, Spades, Shovels, 6cc. PLOUGHING. The medium' depth of good ploughing may be held to be seven inches. When circumstances, as the kind of crop and the nature of the soil, do not require deep ploughing, the depth may be less. The common calculation, where good ploughing is practised, is, that a pair of horses will plough an acre when in grass in nine hours. In very stiff soils less will be done ; and in very hght soils, more. DRAINING. Principles to be ever kept in mind by the tillage-far- mer are to keep his land dry, rich, and clean. In open drains, of whatever depth, the sides should 14 ELEMENTS OF possess a declivity from the top to the bottom, to prevent them from crumbling down and being undermined by the current. When drains of this class are covered, they are gen- ally made from two and a half to three feet deep, and filled with stones or other loose materials to within a foot of the surface. SUCCESSION OF CROPS. The experience of husbandmen from the earliest times has shown, that the same kinds of plants cannot be ad- vantageously cultivated in continued succession. The same or similar species tend to grow feebly, or degener- ate, or become more subject to diseases, when cultivated successively upon the same ground. All herbaceous plants, w^hen cut in their green state, ihat is, before they have matured their seeds, exhaust the soil less than w^hen they remain until they have ripened their seeds. GOOD RULES. \st, Crops consisting of plants of the same or similar species, should not follow in succession, but should re- turn at as distant intervals as the case may allow. 2d, Crops consisting of plants whose mode of growth or cultivation tends to the production of weeds, should not follow in succession. 3d, Crops whose culture admits of the destruction of weeds, should be cultivated when we cultivate plants which favor the production of weeds. And, Ath, when land is to be laid to grass, it should be done when the soil is fertile and clean. When we find that land requires rest, we may lay it down to grass for a longer or shorter time, taking care when this is done, that the land shall be in as fertile a state as circumstances will allow, and free of weeds. EXAMPLE. 1st year, Turnips or other green crop, manured. PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 16 2d " Grain-crop, as wheat, barley, or oats. 3d " Sown grasses. 4th " Grain-crop. In this course, we observe that each exhausting crop alternates with a restorative one ; and that, in each year, one-half of the farm is under exhausting, and one- half under restorative, crops. CULTIVATION OF PLANTS. I. PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. /. Cereal Grasses. Of the cereal grasses, those most commonly cultivated in this country are wheat, rye, barley, and oats. The seeds of these cereal grasses may be sown either previously to winter or in spring ; wheat and rye are, for the most part, sown before winter ; barley and oats gen- erally in the spring. In the end of summer, when the green color of the stem has nearly disappeared, and when the grain, hav- ing changed from its milky state, has somewhat har- dened, it will be proper to commence the process of reaping. WHEAT. The following species may be enumerated as admit-r ting of cultivation for their seeds : Summer Wheat. Winter or Lammas Wheat. Compact Wheat. Egyptian Wheat. Turgid Wheat. Dark-spiked Wheat. Barley-like Wheat, Far. Spelt. 19 ELEMENTS OF One-grained Wheat. Polish Wheal. The most important in the rural economy of this country is the winter-wheat. Winter-wheat is sometimes termed spring-wheat. — This merely arises from the period of sowing. If it is sown in spring, it is termed spring-wheat; if previous to winter, Lammas or winter-wheat. Wheat is of very general cultivation on all classes of soils ; but the soils which are best suited to it, are those which are more or less clayey. W^heat is subject to various accidents and diseases, some of them peculiar to itself The most dreaded and destructive of these is blight or mildew. This disease is indicated by the presence of certain minute plants of the order of Fungi, or the mushroom tribe, which grow upon the stem and leaves, and doubt- less feed upon and exhaust the juices of the plant. One of this tribe of plants, and apparently the most destructive, is Puccinia graminis, which appears in the form of small spots upon the stem, and gradually extends in lines on the surface. A disease termed rust is also very frequent and hurt- ful. It appears in the form of a brownish dust upon the stem and leaves ; and it is produced likewise by a par- asitical plant of the same family. Another . (disease of wheat, produced also by minute fungous plants, is smut. Farmers, when their wheat is greatly injured by this disease, sometimes wash it, by immersing it in vats or cisterns partly filled with water. The smut-balls and lighter grains floating to the surface are skimmed off, and the heavy and sound grain after being washed, is exposed to the air to dry, or dried in a kiln with a mod- erate heat. Certain Hies also attack the wheat, at a later stage of its growth. The Cecidomj/ia Tritici is a fly with an orange-colored body and white wings. About the month of June the female ascends the ears of wheat, and de- PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. J^ posites her eggs in these by means of a fine trunk, and in a few days she perishes. The progeny being hatch- ed in the ear, feed upon the grain. They are very small, from ten to fourteen being sometimes found in one grain, and are distinguished by being of a bright orange-color. "When stored in the granary it is subject to the attacks of the weevil and other creatures. RYE. It Stands drought better than wheat, but is more apt to suffer injury from wetness. It is a hardier plant than wheat, and less subject to the attacks of insects and diseases. Rye, though free from the diseases of wheat, is yet subject to a peculiar one. This is the ergot, a fungous plant, which, though it is found on other gramineous plants, is more especially the disease of rye. Jt is a long cartilaginous-like substance, taking the place ot the grain, and projecting from the ear. It chiefly pre. vails in humid seasons, in close situations, or where the soil is wet. BARLEY. Of the genus Hordeum^ the following species may be enumerated as cultivated for their seeds : Two-rowed Barley. Two-rowed Naked Barley. Two-rowed Sprat or Battledore Barley. Six-rowed Barley. Six-rowed Naked Barley. Six-rowed Sprat or Battledore Barley. The diseases of barley are not so numerous or fatal as those of wheat. It is attacked by the larvae of cer- tain flies. It is also subject to smut, though in a partial degree, and the fungous is usually Uredo segctum. (S ELEMENTS OP OATS. KINDS. Bristle-pointed Oat. Short Oat. Common Oat. Tartarian Oat. Naked Oat. Ave7ia sativay Common oat, is the most important of the cultivated species. MAIZE. The proper method of cultivating it is in rows at the distance from one another of from 3 to 4 feet. It is easily injured by frosts. It is a perfectly nutritious substance. The maze is a nourishing food for all the domestic animals. It is suited to the feeding of the horse : hogs get speedily fat upon it, and poultry eagerly eat the hard grains. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. THE BEAN. The bean is of the genus Faba^ of which there is reckoned one species — Faba vulgaris — Common Bean. There are two general classes, — those which are cul- tiv,ated in the fields, and are thence termed field-beans, and those which are cultivated in gardens, and so term- ed garden-beans. Of the white or garden beans, the sorts are very num- erous. The Long-podded are of the middle size of garden- beans, and there are many varieties enumerated by gar- deners. PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 19 Beans should follow a corn-crop. It is a frequent practice to mix a quantity of peas with beans, generally in the proportion of about half a bushel to the acre. The straw of the bean is nutritious and wholesome. It is generally given to horses, and is reckoned little in- ferior to hay. The most common disease of the bean is a species of rust, produced by parasitic plants of mushroom family, growing upon it in the same manner as rust or mill-dew on wheat. The animals that attack and feed upon the juices of the bean are certain aphides, the most common of which is of a bluish-black color, and is called the collier. In some seasons this creature is very destructive. It be- gins at the top of the plant and continues multiplying downwards. A remedy, which has been suggested and practised, is to cut off the top of the plants as soon as the aphides appear ; and this may be a palliative if carefully performed. THE PEA. Of the cultivated Pea there seems to be but one spe- cies, comprehending our various cultivated kinds, whe- ther grown in the garden or the field, namely : Pisum sativum — Cultivated Pea. Early hoeing in the case of this plant should never be neglected. BUCKWHEAT. Polygonum Fagopyrum — Common Buckwheat. The soils suited to it are the lighter kinds. The seeds of the buckwheat may be given advanta- geously to horses, to poultry, and to hogs. Converted into flour it makes most excellent cakes. 80 ELEMENTS OF THE TURNIP The common turnip has numerous sorts, distinguish- ed by their size, form, time of ripening, and other pro- perties. 1. The round or globular ; 2. The depressed : and, 3. The fusiform. The insect most destructive to the turnip during the first stage of its growth, is the turnip-fly. It is a species of beetle. This creature attacks the plant as soon as the cotyledon leaves are upon it ; when the plants have put on the second or rough leaves, they are regarded as safe from injury from the beetle, and hence a security against its ravages is a rapid and vigorous vegetation of the plant. There are other creatures that attack the plant at this stage, and when it has escaped these early ene- mies, it is sometimes attacked by the larvse of a species of saw-fly. CABBAGE. The kinds of the cabbage which are best suited to general cultivation in the fields are the large-headed cabbages. The proper method, however, of cultivating the pab- bage is to bow the seeds of it in the first place in beds, and ther» transplant it. THE POTATO. This plant, of tlie genus Solajium, is of the natural order fSolanecc, or the Night-shade tribe. Of all the species, the most important to the human race is— Solanum tuberosum— the Tuberous-rooted Night-shade, or Potato. The soils best adopted to the potato are of the drier and liglitcr class. • £ PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. Sf The potato requires a large supply of manure. The quantity should be from 16 to 20 tons to the acre. The starch or fecula of the potato may be obtained separately by simple means, and applied to various pur- poses of domestic economy. The accidents and diseases to which this plant is subject are, happily, not many, nor, in this coimtry at least, very formidable. We are not much troubled with the rot. THE CARROT. The most esteemed for field-culture are the Orange, and the Long-red. The Carrot, from its long fusiform root, requires a deep soil. It prefers the sandy, and rejects the stiff clays. The seeds of the carrot should be of the previous sea- son's growth. Carrots may be given to every species of stock, and they form in all cases a palatable and nutritious food. THE PARSNIP. The seeds of the parsnip may be sown either in autumn or in spring. The seeds must be new. All animals are fond of the parsnip. To milch cows it is eminently favorable, giving a flavor and richness to the milk. THE BEET. The field-beet, Beta vulgaris, is of larger size, and grows more above ground, than the garden kinds. It differs from the turnip in this, that it may be grown on stiffer soils. FLAX. The most important of the genus is — 2S8 ELEMENTS OP Linum usitatissimum— Common Flax. The soils best suited to flax are those which contam a large proportion of vegetable matter. SUGAR. The Sugar-maple, Acer sacchariiiu?n, is one of the in- numerable marvels of the American forest. The juice, which continues to flow for five or six weeks, is conveyed to a trough at the foot of each tree, and collected every- day, and poured into casks, from w^iich it is drawn to fill tbe boilers, which are upon the spot. It is then evaporated by means of a brisk fire, until the liquid is reduced to a syrup, when it is left to cool, and it is then strained through woollen cloth, to separate the impuri- ties. It is boiled a second time, until it is of a proper consistency to be poured into moulds. The sugar ob- tained in this manner is equally grateful to the taste as the brown sugar derived from the sugar-cane. PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR FRUITS. These are, — The Vine. The Apple, and others of the Apple tribe ; as the Pear, the Medlar, and the Quince. The Peach and others of the Almond tribe, as the Plum, the Apricot, and ths Cherry. The Strawberry and other fruit-bearing plants of the Rose family ; as the Raspberry, and others. The Ciooseberry, and others of the Currant tribe. The Pumpkin, and others of the (^ourd tribe. The Hazel, and' others of the Oak tribe ; as the Oak, the Chestnut, and the Beach :— Juglans regia, the Wal- nut ; and other trees and shrubs bearing: nuts and ber- ries. PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 23 MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. FORAGE. The clovers and similar leguminous plants mixed with grasses, may be applied alike to forage and to her- bage. There is no period in the growth of these plants, at which they will afford so early and rich an herbage, as when they are one-year old grass. In stacking, some recommend the strewing of salt upon the hay, as the building of the stack proceeds. The grasses to be mown are cut down when the greater number of them have come into flower. PASTURAGE. A primary improvement of w^hich lands unsuited to cultivation are susceptible, is freeing them from stagnant water. A rule of the farm is to put sheep on finer and shor- ter grasses in preference to cattle and horses, and cattle and horses upon the larger and ranker pastures. The chief injury which land when left long in grass is apt to sustain, is the decay of ics herbage by the springing up of inferior plants. The most common of these are the Miisci, Mosses. The best method of destroying this class of plants is by draining and Uming. RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS OF PROFESSOR LIEBIG, SIR HUMPHRY DAVY, AND OTHERS, ON PRODUCTIVE FARMING. , NECESSARY RELATION BETWEKN THE COMPOSITION OF A SOIL AND THE VEGETABLES IT IS FITTED TO RAISE. FALLOWING AND GREEN CROPS CONSIDERED AS VEGETABLE MANURE. Besides heat, light, moisture, and the component ele- ments of tiie atmosphere, which are necessary for the mere existence of all plants, certain fertihzing substances are seen to exercise a peculiar influence over the devel- opment either of whole plants, or of particular parts of them. Such substances are either already contained in soil, or may be artificially supplied in the form of ma- nure. The rules of a rational system of agriculture should enable us, therefore, to give to each plant that which it requires for the attainment of the special object in view — namely, an artificial increase of certain parts which are employed as food for man and animals. The means employed for the production of fine plia- ble straw for hats and bonnets is the very opposite to (he raode which must be adopted, in order to produce the PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 25 largest possible quantity of corn from the same plant. — Peculiar methods must be used for the production of nitros^on in the seeds ; others for giving strength to the straw ; and others again, when we wish to give such quahties to the straw as will enable it to bear the weight of the ears. We must proceed in the artificial rearing and forcing of plants precisely as we do in the fattening of animals. The llesh of wild animals is devoid of fat, or nearly so. The production of flesh and fat may be artificially in- creased : all domesticated animals are easily fattened. — To do this, we add to the quantity of food, and lessen (as in the stall-fed ox) the waste occasioned by the in- creased action of the lungs, (as consequent upon motion,) together with the waste which such muscular exertion uould produce by increased action of the skin. Arable land is originally formed by the crumbling of rocks, and its properties depend on the nature of its com- ponent parts. Sand, clay, and lime, are the names given to the prin- cipal constituents of the different kinds of soil. Pure sand, and pure limestone, in which there are no other unorganized substances except the earth of flint, chalk, or silicic acid combined with lime, form absolutely barren soils. But clay always forms a part of fertile soils. Whence is the origin of clay earths in arable land 7 What are their constituents ? and what part do they play in favoring vegetation ? They are produced by the breaking down of aluminous minerals by the ac- tion of the weather. These minerals are found, mixed with other substances, in granite, mica-slate, porphyry, clay slate, the volcanic rocks, and others. Mountain limestone is remarkable for the quantity of clayey earths which it contains. In grauwacke we find pure quartz, clay slate, and lime; in the sandstones, quartz and loam ; and in the transition limestone there is an inter- mixture of clay, feldspar, and clay slate. These exam- ples may be sufficient. It is known that aluminous minerals (that is to say. minerals containing the metal "aluminum," which, com- 25 ELEMENTS OF bined with oxygen, forms '-alumina," or the pure earth of clay) are the most widely diflfused on the surface of the earth ; and all fertile soils, or soils capable of culture, invariably contain alumina. There must, therefore, be something in aluminous earth which causes it to exercise an influence on the life of plants, and to assist in their growth. 'I'he property on which this depends is, that clay invariably contains potash and soda. Besides which, alumina attracts and retains water and ammonia from the atinosphere. Al- umina is itself very rarely found in the ashes of plants ; but silica (or the earth of flints) is always present, hav- ing, in most places, entered the plants by means of alka- lies. Among aluminous minerals, feldspar, which is one of them, contains 17 per cent, of potash ; mica from 3 to 5 per cent, of soda : clay slate contains from 2 to 3 per cent, of potash ; and loam from 1 1-2 to 4 per cent, of the same alkali. So that, in a layer of soil formed by the breaking down of 40,000 square feet of one of these rocks, to the depth of 20 inches, we should find that so much feldspar would contain more than a million pounds of potash ; if the soil were formed by the disintegration of clay slate, about 200,000 ; if loam were the material, from 87,000 to 300,C00 ; and similarly of other rocks of partially aluminous character. Potash is present in all clays, and in marl ; it has been found in all aluminous earths in which it has been sought. Alum (which is a sulphate of alumina, combined with sulphate of potash) may be procured by digesting clay in sulphuric acid, which takes up both the alumina and the potash. A thousandth part of loam mixed with the quartz in red sandstone, or with the lime in the diflferent limestone formations, alfords as much potash to a soil twenty inches in depth as is sullicient to supply a forest of pines growing upon it with potash for a hundred years. Water. iin[)regiiated with the carbonic acid of the at- mosphere, decomposes rocks which contain alkalies, and then dissolves a part of the alkaline carbonates formed PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 27 in the process. Plants, also, by producing carbonic acid during their decay, and by means of the acids emitted by their hving roots, contribute no less powerfully to de- stroy the coherence of solid minerals. Air, water, and changing temperature prepare the difTerent species of rocks for yielding to plants the potash or soda they con- lain. Changing temperature is a most important agent in nature. It not only assists in the original formation of soils, but exerts a most powerful influence over those al- ready in existence. In wet soils the temperature rises slowly, and never attains the same height as in one that is sandy and dry. When the heat of the atmosphere rises no higher in the shade than 60 or 70 degrees, a dry soil may become so warm as to raise the thermometer to 90 or 100. Hence, though the expression be used figuratively, it is in this instance strictly correct to say that wet soils are cold. The exhaustion of alkalies in a soil by successive crops is the true reason why practical farmers suppose themselves compelled to suffer land to lie fallow. It is the greatest possible mistake to think that the tempora- ry diminution of fertility in a field is chiefly owing to the loss of the decaying vegetable matter it previously contained : it is principally the consequence of the ex- haustion of potash and soda, which are restored by the slow process of the more complete disintegration of the materials of the soil. It is evident that the careful till- ing of fallow land must accelerate and increase this fur- ther breakitig up of its mineral ingredients. Nor is this repos^e of the soil always necessary. A field, \vhich has become unfitted for a certain kind of produce, may not, on that account, be unsuitable for another ; and upon this observation a system of agriculture has been grad- ually formed, the principal object of which is to obtain the greatest possible produce in a succession of years, with the least outlay for manure. Because plants re- quire for their growth different constituenls of soil, changing the crop from year to year will maintain the 28 ELEMENTS OP fertility of that soil (provided it be done with judgment) quite as well as leaving it at rest or fallow. In practical farming-, one crop in artificial rotation with others, extracts from the soil a certain quantity of necessary inorganic matters ; a second carries off, in preference, those which the former had left, and neither could nor would take up. Experience proves that wheat should not be attempt- ed to be raised after wheat on the same soil; for, like tobacco, it exhausts the soil. But if decaying vegetable mattter, gives it the power of producing how happens it that, in soils formed in large proportion of mouldered wood, the corn-stalk attain no strength, and droops permanently? The cause is this; the strength of the stalk is due to silicate of potash, and the corn requires phosphate of magnesia; neither of which substances a soil of decaying vegetable matter can afford, since it does not contain them : the plant may, indeed, under such circumstances, become an herb, but it will bear no seeds. We say phosphate of magnesia is neces- sary ; — the small quantities of the phosphates found in peas and beans is the cause of their comparatively small value as articles of nourishment, since they surpass ail other vegetable food in the quantity of nitrogen they contain. But as the component parts of bone, namely, phosphate of lime and magnesia, are absent in beans and peas, they satisfy appetite without increasing thte strength. Again, how does it happen that wheat does not flour ish on a sandy soil, and that a limestone soil is also un- suitable, unless mixed with a considerable quantity of clay ? Evidently because these soils do not contain po- tash and soda, (always found in clay ;) the growth of wheat being arrested by this circumstance, even should all other requisite substances be presented in abundance. It is because they are mutually prejudicial by appropri- ating the alkalies of the soil, that wormwood will not thrive where wheat has grown, nor wheat where worm- wood has been. One hundred parts of wheat straw yield 15 1-2 of PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 99 ashes ; the same quantity of barley straw, 8 1-2 : of oat straw, only 4 ; the ashes of the three are, chemically, of the same composition. Upon the same field which will yield only one harvest of wheat, two successive crops of barley may be raised, and three of oats. . We have, ia these facts, a clear proof of what is abstracted from the soil, and, consequently, what plants require for their growth.— a key to the rational mode of supplying the deficiency. Potash is not the only substance requisite for the ex- istence of most plants ; indeed, it may be replaced, in some cases, by soda, magnesia, or lime ; but other sub- stances are required also. Plants obtain phosphoric acid (found in combination with lime or magnesia) from the soil, and they, in their turn, yield it to animals, to assist in the formation of their bones. Creatures that feed upon flesh, bread, fruit, and husks of grain, take in much more phosphorus than is required for the building up of the animal fabric ; and this excess is again usefully thrown out by them, chief- ly in their liquid excrements. Some plants, however, extract other matters from the soil besides silica, potash, and phosphoric acid, which are essential constituents of the plants ordinarily cultivated. American farming presents us with varied instances of plants sown, and growing together in the same field. Two such vegetables will mutually injure each other, if they withdraw the same food horn the soil. — Plants will thrive beside each other, either when the substances necessary for their growth, extracted from the soil, are of different kinds, or when they themselves are not both in the same stage of growth at the same time. On a soil containing potash, wheat and tobacco may be reared in succession, because the latter plant does not require the phosphates which the wheat has ap- propriated to itself. Now, tobacco requires only alkalies, and food containing nitrogen. When we growdifl^erent plants in the same soil, for several years in succession, the first of which leaves behind that which the second, and the second that which the third may require, the 30 ELEMENTS OF soil will be a fruitful one for all the three kinds of pro- duce. If the first plant, for example, be wheat, which consumes the greatest part of the silicate of potash in the soil, the plants which succeed it should be such as require little potash, as turnips or potatoes. The wheat lands may be sown again with wheat, advantageously, after the fourth year. The reason of this is, that dur- ing the interval of three years, the soil will, by the ac- tion of the atmosphere, be rendered capable of again yielding silicate of potash in sufficient quantity for wheat. Whether this process can be artificially anticipated, by supplying the exhausted ingredient to the soil, is a fur- ther, and most interesting inquiry. In a four-years' course of cropping, the crops gathered amounted, per acre, to — 1st year, Tiiniips^ 25 tons of bulbs, and 7 tons of tops. 2d year, Barletj^ 38 bushels, and a ton of straw. 3d year, Clover and Rye Grass, 1 ton of each in hay. 4th year, Wheat, 25 bushels, and 2 tons of straw. Supposing none of the crops to be eaten upon the land, the quantity of inorganic matter contained in the above would be as follows : — lbs. lbs. Potash. 281 Silica, 318 Soda, ' 130 Sulphuric acid, HI , ) in combination Lime, 242 Phosphoric acid, (5 J > with the earths Magnesia , 42 Clorine, 39 ^ \ and alkalies ; Alumina. 11 making a gross weight of 1240 pounds, or about ele- ven hundred weight. A siill clearer idea of the importance and quantities of these organic matters, may be obtained by a consider- ation of the fact, that if we were to carry olf the entire of the above produce, and return none of it again in the shape of manure, (supposing also that we could stop the PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 31 bencfical agency of the atmosphere during that period,) we must, or ought, instead of tliat produce, — if the land is to be restored to its original condition, — add to each acre, every four years, 300 pounds of pearl ashes, or po- tasii ; 440 of carbonate of soda ; 65 of common salt ; 240 uf quick lime ; 250 of sulphate of magnesia, that is, Epsom salts ; 84 of alum ; and 260 bone dust ; making 1729 pounds of sohd saline matter. The fertility of a soil cannot remain long unimpaired, unless we replace in it all those substances of which it has been deprived. We could keep our fields in a con- stant state of ferfiiity, by replacing, every year, as much as we remove from them m the form of produce ; and, be it remembered, that our cultivated corn plants, and bulbous roots, are not like forest plants and trees : the quantity of nutriment they require, and take up, to bring them to perfection and perpetuate the race, is far more than the unaided elements around them could supply. "Wheat, for instance, as a natural production of the soil, appears to have been a very small grass ; and the case is still more remarkable with the apple and the plum. The common crab seems to have been the parent of all our apples. Potatoes and turnips, in their wild or nat- ural state, are unfit for food ; and two fruits can scarce- ly be conceived of more different in color, size, and appear- ance, than the wild plum and the rich magnum bonum. We have to contend, then, with two important differ- ences : First, That wheat or turnips are not natural productions; and, secoridly, That because they are not, they drain or exhaust unassisted soil faster tlian the wild plants of the forest ; nor will they thrive long, if denied that assistance from artificial nutriment, which nature cannot supply in suflficient quantity. It is evident, then, tliat an iucrease of fertility, and consequent increase of crop, can only be expected when we add more to the soil of the proper material, (and no other,) than we take way. And soil will partially re- gain itself by lying fallow : this is owing to atmospheric action, and the conversion of the roots and stalks into hunms. But though the quantity of decaying vegeta- 32 ELEMENTS OP ble humus in a soil may be increased to a certain de- gree by cultivation and alternate cropping', still there cannot be the smallest doubt, that a soil must (without help) ultimately lose those of its constituents, which are removed in the seeds, roots, and leaves of the plants raised upon it. To prevent this loss, and, as a further object, to ena- ble us to raise increased quantities of productions, de- manding more sustenance than the land will naturally yield, is the object of the application of the various sub- stances used as manures. They will prove useless, in- jurious, or valuable, precisely as they are accurately or inaccurately adapted to meet the deficiency. Land, when not employed in raising food for animals or man, should, at least, be applied to the purpose of raising manure for itself; and this, to a certain extent, may be effected by means of green crops, which, by their decomposition, not only add to the amount of veg- etable mould contained in the soil, but supply the alka- lies that would be found in their ashes. That the soil should become richer by this burial of a crop, than it was before the seed of the crop was sown, will be under- stood by recollecting that three-fourths of the whole or- ganic matter buried has been derived from the air : that by this process of plougjiing in, the vegetable mat- ter is more equally diffused through the whole soil, and therefore more easily and rapidly decomposed ; and that by its gradual decomposition, ammonia and nitric acid are certainly degenerated, though not so largely as when animal matters are employed. He who neglects the green sods, and crops of weeds that flourish by his hedgerows and ditches, overlooks an important natural means of wealth. Left to themselves, they ripen their seeds, exhausting the soil, and sowing them annually in his fields : collected in compost heaps, they add ma- terially to his yearly crops of grain. NATURE AND CORRECT USE OP THE EXCREMENTS OP ANIMALS CONSIDERED AS MANURE; THE MODE OP ITS ACTION AND PRESERVATION. BONE DUST, AND DEAD ANIMAL MATTER. One practical farmer applies, indiscriminately, any fertilizing material to his land in any state ; another allows violent fermentation to reduce his mixture of Straw and manure to one-half its weight — during which operation much gaseous ammonia is disengaged and lost, which, if retained, or supplied to the soil, would have proved extremely serviceable. Both methods can- not be right in all cases. Besides the dissipation of gaseous matter, when fer- mentation is pushed to the extreme, there is another disadvantage in the loss of heat, which, if excited in the soil instead of the dunghill, is useful in promoting the springing of the seed, and in assisting the plant in the first stage of its growth, when it is most feeble and most liable to disease ; and the decomposition of manure in the soil must be particulaily favorable to the wheat crop, in preserving a genial temperature beneath the surface late in autumn and during winter. These views are in accordance with a well-known principle in chemistry,— that in all cases of decomposition, substances combine much more readily at the moment of their dis- engagement than after they have been some time per- fectly formed and set at liberty. And in fermentation beneath the soil, the fluid matter produced is applied instantly, even while it is warm, to the young organs of the rising plant; and, consequently, is more likely to be efficient, than in manure that has gone through the pro- 34 ELFMENTS OF cess, and of which all the principles have entered into new combinations. It is certainly a matter of indifference whether we employ excrements, ashes, or bones, in carrying out the principle of restoring to the soil those substances which have been taken from it by the previous crop. But, unless we know accurately what are those matters that have been actually removed, how is it possible to supply, otherwise than at random guess, the deficiency? Fer- mented manure may be really useful, if no nitrogen be demanded. A time will come when fields will be ma- nured with saline solutions, with the ashes of burnt straw, or with salts of phosphoric acid prepared in chemi- cal manufactories. The same mixed mass of materials may be useful in one state, less so in another and under other circumstances. A knowledge of the actual wants of the land, and of the exact composition of the proposed manure, is obviously necessary to enable the farmer to adapt the one to the other as a requisite and fitting remedy. If our object be the development of the seeds of plants, we know they contain nitrogen. Our manure then must be rich in this material. If, by fermentation, ammonia be formed in the manure — if it become dry, rotten, and nearly devoid of smell, having lost its pre- vious heat — although it may cut better with the spade, we may be sure it has lost its nitrogen, and, conse- quently, as far as our object is concerned, (the nutriment of the seed.) nearly lost its utility. The leaves, which by their action on the air, nourish the stem and woody fibre — the roots, from which the leaves are formed — in short, every part of tlie structure of a plant — contains nitrogen in small and varying proportions. But the ijeeds are always rich in nitrogen. The most imjiortant object, then, of farming opera- lions, at least as far as grain is concerned, is the supply of nitrogen to grain plants in a state capable of being taken up by them — the production, therefore, of manures containing the most of this element. Gypsum and ni- trate of soda are as properly termed manures, as farm- yard dung, bone-dust, or night-soil; but our present PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 35 inquiry is, what class of substances contain and yield to grain-plaiits most nitrogen ? Nature, by the ordinary action of the atmosphere, furnishes as much nitrogen to a piant as is necessary to its bare existence. But plants do not exist for themselves alone : the greater number of animals depend upon the vegetable world for food ; and, by a wise adjustment of nature, plants have the remarkable power of converting, to a certain degree, all the nitrogen offered to them into nutriment for animals. We may furnish a plant with carbonic acid, and all the materials which it may require for its mere life ; we may supply it with vegetable matter in a state of decay in the most abundant quantity ; but it will not attain complete development unless nitroo-en be afforded to it by the supply of suitable manure :°an herb will indeed be formed, but its seeds or grain will be imperfect and feeble. But when, with proper manure, we supply nitrogen in addition to what the plant would derive from natural sources, we enable it to attract from the air the carboa which is necessary for its nutrition ; that is, when that in the soil is not sufficient, we afford it a means of fixing the atmospheric carbon. There are two principal descriptions of manure, the beneficial agency of which is deriveable almost exclu- sively from the large quantity of nitrogen they yield. These are the solid as well as fluid excrements of man and animals. Urine is employed as manure, either singly, in its liquid state, or with the faeces which are impregnated with it. It is the urine contained in night-soil which gives it the property of giving off ammonia, a property which the discharges from the bowels possess only in a very slight degree. Liquid manures act chiefly through the saline substances they hold in solution ; while the solid manures, even of animal origin, contain insoluble matters which decay slowly in the soil, and there become useful only after a time. When we examine what sub- otances we add to a soil by supplying it with urine, we find that this liquid contains in solution ammoniacal 38 ELEMENTS OP salts, uric acid, (a substance itself containing much ni- trogen,) and salts of phosplioric acid. Human urine consists, in 1000 parts, of Water .932 Urea, and other organic matters contain- ^ ^q ing nitrogen . . . . ) Phospliates of ammonia, soda, lime, and ) n magnesia ( Sulphates of soda and ammonia . . 7 Sal ammoniac and common salt . 6 1000 In manure reservoirs, well constructed and protected frpm evaporation, tlie carbonate of ammonia, which forms in consequence of putrefaction, is retained in so- lution ; and when the putrified urine is spread over the land, a part of ibis ammonia will escape with the water which evaporates. On account of the formation of car- bonate of ammonia in putnd urine, it becomes alkaUne, thuugh naturall}' acid m its recent state ; and when ihis carbonate of ammonia is lost by being volatilized in the air, (which happens in mo.-t cases,) the loss sufTtired is nearly equal to one-half of the uiine employed. So that, if we fix the anmionia, (by combining it with some acid which forms with it a compound not volatile,) we increase its action two-fold. Now the carbonate of amnjonia formed by the putrefaciion of urine, can be fixed, or deprived ol its volatility, in many ways. If, for instance, a field be strewed with gypsum, or plaster of Paris, (in clieinir-al langnnge, sulplfaie of lime.) and thf^n spiitikietl with urine, or the drainiiigs uf the cow-shed, a douMe exchange or (lccom| o-iiio:i takes place. I^ul[)hate of lime and carl)onatti of ammonia become convicted into carbonate of lime, (that is, chalk,) and sulphate of ammonia ; and this b.'caiise sulphuric acid has a great.^- atlinity for ammonia than it has for lime. This sulphate of ammonia will remain in the soil — it will not evaporate. If a basin containing spirit of jalt, or muriatic acid, PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. sr be left a few weeks in a close stable or privy, so that ils surface is in free conininnication with the ammoniacal vapors that rise from b('h)\v, crystals of muiiate of airi- monia, or common sal-ammoniac, will soon be visible, as an incrustation about its ediies. The ammonia that escapes in this way is not only entirely lost as far as vegetation is concerned ; it works also a slow but not less certain destruction of the mortar and plaster of the building; for, when in contact with the lime^of the mortar, ammonia is convxMted into nitric acid, which gradually dissolves the lime. There are few school-boys who have not picked out crystals of nitrate of |)otass, or saltpetre, from an old brick wall; and in this in- stance the atmosphere has yielded the ammonia. The offensive carbonate of ammonia in close stables is very injurious to the eyes and lungs of liorses, as the army and veterinary surgeons are well able to testify. They adopt measures to carry it off by ventilation and cle'anliness. If the floors or stables of cow-sheds were strewed with common gypsum, they would lose all their offensive and injurious smell, and none of the ammonia which forms could be lost, but would be retained in a condition serviceable as manure. This composition — swept from the stable door — nearly constitutes what is sold under the denomination of 2irate. Manufacturers of this material, state, that three or four hundred weight of urate form sufficient manure for an acre. A far more proiriising adventure for a practical farmer will be to go to some expense in saving his own liquid manure, and, after mixing it with burnt cypsum, to lay it abundantly upon his grain-lands : for, in this way, he may use as much gypsum as will (ibsorb the whole of the urine. Now, in the manufacture of urate, the proportion of 10 pounds is employed to every 7 gallons — allowing the mixture (occasionally stirred) to ^tand some time, imur- ing off the liquid, and with it nearly all its saline con- tents, except the annnonia. Urate, therefore, can never present all the virtues of the urine— 100 poimds of urate containing no greater weight of saline and organic mat- ter than 10 gallons of urine. '38 ELEMENTS OF ' From the foregoing analysis it would appear, that 1000 pounds of human uiine contain no less than 68 pounds of dry feriilizing matter of the richest quahty, worth, at the present rale of selhng artificial manures in this country, (England,) twenty shillings per hundred weight. Suppose we say that the liquid and solid ex- crements of one human being amount on an average to a pound and a half daily, then in one year they will amount, to 547 pounds ; which, at the rate of three per cent, of contained nitrogen, would yield sixteen pounds of that material for the land — a quantity sufficient to supply enough for eight hundred pounds of wheat, rye, or oats, or for nine hundred pounds of barley. As each person in reality voids at least one thousand pounds or pints of urine in a year, the national waste incurred in this form amounts, at the above valuation, to twelve shillings a head upon every individual of the whole population. And if five tons of farm-yard manure per acre, yearly, will keep a farm in good order, four hun- dred weight of the solid matter of urine would probably have an equal effect ; in other words, the excrements of a single individual are more than sufficient to yield the requisite nitrogen to an acre of land, in order to enable it (with the assistance of the nitrogen absorbed naturally from the atmosphere) to produce the richest possible yearly crop. Every town and farm might thus supply itself with the manure, which, besides containing the most nitrogen, contains also the most phosphates ; and if an alternation of the crops were adopted, they would be most abundant. By using at the same time bones and wood-ashes, the excrements of animals might be complettly (hspcnsc d with. ISo that the artificial, min- eral, or chemical manures are no imj)crfect subi^titute^', if a})plied judiciously. The urine alone di^-chargcd into rivers or sewers by a town population of lO.Odll inhabitants, would supply ma- nure to a farm of 1500 acres, yielding a return of 4500 quarters of grain, or an e((uivalent produce of other crops. 8o mucli value is attached to human excrements by the Chinese, that the laws of the country forbid that any of PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 39 them should be thrown away ; and reservoirs are placed in every house, where they are collected with the utmost care. No other kind of manure is used for their grain- fields. Human urine contains a greater variety of constituents than any other species examined. Urea, uric acid, and another acid similar to it in nature, called rosacic acid, acetic acid, albumen, gelatine, a resinous matter, and its various salts, are all valuable to the land, inasmuch as from the land they or their elements have been origi- nally derived. The urine of animals that feed exclusively on flesh, contains more animal matter, and consequently more nitrogen, than that of vegetable feeders — whence it is more apt to run into the putrefactive process, and disengage ammonia. In proportion as there are more gelatine and albumen in urine, so in proportion does it putrefy more rapidly. Thus, then, all urine contains the essential elements of vegetables in a state of solu- tion ; and that will be the best for manure which con- tains most albumen, gelatine, and urea. Putrid urine abounds in ammoniacal salts, and is only less active as a manure than fresh urine, because of the portion of ammonia which is continually exhaling into the atmos- phere. As to the urine of cattle, it contains less water than that of man, varying with the kind of food on which the animal is fed. A cow will secrete and discharge from two thousand to three thousand gallons of urine a year; and this quantity will contain at least from 1200 to 1500 pounds of dry solid saline matters, worth from fifty to sixty dollars. The urine of the cow is particularly rich in salts of potash, but contains very little soda. The urine of swine contains a large quantity of the phosphates of ammonia and magnesia. That of the horse contains less nitrogen and phosphates than that of man, The fertilizing powers of animal manures, whether fluid or solid, is dependent, like that of the soil itself, upon the happy admixture of a great number, if not of all, those substances which are required by plants in the / 4B ELEMENTS OP universal cultivation they receive from the industry and skill of man, more especially upon the large proportion of nitrogen they contain. The amount of this laiter material affords the readiest test by which their agricul tural value, compared with other matters and with that of each other, can be tolerably well esiimalcd. Ordinary farm-yard manure, in its recent state, con- tains a given proportion of nitrogen ; but fifteen pounds of blood would yield as much nitrogen as one hundred pounds of farm-yard compost. If dried blood were ta- ken, four pounds would he sufficient; three pounds of feathers, three of liorn shavings, five of pigeons' dung, or even two and a half of woollen rags, would counterpoise one hundred cf the frst-named material. Sixteen would be the equivalent number for the urine of the horse, ninety-one that of the cow% seventy-three for horse-dimg, one hundred and twenty-five for cow-dung; while the mixed excrements of either animal would correspond with the fact, that the discharges of the cow offer no resemblance to those of the horse, Besides their general relative value, namely, as to the proportions of nitrogen they contain, the above matters have a further special value, dependent upon the diver- sity of saline and other organic matters which they sever- ally contain. Thus, three of dried flesh are equal to five of pigeons' dung, as far as nitrogen is concerned ; but* then pigeons' dung contains a quantity of bone, earth, and saline matter, scarcely present in the former. Hence, the dung of fowls will benefit vegetation in some instances where even horse-flesh— ordinarily regarded as a strong manure — would fail. And why ? Evidently because, if saline matters are deficient in the soil, an excessive supply of nitrogen will not serve as their sub- stitute. So the licjuid excretions contain nuich impor- tant saline matter not present in solid dung, nor in such substances as horn, hair, or wool ; and therefore each must be capable of exercising its own peculiar influence, and be comparatively useless, if deficient of those mat- ters which are also found wanting — deficient, yet neces- sary in the soil. This afl^ords the reason why no o?ie PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 41 manure can long answer on the same land ; it can only sup[)lv the materials; it contains. When all the sihcate of potasii in grain-fields is exhausted, urine will not, can- not, supply the deficiency, because it contains no silicate of potash. So long as the land remained rich in this material, urine or blood would supply the requisite ni- trogen. Hence, in all ages and countries, the habit of employing mixed manures and artificial composts has been universally diffused. What is wanting is a more accurate knowledge of the precise deficiency at any given moment, and a consequent saving of capital from unnecessary waste, together with an immense increase in fertility, as the reward of so accurate an adaptation of means and ends. The knowledge of a disease is es- sential to the correct application of a remedy. It is by no means difficult to prevent the destructive fermentation and heating of farm-yard compost. The surface should be defended from the oxygen of the at- mosphere. A compact marl, or a tenacious clay, offers the best protection against the air; and before the dung is covered over, or, as it were, sealed up, it should be dried as much as possible. If the dung be found at any time to heat strongly, it should be turned over, and cooled by exposure to air. Watering dung-hills is sometimes recommended for checking the process of putrefaction, and the consequent escape of ammonia ; but this practice is not consistent with correct chemistry. It may cool the dung for a short time ; but moisture is a principal agent in all processes of decomposition. Wa- ter, or moisture, is as necessary to the change as air; and to supply it to reeking dung, is to supply an agent which will hasten its decay. If a thermometer, plunged into the dung, does not rise much above blood-heat, there is little danger of the escape of ammonia. When a piece of paper, moistened with spirit of salt, or muriatic acid, held over the steams arising from a dung-hill, gives dense fumes, it is a cer- tain test that decomposition is going too far; for this indicates that ammonia is not only formed, but is es- 4ai ELEMENTS OF caping to unite with the acid in the shape of sal-am- moniac. When dunor is to be preserved for any time, the situ- ation in which it is kept is of importance. It should, if possible, be defended from the sun. To preserve it under sheds would be of great use. or to make the site of a dung-hill on the north side of a wall. The floor on which the dung is heaped, should, if possible, be paved with flat stones ; and there should be a little inclination from each side towards the centre, in which there should be drains, connected with a small well, furnished with ,a pump, by which any fluid matter may be collected for the use of the land. It too often happens, that a heavy, thick, extractive fluid is suffered to drain away from the dung-hill, so as to be entirely lost to the farm. Night-soil, it is well known, is a very powerful ma- nure, and very liable to decompose. Human excrements diflfer in their composition, but always abound in nitro- gen, hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. From the analysis of Berzelius, it appears that a part of it is always soluble in water; and in whatever state it is used, whether re- cent or decomposed, it supplies abundant food to plants. But this aflfords no excuse for its misapplication in any other condition than that which 13 most profitable. It varies, no doubt, in richness with the food of the inhabit-, ants of each district — chiefly with the quantity of animal food they consume ; but when dry, no other solid ma- nure, weight for weight, can probably be compared with it in general eflicacy. The soluble and saline matters it contains are made up from the constituents of the food we eat; of course, it contains most of those elementary substances which are necessary to the growth of the plants on which we live. The disagreeable smell of night-soil may be destroyed by quick-lime. If exposed to the air in thin layers strewed over with lime, in fine weather, it speedily drie.s, is easily pulverized, and, in this slate, may be used in the same manner as rape- cake, and delivered into the furrow with the seed. If night-soil be treated in a proper manner, so as to remove r PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 43 the inoisture it contains, without permitting: the escape of its ammonia, it may be put into such a form as will allow it 1 be transported even to great dih>tances. This is already attempted in many places ; and tiie prepara- tion of human excrements for exportation constitutes not an unimportant branch of industry. But the man- ner in which this is done, is not always the most ju- dicious. It is quite certain that the vegetable constituents of the excrements with which we manure our fields, can- not be entirely without influence upon the growth of the crops on them ; for they will decay, and thus furnish carbonic acid to the young plants. But it cannot be imagined that their influence is very great, when it is considered that a good soil is manured only once every six or seven years; that the quantity of carbon thus given to the land corresponds only to 5 per cent, of what is removed in the form of herbs, straw, or grain ; and further, that the rain-water received by a soil contains much more carbon in the form of carbonic acid than these vegetable constituents of animal excrement. The peculiar action, then, of solid, as opposed to fluid, animal excrements, is limited to their inorganic consti- tuents, rather than to the presence of the partially changed vegetable or organized matter which they con- tain. Horse-dung contains a large portion of such par- tially altered vegetable matter; and the reason why night-soil is a more powerful manure, is that, relatively, it contains less vegetable matter, while nitrogen is more abundant ; and this, principally, because its weight is materially made up by the liquid excrement, or urine, always forming part of its composition. The restoration of inorganic matter to the land, is the chief value arising from the application of the dung of cattle. A certain amount of inorganic matter is removed with every crop. If we manure that land with the dung of the cow or sheep, we restore to the surface silicate of potash, and some salts of phosphoric acid. If we use horse-dung, we supply, chiefly, phosphate of magnesia and silicate of potash. In the straw which has served as litter, we Afk ELEMENTS OF add a further quantity of silicate of potash, and phos phates, which, if the straw be aheady putrified, are exactly in the same state as before ihey formed part of the crop which yieided them. But, if we use human excrements, in addition to the phosphates of hme and magnesia, we supply a larger proportion of compounds of nitrogen, essential to ih^ development of those parts of plants upon which human beings are accustomed to feed : and, by a wise ordina- tion, grain-plants are found associated with human dwelhngs — in other words, the family of man having selected such spots on the earth's surface, as are fitted for the growth of grain, animal manure is always at hand in quantity for its artificial cultivation ; thus re- storing, through the feculent discharges of man and ani- mals resident on the spot, precisely those materials which the process of growth has removed from the soil. Cow-dung is not incorrectly said to be "cold;" so much of the saline, nutritive, and other organic matters from the cow, pass off almost exclusively with her urine, that her dung does not readily heat and run into putre- faction. Still, mixed with other manures, or well dif- fused through the soil, its vegetable matter is not use- less. It loses more than any other similar substance i^ drying. The dung of pigs is soft and cold, like that of the cow — containing, like it, nearly 80 per cent, of wa- ter. Mixed with other manures, it may be applied to any crop — but is of very variable quality, owing to the variety of food of the animal. The horse is fed, generally, on less liquid food, less succulent and watery, than that of oxen. He discharges less urine ; hence his dung is richer in animalized mat- ter ; or, adopting the figurative language of the farmer, it is hotter, and, indeed, runs more readily into the pu- trefactive fermentation. If the solid excrements of animals are chiefly valuable for the saline, earthy, and inorganic constituents they restore to the soil which has yielded them, it will hi readily inferred, that instead of dung or night-soil, other substances, containing their peculiar ingredients, may PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. *^ be substituted. One hundred tons of fresh horse-dung, if dried, would leave only from 25 to 30 tons of sohd matter, the rest being only water; and if (his dried mat- ter (itself only one-fourth of the original weight) were burnt, so as to decompose its vegetable ingredients, we should obtain, perhaps, 10 per cent, of really useful saline and earthy matters, (one-fortieth of the original weight,) according to the richness or poverty of the food the liorse had taken. Now, this minute proportion of saline and earthy mat- ters, and its relative quantity, in the various kinds of excrement, forms, evidently, the chief topic of interest to which our attention should be directed; inasmuch as what is left upon such examination and analysis, is exactly what has made up the component inorganic parts of the hay, straw, grass, or oats, on which the ani- mal has been fed ; or, in other words, exactly what has been removed from the soil, and requires to be replaced, if the next crop is to equal the last. If our object is increased fertility, more must be added than has beea taken away. Hay, straw, and oats, formed (for illustra- tion's sake) the food of a horse. Their principal con- stituents are the phosphates of lime and magnesia, car- bonate of lime, and silicate of potash ; the first three of these preponderated in the corn, the latter in the hay — and these, removed from the soil with the crop, are pre- cisely the saline matters which would be found in the excrement of the animal for whose support that crop was intended. In order, then, to atone for the absence of that excre- ment which derives its value from the soil which has produced it, and for which it is peculiarly fitted, as con- taining what that soil has lost, the ashes of wood or bones may often be judiciously substituted — and for this rea- son : wood-ashes contain silicate of potash, exactly in the same proportion as that salt is found to exist in the straw of the last crop ; and as to bones, the greatest part of their bulk consists of the phosphates of lime and mag- nesia. Ashes obtained from various trees are of un- equal value : those from oak-wood are the least— those ELEMENTS OP from beech, most serviceable. With every 100 pounds of the ashes of the beech j back part of the hot-bed ground would be the place To have Cauliflowers to eat in the fall is a much easier matter : Sow at the same time and in the same manner as you sow early cabbages. Treat the plants in the same way. CELERY. The qualities of this plant are universally known. There are three or four sorts. The white, the red, the hollow, and the solid. The hollow white is the best ; but the propagation and cultivation of all are the same. The whole of that part of the year, during which the frost is out of the ground, is not a bit too long for the getting of fine celery. The seed, sown in the cold ground in April, will lie six weeks before it comes up. A wheelbarrow full of hot dunsr, put in a hole in the ground against a wall, or any fence, facing the south, and covered with rich and fine mould, will bring the seed up in two weeks. If you have a hot-bed frame, or a hand-light, the thing is easy. A large flower-pot will bring up out of ground, plants enough for any family. As soon as the plants are three inches high, and it scarcely matters how thick they stand, make a nice little bed in the open free air; make the ground rich and the earth very fine. Here prick out the plants at four inches apart ; and, of course, nine in a square foot. They are so very small, that this must be carefully done ; and they should be gently watered once, and shaded two days. A bed ten feet long and four wide, will contain 360 plants. In this bed the plants stand till the middle of .Tuly, or thereabouts, when they are to go out into trenches. Make the trenches a foot deep and a foot wide, and pul them not less than five feet asunder. The ground that you make the trenches in should not be fresh dug ; but be in a solid state, which very conveniently may be. t% THE AMERICAN GARDENER. When you have made your trench, put along it some good rich compost manure, partly consisting of wood sishes. Not dung ; or, at least, not dung fresh from the yard ; for, if you use that, the celery will be rank and pipy, and will not keep nearly so long or so well. Dig this manure in, and break all the earth very fine as you go. Then take up your plants, and trim off the long roots. You will find that every plant has offsets to it, coming up by the side of the main stem. Pull all these offj and leave only the single stem. Gut the leaves off 80 as to leave the whole plant about six inches long. Plant them six inches apart, and fix them in the man- ner dwelt on under the article cabbage. Do not water the plants; and if you plant in fresh-dug ground, and fix your plants well, none of the troublesome and cum- brous business of shading is at all necessary ; for the plant is naturally hardy, and, if it has heat to wither it above, it has also that heat beneath to cause its roots to strike out almost instantly. When the plants begin to grow, w^hich they quickly will do, hoe on each side and between them with a small hoe. As they grow up, earth their stems ; that is, put the earth up to them, but not too much at a time; and let the earth that you put up be finely broken, and not at all cloddy. While you do this, keep the stalks of the outside leaves close up to prevent the earth from getting between the stems of the outside leaves and the inner ones ; for, if it get there it checks the plant and makes the celery bad. Thus in October, you will have four ridges of celery across one of the plats, each containing 168 plants. I shall suppose one of these lidges to be wanted for use before the frost sets in for good. Leave another ridge to be locked up by the frost, a much safer guardian than your cellar or barn-door. But, you must cover this ridge over in such a way that the wet will not get down into the hearts of the celery. For the celery that is to serve from the setting in to the breaking up of the frost, you must have a bed of sand, or light earth, in a warm part of a barn, or in a cellar ; and there you must lay it THE AMERICAN GARDENER. W in, row after row, not covering the points of the leaves. To have seed, take one plant in spring, out of the ridge left in the garden. CORIANDER Is an annual plant thnt some persons use in soups and salads. It is sown in spring. The seed is also used as a medicine. A small patch, probably two square yards, will be enough. CORN (indian). To have some early, the early sorts must be got. A dozen or two of plants may be easily raised in pots, as directed for Cucumbers. CORN-SALAD. This is a little insignificant annual plant that some persons use in salads, though it can hardly be of any real use, where lettuce seed is to be had. It is a mere weed. CRESS (or pepper-grass), Is very good in salads along with lettuces, white mus- tard, or rape. It should be sown in little drills, very thick (as should the white mustard and rape), and cut before it comes into rough leaf. A small quantity, in the salad-season, should be sown every six days. This salad, as well as the mustard and the rape, may be very conveniently raised in a corner of a hot-bed made for radishes or cabbage-plants. CUCUMBER. If you wish to have them a month earlier than the natural ground will bring them, make a hole, and put into it a little hot dung; let the hole be under a warm mi THE AMERICAN GARDENER. fence. Put six inches deep of fine rich earth on the dun^. Sow a parcel of seeds in this earth; and cover at night with a hit of carpet, or sail cloth, having first fixed some hoops over liiis httle bed. Before the plants show the rough leaf, plant two in a little flower-pot, and fill as many pots in this way as you please. Have a larger bed ready to put the pots into, and covered with earth so that the pots may be phmged in the earth up to their tops. Cover this bed like the last. When the plants have got two rough leaves out, they will begin to make a shoot in the middle. Pinch that short off. Let them stand in this bed till your cucum- bers sown in the natural ground come up; then make some little holes in good i ich land, and taking a pot at a time, turn out the ball and fix it in the hole. These plants will bear a month sooner than those sown in the natural ground. The cucumber plant is very tender and juicy ; and, therefore, when the seedlings are put into the pots, they should be watered, and shaded for a day or two; when the halls are tinned into the ground, they should be wa- tered, and shaded with a bough for one day. One plant in a hill is enough. One will bring more weight of fruit than two (if standing near each other), two more than three, and so on, till you come to fifty in a square foot ; and then you will have no fruit at all ! HOP. Any bit of a root will grow and become a plant. The young plants should be planted in the fall, three or four together in a clump, or lull, and the hills should be from seven to ten feet apart. The first year of planting, put four rods, or little poles, to each hill, and let two vines go up each pole, treading the rest of the vines down to creep about the ground. In a month after the vines begin to tnount the poles, cut olf all the creeping vines; draw up a hill of earth against the poh.s all round, and cover all the crowns of the plants. In short, make a 4 THE AMERICAN GARDENER. 39- hill a foot liiirh with a flattisli top, and then fork up the ground between the hills and break it fine. AVhen tlie fall comes, cut off the vines that have gone up the pole a foot from the ground ; take down the poles; dig down the hills, and, with a corn-hoe, open the ground all round the crowns of the plants ; and, be- fore winter sets in, cut all close down to the very crowns, and then cover the crowns over with earth three or four inches thick. Through this earth the hop-shoots will start in the spring. You will want but eight of them to go up your four poles ; and the rest, when three inches long, you may cut, and eat as asparagus; cook them in the same manner, and you will find ttiem a very delight- ful vegetable. This year you put poles 20 feet long to your hops. Proceed the same as before, only make the hills larger, and this year you will have plenty of hops to gather for use. The next, and every succeeding year, you may put poles 40 or 50 feet long. HORSE-RADISH. Like every other plant, this bears seed ; but it is best pr()j)agated by cutting bits of its roots into lengths of two inches, and putting them, spring or fall, into the ground about a foot deep with a setting stick. They will find their way up the first year ; and the second they *viil be fine large roots. HYSSOP \ Is a sort of shrub, the flower-spikes of which are used, fresh or dried, for medicinal purposes. It is propagated from seed, or from offsets. LETTUCE. It is good in stews ; good boiled with green peas ; and, even as a dish boiled as cabbage is, it is an excellent ve- 40 ' THE AMERICAN GARDENER. table. There are, I believe, twenty sorts, two of whitance of a veterinary surgeon is here indis- pensable. It is the introduction of bile into the general circular tion. The yellowness of the eyes and mouth, and of the skin where it is not covered with hair, mark it suffi- ciently plainly. The offal is small and hard ; the'urine highly colored ; the horse languid, and the appetite im- paired. The principal causes are over-feeding or over-exertion in sultry weather, or too little work generally speaking, or inflammation or other diseases of the liver itself Bleeding should always be resorted to, regulated ac- cording to the apparent degree of inflammation of the bowels and lungs, and the occasional stupor of the ani- mal. Plenty of water slightly warmed, or thin gruel, should be given. The horse should be warm'ly clothed, and the stable well ventilated, but not cold. Carrot* or green meat will be very beneficial. BREEDING, CASTRATION, *C. It should be impressed on the minds of breeders, thai peculiarity of form and constitution are inherited from both parents. The mare should be long, in order to give room for the growth of the foetus ; and yet there should be compact- ness of form and shortness of leg. As to the shape of the stallion little satisfactory can be said. If there is one point absolutely essential, it is "compactness." From the time of covering, to within a few days of ^ HORSE DOCTOR. ibe expected period of foaling, the cart-mare may be kept at moderate labor. When nearly half the time of pregnancy has elapsed, the mare should have a little bettev food. She should be allowed one or two feeds of corn in the day. The parturition being over, the mare should be turned into some well-sheliered pasture, with a hovel or shed to run into when she pleases. In five or six months, according to the growth of the foal, it may be weaned. There is no principle of greater importance than the liberal feeding of the foal during the whole of his growth, and at this time in particular. CASTRATION. For the common as^ricultural horse the age of four or five months will be the most proper time, or, at least be- fore he is weaned. Few horses are lost when cut at tbat age. Care, how^ever, should be taken that the weather is not too hot, nor the flies too numerous. If the horse is designed either for the carriage or for lieavy draught, the farmer should not think of castrating him until he is at least twelve months old. The manner in which the operation is performed will be properly left to the veterinary surgeon. RINGBONE. Ringbone is a deposit of bony matter in one of the pasterns, and usually near the joint. It rapidly spreads, and involves not only the pastern-bones, but the carti- la«^es of ihe foot, and spreading around the pasterns and cartilages, thus derives its name. The pasterns first become connected together by bone instead of ligament, and thence results what is called an anchlosed or fixed joint. From this joint the disease proceeds to the cartilages of the foot, and to the union between the lower pastern, and the cofTin and navicular HOUSE DOCTOR. * bones. The motion of these parts likewise is impeded or lost, and the whole of the foot becomes one mass of spongy bone. SWELLED LEGS. Sometimes from an apparent shiftinof of disease from other parts, the hind legs suddenly swell to an enor- mous deg^ree from the hock and almost from the stifle to the fetlock, attended by a greater or less degree of heat, and tenderness of the skin, and sometimes excessive and very peculiar lameness. Occasionally the horse is apparently well at night, but, on the following morning, one or both of the legs are tremendously swollen. Many horses, in seemingly perfect heakh, if suffered to remain several days without exercise, will have swelled legs. * Remedi/.—Vhys\c or diuretics, or both, must be had recourse to. Mild cases will generally yield to their in- duence. THE VICES AND DISAGREEABLE OR DANGEROUS HABITS OP THE HORSE. The horse has many excellent qualities, but he has likewise defects, and those occasionally amounting to vices. RESTIVENESS. At the head of all the vices of the horse is restiveness, the most annoying and the most dangerous of alL Whether it appears in the form of kicking, or rearing, or plunging, or bolting, or in any way that threatens dan- ger to the rider or the horse, it rarely admits of cure. TBB HORSE DOCTOR. BACKING OR GflBBING. One kind of restiveness is backing or gibbing". Sonne horses have the habit of backing at first starting, and that more from playfuhiess than desire of mischief. A moderate appHcation of the whip will usually be effec tual. Others, even after starting, exhibit considerable obstinacy and viciousness. This is frequently the ef- fect of bad breaking. Either the shoulder of the horse had been wrung when he w*as first put to the collar, or he had been foolishly accustomed to be started iu'the break up-hill, and therefore, all his work coming upon him at once, he gradually acquired the dangerous habit. A hasty and passionate breaker will often make a really good-tempered young horse an inveterate gibber. Every young horse is at first shy of the collar. If he is too quickly forced to throw his weight into it, he will possibly take a dislike to it, that will occasionally show itsftlf in the form of gibbing as long as he lives. The judicious horse-breaker will resort to no severity, even if the colt should go out several times without even touch- ing collar. The example of his companion will ulti- mately induce him to take to it voluntarily and ejeo. tually. A large and heavy stone should be put behind the wheel before starting, when the horse finding it more ' difficult to back than to go forward, will gradually for- get this unpleasant trick. It will likewise be of advan- tage, as often as it can be managed, so to start that the horse shall have to back up hill. The difficulty of ac- complishing this will soon make him readily go forward. A little coaxing or leading, or moderate flagellation, will assist in accomplishing the cure. When, however, a horse, thinking he has had enough of work, or has been improperly checked or corrected, or beginning to feel the painful' pressure of the collar, swerves, gibs, and backs, it is a more serious matter. Persuasion should first be tried ; and afterwards, reason- HORSE DOCTOR. 2S able coercion, but no cruelty ; for the brutality which IS often exercised in attemptin*:^ to compel a gibbing horse to llnow himself habitually into the collar, never yet accomplished the purpose. The horse may, per- haps, be wliipped into motion ; but if he has once begun to g'\h, he will have recourse to it again whenever any circumstance displeases or annoys him, and the habit will be so rapidly and completely formed, that he will become insensible to all severity. It is useless and dangerous to contend with a horse determined to back, unless there is plenty of room, and by tight reining, the driver can make him back in the precise direction he wishes, and especially up hill. Such a horse should be immediately sold, or turned over to some other work. In a stage-coach as a wheeler, and particularly as the near-wheeler; or, in the middle of a team at agricultural work, he may be serviceable. It will be useless for him to attempt togilS there, for he will be dragged along by his companions whether he will or not; and, finding the inutility of resistance, he will soon be induced to work as well as any horse in the team. The reformation will last while he is thus employed, Jbut /ike restiveness generally, it will be delusive when the horse returns to his former occupation. The dispo- sition to annoy will very soon follow the power to do it. Some instances of complete reformation may have oc- curred, but they are rare. When a horse, not often accustomed to gib, betrays a reluctance to work, common sense and humanity will demand that some consideration should be taken before measures of severity are resorted to. The horse may be taxed beyond his power. He soon discovers whether this is the case, and by refusing to proceed, tells his driver that it is so. The utmost cruelty will not induce many horses to make the slightest effort, when they are conscious that their strength is inadequate to ihe task. Sometimes the withers are wrung, and tlie shoulders sadly galled, and the pain, whicli is intense on level ground, and with fair draught, becomes insupportable 3t> HORSE DOCTOR. when be tugs up a steep acclivity. These things should be examined into, and, if possible, rectified ; for, under such circumstances, cruelty may produce obsti- nacy and vice, but not willing obedience. They who are accustomed to horses know what seem* inofly trivial circumstances occasionally produce this vice. A horse, whose shoulders are raw, or have fre- quently been so, vviil not start with a cold collar. When the collar has acquired the warmth of the parts on which it presses, the animal will go Avithout reluctance. Some determined gibbers have been, reformed by constantly wearing a false collar, or strip of cloth round the shoul- ders, so that the coldness of the usual collar should never be felt ; and others have been cured of gibbing by keep- ing the collar on night and day, for the animal is not able to lie down completely at full length, which the tired horse is always glad to do. When a horse gibs, not at starting, bifl while doing his work, it has some- times been useful to line the collar with cloth instead of leather : the perspiration is readily absorbed, the sub- stance which presses on the shoulders is softer, and it may be far more accurately eased off at a tender place, BITING. This is either the consequence of natural ferocity, oi' a habit acquired from the foolish and teasing play of grooms and stable-boys. When a horse is tickled and pinched by thoughtless and mischievous youths, he vyill first pretend to bite his tormentors ; by degrees he will proceed farther, and actually bite them, and very soon after that, he will be the first to challenge to the eom- bat, and without provocation, seize some opportunity to gripe the incautious tormentor. At length, as the love of mischief is a propensity too easily acquired, this war, half playful and half in earnest, becomes habitual to him, and degenerates into absolute viciousness. It is not possible to enter the stall of some horses with- out danger. The animal gives no warning of his iuten- HORSE DOCTOR. 7$ tron ; he is seemingly quiet and harmless : but if the in* cautious by-standei- comes fairly in his reach, he darts upon him, and seldom fails to do some miscliief. Aslal* lion addicted to biting is a most formidable creature. He hfts the intiuder^lie shakes him — he attacks him with his feet — lie tramples upon him, and there are many instances in whicli he effects irreparable mischief. A resolute groom may escape. When he has once got firm hold of the head of the horse, he may back him, or muzzle him, or harness him ; but he must be always on his guard, or in a moment of carelessness, he may be seriously injured. It is seldom that anything can be done in the way of cure. Kindness will aggravate the evil, and no degree of severity will correct it. " I have seen," says Professor JStewart, '-biters punished until they trembled in every joint, and were ready to drop, but have never in any case known them cured by this treatment, or by any. other. The lash is forgotten in an hour, and the horse. is as ready and determined to repeat the offence as be- fore. He appears unable to resist the temptation, and in its worst form biting is a species of insanity." Prevention, however, is in the power of every propri- etor of horses. While he insists on gentle and humane treatment of his cattle, he should sysfemaiicaliy forbid this horse-play. It is that which can never be consi- dered as operating as a reward, and thereby rendering the horse tractable ; nor does it increase the affection of the animal for his groom, because he is annoyed and ir^ ritated by being thus incessantly teased. GETTING THE CHEEK OF THE BIT INTO THE MOUTH. Some horses that are disposed to be mischievous, try to do this, and are very expert at it. They soon find what advantage it gives them over their driver, who by this manoeuvre loses almost all command. Harsh treat- ment is here completely out of the question. All that can be done is, by some mechanical contrivance, to ren- 26 HORSE DOCTOR. der the thing difficult or impossible, and this nnay be nrianaged by fastening a round piece of leather on the inside of the cheek of the bit. KICKING. This, as a vice, is another consequence of the culpa- ble habit of grooms and s(able-boys of leasing the horse. That which is at first an indication of annoyance at the pinching and tickling of the groom, and without any design to injure, gradually becomes the expression of anger, and the effort to do mischief The horse likewise too soon recognizes the least appearance of timidiiy, and takes advantage of th^ discovery. There is no cure for this vice ; and he cannot be justified who keeps a kick- ing horse in his sttible. Some horses acquire, from mere irritability and fidgeti- ness, a hablL of kicking at the stall or the bail, and par- ticularly at eight. The neighboring horses are dis- turbed, and the kicker gets swelled hocks, or some more serious injury. This is also a habit very difficult to cor- rect if suffered to become established. Mares are far more subject to it than horses. Before the habit is inveterately established, a thorn bush or a piece of furze fastened against the partition or p' s^, will sometimes eflfect a cure. When the horse finds that he is pretty severely pricked, he will not long continue to punish himself In confirmed cases it may be necessary to have recourse to the log, but the legs are often not a little bruised by it. A rather long and heavy piece of wood attached to a chain has been buckled above the hock, so as to reach about half-way down the leg. When the horse attempts to kick violently, his leg will receive a severe blow: this, and the repetition of it, may, after a time, teach him to be quiet. A much more serious vice is kicking in harness. From the least annoyancj about the rump or quarters, some horses will kick at a most violent rate, and destroy the bottom of the chaise, and endanger the limbs of the HoRSE DOCTOR. 27 drivpr. Those that are fidgety in the stable are most apt lo do this. If the reirjs should perchance get under the tail, the violence of the kicker will often be most outrageous; and while the aniirial presses down his tail so tightly that it is almost impossible to extricate the reins, he continues to plunge until he has demolished every- thing behind him. '^Jliis is a vice standing foremost in point of danger, and which no treatment will always conquer. It will be altogether in vain to try coercion. If the shafts are very strong and without flaw, or if they are plated with iron underneath, and a stout kicking-strap resorted to which will barely allow the horse the proper use of his hind limbs in progression, but not permit him to raise them sufficiently for the purpose Of kicking, he may be prevented from doing mischief; or if he is harnessed to a heavy cart, and thus confined, his efforts to lash out will be restrained : but it is frequently a very unpleasant thing to Witness tliese attempts, though ineffectual, to demolish the vehicle, for the shafts or the kicking-strap may possibly break, and extreme danger may ensue. A horse that has once begun to kick, whatever may have been the original cause of it, can never be depended upon again, and he will be very unwise who ventures behind him. The man, however, who must come within reach of a kicker, should come as close to him as pos- sible. The blow^ may thus become a push, and seldom is injurious. UNSTEADINESS WHILE BEING MOUNTED. When this merely amounts to eagerness to start — • very unpleasant, indeed, at times, for many a rider has been thrown from his seat, before he was fairly fixed in it — it may be remedied by an active and good horse- man. We have known many instances in which, while the elderly, and inactive, and fearful man, has been making more than one ineffectual attempt to vault into the saddle, the horse has been dancing about to his an- noyance and danger j but the animal had no sooner 28 HORSE DOCTOR. been transferred to the iTianaut the mare happening to meet with a se- vere injury of tbe spine, was no longer able to back ; and then I have seen the poor creature, when brought to the door, endeavoring to balance herself, with a staggerin'g itiotion, upon her half-paralysed hind extremities, as if making preparation and summoning up resolution for some great effort ; and then, when urged, she would plunge beadlong forward with such violence of exertion, as often to lose her feet, and tumble down, altogether most pitiable to be seen. This I merely mention,' he continues, ''as one proof how inveterate the habits of horses are. They are evils, let it always be remem- bered, more easy to prevent than to cure." When the cure, however, is early attempted, it may be so far overcome that it will be unattended with daf)ger or difficulty. The horse should be bridled when led out or in. He sl»ou!d be he'd short and tight by the bead that he may feci lie has not liberty to make a lenj), and this of itself is ofien sullicient to restrain him. Punish- ment, or a threat of punishment, will be highly impro- per. It is only timid or high-spirited hor.*r.ack of inllammiltion, re- gains so nearly its former natural brilliancy, that a per- son even well actjuainted with horses will not always recognise the traces of former disease. After a time, however, the inflammation returns, and the result is inevitable. A horse that has had one attack of this complaint, is long afterwards unsound, however perfect the eye may seem to be, because he cairies about with him a di.sease that will probably again break out, and eventually destroy the sight. Whether, therefore, he may he rejected or not, depends on the possibility of prov- ing an attack of inflammation of the eye, prior to the HORSE DOCTOR. 45 purchase. Next to direct evidence of this are appear- ances about the eye, of which tlie veterinary surg-eon at least oujrht not to be ignorant. They consist chieHy of a puckering of the hds towards the inner corner of one or both eyes — a difference in the size of the eyes, although perhaps only a shght one, and not. discovered except it be jooked for— a jilooniiness of the eye — a duhiess of the iris — a httle duiness of the transparent part of the eye generally — a nnnufe, faint, dusky spot, deep in the. eye, and generally wnih hitle radiations of white lines proceeding from it. If these symptoms, or the majority of them, existed at the time of purchase, the animal had assuredly been di.^eased before, and wils unsound. Starting has been considered as an equivocal proof. It is usually an indication of defective sight, but it is occa- sionally a trick. Connected, however, with the appear- ances just described, it is a very strong corroborative proof. LAMENESS, From whatever cause arising, is unsoundness. How- ever temporary it may be, or however obscure, there must be disease which lessens the utility of the horse, and renders him unsound for the time. OSSIFICATION OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGES, Constitutes unsoundness, as interfering with the natural expansion of the foot, and, in hor.ses of quick work, al- most invariably producing lameness. PUMICED-FOOT. When the union between the horny and sensible lamiuK, or little plates of the foot is weakened, and the coffin-bone is let down, and presses upon the sole, and the sole yields to this unnatural weight, and becomes rourided, and is brought in contact with the ground, and is bruised and injured, that hor^e must be unsound, and 4Q HORSE DOCTOR. unsound for ever, because there arc no means by which we can raise the coffin-bone again into its place. aUIDDING. If the mastication of the food gives pain to the animal, in consequence of soreness of the mouth or throat, he will drop it before it is perfectly chewed. This, as an indication of disease, constitutes unsoundness. Q,uid- ding sometimes arises from irregularity in the teelh, which wounds the dieek with their sharp edges ; or a protruding tooth renders it impossible for the horse to close his jaws so as to chew his food thoroughly, duid- ding is unsoundness for the time ; but the unsoundness will cease when the teeth are properly filed, or the sore- ness or other cause of this imperfect chewing removed. QUITTOR Is manifestly unsoundness. RING-BONK Although when the bony tumor is small, and on one side only, there is little or no lameness — and there are a few instances in which a horse with ring-bone has worked for many years without its return — yet from the action of the foot, and the stress upon the part,4he in- flammation and the formation of bone may acquire a tendency to spread so rapidly, that we must pronounce the slightest enlargement of the pasterns, or around the coronet, to be a cause of unsoundness. SANDCRACK Is manifestly unsoundness. It may, however, occur without the slightest warning, and no horse can be re- jected on account of a sandcrack tiiat has sprung after purchase. Its usual cause is too great brittleness of the HORSE DOCTOR. 47 crust, of (he hoof; but there is no infalhble method of detectiiic: this, or the deo^ree in which it must exist in order to constitute unsoundness. Wlien the horn around the bottom of the foot has chipped ofTso mucli that only a skilful smitli can fasten the shoe without pricking the horse, or even when there is a tendency in the horn to chip and break in a much less degree than this, the horse is unsound, for tliis brittleness of the crust is a disease of the part, or it is such an altered structure of it as to interfere rrftiterially with the usefulness of the animal. BOG OR BLOOD-SPAVIN Is unsoundness, because, althouo-h it may not be pro- ductive of lameness at slow work, the rapid and power- ful action of the hock in quicker motion will produce permanent, yet perhaps not considerable lameness, which can scarcely ever b*e with certainty removed. SPLINT. It depends entirely on the situation of the bony tumor or the shank-bone, whether it is to be considered as un- soundness. If it is not in the neighborhood of any joint, so as to interfere with its action, and if it does not press upon any ligament or tendon, it may be no cause of un- sounddess. although it is often very unsightly. In many cases it may not lessen the capability and value of the animal. THICKENING OF THE BACK SINEWS- If the flexor tendons have been sprained, so as to pro- duce considerable thickening of the cellular substance in which their sheatlis are enveloped, they will long after- wards, or perhaps always be liable to sprain, from causes by which they would otherwise be scarcely affected. The conlinuamce of any considerable thickness around 48 HORSE DOCTOR. the sheaths of the tendons indicates previous and vio- lent sprain. This very thickening will fetter the action of the tendons, and, after much quick work, will occa- sionally renew the inflammation and the lameness; therefore, such a horse cannot be sound. In the purchase of a horse the buyer usually receives, embodied in the receipt, what is termed a warranty. It should be thus expressed : "Received of A. B. two hundred dollars for a ^rey mare, wai ranted only (Jve years old, sound, free from vice, and quiet to ride and drive. . " $200. « C. D.» DIRECTIONS FOR RAISING CATTLE, SHEEP, AND SWINE. DISEASES OF HORNED CATTLE. INFLAMMATION. Inflammation is the most frequent diseased condition to which neat catile are subject. External inllanimation is known by the part being swollen, tender^ and holler than in its natural state. In garget or downfall of the udder, which is an inilarnma- tion of one or more quarters of the bag, the afTected parts are swollen, lender, and hot. In black-leg, a disease frequent in young cattle, the affected part loses its sensibility, and becomes dark-co- lored, and is said to be mortified. It is then speedily separated, or ought to be separated from the living por- tions around. Mortification is usually the result of vzo- leiit inflammation, by which the texture o-f the part is speedily broken down, and its vitahty destroyed. When the inflammation runs high, or continues long, it affects the whole system, and brings on fever. The sicelling oi the inflamed part is principally to be ascribed to the increased quantity of blood passing through it. Internal Injlaminatinn can be ascertained only by the effect which it produces on the system. Tliere is no in- flammation of any important iut,enial part that is not quickly accompanied by fever; and that fever and the 8 CATTLE DOCTOR. degree of it are easily ascertained, by the heat of the breath and the mouth, and the base of the horn, by the redness of the eye, and the frequency and hardness of the pulse, the loss of appetite, and. often, the cessation of rumination. The symptoms of internal inflammation will be re- lated as the inflammation of each part comes before us. When it seizes any important organ, as the brairiy lungs, bowels, kidneys, eyes, udder, or womb, bleeding is to be immediately had recourse to ; and, after bleeding, a purging drink is to be administered: sometimes it is necessary to insert a seton in the dew-lap. In external inflammation from severe bruises, wounds, and other accidents, fomentation with warm water, poultices made of linseed meal — when they can be ap- plied — and purging drink give much relief. Jf external inflammation is considerable, it will always be necessary to bleed the beast. BLEEDING MAY TAKE PLACE. 1. Where animals in a thriving state rub themselves until the hair comes oflf, and the spot is covered with a dry scab ; while at the same time the eyes appear dull, languid, red, or inflamed, the breath hot, and the. veins puffed up, and considerably larger than usual. 2. In all kinds of inflammatory diseases, as of the brain, lungs, kidneys, boweL^, eyes, womb, bladder, and udder, or in swelling of the joints. 3. In the disease called blain, and in which bleeding, not only general but local, and local far more than ge- neral, has the best possible effect, the tumefaction usu- ally almost immediately subsiding, and the beast speedily recovering. 4. When the glands or kernels between the jaws, or those of the throat, are enlarged, and especially if they are onlv recently affected, immediate recourse should be had to bleeding, for otherwise tlie lungs will probably become diseased, and dangerous or consumptive hoose will speedily ensue. CATTLE DOCTOR. 9 5. In bruises, hurts, wounds upon the head, strains in diflerent parts, and all other accidents that may occur to the animal, and in which there is reason to apprehend considerable indammation, bleeding will be proper. 6. In violent catarrh or cold, bleeding is employed ; but in slight cases, a few fever drinks will restore the animal. 7. The yellows, when attended with feverish symp- toms, or constipation of the bowels, require bleeding. The Fleam is an instrument in general use for oxen, and the jugular or neck vein is that which is mostly- opened. Local bleeding is, however, in many cases par- ticularly serviceable. In inflammation of the eye, the eye-vein is frequently cut ; in foot-halt, we sometimes bleed at the toe ; and in inflammation of the bowels, or the udder, or even of the chest, blood is advantageously taken from the milk-vein. The quantity of blood that it may be proper to take away at one time, must be regulated by the size, strength, and condition of the animal, and the disease under which he labors. In many inflammatory com- plaints too much can hardly be taken, provided the bleeding is stopped as soon as the patient appears likely to faint, or to fall down. A strong healthy beast will bear the loss of five or six quarts of blood, without the least injury. Larger cattle that are attacked with in- flammatory complaints, will profit by the abstraction of a greater quantity ; seven or eight quarts may be taken away with decided advantage : but when it is necessary to repeat the bleeding, the degree of fever and the strength of the beast will regulate the quantity. The blood should flow from a large orifice, for sudden deple- tion is far more powerful in its operation than when the blood is suffered slowly to trickle down. The blood must never he suffered to fall upon the ground, btU should be received into a measure^ in order that the quantity taken may be known. No absolute quantity oi blood should ever be prescribed, but when extensive bleeding is demanded, the stream should flow until the * f 10 CATTLE DOCTOR. pulse falters, or intermits, or the animal begins to heave violently, or threatens to fall. The beast should not be permitted to drink cold water immediately after bleed- ing, nor to graze in tlie field : the former has sometimes induced troublesome catarrh, and the latter may cause the orifice to open again. If this operation is performed in tiie summer season, it will be most prudent to fetch the cattle out of th.e pasture towards evening, in order lliat they may be bled ; and, after that, to let them stand in the fold-yard all night, and drive them back to the field on the following morning. PHYSIC. The chief purgatives in use for neat cattle are Glau- ber's salts, Epsom salts. Baibadoes aloes, Linseed oil, and Sulphur. In obstinate constipation of the bowels, ten or fifteen grains of the farina of the Croton nut, freshly prepared, may be added with good efi^ect One pound of Glauber's, or Epsom salts, will puige a full- .sized bea^t. Where there is considerable fever, or the attack of fever is apprehended, there is no purgative so beneficial as the Epsom salts. In bad cases, twenty-four ounces may be given at a dose, and eight ounces of sul- phur every six hours afterwards, until the full purgative effect is produced. Linseed oil is rapidly superseding the more expensive and the more unceirain castor oil: dose is from a pint to a pint and a half. As a mild aperient, and in cases where there is no great dej^ree of fever, and a violent purge is not required, there are few better things than Sulpur. AVh^re nothing else is at hand, and the case is urgent, Common Salt is no con- temptible medicine: a pound of it dissolved in water will, produce a very fair purgative effect, but it should not be given if the animal labors under fever. The fol- lowing are the cases in which purgative medicines are found useful : 1. A purging diink is very j)ro|)crly given to cows soon after calving, in order to prevent the milk fever. 2. Milch cows in particular, if feeding on herbage, oi CATTLE DOCTOR. , 11 Other food agreeable to their palate, will often continue to graze iiniil tliey are in danger of suflTocation. Thus the powers of digestion become over-burdened, and the animal appears dull and heavy, and feverish symptoms are induced. Purgatives will give the most effectual relief in these cases, and if the appetite does not return soon after the physic, a cordial ball will be useful in re- storing it. 3. Cows that are turned into fresh pastures sometimes become bound in their body, in which case a purging drink must be immediately administered, and repeated every twelve hours, until the desired effect is obtained: a clyster should be given, if the first drink does not ope- rate. If the costiveness is accompanied with pain and feverish symptoms, inflammation of the bowels is to be suspected, and must be treated accordingly. 4. When red-water is recent, a purging drink or two will often completely remove it. 5. In the yellows it is generally necessary to give a purging drink, and, after that, cordial tonic drinks, in order to invigorate the digestive organs. 6. When medicines are given to prevent cows from slipping their calves, they are generally preceded by physic. , 7. In all inflammatory complaints, a purging drink should be administered after the bleeding. 8. If external inflammation, occasioned by wounds, bruises, and other causes, runs high, and aflfects the whole system, purgative medicines are absolutely ne- cessary. SETONING. In some districts the hoose in calves is very prevalent and fatal : where this is the case, they should all be setoned when they are getting into condition, and before they are attacked by the disease. In joint evil, I have frequently inserted a seton in the dew-lap with decided good eflfect. Mode of insertiiif^ a Seton. — The seton is commonly 12 CATTLK DOCTOR. made of tow and horse hair plaited together, or cord oi coarse tape alone, or leather. It should be tolerably thick, and eight, ten, or twelve inches in length. Be- fore inserting the seton, it should be dipped in oil of tur- pentine. The seton being now prepared, an assistant is to hold the animal, while the seton-needle, with the cord affixed to it, is plunged into the upper edge of the brisket or dew-lap, and brought out again towards its lower edge : the space between the two openings should be from four to eight inches. The seton is to be secured by fastening a small piece of wood, or tying a Jarge knot at either end of the cord. Matter will begin to run the second day, and after that, the cord should be drawn backwards and forwards two or three times every day, in order to irritate the parts, and by this means increase the discharge. When setoning is had recourse to in inflammatory complaints, the cord should be dipped in the following blistering ointment : Blistering Oijitment. — Take yellow basilicon, one ounce ; catuharides, in powder, three drachms; spirit of turpentine, two fluid drachms. The root of the common dock forms a very good seton, and one that will act speedily and powerfully.; but the best of all, where a considerable effect is in- tended to be produced, is the root of the black hellebore. This will very quickly cause considerable swelling as well as discharge. COLD AND COUGH. — HOOSE. A simple cold, attended by slight cough and dis- charge from the nostrils, is easily removed. Warm housing, a few mashes, and the following drink, will usually succeed : RECIPE. Cough and Fever /)n'/t/j.— Take emetic tartar, ont '?V CATTLE DOCTOR. ft drachm ; powdered digitalis, half a drachm ; and nitre, three drachms. Mix, and give in a quart of tolerably thick gruel. Cough occasionally assumes an epidemic character — from sudden changes of the weather, chiefly and parti- cularly in the spring and the fall of the year. Sijnipto77is of Epidemic Cold or Catarrh^ or Injlu- enza. — The beast is dull and heavy, with weeping at the eyes, and dry muzzle ; the hair looks pen-feathered, or staring ; the appetite fails ; the secretion of milk is diminished ; there is considerable heaving of the flanks ; the pulse is from 50 to 70, and the bowels are generally costive or sapped. It \vill be necessary to commence the treatment of this disease with bleeding. From four to six quarts of blood should be taken, and then a dose of physic ad- ministered. The following will be a good purgative medicine in such a case : RECIPE. Purging Drink. — Take epsom salts, one pound ; pow- dered caraway-seeds, half an ounce. Dissolve in a quart of warm gruel, and give. After that the drink No. 1 should be given morning and night, the drink No. 2 being repeated if the bowels should be costive. It will be proper to house the beast, and especially at night ; and a mash of scalded bran with a few oats in it, if there is no fever, should be allowed. It is neces- sary carefully to watch the animals that are laboring under this complaint ; and, if the heaving should con- tinue, or the muzzle again become or continue dry, and the breath hot, more blood should be taken away, and the purging drink repeated. INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. When common catarrh has been np>glected, it will 14 CATTLE DOCTOR. sometimes run on to inflammation of the lungs, or the beast may be attacked with this disease without any of the previous symptoms' of catarrh. This is a very serious complaint, and requires the most prompt and de- cisive treatment. The symptoms are dulness, shivering, and cough that is particularly sore; the ears, roots of the hoi ns, and legs sometimes cold, but not invariably so, as the quan- tity of cellular membr-ane about the legs is often suffi- cient to keep them warm in spite of the nature of the complaint ; the breath and mouth are hot ; the mouth is generally open, and there is a ropy discharge from it; the beast will often lie down, and can scarcely be induced to move ; the flanks heave very laboriously, and the head is protruded, showing the great difficulty of breathing. The pulse is not always much increased in number, but is oppressed, and can sometimes scarcely be felt. Inflammation of the lungs is caused by the perspira- tion being obstructed from sudden and great changes of the weather, especially when accompanied with wet. Cattle that are driven long distances, and then exposed to the cold and damp of the night, are particularly liable to it. Sometimes the membrane covering the lungs and lin- ing the chsst is the part principally attacked ; the dis- ease is then termed pleurisy, and is in this form often complicated with rheumatism, but is more usual for the substance of the lungs to be aflfected in common with their envelopments. Copious bleeding is the remedy most to be depended on for subduing the inflammation, and should be had recourse to as soon as the disease is discovered. The beast shpuld be put into a cool cow-house w^ell littered^ and immediately bled If the difficulty of breathing and other symptoms are not much relieved in six or eight hours after the first bleeding, it should be repeated. A third or fourth bleeding may in bad cases be re- quisite. As a general rule, and especially in inflamma- tion of the lungs, and at the first bleeding, the blood CATTLE DOCTOR. 15 ■hould flow until the pulse begins to falter, and the ani- mal seems inclined to faint. The falterincr of the pulse will regulate the quantity of the after-bleedings. Little bleedings of two or three quarts, at the coinniencenient of intlanimation of the lungs, can never be of service; from six to eigbt quarts must be taken, or even more, regulated by tbe circumslances that have been men- tioned, and ibe blood should flow in a large full stream. Aseton should be set in the dew-lap immediately after the first bleeding, and the purging drink (No. 2,) given. Four drachms of nitre, two of extract of belladonna, and one of tartarized antimony, may afterwards be admin- istered twice a day in a drink. In very severe cases the chest has been fired and blistered with advantage. Warm water and mashes must be regularly given two or three times a day. RHEUMATISM, OR JOINT-FELLON. The early symptoms of this complaint are those of common catarrh, with no great cough, but more than usual fever: by degrees, however, the animal shows some stiffness in moving, and if the hand is pressed upon the chime or any part of the back, the beast will shrink, as if this gave him pain. When the complaint goes no farther than this, it is called ch'uie-fellon in many parts of the country ; but generally, in two or three days, the animal appears stiflfer in the joints ; these afterwards begin to swell, and are evidently painful, particularly when he attempts to move. Sometimes the stiffness extends all over the body, and to such a degree that the beast is unable to rise without assistance. This is generally termed joint-fellon. Old cows are very subject to it, and especially a short time before calving. The following purging drink should be given : « RECIPE. • Sulphur Purging Drink. — Take sulphur, eight Id CATTLE DOCTOR. ounces ; ginger, half an ounce. Mix with a quart of warm gruel. This drink should be repeated every third day if the bowels appear to require it. The bowels having been gently opened, a drink which may cause some determination to the skin, and in- crease the insensible perspiration, should be admin- istered. RECIPE. Rheuinatic Drink. — Take nitre, two drachms ; tar- tarized antimony, one drachm ; spirit of nitrous ether, one ounce ; aniseed powder, one ounce. Mix with a pint of very thick gruel, and repeat the dose morning and night, except when it is necessary to give the Sul- phur Purging Drink. If any of the joints should continue swelled and pain- ful, they should be rubbed twice a day, and for a quar- ter of an hour each time, with a gently stimulating em- brocation. RECIPE. Rheumatic Embr0cati0n.~T3.ke neat's foot oil, four ounces; and camphorated oil, spirit of turpentine, and laudanum, each one ounce ; oil of origanum, one drachm. Mix. INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. ^ When the milch cow is attacked, there is a diminu- tion of the milk, and it has a ropy appearance and salt- ish taste after being separated from the cream. The animal has a heavy appearance, the eyes being dull, the countenance depressed, with a stifTencd, staggering gait ; the appetite is impaired, and the membrane of the nostrils and the skig is of a yellow color. Sometimes the respiration is muoh disturbed ; at others, it appears tranquil; but the pulse, though unusually quickened, IB. rarely hard or full. The bowels are generally consti- CATTLE DOCTOR. 17 patcd, tlioiigh sometimes purging exists. Rumination IS usually ilisturbcd, and occasionally altogether sus- pended. To these will occasionally be added the cha- racteristic symptoms of pain on pressure on the edge of the short ribs on the right side. In acute inflammation of the liver, the most frantic pain has been exhibited; but this is rarely the case. Inflammation of the liver frerjuently leaves after it a great deal of" weakness, and tonics are clearly indicated. The best medicine that can be given is the following: RECIPE. Tonic Drink. — Take gentian root, powdered, half an ounce ; ginger, powdered, one drachm ; epsom salts, two ounces. Mix the whole with a pint of warm gruel, and give it morning and night. THE YELLOWS, OR JAUNDICE. Jf It may be produced by inflammation of the liver, or too great secretion of the bile, or stoppage of the vessels through which the bile should flow into the bowels. If its passage is obstructed, it is thrown back again upon the liver, and there taken up by the absorbents, and carried into the circulation, and communicates a yellow color to the blood. At the beginning of the disease there is considerable dulness and languor, and loss of appetite. The cow wanders about by herself, or is seen standing by the side of the hedge or the fence in a most dejected man- ner. Th* iuantity of milk is generally lessened ; the bowels are costive ; and the fore-teeth are sometimes loose. Should the pulse be strong as well as quick, moderate bleeding will be judicious, but not otherwise. The bowels should then be freely opened by means of a purging drink, and kept open by half-doses of it admin- istered as occasion may require. :- 18 CATTLE DOCTOR. While the tonic drink is given in the morning, the following may be given at night : RECIPE. Drink for the Yellows. — Take of calomel and opium, a scruple each. Mix and suspend in a little thick gruel. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. In the early period of it the beast is dull and stupid. He stands with his head protruded, or pressed against something for support. He refuses to eat, ceases to ru- minate, and is, in a manner, unconscious of surrounding objecis. Now and then he will stand motionless for a long time, and then suddenly drop ; he will start up im- mediately, gaze around him with an expression of wild- ness and fear, and then sink again into his former lethargy. All at once, however, his eyes will become red, and seemingly starting from their sockets ; the countenance will be both anxious and wild ; the anim.al will stagger about, falling and rising, and running un- consciously against everything in his way : at othei times he will be conscious enough of things around him, and possessed with an irrepressible desire to do mischief. He will stamp with his feet, tear up the ground with his horns, run at every one wnthin his reach, and with tenfold fury at any red object ; bellowing all the while most tremendously, and this he will continue until nature is quite exhausted : a sudden and violent tiemb- ling will tlien come over him, he will grind his teeth, and the saliva will pour from his mouth ; he will fall, every limb will be convulsed, and he will presently die. Causes. — It proceeds most commonly from a redun- dancy of blood m the system, called by farmers an over- flowing of the blood ; and this is induced by cattle thriv- ing too fast when turned on rich pasture-grounds, or their being fed too (piickly in order to get them into con- dition for show or sale. It is sometimes occasioned by the intense heat of the sun, when cattle have been CATTLE DOCTOR. 19 turned into the fields where there has been nothini^ to shade them from its influence. It may be broui^ht on by severe contusions on the head, or by the cattle being harassed and frightened, when driven along the road or tlirough large towns. Tlie chief or the only cure is bleeding. The neck vein should be opened on each side, il possible, and the blood should be suffered to How until the animal drops. As much sliould be taken as can be got, or at least, the blood should How until the violence of the symptoms is quite abated. To this a dose of physic should follow. RECIPE. A Strong Physic Drink. — Take epsom or Glauber's salts, half a pound; the kernel of the croton nut, tea grains: take off the shell of the croton nut, and weigh the proper quantity of the kernel. Rub it down to a fine powder ; gradually mix it with half a pint of thick gruel, and give it, and immediately afterwards give the salts, dissolved in a pint and a half of thinner gruel. If the violence or even the wandering should remain, another bleeding should take place six hours afterwards, and this also until the pulse falters; and the purging should be kept up by half-doses of the purging drink above. STAGGERS, OR SWIMMING IN THE HEAD. The symptoms are heaviness and dulness ; a constant disposition to sleep, which is manifested by the beast resting its head upon any convenient place; and he reels or staggers when he attempts to walk. The cure must be attempted by taking four, five, or six quarts of blood from the animal, according to its size and strength ; the purging drink must then be ad- ministered, and (No. 2) continued in half-doses every eight hour.s, until the full purgative effect is produced. If the animal is not relieved in the course of two hours 20 CATTLE DOCTOR. from the first bleeding, the operation must be repealed the same extent, unless the beast should become faint; and the bowels must be kept in a loose or rather purg- ing stale by No. 2. As soon as the bowels arc opened, the fever drink (No. 1.) should be given morning, noon, and night, until the patient is well. INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS, WITH C0STIVENES8. Inflammation of the bowels is by no means an un- common disease among neat cattle, and frequently proves fatal to them from injudicious treatment. It is a complaint easily recognisable on account of the peculiar symptoms by which it is attended. The animal is continually lying down and gettmg up again immediately, and, when up, he strikes at his belly with the hind feet. The bowels are obstinately constipated : the offal, if any is voided, is in small quan- tities — liard, covered with mucus, and that sometimes streaked with blood— and the urine is generally voided with difficulty. The pulse is quicker than natural, and there is much heaving at the flanks. It is distinguished from colic by the great degree of fever that evidently attends it, the muzzle being dry and the mouth hot. The animal becomes speedily weak, he falls or throws himself down suddenly, and when he rises he does it with difficulty, and he staggers as he walks. The disease mostly arises from sudden exposure to cold ; and especially when cattle go into rivers or ponds after being heated and fatigued. The flrst thing to be done, and that which admits of no delay, is to bleed ; from six to eight quarts of blood at least should be taken away. Immediately after- wards the purging drink should be administered, and its eflfect promoted by lialf-doses of No. 2, given every six hours. If one day is t;uflered to pass without proper means being taken, the beast is irrecoverably lost. If purging should not bo accomplished after the third dose of the medicine, a pound of comujon salt may be CATTLE DOCTOR. 21 g'iven. Should not this succeed, a pound and a half of castor-oil must be aduiinisteied. Clysters, numerous, and great in quantity, must be administered. The Epsom salts and the castor-oil will not do iiarm in whatever quantities they are given : it will not be prudent, however, to repeat the common salt. DIARRIICEA, OR PURGING. Purging is produced by change of food, from dry to green meat, or from short to luxuriant pasture ; by poi- sonous plants, bad water, or unknown atmospheric agency. The farmer wmU not regard an occasional fit of purg- ing ; he will only attack it if it is violent, or if it con- tinues too long, by giving a mild dose of physic, in order to assist nature in her elTort to get rid of some of the evil. From half to three-quarters of a pound of Epsom salts should be given with the usual quantity of ginger. The next day he may probably administer a little astringent medicine. The following will be effectual, and not too powerful : RECIPE. Astringent Drink. — Take prepared chalk, two ounces; oak bark, powdered, one ounce ; catechu, powdered, half an ounce : opium, powdered, two scruples; ginger, pow- dered, two drachms. Mix and give it in a quart of warm gruel. DYSEXTERY, SLIMY FLUX. OR SCOURING ROT. It begins with frequent and painful efforts to expel the offal, which is thip, slimy, stinking, and olive-co- lored. The animal, as appears from his restless state, suffers much pain, frequently lying down and soon ris- ing again. There is also a frequent rumbling noise in the intestines. At length, he evidently begins to get CATTLE DOCTOR. weak, rumination is imperfectly performed, and the food passes from him half digested. As the disease proceeds, (lie dew lap hangs down and has a flabliy appearance ; the offal runs off with a putrid and offensive .MDell, and, as it falls upon the ground, rises up in bubbles, and a membranous or skinny-like substance is often seen upon it. The hair all over the body soon appears pen-feathered or staring. Feverish symptoms also accompany the complaint: the eyes be- come dull and inflamed, there is much working of the flanks, and the pulse is thick. Causes. — Taking cold at the time of calving; long journeys ; exposure to sudden vicissitudes of the wea- ther ; and, after being over-heated in traveling, being turned into damp pastures, (fcc. In all cases the animals should be taken from grass, and put into a large cow-house, or an open yard, where thev can be sheltered from the weather, and kept on dry food, such as good hay, ground oats, barley, and beans. An equal proportion of each of the three last articles and of linseed cake will make an excellent food for cattle la- boring under dysentery. A quantity proportiotiate to the appetite of the patients should be given two or three times a day. or if they are much reduced and their ap- petite is quite gone, a thick gruel should be made of these ingredients, and administered three or four times a day. /?67??tc/y.— Bleeding, proportioned to the suddenness and violence of the attack, and the apparent degree of fever, should be fust resorted to. If the eyes iiic inflamed, with heaving of the flanks, and painfid twilchings of the belly, accompanied by se- v»Me sliaiiiing and apparent gripings in the expulsion of the excrement, the abstraction of blood is indispen- sable. The purgative drink (No. 2.) should precede the use of every oilier medicine, in whatever state the bowels may be. It will prepare for the safer use of astringents. In almost cverv case there will be something in the CATTLE DOCTOR. 23 bowels, which, if it did not cause the disease, contributes to kf-ep it up. The followiufr drink may be given, and continued morning and night for five or six days : RECIPE. Astringent Drink icith Mutton Suet.— T dike mutton suef, one pound; new milk, two quarts; boil them to- gether until the suet is dissolved ; then add opium, pow- dered, half a drachm ; ginger, one drachm, having pre- viously well mixed them with a spoonful or two of fluid. When the dysentery is stopped, the beast should very slowly and cautiously be permitted to return to his for- mer green food. In those cases, and they are much too numerous, which totally resist the influence of the medicines al- ready recommended, other means should be tried. The alum whey has sometimes succeeded, and is thus pre- pared : RECIPE. Alum Whey. — Take alum, half an ounce; milk, two quarts. Boil them together for ten minutes, and strain. This may be administered twice every day. RED- WATER. The disease consists of a discharge of high-colored urine. There are evidently two distinct species of red- water. One, but which occurs most seldom, begins with de- cided symptoms of fever. There is shivering, succeeded by increased heat of the body ; the muzzle dry; work- ing of the flanks ; urine of a red color, evidently tinged with blood, and occasimially consisting almost entirely of blood J discharged in sinall quantities, and frequently 91 CATTLE DOCTOR. with considerable pain ; loss of appetite. As the disease proceeds, the animal loses strenerth ; the bowels become constipated or very loose ; and the urine of a dark color, approaching to black. The discharere of bloody urine may either proceed from inflammation of the kidneys or a rupture of some of the blood-vessels, and in either case blood is discharg- ed with the urine, and may be often detected in clots; whilst in the other kind of red-water, although the urine is dark in color, it does not contain blood. The former disease is more frequent with bulls and oxen, and the latter with milch cows. In some cases where blood is discharged with the urine without any inflammatory appearance, the exhi- bition of astringents and stimulants, such as the follow- ing, have effected a cure : RECIPE. Take oil of juniper, two to four drachms ; tincture of opium, one ounce; oil of turpentine, one ounce. Mix, and give in a pint of linseed oil, once or twice a day. GARGET, OR THE DOWNFALL IN THE UDDER OF COWS. This disorder makes its appearance in one or more quarters of the udder, which become swollen, hard, hot- ter than usual, and painful when pressed, [f the pa- tient is a milch-cow, the secretion of milk is lessened, and mingled with blood, pus, and corruption. It is inflammation, and is most commonly induced by the aniuKil catching cold. It will be necessary, as soon as the downfall is disco- Tered, to bring the animal out of the pasture, and take away from three to five (juarts of blood, according to hei size or strength. If she is bled at night, it will be pro- per on the next morning to give her the purging drink No. 2. The cow should be sparingly fed for a day or two on CATTLE DOCTOR. 25 maslies, with a little hay, and afterwards turned od rather short pasture. The following ointment should be well rubbed into the affected (luarter, immediately after milking, but it must be carefully washed off again with warm water before the milk is drawn. RECIPE. Mercurial Garget Ointrncnt. — Take soft soap, one pound ; mercurial ointment, two ounces ; camphor, rub- bed down with a little spirit of wine, one ounce : rub them well together. In obstinate cases the iodine has been applied to the indurated udder with great success. RECIPE. Iodine Ointment. — Take hydriodate of potash, one drachm ; lard, seven drachms : rub them well together. ' A portion, varying from the size of a nut to that of a filbert, according to the extent and degre3 of the swell- ing and hardness, should be well rubbed into the affected part morning and night. The bowels must be kept open with half-doses of No. 2. The fever drink, No. 1, will also be useful, or od« more decidedly diuretic, as the following RECIPE. Diuretic Drink. — Take powdered nitre, one ounce; powdered rosin, two ounces; ginger, two drachms: mix them well together in a little treacle, and give them in warm gruel. In extreme cases, slight incisions with a lancet, where matter cannot be detected, will often be serviceable. The flow of blood should be encouraged by fomentations with warm water. The teats are sometimes cut off in jb6 cattle doctor. obstinate cases of ihis kind ; but that should, if possible, be avoided, for the quarter will be lost, and there will be a serious diniinution in the quantify of milk as lons^ as the cow lives, '^i'lie teat niay be cut deeply in order to let out the matter. Tliis wound will readily heal again, and the quarter will be as useful as ever. The iSore Teats to which some cows are subjeri is a very dilferent disease, and often a very troublesome one. . The following ointment will generally be found ef- fectual : RECIPE. Ointment for Sore Teats, — Take elder ointment, six ounces ; bee's wax, two ounces. Mix them together, and add an ounce each of sugar of lead and alum, ia fine powder — stir them w»ll together until cold. A little of this should be rubbed on the teats morning and night after milking. TREATMENT OF THE COW BEFORE AND DURING CALVING. The cow should be dried six or eight weeks before calving. Durins^ the early period of gestation the animal may, nnd should be tolerably well fed, for she has to provide milk for the dairy and nourishment for the foetus; yet even here there should be moderation and care: but when she is dried, her food should be considerably di- Uiinished. Some cows are apt to slink their calves, or to produce them dead before their time. This generally happens about the middle of their pregnancy. If about that time a cow is uneasy, feverish, olT her food, or wander- ing about in search of somcthinir for which she seems to have a longing, or most greedily and ravenously de- vouring some particular kind of food, she should be bled ^' CATTLE DOCTOR. 27 and pliysicked (No 2). If she is not quieted, she should be bled and physicked ag^ain in the course of three or four days. She should be immediately removed from the other cows ; for should she sUnk her calf among them, it is not improbable that some, or even all, of the others will do the same. AVhen it appears that labor is close at hand, she should be driven gently to the cow-house, and for a while left quite alone. • THE MILK FEVER, OR THE DROP. Whenever it takes place, at home or in the field, it is distressing to the animal, as well as troublesome to the owner ; for the beast is seldom able to rise during seve- ral days. It most commonly appears about the second or third day after calving ; but the cow is occasionally down within a few hours after parturition. It is first recog- nized by the animal refusing her food, looking dull and heavy ; then follows protrusion of the eye, heaving of the Hanks, restlessness, and every symptom of fever. In a few hours, or on the next day at the latest, the cow begins to stagger ; is weak in the loins ; palsy steals over the whole frame ; and she falls, unable to rise again. From this seeming palsy of the hinder limbs, and some- times of the whole frame, the disease is very appropri- ately called dropping after calving. The principal expectation of relief, however, must be placed on the use of powerful purgatives, RECIPE. Take Epsom or Glauber's salts, twelve ounces ; flour of sulphur, four ounces ; powdered ginger, four drachms ; spirit of nitrous ether, one ounce. To be dissolved in warm water. One-half of this draught may be repeated twice a day until the bowels ate properly opened. In the severer 8b cattle doctor. affection it will be proper to add from te ».r twi ly drops of the croton oil to the first draught, -arid even »\'0 drachms of carbonate of ammonia and ten grains of cantharides have been conjoined with advantage. It is of importance to administer the draught slowly and carefully ; and when the cow is any way unconscious, it will be belter to give it by nieans of Read's syringe, putting the tube half-way down the neck, so as to pre- vent any of the medicine getting into ihe windpipe, where it has been known to produce fatal inflamma- tion. It will be a very bad symptom if she begins to swell, and there are frequent belchings of very foetid gas. The following ball should then be given, still contin- uing the purgative medicine if necessary : RECIPE. Cordial Drink. — Take caraway powder, one ounce; gentian, powdered, half an ounce ; ginger, powdered, half an ounce ; essence of peppermint, twenty drops. Half the quantity of the above ingredients should also be given morning and night as a drink, in a pint of warm ale, and the same quantity of thin gruel. MURRAIN, OR PESTILENTIAL FEVERi Symptoihs. — The animal is found with its head ex- tended, that its laborious breathing might be accom- plished with less dread of sufTocation ; there is consider able diflicuky in swallowing ; enlargement of the glands under the ear, and frequently swelling of the whole of the head ; uneasiness about llje head ; seemingly itchi- ness about the ears ; dulness ; frequent but not violent heaving. To these succeed staggering and great de- bility, until the animal falls, and is afterwards either unable to stand long at a time, or to stand at all. A constant discharge of green bilious stinking faeces now appears ; the breath is likewise oflt^isivc ; the very per- CATTLE DOCTOR. SW Bpiration is sour and putrid ; the head swells rapidly ; tne (oiijriie protrudes from the mouth ; and the saliva, at first stinking, hut afterwards purulent, bloody, and morc^ and more oflensive, Hows from the mouth. A crack- ling is heard under the skin ; tumors appear, and ab- scesses are formed in various parts. The treatment \\ ould be, first, and the most impor- tant thing of all, to separate the diseased from the sound, which seemed to be in the slightest degree af- fected, to some isolated portion of the farm where con- tact with others .would be impossible. The sick only should be taken away, and that as speedily as possible. In the early stage of the disease there can be no doubt of the propriety of bleeding. The fever, which, accord- ing to every account, characterizes the first attack, should, if possible, be subdued. The animal should be bled, in proportion to his size, condition, and the degree of fever : he should be bled, in fact, until the pulse be- gins tu falter or he begins to stagger. The blood should be taken in as full a stream as possible, that the con- stitution might be more speedily and beneficially af- fected. Then we should with great propriety administer a brisk purgative. A pound or twenty ounces of Epsom salts should be given in a sufficient quantity of thin gruel. Next, we should attend to the diet. Green succulent grass would scarcely be allow^ed, because it would pro- bably not a little increase the purging ; but mashes of bran, with a little bean-meal, carrots, or sweet old hay, should be given in moderate quantities. The fact stands loo clearly upon record, that nineteen animals out of twenty, seized witli the murrain, have died. That on which I should put most dependence would be the fol- lowing : RECIPE. Drink for Murrain. — Take sweet spirit of nitre, half •# 90 CATTLE DOCTOR. an ounce; laudanum, half an ounce; chloride of lime, in powder, two ounces ; prepared chalk, an ounce. Rub them well together, and give them with a pint of warm gruel. This may be repeated every six hours, until the purg- ing is considerably abated ; but should not be continued until it has quite stopped. The purging being abated, we must look about for something to recall the appetite and recruit the strength^ and I do not know anything better than the foilow- iog: RECIPE. Tonic Drink for Murrain. — Take Columbia root, two drachms; canella bark, two drachms; ginger, one drachm ; sweet spirit of nitre, half an ounce. Rub them together and give in a pint of thick gruel. INFLAMMATION CF THE BLADDER. This disease does not often occur in cattle, except from eating acrid and poisonous herbs, or when cows are near their time of calving. The course to be pursued where the neck of the blad- der is inflamed is sufficiently plain —the bladder must be emptied, or more fluid will pour into it until it actu- ally bursts. For some time before the fatal termination of the complaint in the rupture of the bladder, not only the constant straining, but the heaving of the flanks, the quickness of the pulse, the loss of appetite, the ces- sation of rumination, and the shivering fits, will sufl5- ciently indicate the extent of the danger. The better way of emptying the bladder is, if possible, to relax the spasms of its neck. A very large bleeding will some- times accomplish this; but it must be a large one, and continued until the animal is exhausted almost to faintinn. To bleeding, physic should succeed, in oraer to lower H' CATTLE DOCTOR. SI the system, and Jielax the spasm ; but no medicine must be given that would in the shghtest de^Tfiee increase the flow ol urine. Sulphur, or aloes, or both combined, would he indicated here. Should not the flow of urine be re-established, me- chanical means must be resorted to. Inllamniation of the bladder itself is a disease more frequent, and from tlie same causes, namely, cold and acrid herbs. Here the animal should be bled and phy- sicked, and fomented across the loins, and every diu- retic medicine carefully avoided. The following drink may be administered with good effect, after the bleeding and purging : RECIPE. DrinJc for Inflammation of the Bladder. — Take an- timonial powder, two drachms ; powdered opium, one scruple. Rub them well together with a small portion of very thick gruel, and repeat the dose morning and night. STONE IN THE URINARY PASSAGES, OR BLADDER, Stone in the bladder may be suspected, when there is much fever, accompanied by a frequent turning of the head, and earnest gaze on the flanks f when the hind limbs tremble, and there are ineffectual endeavors to pass urine, or it is evacuated in small quantities, and mingled with blood. The suspicion may very easily be reduced to certain- ly, by examining the bladder with the hand introduced into the rectum, or last gut. The presence of stone in the bladder having been thus proved, that farmer will pursue the most judicious course who sends the beast immediately to the butcher ; for no medicine will dissolve it, and the animal will lose condition every day. M 3& CATTLE DOCTOR. CHOKING. • If the rumen is so distended as to threaten immedi- ate suffocaiion, it will be proper to puncture it ; but this, if possible, should be avoided. It will next be de sirable to ascertain the situation of the obstruction. Sometimes it will be found that the body is impacted at the back of the mouth or beginning of the oesopha- gus : in these cases by using a balling-iron, the object can frequently be removed by passing up the hand. If, however, the substance is situated low down the tube, it will be desirable to force it onwards. For this purpose half a pint of oil should be given to lubricate the passage as much as possible, and then the beast being properly secured, and a gag placed in the mouth, a flexible tube or rod, with a knob at the end, sliould be carefully passed down the oesophagus until it reaches the body : a steady pressure should now be employed to force it onwards ; bu) this should be done patiently, so as not to injure the parts. By alternately resting and trying again, the object will generally be removed. No solid food should be allowed for several days af- terwards, as there is great danger of a repetition of the choking until the muscles entirely recover their tone. Sometimes, after all attempts of removing the body by the methods before described have failed, it will be pro- per to do so by means of an operation which has been performed with success ; and this consists in making an incision through the skin into the oesophagus, sufTi- ciently large to extract the body. Great care must be exercised so as not to injure the important nerves and blood-vessels situated near the part. The beast should be cast for the operation, and the wound carefully sewed up afterwards, and for several days the food should con- sist principally of gruel. POISONS. The plants that are the most dangerous are the dif- f IT CATTLE DOCTOR. 88 ferent species of hemlock, and particularly water-hem- lock, I he fox-glove, the dropwort, and some of the species of crows-foot. These plants are not useful for any pur- pose, and it is to be lamented that the farmer is not able to recognize them, and root them all up. Young calves and iambs, until they have added some experience to the guidance of instinct, are occasionally lost in very great numbers. The yew is a deadly poison, and many cattle have been destroyed by it ; but they seldom browse upon it when green. The mischief, in the great majority of cases, is done by the half-dried clippings of some formal hedge-row^ or fantastic tree. In this state cattle are very apt to eat great quantities of the leaves or shoots. The symptoms of empoisonment vary with the plant that has been devoured. In general the animal moans sadly, as if in dreadful pain ; or a sudden stupidity comes upon it — or violent convukions. After eating the yew-clippings, cattle are often perfectly delirious ; and in almost every case the belly more rapidly swells than it usually does in hoove. It is plain that there can be no case in which more speedy and decisive measures are needed ; and yet very little can be done, except that useful instrument, far too little known, Read's patent pump, is at hand. The pipe should be introduced into the paunch, so that the extricated gas which causes the swelling, may escape. After this a quantity of warm water should be thrown into the stomach, sufficient to cause sickness, and thus get rid of a part, at least, of the offending matter. Then, by introducing the pipe only a part of the way down the gullet, a physic-drink may be gradually intro- duced, which will thus pass on to the fourth stomach, and cause speedy purging. It will usually be advisable to bleed moderately : drinks of vinegar and water, not exceeding half a pint of vinegar at a time, should be administered if it is suspected that the poison is of a narcotic kind, and the purging should be kept up by re- peated small doses of the aperient medicine. When 34 CATTLE DOCTOR. the poison seems to be nearly or quite evacuated, a cor- dial drink will be beneficial in giving tone to the stomach. TO DRY A cow OF HER MILK. The best time to dry the cows is very early in the spring, when tiiey are eating dry meat. A good dose of physic, followed by mild astrintjent drinks, will usu- ally settle the business, especially if she is moderately bled before the physic is given. Alum in the form of whey, or dissolved in water, will be the most effectual, as well as the safest astringent. Six drachms will be the medium dose. The cow may be milked clean when the astringent is given, and then turned on some dry upland pasture. Two days afterwards she should be examined, and if the udder is not overloaded, nor hard nor hot, the milk- ing may be discontinued ; but if the udder is hard and full, and especially if it is hot, she should be fetched home, cleanly milked, and another astringent drink given. The third drink, if it is necessary to give one, should be an aperient one, and after that a Diuretic drink every second day. The milking should only be resorted to if the state of the udder absolutely requires it, for every act of milking is but encouraging the secretion of milk. TO PRODUCE BULLING IN THE COW, AND TREATMENT OF BULL-BURNT. Some cows are backward because they have been previously starved ; a week or fortnight's better keeping" will usually effect the desired purpose. THE COW-POX. It appears under the form of pustules or vesicles on the teats, which are easily broken in milking, and which, CATTLE DOCTOR. 96 left alone, break of themselves, and discharge a thin, un- healthy liuid. The pustules are surrounded by a '^road circle of inllaniniation, and if neglected, or rouf^hly handled, occasionally riin into ulcers, very foul, and dif- ficult to heal. At the time of, or a little before, the appearance of the pustules, the animal droops, refuses to feed, ceases to ruminate, and labors under considerable fever. The eyes are heavy and dull; the cow moans and wanders about by herself, and iier milk materially lessens, and at length is almost suspended. It will rarely be prudent to bleed, but the bowels should be fairly opened, and the fever drink (No. I,) given once or twice in the day, according to the appa- rent degree of -fever. The teats should be frequently washed witli warm water, and the following lotion ap- plied morning and night : RECIPE. Lotion for Cow-pox. — Take sal ammoniac, a quarter of an ounce; white wine vinegar, half a pint; cam- phorated spirit of wine, two ounces; Goulard's extract, an ounce. Mix and keep them in a bottle for use. SHEEP DOCTOR. DISEASES OF SHEEP. THE LAMPING SEASON. The ewe ^oes with lamb for five months. To enable the ewe to produce her Iamb with comparative safety, >he should not be too well fed. Toohio:h condition will dispose to fever ; on the other hand, with too poor keep, the ewe will not have sufficient strength to go through the process safely, nor will she have milk enough for the lambs. At night, particularly, they should be folded in some sheltered place. The ewe, and especially if she was in high condition, is occasionally subject to after-pains. Some of the country people call it heaving. Twenty drops of lauda- num should be given in a little gruel, and repeated every second hour until the pains abate. It will always be prudent to bleed the ewe, if she is not better soon after the second dose of the laudanum. Attention should now be paid to the Iamb, and it re- quires it even more than the mother. It is want of care that causes the loss of more than four-fifths of the dead Iambs. The principal evil is exposure to cold. The operation of castration is a very simple one io the vsheep, and yet is often attended with danger. The younger the lambs are the better, provided they are not SHEEP DOCTOR. 37 Tcry weak. From ten days to a fortnight seems to be the most proper time, or, 1 may say, as soon as the tes- ticles may be laid hold of. The lamb being well secured, the scrotum or bag- is to be grasped in one hand high up, and the testicles pushed down as low as possible : two incisions are then to be made across the bag at the bottom of it, and the testicles forced out. Draw the testicles down an inch or more from the scrotum, and then cut through the cord close to the scrotum with a knife that is not very sharp. THE DISEASES CF Y0U^G LAMBS. These are numerous, and many of them dangerous; some belonging exclusively to the period which I have been describing, and others often occurring when the animals get a little older. COAGULATION OF THE MILK. All the milk that is swallowed by the young Iamb co- agulates in the stomach, and if it accumulates too fast, the stomach will become perfectly choked with it, and the lamb will be destroyed. In this disease there is often apparent purging of a light color, which is in fact the whey passing off while the curd accumulates and produces obstinate consti- pation. The fust thing to be done is to administer an alkali, to dissolve the mass, such as magnesia, in doses of half an ounce twice a day ; after which two to four drachms of Epsom salts, with a little ginger dissolved in warm water. DIARRHOEA. The combined influence of starvation and cold pro- duces diarrhoea sooner than anything else. Warmth and new cow's milk are the best remedies. 98 SHEEP DOCTOR. COSTIVENESS. It is eilher ihe accompaniment of fever, or it will very speedily lead on to fever. Bleeding in proportion to the degree of fever, and the age and strength ot the lamb, ;^ should then be had recourse to. Next, the bowels must ^i^ be opened ; one-fourth of the Purging Drink (No. 2,) ^.^jJf will be the best thing that can be given, and it should *™ be repeated every sixth hour until the desired elFect is produced. STAGGERS. The lamb will appear to be in perfect health. All at once he will stand still, heaving violently at the flanks, and with the head protruded ; or he will wander about with great uncertainty in his walk and manner: he will ihen all at once fall down and lie struggling upon his back until he is helped up, or dies. Sometimes he is very much convulsed. Bleeding must be resorted to immediately, and after- wards the bowels will open by means of the Purging drink. To this some cooling febrifuge medicine should succeed. RECIPE. Cooling Fever Drink. — Take powdered digitalis, one scruple; emetic tartar, ten grains; nitre, two drachms. Mix with thick gruel, and let it be given twice every day. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. '^rhe anin^al gallops about attacking his fellows, at- tacking^ the shepherd, and sonjetimes quarrelling with a post or tree ; lie is laboring under wild delirium, and this continues until he is absolutely exhaustcul. He then stands still, or liesdown fur a while panting dread- ^ SIJEEP DOCTOR. 30 fullv, when he starts afresh, as delirious and as imgo- veinable as before. The first and tlie o^rand remedy is bleedino^; and that from the jugular, and coj)iously, and as quickly as pos- sible. The guide to the quantity will be the dropping of the animal. To bleeding, physicking will of course succeed, and the sheep should be removed into a less luxuriant pasture. COLD AND DISCHARGE FROM THrJ NOSE, AC. The symptoms of catarrh are heaviness, watery eyes, running from the nose. The discharge is thick, and clings about the nostril, and obstructs it, and the sheep is compelled to suspend its grazing almost every minute, and with violent efforts blow away the obstruc- tion. Cough frequently accompanies this discharge. When the shepherd perceives this nasal gleet, he should keep a sharp look-out over his flock, and if there is one that stays behind, or will not eat, he should catch him, and remove him to a warmer situation, and bleed him, and give him the laxative and fever drinks, and nurse him with mashes and hay. THE ROT. Symptoms. — The sheep is dull, lags behind in his journey to and from the fold, and he does not feed well ; but there are as much early symptoms of the sta2"?ers as of the rot. This, however, goes on some time, and then a palish yellow hue steals over the skin, easy enough to be seen when the wool is parted, and most evident in tlie eye- lids, and that which is generally called the white of the eyes. Tlie lips and mouth are soon tinged, but not to so g-reat a degree. The tongue especially becomes pale and lived. The animal is feverish ; the heat of the mouth, and the pant- ing, and heaving of the Hanks, and general dulness, lib SHEPE DOCTOR. ^ stifficiently indicate this. Some degree of cough comes on ; some discharge from the nose ; or the breath begins to be exceedingly offensive. Considerable swelling ap- pears under the chin ; a fcetid purging comes on of all colors. Remedy. — Tonics and aromatics are usually mingled with common salt ; but first of all the bowels are eva- cuated by some of the usual purgatives, and the Epsom salts are the best. The following prescription should then be tried : RECIPE. Mixture for the i?o^.— Take common salt, eight ounces; powdered gentian, two ounces; ginger, ooe ounce ; tincture of Colombo, four ounces. Put the whole into a quart bottle, and add water so as to fill the bottle. A table-spoonful of this mixture should be given morning and night for a week, and then the following mixture may be given at night, while the former is con- tinued in the morning, and by which the flukes will be destroyed, as the worms in the bronchial tubes some- times are in the hoose of young cattle. RECIPE. Second Mixture for the Rot. — Take of recipe (above), a quart ; spirit of turpentine, three ounces : shake them well togetlier when first mixed, and whenever the me- dicine is given. Two table-spoonfuls are the usual dose. The morning dose should be given on an empty stomach, and the evening dose before the night's feedia given, if the animal is housed. THE FOOT-ROT. The first symptoms of the disease is the lameness of .^ SHEEP DOCTOR. 41' the sheep. The foot is hot, and the animal shrinks if it is fiinily pressed. It is particularly liot and painful in the cleft between the two hoofs ; and there is gene- rally some enlargement about the coronet. The lame- ness rapidly increases, and often to such a degree in- deed, that the sheep is unable to stand, but moves about tlie field on its knees. The soft portions of the foot, and sometimes the very bones of it, slough away, and drop oil". Treatment.— The foot must be carefully examined, and every portion of horn that has separated from the parts beneath thoroughly removed, and the sore lightly touched with the butyr (chloride) of antimony, applied by means of a small quantity of tow rolled round a flat bit of stick, and then dipped into the caustic. A stronger and oftentimes a better application is made by dissolv- ing corrosive sublimate in spirits of wine. Hydrochloric acid is also a very useful caustic for foot-rot. If a fun- gus is sprouting at the place where the horn separates from the foot, it must be first cut away with the knife, and then the root of it touched also with the caustic ; or, what is still better, it may be removed by means oif a hot iron. Remove the sheep to higher ground. THE SCAB. It is first discovered by the animal eagerly rubbing himself against every post, or gate, or bank, or, if the itching is very great, tearing off his fleece by mouthfuls. There will appear on various parts, and particularly along the back, either little red pustules, or a harsh dry scurf. Remedy. — The mercurial or blue ointment in a greater or less degree of strength is commonly used. RECIPE. Mercurial Ointment for Scab. — Take crude quick' 48" SHEEP DOCTOR. K silver, one pound ; Venice turpentine, half a pound ; spirit of turpentine, two ounces. These should be rubbed well together for five or six hours, until they are perfectly united. When this is completed, four pounds and a half of lard should be added, and the more rancid it is the better. The ointment should be gently but well rubbed in. A milder ointment may be used. RECIPE.' Mild Ointment for Scab. — Take flour of sulphur, a pound; Venice turpentine, four ounces; rancid lard^ two pounds ; strong mercurial ointment, four ounces. Rub them well tosrether. This ointment may be used at any time of the year ; but the mercurial ointment is not safe in cold or wet weather. In very bad cases the following powerful ointment may be employed : RECIPE. Take white hellebore, three ounces ; bichloride of ifiercury, two ounces; fish-oil, twelve pounds; resin, six ounces ; tallow, eight ounces. The two first ingredients to be mixed with a part of the oil, and the other ingre- dients to be melted and added. LICE, TICKS, AND FLIES. Many washes have been invented to destroy these insects, but few of them have perfectly succeeded. That which seems to have the best effect is thus composed : RECIPE. Arsenical Wash for Sheep Lice.— Take arsenic, two pounds ; soft soap, four pounds. Dissolve in thirty gal- lons of water. SHEKP DOCTOR. 43 The infected sheep should be immersed in this, the head only beinj^ kept out ; and while he is in ihishquid, the fleece should be well rubbed and moulded, so that the wash shall penetrate fairly to the skin. Other persons prefer the following lotion : RECIPE. Mercurial Wash for Sheep Lice. — Take corrosive sub limate, one ounce ; spirits of wme, two ounces ; rub the corrosive sublimate in the spirit until it is dissolved, and then add— cream of tartar, one ounce ; bay salt, four ounces. Dissolve the \^ hole in two quarts of water, and apply a little of it with a small piece of sponge wherever the lice appear. These washes, however, are not always safe, and they are very troublesome in their application. The oint- ment which [ have recommended for the scab is more easily applied, and more effectual. RECIPE. Fly Powder for Sheep, — Take white lead, two pounds ; red lead, one pound ; and mix them together. While one man holds the sheep by the head, let an- other have a dredger or pepper-box containmg some of the powder in his right hand, and a stick in his left: let him introduce the stick near the tail of the animal, and draw it gently along the back as far as the head, raising the wool, and scattering in the powder as he proceeds. Then let him dip his hand in some of the coarsest whale oil, and smooth down the wool again, snriearing the whole of the fleece with the oil. This will not only destroy the maggots, but prevent the future attack of the fly. DISEASES OF SWINE INFLAMMATION OP THE LUNGS. This complaint is known among the breeders and fat- teners of swine by the term risinor of the lights. Every little cold is apt to degenerate into inflammation of the lungs in the fatted or fattening hog. The early symptom is cough. The animal heaves dreadfully ; he has a most distressing cough, which sometimes almost suffocates him, and he refuses to eat. In many cases congestion takes place in the lungs, and the animal dies in three or four days. The first thing that is to be done is to bleed, and the most convenient place to bleed the hog is from t!ie palate. If an imaginary line is drawn from between the first and second front middle teeth, and extending backward an inch along the palate, and the palate is there cut deeply, with a lancet or fleam, plenty of blood will be obtained. A large quantity of blood, however, can be abstracted from the vein on the inside of the fore-arm, about an inch above the knee. The application of cold water SWINE DOCTOR. 46 with a sponge will generally stop the bleeding without difficulty The following may be given : RECIPE. Fever Medicine for Stcirie. — Take digitalis, three grains ; antimonial powder, six grains ; nitre, half a drachm. Mix and give in a little warm swill, or milk, or mash. In the greater number of cases the animal will readily take this : but if he is so ill that nutriment of every kind is refused, he must be drenched. This should be repeated morning, noon, and night, until the inflammation is abated. A purgative should quickly follow. The Epsom salts may be given in doses of from one to three ounces, APOPLEXY AND INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. Sj/mptoms.— The swine, in the act of feeding, or whett moving across the sty, will fall suddenly, as if struck with lightning. He will be motionless for a little while, and then convulsions will come on, strong and dreadful: the eyes will seem protruded, the head and neck will swell, and the veins of the neck will be brought into sight, notwithstanding the mass of fat with which they may be covered. The course here is plain enough. He should be bled, and bled copiously. Indeed, the blood should be suflfered lo flow as long as it will. Two or three ounces of Ep- som salts should then be given ; the quantity and the heating character of the food should be diminished, and a couple of drachms of sulphur given daily in the first meal. MEASLES. The red and pimpled appearance of the skin, or of 46 SWINE DOCTOR. the cellular substance between the flesh and the skin, sufficiently marks the disease. Remedi/.—hesis food and not so stimulating, and oc- *^0t casional doses of Epsom salts or sulphur. MANGE. Few domesticated animals are so subject to this loath- some disease as the hog if he is neglected and kept filthy; but in a well cleaned and well managed piggery it is rarely or never seen, unless some, whose blood from generation to generation has been tainted with it, should be incautiously admitted. A mangy hog cannot pos- sibly thrive well. His foul and scurfy hide will never loosen so as to suffer the accumulation of flesh and fat under it. Except it is hereditary, it may, although with .some trouble, be perfectly eradicated. The first thing to be done is to clean the hog well ; without this all ext'nnal application and internal medicines will be thrown away. The animal must be scrubbed all over with a g:ool1 strong soap-lather, and when he is well dried with wisps of straw he will be ready for the ointment, and no better one can be used than the Mild Ointment for scab in sheep. A little of this should be well rubbed all over him every second or third day ; but at the same time internal medicine should not be omitted. There is no animal in which it is more necessary to attack this and similar diseases with energv. RECIPE. Alterative Powder for Swine— Take, flowers of sul- phm, a quarter of an ounce; TEihiop's mineral, three grains ; rjitre, and cream of tartar, half a drachm. Mix and give daily in a little thickened gruel or wash. This, like the scab in sheep, is a very infectious di.«?- ease, and care should be taken to scour the sty well with SWINE DOCTOR. 47 soap, and afterwards to wnsli it wiih a solution of chlo ride of lime. The riiltbiii